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Origin and Evolution of Nagara Sikhara Temple Architecture with Special Reference to the Salt Range Temples

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Origin and Evolution of Nagara Sikhara Temple Architecture with Special Reference to the Salt Range Temples Ancient Sindh, 11, 2010-2011: 51-74 MASIH, FARZAND AND BUKHARI, M. F. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF NAGARA SIKHARA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SALT RANGE TEMPLES INTRODUCTION The Salt Range temples, marked by essential characteristics of the distinctive Nagara style of the northern subcontinent, exhibit the influence of Gandhara architectural tradition developed in this region (Punjab, Pakistan) from the sixth to the eleventh century (Plate 1). They display a continuous stylistic evolution, finally resulting in a distinctive curvilinear form, referred to as the Nagara style of temple architecture. But unfortunately, no satisfactory chronology for these temples has been established so far. Most prominent scholars (Cunningham 1882; Brown 1959; Harle 1986) in the past bracketed these monuments between eighth and tenth centuries A.D. and associated them with the Hindu Shahi rulers. But this was at the most, a learned guess. Dr. Meister (20000: 1322-39) however, for the first time briefly reviewed the chronology of these temples on the basis of the similarities of the architectural and decorative features. But as a matter of fact we still await a proper chronological analysis of these temples. It is also unfortunate that no epigraphic evidence has yet been found to help solve this elusive problem. Similarly, nothing much is available in the form of historical or numismatic data to suggest a time scale. Moreover these temples, regrettably, remained neglected for a very long time both by scholars and by custodian of antiquities. As a result, most of the potentially diagnostic chronological features have already disappeared. Under these circumstances it is difficult to suggest a precise chronology of these temples. Nevertheless, the style and architectural development of these temples yield important clues that can be used in attempting to establish a provisional chronological frame work. NOMENCLATURE The word nagara means pertaining to a city or town (Kramrisc 1946: 287). This is the generally accepted meaning also found in vastusastra. Nagara may also be derived from Naga, lit., immovable or rock, implying permanence and strength with reference to stone walls (Acharya 1995: 247). The Vastupurusa has the shape of a Naga and the Vastunaga who is Sesa or Ananta, encircles every site (Kramrisc 1946: 287, note 95). Another meaning of nagara is Universe (Visva). The temple, the universe in a likeness, is Nagara for it rests on the Naga, the Vastupurusa, who supports the universe and is Sesa, the remainder (Kramrisc 1946:288). By the term Indo-Aryan, it could be perceived that this style might be Department of Archaeology, University of Punjab, Lahore – Pakistan Department of Archaeology, Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur, (SINDH-PK) 51 practiced by the group of people generally known as Aryan residing in India. Another possibility why the term Aryan should be applied to the style is that the country where it prevailed, is and always has been called Aryavarta, the land of the pure, and just meaning thereby the Sanskrit speaking people. The term indo-Aryan is used as the most convenient to describe and define the limits of the northern style in a sense that the style arose in a country which was once occupied by the Aryans (Ferguson 1910: 82-89). ORIGIN OF NAGARA SIKHARA TEMPLE It has already been established that the northern curvilinear sikhara begins to appear for the first time during the Gupta regime. The best extant specimens are temples at Deogarh (Stone) and brick temples at Bhitargaon, Kharod, and Sirpur. About the seventh century, it appears in a somewhat undeveloped form at Pattadakal, side by side with Dravidian temples. The most typical and elaborate examples of the Nagara sikhara occur in the famous group of shrines at Bhavaneswar, Konark and Puri in Orissa. But before the full fledged Nagara sikhara temples evolved at the sites referred to above, it must have had an early history, and its archaic form may be traced in some of the ancient antiquities. The origin of Nagara sikhara temple is till a matter of controversy. Scholars like Longhurt tried to derive the shape of the tower from stupa. According to him the temple tower is nothing but an elongation of the shape of the stupa (Sundaram 1974: 84). Professor A. A. Macdonell (Gangoly 1946: 37) is also of the opinion that the sikhara is derived from the stupa or the chaitya. According to Simpson, (1861: 165-78) the form is derived from the dome or conical hut of archaic type still used by the Todas of southern India or copied from the old bamboo processional car. Another solution to the riddle has been suggested by Rai Bahadur Rama Prasad Chanda. He opines that the curvilinear sikhara is the descendant of the archaic kutagara frequently represented on the base reliefs from Bharhut (Gangoly 1946: 37-9). O.C. Gangoly, (1946) believes that the sikhara temple in its archaic form is perhaps represented in the Mahabodhi temple at Gaya, with a central conical tower, flanked by four minor towers at the corners, of which a replica has been sought to be identified in a very old terra cotta plaque, dug up at an old site at Kurkihara (Bihar), evidently a Buddhist votive stupa. E.B. Havel (1915: 95) states that Indian sikhara is of greater antiquity than the sixth or seventh century, the date which Furguson erroneously gave to the great Buddhist shrine of Bodhgaya. He proposes that both Nagara and Dravida forms had existed side by side in one of the base reliefs of Nineveh discovered by Layard, and he cites the famous Naram –sin-stele in the British Museum in support of his contention. What may be regarded as a prototype of the early towers in which the reduplication of the main structure is still quite apparent, may be studied in Kushana railing pillar, J.24, in the Mathura Museum (Vogel 1910: Pl. III; Coomaraswammy 1927: Fig. 69) and still better in the Bodhgaya plaque (Coomaraswammy 1927: Fig. 62) 52 Sundhakar Nath Mishra (1992: 124-25) claims that Nagara and Dravida superstructures were evolved in stages as represented in the examples from Bharut, Sanchi, Mathura, Ghatasala and Jaggoyyapela. He says that the concept of the Nagara sikhara can be traced to at least the period between the first and the fourth centuries A.D. The period between the second and the first centuries B.C. and the first and the fourth centuries A.D. was the time when various formative stages regarding the evolution of the Nagara sikhara are to be found. According to a number of other scholars, the shape of the tower of the temple is derived from the shapes of the chariots (rathas) which had been in vogue since a Vedic period (Sundharam 1974: 84). The term Vimana, a technical term applied to the temple, is first used with reference to chariots in the Vedic and Epic literature. K. Sundaram (1974) writes that on this basis, it may be surmised that the shapes of the temples were perhaps derived from the pre-existing wooden rathas. In spite of the different views referred to above regarding the sources of the Nagara curvilinear spire I believe that a precise answer to the question as to from what original form the curvilinear square tower could have risen from, still remains to be ascertained. However, I consider Coomaraswamy‟s (Sundaram 1974:83 83)opinion the most appropriate and quote his words as a summary of the above discussions (Sundaram 1974:83 83). “Much discussion has been devoted to the question of the origin of the Nagara curvilinear spire which has variously been derived from the stupa, the simple domed cell, and the bamboo processional car. For the most part these theories represent deductions drawn from appearance represented by the fully developed form, not taking into account what may be called the primitives of the type. The original views propounded by Ferguson I believe to be the correct one. This is that the Nagara spire, however elaborately developed, really represents a piling up of many superimposed storeys or roof much compressed. The key to this origin is the amalaka, properly the crowing element of a tower, its appearance at the angles of the successive courses shows that each of these corresponds in nature to a roof”. NAGARA SIKHARA TEMPLE-SOME CHARACTERISTICS A number of experiments with architectural forms for sheltering the divinity contributed to the final curvilinear temple tower typical of northern India. The arche type of the Nagara temple form already attained its recognizable form in the sixth century at Deogarh (Bihar stage) which has a small stunted sikhara and the sanctuary. The style fully emerged in the eighth century and attained the zenith of perfection in the tenth century. A typical Hindu temple of Nagara tradition, on plan consists of a small square sanctuary, housing the main image, preceded by one or more adjoining pillared mandapas (halls), which are connected to the sanctum by an open or closed vestibule aligned along a horizontal axis. The sanctum may or may not have an ambulatory, but it is invariable 53 dark, the only opening being the entrance door. The entrance doorway of the sanctum is usually rich decorated with band of figural, floral and geometrical ornament and with river goddesses groups at the base. The temple is raised on a high platform called jagati and acquires the panchayatana character by the provision of a shrine at each corner. The wall called kati, have a niche, khattaka, in the offsets, bhadra. The niches are topped by an udgama, pediment. The sikhara on plan will have a venukosa, the lateral offset, a madhyalata, the central offset and the suratara, a recessed chase in between.
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