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Mohammed Al-Khadim 2019 Risk Management: The Effect of Perceived Safety on Users Behaviour in Crowded Large Space Buildings Mohammed Alkhadim A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Brighton for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 2019 Abstract In crowded large space buildings, safety is one of the most important concerns for Facilities Managers. Poor health and safety risk management in buildings such as sports stadiums, concert halls, and religious centres have resulted in crowd disasters that can be traced back to the behaviour of the users in various venues across the world. Within the built environment, safety has been classified into two main parts: objective safety (normative and substantive) and subjective safety (perceived). In practice, a lot of emphasis has been given to objective safety, but research has shown that subjective safety is equally important and cannot be overlooked. Therefore, this thesis focuses on subjective safety and theorises that a decline in perceived safety will have an influence on the user behaviour in crowded large space buildings, which ultimately could result in crowd disaster. The primary aim of this thesis is to investigate the relationship between perceived safety and user behaviour in crowded large space buildings to enhance safety during an event. This thesis has adopted two theoretical frameworks (FIST and Six dimensions and loci of crowd disaster) and has developed a comprehensive conceptual model (Subjective Crowd Safety Model (SCSM)) consisting of 12 risk constructs and 59 items (indicators) of safety in crowded large space buildings. It chose to use the Holy Mosque in Makkah (356,800 square metres size) as a case study, a building that is used by a large crowd on a continuous basis all year round with its peak occupancy of two million users (pilgrims) usually reached during the Hajj (an annual pilgrimage to Makkah that is undertaken by Muslims from all over the world). Data was collected using iPad devices via a group- administered questionnaire distributed to 1940 pilgrims of 62 nationalities. The results were analysed using Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for descriptive analysis and Kruskal-Wallis H Test. Analysis of Moment Structure (AMOS) was used for Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). The results confirmed that there is a significant relationship between perceived safety and user behaviour in crowded large space buildings. The findings of the thesis will enable facilities managers to be aware of: the safety perception of the users of large space buildings; and the factors that make them feel unsafe. i Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................... i Table of Contents ............................................................................................ ii List of Figures ................................................................................................ ix List of Tables.................................................................................................. xi Abbreviations ............................................................................................... xiii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................... xv Declarations ................................................................................................. xvi Chapter 1 Introduction to the thesis ............................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 1.2 Rationale for Research .......................................................................... 1 1.2.1 The Holy Mosque as a Crowded Large Space Building .................. 3 1.3 The Aim and Objectives of the Study ..................................................... 8 1.4 Research Questions .............................................................................. 8 1.5 Outline Research Methodology .............................................................. 9 1.6 Contributions to Knowledge ................................................................. 12 1.7 Structure of the Thesis ......................................................................... 13 Chapter 2 Literature Review ..................................................................... 16 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 16 2.2 Facilities Management ......................................................................... 16 2.2.1 Risk Management (Health & Safety) ............................................. 19 2.3 Users (Crowd) Behaviour in Large Space Buildings ............................ 25 2.4 Crowd Safety and Crowd Disasters ..................................................... 32 2.5 Crowd Safety Management ................................................................. 36 2.5.1 Crowd Safety Models .................................................................... 39 2.6 Holy Mosque Studies and FM in the Holy Mosque .............................. 46 2.7 The Gap in Knowledge ........................................................................ 49 ii 2.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 50 Chapter 3 Development of Model and Hypotheses ................................... 54 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 54 3.2 Development of Subjective Crowd Safety Model (SCSM) ................... 54 3.3 Constructs of Subjective Crowd Safety Model (SCSM) ....................... 56 3.3.1 Perceived Force (PF) .................................................................... 58 3.3.2 Perceived Poor Information (PPI) .................................................. 60 3.3.3 Perceived Insufficient Space (PIS) ................................................ 60 3.3.4 Perceived Poor Real Time Management (PPRTM) ....................... 61 3.3.5 Perceived Risk of Stampede (PRS) .............................................. 62 3.3.6 Perceived Risk of Riot (PRR) ........................................................ 64 3.3.7 Perceived Risk of Structural Failure (PRSF) ................................. 64 3.3.8 Perceived Risk of Terrorist Attack (PRTA) .................................... 65 3.3.9 Perceived Risk of Explosion (fire/chemical) (PRE) ........................ 66 3.3.10 Perceived Risk of Natural Disaster (PRND) ............................... 67 3.3.11 Perceived Safety (PS) ................................................................ 69 3.3.12 Users (Crowd) Behaviour (UB) .................................................. 69 3.4 Variances in the Perception of Safety and the Behaviour .................... 71 3.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 72 Chapter 4 Research Methodology ............................................................ 74 4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 74 4.2 Research Philosophy ........................................................................... 74 4.3 The Research Paradigms .................................................................... 76 4.3.1 Postpositivism ............................................................................... 77 4.3.2 Constructivism ............................................................................... 77 4.3.3 Transformative .............................................................................. 78 4.3.4 Pragmatism ................................................................................... 78 iii 4.4 Research Approaches and Research Design (Strategy) ..................... 78 4.4.1 Quantitative Research Approach................................................... 79 4.4.2 Qualitative Research Approach ..................................................... 80 4.4.3 Mixed Method Research Approach ............................................... 80 4.5 Methods of Data Collection and Data Analysis .................................... 81 4.5.1 Interview ........................................................................................ 81 4.5.2 Observation ................................................................................... 83 4.5.3 Questionnaire ................................................................................ 83 4.5.3.1 Pilot Study............................................................................... 84 4.6 Sampling .............................................................................................. 84 4.6.1 Sample Approaches ...................................................................... 85 4.7 Data Analysis ....................................................................................... 86 4.7.1 Descriptive Statistics ..................................................................... 87 4.7.2 Kruskal Wallis ................................................................................ 87 4.7.3 Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) ............................................ 87 4.8 Evaluation of the SEM (Determining Model Fit) ................................... 89 4.8.1 Chi-square (CMIN) ........................................................................ 89 4.8.2
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