1546

研究報文

和紙の力学的性質の特徴

京都大学 大学院農学研究科 山内 龍男,宇佐美直治

Characteristic Mechanical Properties of

Tatsuo Yamauchi and Naoharu Usami Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University

山内龍男 宇佐美直治

Comparing with commercial papers from wood , Japanese traditional papers, washi from kozo fibers show the following features;Washi generally gives thin sheetrelating to its low basis weight. Sheet density and elastic modulus of washi are low, showing poor fiber―fiber bonding. However in―plane mechanical properties of washi are superior to those of wood pulp papers, especially tear strength and folding endurance are enormously excellent. On the other handout―of―plane mechanical property such as peeling strength at paper failure is poor for washi.

Keywords:Density, Fiber―fiber bonding, Kozo fiber, Mechanical properties, Washi

分類:S1 紙の性質一般,S0 その他

用しようとする動きも見られる。和紙は古くから製造 1.緒 言 されているが,その研究は抄造に必要なトロロアオイ 楮,三椏などを主原料とする日本の和紙はかって日 等の粘液特性1,2),構成繊維の研究3,4)が中心であり,か 常生活の中で様々に使われていたが,今日,和紙を目 つそれらの大半がかなり以前に行われた古い研究に限 にすることはほとんど無くなった。それに対応するよ 定される。 うに和紙生産は微々たる額になり,後継者不足と重な 数有る和紙の中でも美濃紙はそれが有する優れた強 って,各地にあった手抄き場はほとんど消滅してしま 度的性質故に日本古来の美術品の主要な形態である掛 った。しかし,細々ながらも需要のある特殊用途の紙 け軸の装丁に多く用いられてきた。掛け軸は繰り返し を生産してかろうじて残っている和紙産地もまだいく て巻かれ,また自荷重が掛かるので強度的性質が重要 つか存在する。 である。またその装丁過程では和紙の特性を生かした 和紙が未だ使用される特殊用途としては墨のにじみ と考えられる種々の技術が職人技として考案/展開さ に独特の味わいのある書道用,人に優しいと言われる れてきた。 感性に由来する用途,強度的性質を利用する用途など しかしその技術の背景にある科学は無論,美濃紙を がある。また最近では和紙の持つ特異な機能に再び注 含め和紙はどのように強度的性質が優れるのかは明確 目が集まるようになり,機能紙として和紙の特徴を利 でなく,この点を含めた和紙物性の研究は,本来の和

― 104 ― 紙パ技協誌 第59巻第10号 和紙の力学的性質の特徴 1547

紙が手抄きであり,実験結果の再現性に劣るためであ じ形状の試験片を作製した6,7)。 ろうか,ほとんど知られていない5)。本研究ではまず 2.2 繊維強度および繊維長測定 美濃紙を初め強度的に優れるとされる和紙につき代表 繊維強度の直接測定は,その長さが短いこともあっ 的な洋紙と対比しつつ,その基礎的/力学的性質を検 てかなり難しく,標準法は無い。そこでその代用とし 討して,和紙力学物性の特徴を明らかにしようとした。 てTappi standard T―231に従い,ゼロスパン引張強 度を測定して相対的な繊維強度比較とした。 2.実 験 各紙の一部は標準離解器で離解し,得られた繊維懸 2.1試 料 濁液を試料として Tappi standard T―271に従い,Ka- 手抄き和紙として美濃紙,黒谷紙,石州紙,雁皮紙 jaani fiber analyzer を用いてそれぞれの平均繊維長を を供試した。雁皮紙は雁皮繊維を原料とする和紙で, 求めた。ただし本法で測定可能な繊維長の上限は7.2 それ以外は楮繊維を原料としたもので填料などは含ま mm であり,楮にはこれ以上に長い繊維を含むことか ず,産地に由来する名称で市販されている代表的な和 ら,和紙について得られた数値は参考値であり,実際 紙である。いずれも力学的性質には定評があり,黒谷 はこの値より大きいと考えられる。 紙や石州紙は屏風の折り曲げ部分の強化などに使用さ 2.3 紙の基礎的及び力学的性質 れる。また機械抄き和紙としては江宣紙を使用した。 厚さ測定はより正確な値が得られることからゴム板 比較対照する洋紙として市販の UKP 包装/袋用紙お 法で行った8,9)。紙を構成する繊維の重量平均長および よび PPC 用紙を用いた。いずれも木材繊維だけを原 繊維強度の代用としてのゼロスパン強度(MD のみ) 料として製造されている。 と併せ,各紙の基礎的/構造的性質として,坪量,厚 これらの紙から抄紙方向(Machinedirection:MD) さ,密度,MD/CD 方向の引張強度比で示す繊維配向 およびそれに直交する(Cross machine direction: 度,Kubelka―Munk 理論に基づく光散乱係数および CD)2方向で各強度試験用試験片を作製した。引張 引張弾性率(MD のみ)を Table1に示す。 強度試験用には幅15mm,長さ70mm の,耐折強度 引張強度および弾性率を測定する引張試験はインス 試験用には幅15mm,長さ120mm のそれぞれ短冊 トロン型引張試験機(島津製作所製 AGS―100型)を 型試験片を,また引裂強度および Z 方向剥離強度試 使用し,つかみ間距離は50mm,引張速度5mm/min 験にはそれぞれ筆者により提案および使用されたと同 で試験した。引裂強度試験も同様に引張試験機を用い

Table 1 Basic properties ofthepapers tested Machine―direction

Hand―made washi Machine―made

Mino Kurotani Sekishuu Ganpi Kousenn UKP―sack PPC

Average fiber length mm ―4.2* 4.6* 3.6* ―2.40.93

Basis weight g/m2 10483227224763

Thickness µm 211347146416480 Density kg/m3 490356452596529731793

M/Dstrength ratio 2.01.91.81.32.12.42.2

Scattering coefficient m2/kg 28343135352450

Elastic modulus Gpa 5.93.04.814.47.27.47.9

Zer―span tensile strength kNm/kg 18219620612.4148111116

*No reliable value due to lack of data over7.2mm length.

2005年10月 ― 105 ― 1548 山内龍男,宇佐美直治

Table 2 Mechanical properties of the papers tested Machine―direction

Hand―made washi Machine―made

Mino Kurotani Sekishuu Ganpi Kousenn UKP―sack PPC Tensile strength kN/m 1.25.04.13.52.84.16.0

Tensile index kNm/kg 1121051281291278794

Tensile elongation %2.43.63.32.82.01.22.4

Tear strength Nm2/kg 5251441238168

Folding endurance (log)2.423.153.072.552.772.151.85

Peeling force N/m 90587812269206235

る方法で行い6),耐折強度試験は MIT 型試験機を使 り,楮の単繊維強度は木材のそれよりかなり大きいと 用した。Z 方向強度試験としては,紙層剥離が最も生 考えられる。また機械抄き和紙のゼロスパン強度はこ じ易い剥離速度500mm/min において180°剥離試験 れら手抄き和紙と洋紙の中間的な値を示し,楮繊維以 を行った7)。いずれの測定も,試験片を23℃50% RH 外の他種繊維の混合を示唆する。 の標準雰囲気下で一晩調湿した後,同じ雰囲気下で行 和紙の坪量は洋紙のそれより概して小さい。雁皮紙 った。各強度試験の結果(MDのみ)は Table2に示 を除く手抄き和紙は“流し抄き”で,一方雁皮紙,機 す。 械抄き和紙および洋紙は“ため抄き”で作られかつ前 2.4 走査電子顕微鏡(SEM)観察 者では“ねり”が加えられることもあり,単純な比較 試料表面を金蒸着した後,日本電子㈱製走査電子顕 は出来ないが,長い繊維を扱い,かつある程度の地合 微鏡 JSM―T330A を使用し,加速電圧10kV で観察 を保つには抄紙時の濃度を下げる事が必要であろう。 した。 さらに後で述べるように坪量が小さくとも強度的に十 分強い紙ができることから坪量の小さい和紙が主に生 3. 結果と考察 産されると考えられる。実際手抄き和紙抄造時の繊維 3.1 紙の基礎的性質 濃度は約0.2% と言われ10),標準手抄きシート作製時 雁皮紙を除けばいずれの手抄き和紙でも楮を主原料 のそれより約1桁大きいが機械抄紙時のそれよりは約 としているので,それに対応して平均繊維長は大きい。 1桁小さい。和紙の厚さは,その坪量が小さいことも 一方 UKP 包装用紙での繊維長はその約半分であり あり,洋紙のそれより概して小さい。 PPC 用紙ではさらにその半分以下である。平均繊維 坪量を厚さで除して求まる密度は,雁皮紙を除けば, 長から前者および後者はそれぞれ針葉樹パルプおよび 和紙のそれは洋紙のそれに比してかなり小さい。和紙 広葉樹パルプを主原料にしていることが分かる。 製造における湿圧は洋紙製造のそれより小さいであろ 和紙および洋紙間では抄紙方法が異なり,配向を含 うし,かつ叩解程度もさほど大きくないことにも起因 む繊維集合構造にもこれらの間で差異があると考えら するのであろうが,今後さらに詳しく検討する必要が れる。MD/CD 強度比で見る限り,手抄き和紙の抄紙 ある。 方向への繊維配向は洋紙のそれよりやや小さい。それ Photo.1は本研究に供試した紙表面あるいは断面の にもかかわらず,抄紙方向のゼロスパン強度は雁皮紙 SEM 写真である。雁皮紙を除けば,和紙はいずれも を除く手抄き和紙で大きく,洋紙のそれの約2倍であ 比較的長くて大きい繊維から成る低密度のかさ高い紙

― 106 ― 紙パ技協誌 第59巻第10号 和紙の力学的性質の特徴 1549

Photo.1 Cross―sectional or surface structure of the papers teted. From top left to bottom right:Mino, Kurotani, Sekishuu, Ganpi, Kousenn, UKP―sack, PPC.

であることがこれらの写真からも十分伺える。さらに 軽度の叩解でも偏平化し易い木材繊維に比して楮繊維 はあまり偏平化していないことが知られ,この事も和 紙の示す低密度と符合する。佐伯らはパルプ化前での 楮繊維の形態を詳しく調べ,繊維ルーメンは小さくそ の壁が厚いと述べている11)。さらにこれら繊維のセル ロース構成比率が木材繊維よりかなり大きく12),パル プ化後の抄紙時点では木材繊維に比べて厚壁であり, その結果から楮繊維が偏平化し難いことはこれらの研 究からも容易に推定できる。 抄紙方向(MD)への繊維の配向は,雁皮紙を除く 手抄き和紙と洋紙では抄き方が異なるので単純に比較 できないが,少なくとも本研究の範囲内では洋紙の方 がMDへの配向度は大きい。地合はより長い繊維を 使う和紙の方が当然悪いと考えられる。また和紙では 通常紙料中に数本の繊維が束になった結束繊維が見ら れることがあり,本研究に供試した和紙でもそれに近 い集合状態の繊維が観察された。 Fig.1 Relationship between sheet density and elas- 散乱係数は繊維寸法および叩解程度が大きい程小さ tic moduls of the papers tested;● washi pa- い値を示すこと13)が知られており,和紙の散乱係数が per,▲ wood pulp paper(machine―made), 針葉樹パルプで作られた UKP 紙のそれより大きいこ ■wood pulp paper(handsheet).

2005年10月 ― 107 ― 1550 山内龍男,宇佐美直治

とは,和紙抄造時における叩解程度が比較的小さく, バラツキはかなり小さくなり,広葉樹パルプから作ら 繊維間結合があまり発達することなく繊維集合/紙構 れた PPC 用紙でのバラツキ3.8% とほぼ等しい。む 造を作っていることを示唆する。このような和紙の構 しろ針葉樹パルプから作られた包装紙でのバラツキの 造は低密度をもたらし,その弾性率は当然洋紙のそれ 方が大きい。いずれにせよ楮繊維から作られた和紙は より小さい。おそらく和紙の有する柔らかい感覚はこ その構成繊維が長い故に地合が悪くなる傾向があり, れら比較的小さい弾性率,厚さおよび密度によると考 さらに手抄きなので強度のバラツキはかなり大きいこ えられる。 とに注意する必要がある。 Fig.1は各紙の密度と弾性率(MD)の関係であり, 3.3 紙の力学的性質 参考として針葉樹クラフトパルプからの手抄きシート 引張強度(指数,MD)と密度の関係を Fig.2に示 でのそれ6,14)と併せて示す。和紙・洋紙共に密度の増 す。ここでは叩解程度の異なる一連の針葉樹クラフト 加により弾性率は増大するが,機械抄きあるいは手抄 パルプからの手抄きシートでの結果6)も併せて示す。 きを問わず木材パルプ由来の洋紙はほぼ一つの直線的 洋紙ではこれらの間にほぼ直線的な関係,少なくとも 関係を与える。一方和紙はこの直線的関係を低密度側 同じ木材パルプから作られた一連の紙では明確な直線 に移動させたような関係を示す。すなわち,和紙と洋 関係があり,密度の増加に伴い引張指数は増大するこ 紙が同じ弾性率,繊維間結合程度でも前者はより低密 とが知られている。 度であり,あるいは低密度の割に繊維間結合の発達し 本研究で供試した機械抄き洋紙である UKP 包装紙 たのが和紙である。 と PPC 用紙はそれぞれ針葉樹パルプからの紙と広葉 Photo.1に例示して説明したように,洋紙断面で見 樹パルプからの紙であるが,いずれも手抄きシートが られる木材繊維は薄壁で和紙における楮繊維より偏平 作る直線的に増大する関係とほぼ合致する。一方和紙 化しており,一方和紙での楮繊維は厚壁で偏平化の程 度が小さいことが低密度をもたらすのであろう。ただ し和紙でも例外は雁皮紙である。これは SEM 写真で も分かるように雁皮繊維が楮繊維より短く,細くかつ 非常に偏平しやすく,密度の割には繊維間結合がよく 発達してその結果弾性率も非常に大きいことと合致す る。 3.2 力学的性質のバラツキ 既に述べたように本来の和紙は地合が悪いので強度 的性質にはかなりのバラツキが生じると考えられ,ま たそれゆえ和紙物性研究が十分行われてこなかったと も言える。Table3は各試料につき約20回測定した 引張強度試験における測定値のバラツキを表す標準偏 差をその平均値(平均引張強度)で除すこと(%で表 示)で,各試料間での強度のバラツキを比較したもの である。一般に手抄き紙は機械抄き紙より強度のバラ ツキが大きいとされているが,手抄き和紙の代表とし Fig.2 Relationship between sheet density and ten- ての美濃紙では10.4% で一番バラツキが大きい。叩 sile index of the papers tested;● washi pa- 解した針葉樹パルプからの手抄きシート6)の5.8% が per,▲ wood pulp paper(machine―made), それに次ぐ。一方機械抄きになると和紙でも3.7% と ■wood pulp paper(handsheet).

Table 3 Percent ratio of standard deviation to the averaged tensile strength for the papers tested Machine―direction

Hand―made washi Machine―made washi NBKP―handsheet NUKP―machine―made LBKP―machine―made (Mino) (Kousenn) (beaten) (UKP―sack) (PPC)

7.73.75.84.63.8

― 108 ― 紙パ技協誌 第59巻第10号 和紙の力学的性質の特徴 1551

は機械抄き,手抄きの如何によらずこの直線的関係か 指数および引裂指数共に大きく,とくに後者が極めて らは大きく逸脱して和紙独自の関係,すなわち低密度 大きい。一般に紙を構成する繊維が長い程また繊維強 でありながら引張指数はかなり大きくかつ密度と共に 度が大きい程引裂指数が大きい17,18)ことはよく知られ 引張指数が緩やかに増大する関係を示す。この理由と ている。当然繊維長が一番短い広葉樹パルプからの紙 して,上記のように和紙はその密度から推定される以 である PPC 用紙の引裂指数は最も小さい。既に述べ 上に繊維間結合が発達していることに加えて,共存す たように手抄き和紙における平均繊維長および繊維強 る薄壁の柔組織細胞が繊維間結合を助長する働きをす 度の代用であるゼロスパン強度は洋紙のそれらより共 るとも考えられるが15),今後さらに十分な検討を加え に2倍以上大きい。和紙の引裂強度が洋紙のそれより る必要がある。洋紙に比して和紙は引張指数と共に引 はるかに大きいのはこれら極めて大きい繊維長および 張伸びも大きく(Table2参照),その引張破壊仕事 繊維強度に基づくと考えられる。 は洋紙のそれの約2倍である。 和紙の中でも機械抄き和紙の引裂強度はやや小さい。 引張強度に次いで引裂強度を検討した。引裂指数は 既に述べたように機械抄き和紙では他種の繊維が少し 強度の中でも破壊靭性的な特徴を示すと考えられ,そ 混合されており,そこでは本研究で見られたように れが面外試験であるにもかかわらず面内破壊靭性測定 (Table1参照)平均繊維長および平均繊維強度であ の代用としての runnability の検討などを含め16)重要 るゼロスパン強度が他の手抄き和紙のそれらより小さ な強度的性質とみなされている。 く,その結果としてやや低い引裂強度を与えると考え 各紙の引裂指数と引張指数(共に MD)の関係は, られる。雁皮紙では雁皮繊維の形状が木材パルプ繊維 参考としての針葉樹クラフトパルプからの手抄きシー に似ており,上述したように繊維間結合が良く発達し トでのそれと併せて Fig.3に示す6,14)。その関係が示 て,引裂過程での応力集中がより大きくなり14),結果 すように針葉樹クラフトパルプからの紙の引裂指数は として引裂強度と引張強度の関係は針葉樹パルプから 軽度の叩解で最大値を示した後,叩解の進行と共に低 のそれに近いと考えられる。 下することは良く知られている。針葉樹パルプからの 折れ曲げ試験でありかつ一種の疲労強度である耐折 機械抄き紙である UKP 紙におけるこれらの関係は手 強度(対数表示)と引張強度(共に MD)の関係を Fig.4 抄きシートが造るその曲線の近傍に位置するが,広葉 に示す。雁皮紙を除く和紙においては引張強度の増大 樹パルプからの紙である PPC 用紙での関係はこの曲 に伴い耐折強度も増大する。一般に叩解等による繊維 線よりさらに低い。 間結合の増大および坪量の増大は引張強度と同じよう 一方和紙におけるこの関係は,雁皮紙を除き,この に耐折強度(対数)の増大をもたらす。本研究で用い 曲線のかなり上方に位置する。すなわち和紙では引張 た和紙の場合,繊維間結合程度を反映する引張指数に ほとんど差はなく,その中での引張強度および耐折強

Fig.3 Relationship between tear index and tensile Fig.4 Relationship between folding index and ten- index of the papers Tested;● washi paper, sile strength of the papers tested;● washi ▲wood pulp paper(machine―made),■ paper,▲ wood pulp paper(machine―made), wood pulp Paper(handsheet). ■wood pulp paper(handsheet).

2005年10月 ― 109 ― 1552 山内龍男,宇佐美直治

Fig.5―a Comparison of property balance between washi paper and wood pulp paper;● washi(Sekishuu),▲ wood pulp paper(UKP―sack paper).

Fig.5―b Comparison of property balance between washi paper and wood pulp Paper;● washi(Kurotani),▲ wood pulp paper(PPC―paper).

度の増大は主に坪量のそれに由来すると考えられる。 わち和紙の中では密度が大きく,繊維間結合はよく発 一方ほぼ同じ引張強度での洋紙の耐折強度は和紙の 達するが,繊維長さは長繊維主体の木材パルプ程度で それより極めて小さい。とくに広葉樹パルプ由来の あることと符合する。 PPC 用紙はその高い引張強度にもかかわらず耐折強 紙面方向の引張,引裂および耐折の各強度において 度は極めて小さい。これらの結果は耐折強度に及ぼす 和紙は洋紙よりかなり大きいが,他方厚さ方向の強度 繊維長さの影響の大きいことを示唆する。また耐折強 である紙層剥離強度は逆に和紙の方が非常に小さく 度と引張強度の関係において雁皮紙が他の和紙と洋紙 (Table2参照),雁皮紙を除く和紙の紙層剥離強度は の中間なのは,既に述べたような雁皮紙の特徴,すな 極く軽度あるいは軽度に叩解した針葉樹クラフトパル

― 110 ― 紙パ技協誌 第59巻第10号 和紙の力学的性質の特徴 1553

プからの紙でのそれとほぼ同じである7)。坪量が小さ References いと紙層剥離強度は大きくなる傾向があり,また坪量 1)S. Nishikori and S. Machida: Tappi J.18 がある程度以上であれば紙層剥離強度は繊維間結合程 (7)273(1964) 度を反映して引張強度と共に増大すること7)を考慮す 2)S. Nishikori and M. Senda:Japan Tappi J.32(2) ると,上述したように和紙での繊維間結合は洋紙ほど 99(1978) には発達していないことになる。 3)S. Machida:Japan Tappi J.17(2)115(1963) Table2の各強度及び Table1の弾性率においてそ 4)R. Maematsu and K. Motoki:Japan Tappi J.17 れぞれの最大値を100として,各値の相対値を求め, (10)651(1963) 各紙の強度バランスを併せ検討した。Fig.5―a は和紙 5)H. Katou and S. Katada:Japan Tappi J.14(5)303 として石州紙を洋紙として UKP 包装紙を,Fig.5―b (1960) は和紙として黒谷紙を洋紙として PPC 用紙をそれぞ 6)T. Yamauchi and A. Tanaka:J. Wood Sci.48,532 れ比較した結果である。いずれも和紙と洋紙の機械的 (2002) 性質の差異を端的に示す図である。すなわち上述した 7)T. Yamauchi, T. Cho, R. Imamura and K. Mu- ように和紙では引裂強度と耐折強度および伸びが大き rakami:Nordic Pulp & Paper Research J.3,128 く,一方洋紙では剥離強度,弾性率および引張強度が (1988) 大きい。 8)TAPPI Test Method T―551Thickness of paper 筆者の一人は表具師として和紙を使用する立場から and 日常的にこれら和紙の中でもその官能的な強さに順位 9)W. A. Wink and G. A. Baum:Tappi J.66(9)131 をつけており,黒谷紙>石州紙>雁皮紙>美濃紙の順 (1983) としている。この順位と一致するのは引張強度(伸び) 10)H. Hara:Kaminoohanashi”Nihonkikakukyoukai および耐折強度(対数)であり,引張弾性率,引裂強 p67(1992) 度の順位とはやや異なり,紙層剥離強度でのそれとは 11)H. Saeki:in Zusetsu Senninokeitai”Asakura Pub. 大変異なる。すなわち官能的強度の代用として引張強 p86(1982) 度が最適であることが示される。 12)S. Machida:NHK―Shimindaigaku16) Kamitoni- honbunka”p30(1988) 4.結 論 13)K. Murakami:in“Parupuoyobikami”Buneido ほぼ純粋に楮あるいは雁皮繊維のみから作られ,そ Pub. p204(1991) の優れた力学的性質を生かして用いられる和紙の特徴, 14)A. Tanaka and T. Yamauchi:Appita J.58,186 とくに洋紙と比較したそれとして以下のような点が指 (2005) 摘できる。坪量は概して小さく,比較的薄い紙が多い。 15) K . Murakami : in“Zusetsu Senninokeitai ” シート密度が低く,引張弾性率も小さく繊維間結合は Asakura Pub., p288(1982) 十分発達しているとは言えない。ところが繊維間結合 16)A. Astrom, A. Nordstrom, T. R. Liebermannweg が十分ではないにもかかわらず紙面方向の各種強度は and C. Fellers:in“Products of ” 概して大きく,とくに引裂強度や耐折強度は極めて大 Tenth Fundamental Research Symposium held きい。一方厚さ方向の強度である紙層剥離強度はかな at Oxford p.807(1993) り小さい。今後はこれら力学的特徴が生じる理由を詳 17)F. F. Wangaard and D. L. Williams:Tap- しく検討する必要がある。 piJ.53,2153(1970) (謝辞) 18)R. S. Seth and D. H. Page:Tappi J.71,103(1988) 平均繊維長測定にご協力頂いた,特種製紙㈱総合研 (受理:’05.5.8) 究所に感謝します。

2005年10月 ― 111 ― 1554 山内龍男,宇佐美直治

JAPAN TAPPI Journal accepts scientific papers written either in Japanese or in English. We, JA- PAN TAPPI, translate them into the other of the two languages(Japanese into English and English into Japanese)and print them in addition to the originals under the permission of the authors. We believe that this service of translation, though it is costly, will help our subscribers to find and understand the scientific value of the original paper more clearly, and will contribute tothedevelopment of science and technology in the paper industry. ・The copy right of the translated version belongs to JAPAN TAPPI. ・If there is any inconsistency between the two versions, the original is always true. ・JAPAN TAPPI is not responsible to any outcomes based on the translated version.

peat experiments in a strict scientific way. In this 1. Introduction study, several washi papers, which are famous for Washi paper that has been made of kozo and paper their superior quality including Mino, were compared bush(mitsumata)has been used in many ways in eve- to typical yoshi papers(printing and packaging paper ryday life for quite a long time in Japan. But, it is produced by modern papermaking processes)in re- rarely seen around nowadays. As its demand has gard to their basic and mechanical properties to clar- been becoming less and less, few production centers ify their characteristics. could find those who would succeed the business. 2. Experiments There, however, still exist some washi production centers, though very few indeed, and they specialize 2.1 Samples in specialty papers of small but enduring demand. Samples of hand made washi were Mino, Kurotani, One market for washi has been for calligraphy, Sekishuu and Ganpi. Ganpi was made of ganpi fibers. where specific taste of sumi(anink used in traditional The other four were made of kozo and are typical calligraphy)spreading on washi paper is highly appre- washi brands, each ofwhichgets its name from a local ciated. Others are applications where its human― area name where its production center locates. None friendly taste is evaluated or its strong strength is contained fillers. They all are famous for their supe- needed. Recently, the specific characteristics of washi rior mechanical quality. Kurotani and Sekishuu are are re―evaluated, and research work is going on to used to support the folding part of byobu(a folding use washi as functional papers. Though washi has a screen).K o u s e n w as taken as a machine―made washi long history, most of research studies were done in sample. As counterparts for them, UKP sack paper relatively old days and their topics were rather lim- (sack paper of unbleached kraft pulp)and PPC paper ited in few areas. Some of them focused on additives (plain paper for copying machine)were obtained from like tororo―aoi which was necessarily used for hand the market. The both were made of only wood fibers. sheet making1,2).Others targeted fibers which com- Specimens were taken from these samples for posed washi sheet3,4). strength measurement. MD(machine direction)and Of a few washi brands, Mino washi has been fabri- CD(cross machine direction)were taken into consid- cated to kakejiku, which is one of major traditional eration. Strength properties were measured in the Japanese arts, due to its strong strength quality. both directions. For tensile strength, specimens were Kakejiku is wrapped round for storage, and is hung 70mm long and15mm wide. For folding strength, on a wall for display. So, its strength is a very impor- they were120mm long and15mm wide. The author tant quality. Moreover, in the process of fabrication, had reported on measuring tearing strength and z―di- skillful professionals have devised traditional tech- rection peeling force6,7) and the specimens were cut niques. But, they have not been based on scientific out in accordance with the report6,7). background in most cases. Why washi including Mino 2.2 Intrinsic fiber strength and fiber length is so strong is not clarified yet5).It may be because As fiber in the specimen was not long enough to that washi is hand made which makes it difficult to re- measure its intrinsic strength directly and there is no

― 112 ― 紙パ技協誌 第59巻第10号 和紙の力学的性質の特徴 1555

method available for this kind of fiber, its zero―span length. On the other hand, the UKP sack paper had tensile strength by Tappi standards(T―231)was used about a half of the washi’sfigures, and the PPC paper as a relative indicator of it. had a half of that sack paper’sfigure. It is understood Small piece of every sample was disintegrated by a that the sack paper was made of softwood pulp and standard disintegrator. The resulting slurry was the PPC was of hardwood pulp. tested for an average fiber length by Kajaani fiber Here we use the term Yoshi, which is a counterpart length analyzer in accordance with the Tappi stan- naming of Washi and means paper produced by mod- dards method(T―271).The method is not able to ern papermaking processes(not hand made).The measure fibers whose length are over7.2mm. As sack paper and the PPC paper belong to this category. kozo contains fibers more than7.2mm long, the aver- As a sheet making process is different from each age fiber length measured of the washi samples was a other, the resulting paper structure including fiber kind of rough indicator and the real average fiber orientation is supposed to be different. Judging from length would be greater than the measured value. the fiber orientation measured by the tensile strength 2.3 Basic and mechanical properties ratio(MD/CD),the hand―made washi was a little less Thickness was measured by the rubber platen orientated toward MD than the Yoshi. The hand― method to get a more reliable figure8,9).Table1 made washi excluding Ganpi, however, had twice as showed the properties such as weighted average fiber much zero―span strength in MD as the yoshi did. The length and zero―span strength(MD)as replacement fact suggests that the intrinsic fiber strength of kozo to intrinsic fiber strength, alongside with basic and was greater than that of wood pulp. The machine― structural properties like basis weight, thickness, den- made washi gave the zero―span strength in between sity, fiber orientation which was represented by a ra- the two, which indicated that it contained some other tio between MD and CD tensile strengths, light scat- fiber than kozo. tering coefficientbytheKubelka―Munk theory, and In general, washi have less basis weight than yoshi. elastic modulus(MD). Sheet forming concept of washi except Ganpi is re- Tensile strength and elastic modulus were meas- garded as nagashi―suki, which means that the stock ured by a tensile tester of Instron type(Shimazu AGS flows at a certain relative speed on the wire surface. ―100).The span between grips was50mm and the On the other hand, in a sheet forming process for drawing speed was5mm/min. Tearing strength was yoshi, machine―made washi and Ganpi, there is no also measured by the same tensile tester6).Folding relative speed between the stock and the wire, which strength was by a MIT folding tester. Z―direction we call tame―suki. This difference in the sheet form- peeling test was measured with a peeling rate of500 ing concept and the fact that its fiber is long and neri mm/min and at180degree peeling angle which was (a sticky additive to increase viscosity of the slurry)is supposed to induce layer peeling in specimen most added make it necessary to dilute the stock to some easily. The specimens were conditioned for one night lower consistency with washi for getting reasonable at23℃and50% RH., then tested in the same condi- sheet formation. Its consistency is said to be about tion. The results(MD only)were in Table2. 0.2%,which is much less than that used in usual pa- 2.4 Observation by SEM per machines, though it is higher than that used in a Surface of specimens was coated with gold vapor standard hand―sheet former by a factor of one. As and was scanned by a scanning electron microscope will be discussed later, washi is accepted in the mar- (Nippon Denshi JSM―T330A).The accelerating volt- ket with a less basis weight than yoshi due to its age was10kV. enough strength at that . This results in less thickness. 3. Result and discussion Density is defined by dividing basis weight by 3.1 Basic properties thickness. The washi except Ganpi had far less den- All hand―made washi but Ganpi were made mostly sity than the yoshi. It may be because that washi is of kozo fibers and they had a large average fiber manufactured less pressed during wet and its stock is

2005年10月 ― 113 ― 1556 山内龍男,宇佐美直治 less refined. Further study will be needed. bonding. Or the washi developed more fiber―fiber SEM photos of the samples are in Photo.1.Some of bonding at the lower density. As in Photo.1,the cross the photos showed the surface and some showed the section of the yoshi sample showed that the wood fi- cross section of sheets. We can see that the washi ex- ber had thin cell wall and was flatten. The kozo fiber cept Ganpi consisted of relatively long fibers and was in the washi, on the other hand, had thicker cell wall bulky and was not dense. We also see that the kozo fi- and was less flattened than the wood fiber. This re- ber was not flatten yet, compared to wood pulp which sults in the washi's low density. But, Ganpi was excep- is known to be easily flatted with slight refining. This tional. As seen in the SEM photo, the ganpi fiber was corresponds to washi’slowdensity. Saeki studied shorter and thinner than the kozo fiber and tended to morphology of kozo fiber before pulping, and found be flattened more easily. So, the fact suggests that that it had small lumen and thick cell wall11).Its fiber ganpi develops more fiber―fiber bonding and gives a contained more cellulose than wood fiber12).In sheet larger elastic modulus than kozo at the same density forming after being pulped, it still kept the thick cell level. wall, and it was thicker than that of wood pulp. These 3.2 Variation in mechanical properties studies suggest that kozo fiber is less easily flattened. As was said, washi has poor sheet formation and is Regarding the fiber orientation, fiber in the yoshi regarded that its strength properties would have was more oriented toward MD than that in the washi, large variation. This understanding might have been though the sheet forming process is different between an obstacle for studying its mechanical properties. the yoshi and the washi(Ganpi is excluded)and this Every sample was tested for tensile strength twenty fact should be taken into considerations. As washi is times. Its coefficient of variation(the percent ratio of composed of longer fiber, its sheet formation would be astandard deviation to its average)was calculated inferior to that of yoshi. Moreover, washi stock is occa- and was in Table3.It is said that hand―made paper sionally contaminated with some bundles of several fi- has larger variation than machine―made paper. Mino, bers and we could see them in our washi samples which is a representative of hand―made paper, had Light scattering coefficient usually becomes smaller the largest coefficient of variation(10.4%),as ex- as refining is intensified. It is also smaller with the fi- pected. Hand sheet prepared with refined softwood ber of larger size13).The light scattering coefficient of pulp was the second(5.8%)6).The machine―made the washi was larger than that of the UKP sack paper washi showed rathersmallvalue of3.7% and was al- which was made of softwood pulp. This suggests that most equal to that of the PPC paper which was made the fiber in the washi was consolidated in a way that of hardwood pulp. The sack paper which was made of bonding between fibers was less developed due to its softwood pulp had the variation larger than those two. less refining. So, washi is less in density and elastic So, Washi made of kozo tends to give worse formation modulus than yoshi. Softness which is characteristic due to kozo’slongfiber length and the process of to washi is supposed to originate from these relatively hand―made makes variation of strength property small elastic modulus, thickness and density. even larger. We should take themintoaccount. Fig.1showed a relation between density and elas- 3.3 Mechanical properties tic modulus with the all samples tested. The same re- Fig.2depicted the relation between tensile index lation with hand sheet of softwood kraft pulp was also and density. The data with hand sheet of softwood potted in the same graph6,14).The elastic modulus in- kraft pulp at different levels of freeness were also creased along with the density in the both cases. The plotted inFig.26).I t i s w e l l known that there is a liner yoshi which was made of wood pulp, whether it was relation between the two properties, and tensile index hand sheet or machine made, gave one linear relation increases along with density as long as the hand sheet between the two properties. With the washi, the line is made of the same pulp. The yoshi samples of this of that relation moved toward the lower density side. study, namely the sack paper and the PPC paper, In other words,thewashihadless density at the same found their positions almost on the line obtained by elastic modulus and at the same degree of fiber―fiber the hand sheet, though they are softwood pulp and

― 114 ― 紙パ技協誌 第59巻第10号 和紙の力学的性質の特徴 1557 hardwood pulp respectively. The washi, whether it tearing process14).As a result, it was plotted close on was hand―made or machine―made, deviated from this the curve with thesoftwood pulp. line and had its specific relation. It is that the tensile Folding test represents a kind of fatigue test. The index was larger at the low density and increased folding endurance(expressed in log)and the tensile slowly along with the density. The reason may be that strength(both in MD)of every sample were plotted washi develops fiber―fiber bonding more than ex- in Fig.4.As for the washi exceptGanpi, the folding pected from its density value, and ray cells, whose cell endurance increased along with the tensile strength. wall is thin, help the fiber―fiber bonding formation15). In general, folding endurance, like tensile strength, in- Further study is needed. The washi showed higher creases with increased fiber―fiber bonding by refining. tensile index and longer elongation than the yoshi(Ta- Basis weight is also a factor which increases those ble2),a n d i t s e nergy for tensile rupture was twice as two strength properties. The washi in this study had much as that of the yoshi. almost the same tensile index which represented the Now, we discuss on tear strength. Though tear is fiber―fiber bonding, so the difference among the out―of―plane failure, it is regarded as representing in― washi in regard to the tensile strength and folding en- plane fracture toughness, and is thought to be one of durance would be induced by the difference of the ba- important strength properties suggesting web run- sis weight. When compared at the same tensile nability on papermachines16).The relation between strength, the folding endurance of the yoshi was the tear indexandthetensile index(both inMD)were much weaker than that of the washi, and that of the depicted in Fig.3,along with those of softwood kraft PPC paper was extremely small in spite of its strong pulp handsheet as a reference6,14).It is well known tensile strength. This suggests that the fiber length that softwood kraft pulpapproaches the optimum wasveryinfluencing to the folding endurance. Ganpi tear strength after slight refining, and then reduces behaved in a manner between the washi and the its value with further refining. The UKP sack paper, yoshi. This is because of its characteristics as was dis- which was supposed to be made of softwood pulp and cussed. They were the higher density among the was machine―made, gave the position almost on the washi, the well developed fiber―fiber bonding and the curve of the hand sheet. The PPC paper, which was similar fiber length to softwood pulp. made of hardwood pulp, located further down from Regarding in―plane strength properties like tensile that curve. The washi, except Ganpi, were plotted strength, tear strength and folding endurance, the way upfromthecurve. In other words, the washi had washi was strongerthanthe yoshi. But, its peeling large tensile index and large tear index in particlar. It force which is a strength property in a thickness di- is well known that longer fiber and stronger intrinsic rection was much smaller than that of the yoshi(Ta- fiber strength give large tear index17,18).The PPC pa- ble2).The washi except Ganpi showed the figure per, which was of hardwood pulp that was the short- which was almost the same level of slightly refined est fiber of all, showed the smallest tear index. As dis- softwood karft pulp7).Peeling force tends to be larger cussed, the hand―made washi had long average fiber with less basis weight. But, at a certain basis weight length and large zero―span tensile strength, which and up, it increases along with tensile strength, which were more than twice of those of the yoshi. It is rea- represents fiber―fiber bonding. Taking these into ac- sonably deduced that the washi had quite large tear count, the washi did not develop the fiber―fiber bond- index. The machine―made washi showed a little less ing so much as the yoshi. tear index. It was because that the machine―made Regarding the strength properties in Table1and washi was supposed to contain some other short fiber, the elastic modulus in Table2,the maximum figure of which resultedinitsshorteraverage fiber length and the each property was assumed100,and every datum smaller zero―span tensile strength(Table1).Ganpi was expressed as a ratio to its maximum. They were was different in thewashi.Ganpi fiber is shaped simi- depicted as a star diagram.Fig.5―a was with Sekisyu lar to wood fiber, tends to develop good fiber―fiber and the UKP sack, and Fig.5―b was with Kurotani bonding, and causes stress concentration during a and the PPC paper. The both diagrams clearly

2005年10月 ― 115 ― 1558 山内龍男,宇佐美直治 showed the difference in the mechanical properties 4. Conclusions between the washi and the yoshi. The washi was su- perior in tear strength, folding endurance and elonga- Washi, which is made of kozo or ganpi almost with- tion. On the otherhand, the Yoshi was superior in out any ingredient fiber and has quite good mechani- peeling force, elastic modulus and tensile strength. cal properties, has unique characteristics compared to One of the authors is hyougushi(a paper hunger)as Yoshi. It was light in basis weight and thin in thick- aprofession, and handles washi everyday. He ranks ness. Its sheet density and elastic modulus was small. the washi in the following order with his professional Though the fiber―fiber bonding was not developed senses. It is Kuortani. >Sekisyu>Ganpi>Mino. The fully yet, the washi showed good in―plane strength mechanical properties which were ranked in the same properties. Among them, the tear strength and the order was the tensile strength(elongation)and the folding endurance were extremely high. On the other folding endurance. The elastic modulus and the tear hand, the peeling force was fairly small. Further study strength were not in the same order, and the peeling will be needed to clarify why washi has these me- force was quite different from that order. His sensory chanical characteristics. feeling is optimally represented by the tensile Acknowledgements strength. The authors thank to General Research Laboratory, Tokushu Paper MFG. Co. Ltd. for measuring fiber length of our samples.

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