Lee Wireless -- its Evolution from AWA Review Mysterious Wonder to Weapon of War, 1902 to 1905 ”2012 Bartholomew Lee ABSTRACT This is a Story in The second part of this Four Parts, Culminat- note discusses Lee de The following four ing in the First Use of Forest’s failed reach events are covered. Wireless Telegraphy for the brass rings of 1) Wireless Spying in Warfare, but Start- a British government on Marconi at Porth- ing, Naturally Enough, contract, and a deal curno, Cornwall, UK with Marconi in Corn- for his wireless system – A First wall. with the cable com- 2) Lee de Forest L e e d e F o r e s t panies in 1904. But Fails in Ireland and bearded the young that commercial de- Wales in 1903 –’04: wireless lion – Gug- feat enabled the public One Door Closes, an- lielmo Marconi – in relations victory of the other Door Opens … his den, Britain, in success of exactly the 3) Rejection and 1903. Others also same De Forest Wire- Renaissance: concerned themselves less System on the oth- A. Lee de Forest with Marconi’s ambi- er side of the world, in Sails Away From “Per- tions, as early as 1902, the 1904 Russo -Japa- fidious Albion,” but as the fi rst part of this nese War. That same Makes a Deal note will discuss. But equipment, particu- B. Lionel James -- both the British gov- larly de Forest’s elec- Naval Spying on Rus- ernment and the cable trolytic detector, and sians and Reporting monopoly rejected the de Forest’s crack op- at Sea De Forest System. Yet erators, got the news 4 ) C o m m a n d e r a courageous foreign of the war out to Eu- Kurakichi Tonami’s correspondent saw rope and America. The Wireless Wins the a future for the De third part of this note Russo -Japanese War, Forest System in war discusses that remark- 1905. reporting, as Japan able turn of events. In the midst of this, challenged Russia in Japan integrated a Japanese master spy the Far East. wireless telegraphy enables Lee de Forest This is the story with a web of cables to snatch renown from first of commercial and other means of the jaws of rejection, intrigue, in the first communication and with a little help from part of this note: spy- command, a then Fessenden’s electro- ing on Marconi. Many -unique network. With lytic detector. saw that knowledge its integrated war mak- about this mysterious ing approach, Japan wireless telegraphy sank most of Russia’s could be important in two battle fl eets in the business and in war. Russo -Japanese War But they had to find of 1904 and 1905, as out how it worked, discussed in the fourth and what it could do. part of this note.

Volume 25, 2012 1 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War Japan’s defeat of the Russian ternational diplomatic experience. Navy killed Russia’s far-eastern Much of what is known about him ambitions, especially for a Far East- (in English) comes by way of Japa- ern (relatively) warm water port, nese naval historian Admiral Kazuo open all year round – Port Arthur, Itoh.4 Admiral Itoh also explains on the south coast of Manchuria. how Japan (unburdened by any Lee de Forest wrote a detailed old ways of doings things) early on autobiography that covers some integrated its command, control, of this ground.1 The now long communications and intelligence. -forgotten electrolytic detector he It created a novel and successful employed materially advanced the network to manage warfare. Com- nascent wireless art circa 1903, mander Tonami had mastered the because it enabled long-distance new technology of communications high-speed traffi c for the fi rst time. on behalf of the Japanese Navy. Much of what is known about In the unforgiving world of war, the earliest wireless spying at Tonami stands out as an offi cer’s Porthcurno results from research offi cer, a spy’s spy, and a very brave and writing2 by John E. Packer, a man. His work, before and after Fellow of the Royal Geographical sailing with James, helped Japan Society. He is a Curator of the Cable win its war against Russia. & Wireless Museum at Porthcurno. The techniques of interception of W I R E L E S S S P Y I N G A T wireless messages first emerged PORTHCURNO, CORNWALL, with spying there on Marconi, whose system de Forest also chal- UK – A FIRST lenged. Marconi’s new technology fas- The research and writing of the cinated the world, and especially Irish historian Peter Slattery on the cable operators. It excited the career of journalist and spy much curiosity in them, and in Lionel James provide much of armies and navies, and in busi- what is known of the events in the nesses. Wireless telegraphy, te- Far East. Lee de Forest never got legraphy without cables, long or west of Palo Alto or Los Angeles, short, directly threatened the cable nor until 1904, west of New York. industry. But this technology also But James, at his own suggestion promised much: the opportunity to and de Forest’s urgings, took over extend as well as overlay and paral- the wireless telegraphy equipment lel cable communications. Wireless that de Forest had used in his promised redundancy, and hence experimental stations in Ireland reliability, in long distance commu- and Wales in 1903. A great deal of nications. An enormous amount of what is in this note about London cable traffi c, requiring the utmost Times war correspondent James’s reliability, passed, for example, dangerous work derives from Slat- between London and New York. tery’s book: Reporting The Russo But an undersea cable break could -Japanese War, 1904-5 – Lionel end communications in an instant. James’s first wireless transmis- (The fi rst cable had indeed broken sions to the Times.3 after only a month underwater, and The Japanese Navy’s Com- an undersea earthquake in 1929 did mander Kurakichi Tonami sailed break ten of the 21 Atlantic cables. with James aboard the reporter’s Also, cables could be cut, and would steamship at an even sharper risk soon be, in times of war). Wireless of his life. Tonami already had in- also promised extension of commu- nication from cableheads around 2 AWA Review Lee the world to interiors of Empire, anybody could listen. Encryption to armies in the fi eld and nearby or cipher, if used despite its own navy vessels and to vast, unserved challenges, could mask the text of a coastal populations in cities, towns, message, but not the fact of a mes- businesses and plantations. sage. Transmission characteristics Western Cornwall hosted the also gave away sources and rela- competing U.K. interests of cables tionships among them. Commer- and wireless. Marconi set up at cial claims of privacy and reliability Poldhu for its proximity to the could be tested, and were often Atlantic and the North American found wanting if not false. It was continent. The cable companies very important to many interests to had long centered on Porthcurno understand wireless telegraphy in (Port Cornwall), just a few miles practice, not just in patent theory. south of Poldhu. At Porthcurno, the At the time, the cable compa- cables of the British Empire, as well nies’ wireless expert was Nevil as its former colonies, in particular Maskelyne, who had been an early the United States, made landfall. experimenter.5 Maskelyne devoted From Porthcurno, one could see himself to debunking Marconi’s Marconi’s big Poldhu antenna of claims, particularly with respect to 1901 – and thereby hangs a tale the security of wireless messaging. of wireless spying by the cable Mr. Packer writes, in his Porth- companies, a prologue to the fi rst curno Museum publication The use of radio, wireless telegraphy, Spies at Wireless Point,6 excerpted for intelligence and command in a here by his kind permission: great war. “The Eastern Telegraph Com- Marconi had fi rst revolutionized pany and Marconi’s early wire- and then monopolized the English less experiments. On the cliffs maritime industry’s communica- near Porthcurno in West Cornwall tions. But a well-capitalized and stands a curious structure of iron politically well -connected cable in- hoops that looks like some medi- dustry could take up supplemental aeval instrument of torture. It is maritime wireless operations. Such all that remains of a little known an initiative could turn the tables episode in the history of wireless. on the Marconi company. There is scant published informa- Yet in 1902 almost no one knew tion about the venture, partly for anything about radio or wireless reasons that will become clear. beyond press accounts. Within Little crumbs of information are three years, partly as a result of scattered through the literature; determined efforts to master the in isolation they tell little but put technology including interception together like pieces of a jigsaw of messages, wireless helped win they reveal early wireless spying, the fi rst war of the 20th Century. industrial espionage. John E. Packer tells the story of “Cornwall’s early cables. The the Porthcurno cable companies’ fi rst international submarine cable interest in, and spying on, Marconi. laid into Cornwall was landed at Marconi’s company had its big sta- Porthcurno near Lands End in tion at nearby Poldhu. It sited its 1870. It formed part of a chain of working maritime station nearby cable systems that spanned the at “The Lizard,” a peninsula jut- globe, linking Europe with the Far ting south. The cable companies’ East providing Australia’s first surveillance endeavors revealed the direct telegraph link with the U. K. primary fl aw of wireless telegraphy: The Eastern Telegraph Company

Volume 25, 2012 3 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War (ETC) grew in capacity and extent coni could apparently repeat their until by 1900 cables fanned out function without the necessity of from Porthcurno beach to North making, laying and maintaining and South America, South Africa, expensive cables. What was not India, Australia & New Zealand, clear was just how well this signal- and eventually Hong Kong and ing without wires actually worked. China. Porthcurno had become the Submarine cables seemed to be main communications gateway to reliable, operated for twenty-four the British Empire. hours a day, did not suffer from “The Bass Point Wireless Sta- interference or fading, and most tion. In late 1900 with several importantly were secure from in- modest over-the-horizon successes terception. How did wireless com- under his belt, Marconi and com- pare? There was an urgent need pany were already dreaming of for the cable companies to keep crossing the Atlantic by wireless. abreast of this developing rival and They had planned a high power evaluate its potential commercial installation at Poldhu on the Liz- threat. No one was better placed ard peninsula. To carry out tests to do this than the Eastern Tele- with Poldhu and experiment with graph staff at Porthcurno, only a ‘syntony’ or selective tuning (so relatively few miles from both Bass two or more stations could signal Point and Poldhu. simultaneously without mutual “Spying in the service of sub- interference) and also to provide marine telegraphy. On a clear a commercial ship-shore service to day the staff at Porthcurno could provide Marconi with revenue, an- actually see Marconi’s masts at other site was chosen at Bass Point, Poldhu across Mounts Bay. The near the Lloyd’s Signal Station, and Eastern Telegraph Company (ETC) a wooden hut was erected. accordingly hired the services of “Trans-Atlantic Success. The an early wireless enthusiast, Nevil story of the success of the Decem- Maskelyne. ber 1901 test has been told many “The growing interest of the times… It is, however, an irony ETC directors in wireless can be that the only means by which Mar- traced in the beautifully handwrit- coni could communicate with his ten minute books of their Board staff at Poldhu to coordinate the meetings. The earliest reference test was by telegrams sent over to wireless is a minute dated De- an Anglo-American Company cember 18th, 1901. The Company’s submarine cable that the success Chief Electrician simply noted of the test now threatened. That Marconi’s ‘experiment across the cable operator, Anglo-American, Atlantic’ just six days previously. took him seriously enough to issue The ETC didn’t waste time, howev- a writ forbidding him to continue er, for just weeks later in January, experimenting because they held 1902 they were already in discus- a monopoly on telegraphic com- sion with Sir William Preece of the munications from what was then General Post Offi ce, and with Dr. the Colony of Newfoundland. Oliver Lodge and Alexander Muir- “The growing threat. Until now head. At the same time the ETC the Eastern Telegraph Company Directors agreed to purchase just had taken only a benign and casual fi ve shares in the Marconi Wireless interest in the new technology. Telegraph Company, presumably Suddenly the complacency of the to allow them to attend sharehold- cable operators was shaken. Mar- ers meetings to keep abreast of

4 AWA Review Lee developments. [1902] I went to Porthcurno and “Wireless at Porthcurno. Di- commenced operations. Pending rectors minutes for June 4th 1902 the erection of the mast I set up tersely report ‘progress in experi- a wooden scaffold pole carrying a ments.’ In June 1902, a member of diminutive collecting circuit [i.e., staff was to journey to the Lizard, an antenna] in order to make pre- presumably on horseback, ‘to see liminary tests and adjustments. what sort of mast Marconi had At once I began to receive signals erected for his wireless experi- and messages in Morse code.’ This ments’. was already a somewhat damning “The enigmatic lease of seaside statement as one purpose of Mar- land and the absence of any men- coni’s tests at the time with the tion of a location in Maskelyne’s Italian cruiser Carlo Alberto was earlier installation proposal sug- to refi ne Marconi’s selective tuning gest the Company was trying to or ‘syntony’ which allowed several hide its intention to spy from this stations to operate simultaneously cliff-top above Porthcurno cove on without mutual interference, but its potential communications rival signifi cantly it was also claimed to on the Lizard. provide privacy. Clearly it did not. “A 170 foot three section pitch “Maskelyne continued ‘when pine mast was ordered from N. Hol- eventually the mast was erected man and Sons, Ltd. of Penzance. and a full sized collecting circuit Its lowest section was 70 feet long installed the problem presented and about 18 inches in diameter, was not how to intercept Poldhu an unwieldy load. A wrought iron messages but how to deal with ‘tabernacle’ was constructed to their enormous excess of energy. house the foot of this monster, and That of course involved no diffi - iron ring-bolts to secure the stays culty, and by relaying my receiving were cemented into the cliff top instruments through landlines to just west of Porthcurno. This site the station in the valley below I has been ever afterwards known as had all the Poldhu signals brought Wireless Point. home to me at any hour of the “A 1911 photograph shows this night or day.’ To prove his point mast with what appears to be a The Electrician then published a simple wire aerial system, per- facsimile copy of the Morse inker haps copied from Marconi’s fi rst tapes recorded at Porthcumo. So Poldhu aerial. Below the mast is a much for privacy! small wooden equipment hut. The “Maskelyne then went on to caption simply says ‘experimental address the matter of reliability wireless installation.’ Yet the ac- and seems to have relished the companying text, which describes fact that his industrial espionage the cable station in detail, gives showed Poldhu taking over twenty- no other details whatsoever of the four hours to get one simple mes- mast or its purpose. sage through to the Carlo Alberto “In 1902, Maskelyne, with- somewhere in the Mediterranean. out mentioning that he worked Marconi’s associate Luigi Solari for a cable company, wrote: ‘I reported a speed of 15 words per was commissioned to establish minute. But the messages had been a wireless station at Porthcurno heard at Porthcurno at only fi ve. for the purpose of signaling to “Maskelyne also noted occa- vessels now being fi tted for wire- sions when two transmitters were less’. He continued ‘last August on the air simultaneously from

Volume 25, 2012 5 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War Poldhu, incorrectly inferring it was Mr. Packer presents an inker a deliberate attempt to prevent un- transcript of an intercepted 1902 authorized listeners from receiving Marconi message (Figure 1). It anything but a jumble. Maskelyne reads: however, reported that he had ‘by “[…] your Majesty[’]s embassy suitable choice of capacity and sends by Marconi[’]s telegraph induction sorted out the two sets humblest homages Carignani to of signals.’ This was obviously an Italian cruiser Carlo Alberto Your experiment in ‘syntony’ perhaps Majesty[’]s embassy sends by in conjunction with the Bass Point Marconi[’]s telegraph humblest station. Maskelyne showed that an homages Carignani ZZ” ability to tune selectively, perhaps The repetition implies a con- breaching Marconi’s four-sevens cern with error correction and patent, was not a monopoly of fi ll-ins of missed or garbled char- Marconi’s equipment. acters. The actual inker likely used “Maskelyne left Porthcurno on appears as Figure 2; it is a modifi ed Sept 12th, but by then cable station British War Department inker, not staff and especially senior techni- a cable inker. Maskelyn’s receiving cian John Jeffrey had been intro- station appears as Figure 3. The duced to the mysteries of wireless. “iron maiden” remains of his mast They continued to monitor Mar- support appear as Figure 4. coni’s experiments and report back Alan Renton is the Archivist at to the ETC Head Offi ce. the Porthcurno Cable and Wire- “Progress at Wireless Point. less Museum. As a result of his In December 1903 the ETC, still attention and the work of other unconvinced it had chosen the best dedicated historians there includ- wireless available, investigated ing Mr. Packer, that museum dis- the De Forest system. ETC also plays a wealth of early equipment. sent its scientist and engineer Wil- Some pictures appear nearby. The liam Duddell to look at Poulsen’s station at Wireless Point initially arc system in Copenhagen. ETC used a coherer detector (Figure reviewed almost every wireless 5). It also seems to have at least system except that of Marconi experimented with an electrolytic himself….” detector, as did Lee de Forest. As

Figure 1. Nevil Maskelyne’s transcript of a message from Marconi’s station at Poldhu in August, 1902, as he published it in The Electrician (London); courtesy of John E. Packer as it appears in The Spies at Wireless Point [note 2]. The station used ZZ as its identifi er or call sign.

6 AWA Review Lee Mr. Packer writes: “In 1999 a dusty Morse ink- er and glass tube coherer were unearthed in a barn at nearby Trebehor Farm. The owner, Mr. Wesley Jeffery, was having a clear out. Among cobwebs and debris were corroded brass fi ttings, elec- tromagnets, motors and barely identifi able gadgets, all items from early days at Porthcurno. Mr. Jef- fery’s grandfather, John Jeffery, Figure 2. The modifi ed cable inker for had joined the ETC in 1881 aged recording signals on paper tape, likely fourteen. He remained there until the one used by Maskelyne to record 1923, becoming expert in repairing Marconi wireless transmissions. It was found amidst the artifacts preserved by delicate telegraph instruments. Porthcurno technician John Jeffery. Porthcurno was used as a test bed It is now on display at the Porthcurno for experimental work and trials of Museum. Photo by John E. Packer. new devices. When one-off items were needed, John Jeffery con- structed them, doing some of the work at his family farm workshop where he had a lathe. John was one of those as- signed to assist with the wire- less experi- ments. It is al- most certain that the Morse inker was the one used to re- cord Poldhu’s messages, in- asmuch as it is of a type that was never used on a submarine cable circuit. Mr. Wesley Jef- fery kindly do- nated the items to Porthcurmo museum where Figure 3. The receiving station Maskelyne used at Porthcur- some of them no, with his guyed mast and antenna. According to John E. have been re- Packer, this photograph is one of a series taken by Vaughan stored to work- T. Paul of Penzance, for a 1911 magazine article about the ing order and Porthcurno cable station, (A Nerve Centre of Empire, in The are on display Syren & Shipping for January 4th 1911). It appears amidst the interpretive material at the Porthcurno Museum. in memory of his grandfa-

Volume 25, 2012 7 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War

Figure 4. The rusted remains of the “iron maiden” wrought iron cage support for Maskelyne’s mast that held up his antenna for intercepting Marconi traffi c. Photo by John E. Packer. The plaque at its base reads: “On the highest part of Rospletha Cliff is a concrete base with an iron cage attached for housing a mast. The mast was erected in 1902 by the Eastern Telegraph Company to monitor Marconi’s experiments on the Lizard. It was supplied by N. Holmans and Son Ltd of Penzance, was in three parts total with a total height of 59 meters (170 feet), and had a large aerial attached to its top.” ther.” tor. The museum reconstructed it

Poldhu Amateur Radio Club as it appears nearby by adding a historian Keith Matthew, GØWYS, then -standard inker cup, which took me along for a visit to the fi t perfectly. This cup would have Porthcurno Museum in June held the electrolytic solution. See 2010. At Alan Renton’s behest, I Figure 8. A 1906 drawing of an examined a then -incomplete and electrolytic detector of the fine- otherwise mysterious device. See point type (Figure 9) confi rms the 7 Figures 6 and 7. The device had identifi cation. been found in the nearby attic of These recently discovered ar- the family of the 19th century cable tifacts show that the talented technician, John Jeffery. A wire machinists of the day could put (uncorroded and likely platinum) together interception equipment. descended in a vertically held and It may have been simple but it

filed -to -a -point thermometer worked. Moreover, an electrolytic glass tube. The base showed a cir- detector, fi rst invented in Reginald cular trace of what might have been Fessenden’s laboratory, permitted a cup, below the thermometer. operators to hear the Morse code of Given these elements, I suggested the wireless messages and thus to to Mr. Renton that the device copy at a much higher speed than operated as an electrolytic detec- inkers could write.

8 AWA Review Lee

Figure 6. This incomplete device was found amidst the artifacts preserved by Figure 5. A coherer that was found Porthcurno technician John Jeffery, amidst the artifacts preserved by and examined in 2010 at Porthcurno Porthcurno technician John Jeffery. Archivist Alan Renton’s request. Note It is now on display at the Porthcurno the fi led -off thermometer glass, the Museum. Photo by John E. Packer. lever arm that can move it up and Nevil Maskelyn patented a coherer of down, and the circular trace beneath it. a different (compression) design that The base measures 90 mm deep (3.5 he called a “conjuncture.” According inches). Photo by Bart Lee. to Packer’s Spies at Wireless Point [note 2] conjunctures from Maskelyne were in use there in 1903 with vari- able results, along with some other but unreliable Hozier-Brown receiving equipment (page 16).

DE FOREST FAILS IN IRE- LAND AND WALES IN 1903, AND THEN MAKES A DEAL AT SEA Lee de Forest, like Marconi, Fessenden and others, saw trans- Atlantic wireless circuits as the Figure 7. A closer view of the incom- Grand Prize of the day, although plete device preserved by Porthcurno de Forest sought commercial suc- technician John Jeffery, as examined cess in shorter circuits. Wireless in 2010. The filed-to-a-point ther- could indeed undercut the cable mometer glass has an uncorroded, monopolies in price and volume perhaps platinum, wire threaded down of traffi c. But more immediately, it its center. Photo by Bart Lee. also promised advances in military, naval, government and business contracts), he had to demonstrate communications. De Forest sailed his system. He did so in Ireland for England to make his pitches. (Howth) and Wales (Holyhead). Before de Forest’s approach to the In Ireland he set up in an old cable companies (and his roughly fortification on the coast near contemporaneous approach the Dublin at Howth. In defense of British government for lucrative Napoleanic invasion, England had

Volume 25, 2012 9 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War erected Martello Towers, round, tall cannon emplacements. De Forest installed a station in the Howth Martello Tower with an antenna pole next to it (Figure 10). (The Martello Tower is now a radio museum – Figure 11). A 1903 Scientifi c American report, picked up by the Dublin Penny Journal newspaper, provides much techni- cal detail. This exact same equip- ment went to war in the Yellow Sea Figure 8. An electrolytic detector of the the next year. fi ne-point type as restored by Curator “Wireless Telegraphy. The De John E. Packer and staff from the in- Forest System. The Tests Across complete device that was found amidst the artifacts preserved by Porthcurno the Irish Channel. During the technician John Jeffery. The inserted early part of last December [1903], black cup comes from a then-standard Dr. Lee de Forest, inventor of telegraph and cable inker, according to the De Forest system of wireless Keith Matthew. This electrolytic detec- telegraphy, conducted, under the tor used a screw (a modern replace- auspices of the British Post Of- ment appears at the left in the photo) to adjust the depth of immersion of fi ce, a series of experiments with the probe attached to the lever, and a the system between Holyhead stop to prevent the probe from going and Howth. These experiments too far down into the cup. Photo by were very successful. We are now John E. Packer. enabled … to give our readers a complete description of the ap- paratus used at the tests, together with interesting photographs of the stations [The Penny Journal substituted a drawing of the Howth station.] The distance in a direct line between the two stations is 64 miles. At Howth the apparatus was installed in the old Martello tower, at present used as a cable station, the government mast, 120 feet high, being utilized for the erection of aerials…. the successful results of the experiments deserve all the more credit, for communi- cation between the two stations Figure 9. A diagram of a fi ne-point was maintained with practically electrolytic detector circa 1904 -’05 from A.F Collins, Manual of Wire- free Hertzian waves – that is, the less Telegraphy (Wiley, 1906) as it waves were not attended with the appears in V.J. Phillips, Early Radio usual earth currents [for want of Wave Detectors, (Peregrinus and The good grounds]. The accompanying Science Museum, 1980) his Figure diagrams illustrate the connections 4.4 at page 71; his caption: “Fully of the transmitting and receiving engineered version of the fi ne-point apparatus used at each station…. electrolytic detector having screw thread adjustment of the depth of im- The helix, F was made of 1/4 inch mersion of the fi ne point.” copper tube, coiled in a spiral 18

10 AWA Review Lee inches in diameter. This formed a cage about the spark gap. The self- induction of this helix, which could be varied by means of a moveable contact, was utilized to obtain an approximate syntony [tuning] of the system. Owing to the high frequency of the oscillations, a very slight movement of the con- tact suffi ced to produce a marked effect upon the waves emitted…. The responder [in the diagram “O” -- an electrolytic detector] … works on the same principal as the original responder invented by Dr. de Forest. This, our readers will remember, was an electrolytic device, which was self-restoring on reception of the Hertzian waves. The local receiving circuit included a potentiometer R, and the signals Figure 10. This is a drawing of the were produced in the telephone P. Dublin area Howth Martello Tower in In tuning up the receiving system, use by Lee de Forest in 1903, with a tall mast holding up his antenna the inductances K, L and the capac- system. This drawing appeared in ity N were adjusted to syntony with the 1904 Dublin Penny Journal [note the transmitted waves.” 8 8], after a photograph in Scientific The drawn illustrations show American illustrating a report on de the tower and antenna, and dia- Forest’s 1903 operations at Howth gram de Forest’s multiple wire and Holyhead across the Irish Chan- antenna and the transmitter and nel in Wales. receiver (Figure 12). Small gaps sparked over to connect all of the wires for transmission, but insu- lated all but one wire for recep- tion. On transmit, this antenna’s resonance would likely have been broad rather than a narrow peak, like a horizontal “cage” antenna. It may thus have been forgiving of variations in the frequency of excitation. Two further salient points emerge from the Scientifi c Ameri- Figure 11. The Howth Martello Tower can report. First, the de Forest used by de Forest in 1903, as it ap- pears today. It houses an Irish radio system handled traffi c at 30 words museum whose Curators are Pat per minute, the highest speed of Herbert and Tony Breathnach, EI5EM. any wireless system. Thirty and The photo comes from the Museum’s more words per minute exceeded guidebook. Ulysses by James Joyce by two and three times the work- opens in a Martello Tower near Dub- ing speed of Marconi’s and similar lin, and his Finnigan’s Wake much concerns itself with “Howth Castle coherer -based systems. “Those and Environs.” who witnessed the experiments

Volume 25, 2012 11 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War on a much higher fre- quency, as Marconi had gone to lower fre- quencies and longer wavelengths for long distance work. But it is the ear, not the eye, which explains the technical success of Lee de For- est’s means of wire- less telegraphy. Lee de Forest pursued the aural pathways of communications, ultimately to radio broadcasting and movie sound.9 Ini- tial implementations of wireless telegraphy modeled themselves on cables and land- line telegraphy. They displayed messages to the eye by way of “inkers” that put dots and dashes of Morse code on paper strips. Figure 12. The circuit of de Forest’s 1903 Howth and (Even Ambrose Flem- Holyhead transmitter and receiver, and his antenna, ing patented his rev- as published in Scientifi c American in 1904 and the olutionary vacuum Dublin Penny Journal. The “self-restoring” electrolytic diode “valve” as a detector appears at “O” but according to the article, it means to deflect an is not de Forest’s earlier type (presumably the spade detector) but a later type, likely a compression type. observed galvanom- The self-restoring detector permitted reception of high eter). The wired and speed Morse code traffi c by ear. wireless communica- tions services were were surprised at the high speed happy to have such written records at which messages were sent, with of traffi c, a convenient practice of the normal rate being about thirty the time. The message either got words a minute.” Secondly, the de through or it didn’t, much like to- Forest system did not suffer any in- day’s digital signals. The coherer terference from a nearby Marconi detectors required a minimum station; it was “… not in the least signal level, although signal level affected by the Marconi station generally was not an issue with which was operating three miles the mature cables systems and away.” This suggests sharper tun- telegraph lines. De Forest, on the ing than might have been expected other hand, listened for signals, from the other circuits of the day, with the very sensitive human ear. including Marconi’s. Given the (So did Marconi in Newfound- description of the transmitter, it is land in 1901, and so did Marconi also likely that de Forest operated company operators when using

12 AWA Review Lee magnetic detectors after 1902, and system, from Holyhead, Wales, to Fleming valves after 1904). Howth, near Dublin. [Harry] Mac De Forest’s detector (he called Horton and I therefore assembled it a “responder’) was an electro- two sets and, trusting to find lytic type that he modeled on one necessary engine equipment and seen in Reginald Fessenden’s another good operator in London, laboratory. It demodulated radio sailed on the old S.S. Majestic, on frequency signals into audio fre- my fi rst trip abroad. quencies heard on headphones. “I’ll never forget … the nights De Forest then hired fast landline with Horton and [Frederick] Cor- telegraphers who copied by ear. nish (our British operator), fi ght- Moreover, de Forest, at the ing off chilblains with the aid of yacht races of 1903, soon discov- 3-Star Hennessy before the roaring ered that his operators could pick fi re of the old Howth Bar…. out his higher audio frequency “At last the day of the test signals, created by alternating when the dignified silk-hatted current generators rather than offi cial delegates from the G.P.O. inductance coils with low audio [General Post Offi ce] in London frequency interrupters, amidst arrived at each station to watch us the mix of generally lower audio do our Yankee damnedest. They frequency spark signals that fi lled wrote out code messages which the ether during that race.10 This Horton and Cornish (who was provided another dimension of exceptionally fast for an English- intelligibility. But generally there trained operator), ripped across was only long wave Marconi to “With looseness” at 35 words per contend with. Coherer -based minute in continental Morse. The systems such as Marconi’s could Lodge -Muirhead system had ex- not copy de Forest’s much faster hibited a maximum of 18 words traffi c and certainly not distant or per minute (when it functioned). weaker signals, even if tuned to the Then the offi cials themselves gin- frequency of transmission. gerly donned the cans, the first De Forest thought the test of time they had ever received code the winter of 1903, between Ire- through telephone receivers, and land and Wales, had gone very conversed slowly back and forth well. He didn’t understand why with no diffi culty except that due the British government never fol- to their inexperience in sound re- lowed through on the successful ceiving by spark note. With sheer tests. In 1931 articles and in his amazement they witnessed the autobiography, de Forest tells of ease and speed with which my two the tests and the results: boys, eighty miles apart, slammed “That Summer of 1903 was up and down the antenna transfer indeed momentous in wireless his- switch and got back their replies tory. As a result of our fi ne work for from their chattering American Sir Thomas [Lipton] on the [yacht] keys, far faster than the offi cials Erin [during the 1903 yacht races], could write off their messages. It the British Post Offi ce that fall in- was, in short, a day of complete vited a demonstration of the ‘amaz- triumph for American wireless ing’ Yankee wireless system in almost at the very birthplace of competition with their own, across wireless telegraphy -- an eye and the Irish Channel, where Sir Oliver ear opener indeed for Englishmen. Lodge had shortly before essayed “The tardy report of their tests a trial of the Lodge-Muirhead and fi ndings fi nally fi ltered through

Volume 25, 2012 13 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War the cumbersome fi les of the British The official Marconi history General Post Offi ce -- and there the limits its discussion of the 1912 matter rested and died. For Great scandal to events of the day. Alle- Britain decided that any wireless gations in connection with the then system as simple and rapid as ours proposed Imperial Chain of Mar- could not possibly be safe and reli- coni wireless stations13 certainly able; the more dignifi ed European were the central focus of the 1912 methods of Marconi, Lodge and investigation (and not what might Slaby -Arco must be, by the very well have been a 1905 prequel to nature of their strictly scientifi c that scandal). origins, ‘quite the best, don’t you know.’ REJECTION AND RENAIS- “However, it was not long there- SANCE: after before alternating current A. Lee de Forest, Sailing Away generator transmitters, self-restor- From “Perfi dious Albion,” Sees an- ing detectors and headphone re- other Door of Opportunity Open ceivers began to appear in certain De Forest offered his system, British (and German) wireless sta- using electrolytic detectors, to tions. Our bleak November labors the cable companies. There is no had at least driven a nail into the 11 evidence of any interaction be- coherer’s coffi n.” tween him and Maskelyne, or of The electrolytic detector per- a visit by de Forest to Cornwall. formed free of the electro -me- At Holyhead, he would have been chanical limitations in speed and close enough to Poldhu to take a sensitivity of the tapped filings look, but whether or not he did is coherer. By taking traffi c by ear, not now known. (In a recent well de Forest circumvented the speed -researched detective novel full of limitations of the inkers in use with wireless intrigue circa 1903, Death coherers. The British inspectors on the Lizard, de Forest, known seemed impressed, but … to have been a golfer, may well be Irish radio historian Tony skulking around the area).14 Breathnach, EI5EM, a principal But Maskelyne and the cable of the Howth museum, suggests companies had made their point British skullduggery: by the fact of interception. Com- “It has been argued, with some munication through the ether, justifi cation, that de Forest’s sys- Maskelyne proved, could hold few tem was far more efficient than secrets. Even if ciphered, it gave Marconi’s. It facilitated faster itself away. It was inherently in- sending speeds and incorporated secure, compared to hard -to -tap many innovated features. How- cables. ever, as often happens, the best What is known is that on July system did not carry the day. Mem- 12, 1903, according to rough-copy bers of the British establishment minutes of the Eastern Telegraph and those with infl uence already Company, the company Electrical had shares in the Marconi Com- Department submitted a report to pany. It was not in their interests the Board of Directors in London to see de Forest awarded the Post about the De Forest Wireless Tele- Offi ce contract. A British govern- graph System. At the same time the ment inquiry into allegations of Managing Director informed the corruption was published in 1912. Board that: “Fessenden, America, Alas, all of this was too late for de 12 who claims superiority over all oth- Forest.” er wireless systems, is submitting

14 AWA Review Lee details of his system to Coy. [sic: not at present entertain a proposal Company].” 15 Fessenden’s system binding this Company to any one used the original electrolytic de- system of Wireless Telegraphy.” 16 tector that he (or according to de The same minutes refl ect the Forest, his assistant Dr. Frederick companies’ continuing concern Vreeland) had invented, which with maritime wireless and the permitted high speed messaging. companies’ interception of Mar- In 1904, a London agent for coni traffi c: de Forest approached the cable “Wireless Telegraphy … Letter company in connection with a pro- was submitted from Superinten- posed U.K. De Forest enterprise. dent, Porthcurno dated 13th Octo- The fair -copy minutes (Figure 13) ber, reporting that the Hamburg read: American Liner ‘Moltke’ called up “Wireless Telegraphy … De For- the Lizard Wireless Station on the est Company … Letter submitted 13th inst. and sent seven wireless from Mr. Samuel Barber, 26 Old messages.” Broad Street, soliciting the support The German liner was likely fi nancial and otherwise of the Asso- equipped with German Slaby -Arco ciated Telegraph Companies, and equipment. Marconi stations until or the Globe Telegraph Trust Coy 1903 generally refused traffi c from [sic: Company] to the proposed ships not equipped with Marconi De Forest Wireless Company. It gear (which lead to the 1903 Wire- was resolved that the Board could less Conference after a diplomatic

Figure 13. Minutes of the Board of Directors of the Eastern Telegraph Company, July 22, 1904, extracted and graciously provided by John E. Packer [note 16], rejecting a de Forest overture. Volume 25, 2012 15 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War incident). 17 Hence this traffi c was The Times was sending James to worth noting. China to report on the looming The cable companies did ex- confl ict between Japan and Rus- plore a partnership with Marconi sia. De Forest retails his version of to handle by cable wireless traffi c their travel together: from a proposed circuit between “But definite good did result two settlements in the then -Portu- from that fi rst American invasion guese colony of Angola, according of the European ether. to rough -copy minutes of 1904. “[Mac] Horton and I returned So, cooperation between the old on the same old ship, ‘Majestic’ and new technologies was in the with Capt. Lionel James, famed offi ng early on.18 It was, however, War Correspondent of the London Lee de Forest who had fi rst linked Times, en route via New York, for a wireless circuit to a cable circuit the Orient, where Russo -Japanese in August 1903, in providing wire- war clouds were then threatening. less capability to the U.S. Army in We learned of his presence as we Alaska.19 sailed from Liverpool. Also that But at the end of 1903, Lee de Prof. [Reginald] Fessenden, my Forest had completed his dem- greatest wireless rival was like- onstrations in Great Britain, of wise returning to America [on the which nothing came. De Forest’s Majestic]. Whereupon Horton and equipment was unsuccessful as a I promptly made James’ acquain- business proposition in Britain, tanceship and between us never although its technical level was left him alone for one waking hour, advanced, particularly in using all the way across! By the time our the self-restoring (no tapper) iceclad vessel sighted Sandy Hook, electrolytic detector “responder.” New Year’s Day, 1904, we had His high performance wireless thoroughly sold Capt. James the system also went ignored by the idea that his way to be up-to-date British government. De Forest and scoop the entire press world nonetheless took such pride in his was to take with him to Japan two electrolytic detector device that he complete DeForest wireless sets, made his New York cable address like those we had so satisfacto- “Responder.” rily demonstrated across the Irish We now know, however, (and Sea.” 20 thanks to Peter Slattery) that Lionel James, on the other exactly the same state-of-the-art hand, said that he took the initia- equipment later provided a key tive, according to Peter Slattery. espionage circuit for the most James had seen wireless used in sophisticated command, control, the September 1903 New York communications and intelligence yacht races. Contemplating the operation that warfare had seen up hardships and diffi culties in com- to then. The Japanese Navy took municating dispatches which cor- advantage of Lee de Forest’s ad- respondents faced, he wrote: vanced system for naval espionage. “ …there had always remained De Forest sailed for home, in the back of my mind an idea that embarking on December 23. If much of the labor, much of the risk “Fortune favors the prepared and loss, and not least, perhaps, hand,” it smiled on de Forest on much of the personal discomfort that voyage. By coincidence, Lionel might be avoided by use of the James, a correspondent for the scientifi c progress made in the ex- London Times also took passage. periments with Hertzian waves.”21

16 AWA Review Lee Slattery writes, quoting James: express to Liverpool both wireless “It is clear that the initiative for sets, then rusting in their shacks the two to meet came from James on those far-separated bleak cliffs. [(with de Forest) ‘rising to my “I believe no Englishman ever bait with alacrity’]. It was he who before hustled as Cornish hustled. sought out de Forest…. De Forest He had thoroughly learned how is correct in recalling that it was from Horton, and a trip to America he who convinced James of the and Asia was to be his reward if he scheme’s practicality…. De Forest could catch that boat. He properly convinced him that his [James’s] packed and brought two tons of idea was sound: machinery on board as personal ‘Dr. de Forest promised me that luggage. That just saved the bacon if I succeeded in erecting a mast for us. The entire equipment was 180 feet in height on the China unloaded, overhauled, repaired, coast and used it in conjunction repacked, and jammed into a with a moveable station which chartered express car direct for showed an exposure of at least Seattle within thirty-six hours after 120 feet of wire, that he would the ship docked at New York. But supply me with a set of apparatus the excitement and triumph was and expert operators who would too much for Cornish. Prohibi- transmit messages with accuracy tion might have saved him for the for 160 miles’ ” 22 Japanese expedition; but this was James persuaded the London fi fteen years before Volstead! Times to make a deal with de For- “Hence a frantic call for volun- est, by which James inherited all teers. [‘Pop’] Athearn was already of the British experiment’s two sta- slated to go west with Cornish. tions worth of equipment and got [Harry] Brown, of the recent yacht two seasoned operators as well as race episode, answered the call. engineering. James settled on the So these two fi ne American wire- idea of using a ship (as it happened, less operators accompanied the the S.S. Haimun) as a reporting express car to Seattle, caught the platform, because it could get close Empress of China by the skin of to the action. Also, its correspon- their teeth, and thus saved the day dent aboard, unlike an embedded for ourselves and Lionel James. reporter with a national fl eet, could And again wireless history was report right away rather than hav- made, thereby making the entire ing to wait until his ship reached a world wake up and recognize the port. De Forest got the two tons of utility of this startling new Ameri- his wireless system “machinery” can enterprise. from Britain to New York in short “Never before had wireless order, refurbished it, and sent it on been used for press reporting. to Seattle for the voyage to China. Here was an ideal opportunity -- As Lee de Forest relates: war maneuvers around the China “Then was another wireless Sea, where existed no means of impossibility accomplished. There communication whatsoever, save was no proper equipment available by boat and courier; James had except those two sets in Holyhead chartered a swift tug for his press and Howth. We cabled our British scout work, destined to make his- representative, fortunately very tory in war news. He and his boat much of an American, to instantly were ready when my two men ar- locate Cornish, our ‘limey’ op- rived in Shanghai. The equipment erator, and get him to pack up and was transferred to the Haimun,

Volume 25, 2012 17 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War and she speeded off for Weihaiwei. Britain disclosed to Japan, after Working like demons, Athearn and the Treaty of 1902, its own state Brown installed our set indoors on -of -the -art wireless systems (Mar- the ship. The sturdy English Fair- coni’s and Royal Navy Captain banks Morse engine from far-off Henry Jackson’s). These otherwise Holyhead was ready for shore duty. secret technology implementations “Then Lionel James promptly enabled Japan to leap ahead of began to electrify the press of the Russia in communications capa- world. His American wireless en- bility and readiness. The United abled the London Times and its States also determined to “tilt” (in New York and Philadelphia cor- Henry Kissinger’s word) in favor of respondent papers, to scoop the the Japanese and against Russia, other newspapers -- not merely by threatening Germany and France hours, but frequently by days.” 23 to keep them neutral.28 The S.S. Empress of China had Shortly after that treaty of 1902, left Vancouver for Shanghai with the very same Commander Kura- all aboard, including De Forest kichi Tonami, along with a Navy Company operators Pop Athearn colleague, Prof. Shunkichi Kimura, and Harry Brown, on January 25, got to investigate Europe’s state 1904.24 James sailed for Yokohama -of -the -art wireless. A published on the S.S. Siberia, with permis- report in 1903 summarized: sion of the Times to charter a vessel “Wireless Telegraphy In The to report the confl ict. Japanese Navy. Colonel Tonami B. Spying as well as Reporting and Engineer Kimura, both of the at Sea Japanese navy, who have been James’s enterprise in Japan studying in Europe the practica- reached beyond merely seeking bility of wireless telegraphy, have permission to report on events by returned to Japan. They have sea. He volunteered, in his words brought with them a complete two decades later “ … to become set of apparatus for conducting a licensed spy for the Japanese experiments. It is expected that Navy.” James made a deal with the there will soon be an adoption of Japanese Navy that his proposed wireless telegraphy in the progres- vessel would carry a Japanese of- sive Japanese navy.” 29 fi cer expert in wireless telegraphy The British permitted Japanese as “… an intelligence officer for offi cers visiting the British Fleet Admiral Togo’s fl eet” as James de- at Malta in May 1902, to observe scribed him.25 That offi cer would the state -secret “new wireless be Commander Kurakichi Tonami, telegraph.” These full disclosures who had been the Navy’s wireless have been attributed to the then expert since 1899. newly-concluded treaty. The Brit- James’s deal with the Japanese ish even lent them a coherer for Navy is less surprising than it experiments on their way to Eng- might seem, because Britain had land. These officers made a full entered into a treaty of coopera- report to the Japanese navy of their tion with Japan in 1902, aimed at investigations and results in the Russia.26 For example, the Brit- fall of 1902,30 perhaps precipitating ish Army in Malaya and China, Tonami’s mission. within a couple of years, shared Back in Japan, Tonami worked with the Japanese intercepted with his engineer and others to cre- Russian wireless and cable traf- ate the Japanese Navy’s wireless fi c.27 Realpolitik being what it is, sets Types 34 and 36. Britain at the

18 AWA Review Lee time wished to constrain Russian ized….” 32 ambitions, for example by bottling In transit at Kobe, the de Forest up the Black Sea Fleet in the Black wireless operators participated in Sea. By catapulting themselves the populace’s celebration of the into the 20th Century world of war victory at Port Arthur and discov- with modern technology (largely ered sake. “We were astounded by modeled on the British systems), the spirit of patriotism which we the Japanese repaid British post saw manifested by the people.” 33 -treaty solicitude. Disclosure of On February 12, James made a Britain’s wireless telegraphy tech- proposal to the Japanese Navy, as nology to Japan had world -his- Peter Slattery writes: “ …offering toric consequences. to put the Haimun, its wireless In the Far East, James set up and its operator at the service of his shoreside station, primarily for the Japanese forces in return for reception (see Figure 14) in China, opportunities to gain war news.” on the west coast of the East China In an interview with an Admiral, he Sea in the Yellow Sea at Weihaiwei, offered to take aboard a Japanese a British -leased enclave 115 miles offi cer as his translator. This offi - from Port Arthur, the Russian -leased enclave. See map, Figure 15. Weihaiwei enjoyed Eastern Telegraph Company cable connec- tions West to London. Pop Athearn (all of 21 years old) handled the shoreside operations. Harry Brown (all of 30 years old) operated from the chartered vessel the S.S. Hai- mun.31 James had chartered the Hai- mun, 1,300 tons, and fairly new, through British connections. She had served both the British in the 1900 Boxer Rebellion and the United States in the Philippines. But fi rst Brown and Athearn had to get the wireless equipment work- ing at Shanghai, and then get it transported. The war, however, would not wait: the Japanese attacked the Russian -held Manchurian enclave of Port Arthur on February 8, 1904. Diplomacy had failed, and the fi rst th Figure 14. The wireless station at war of great powers in the 20 Weihaiwei built by de Forest employ- century started with a surprise at- ees Harry Brown and Pop Athearn, tack. James (still in Japan) and a with a 170 foot tall mast (here storm colleague reported by dispatch to damaged). David Fraser, a correspon- the Times on February 11, 1904: dent colleague of Lionel James, took the photo in 1904 and published it in “ … three Russian vessels – two his book A Modern Campaign (1905). battleships and one cruiser – ap- It appears in Peter Slattery’s Report- parently total wrecks. The Russian ing the Russo–Japanese War as Fleet appears completely demoral- Plate 5, after page 76 [note 3].

Volume 25, 2012 19 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War

Figure 15. A map circa 1904 of China, Japan and the Yellow Sea, which also shows some cable connections. Weihaiwei is on the peninsula jutting into the Yellow Sea from China on the left. Port Arthur is on the peninsula jutting down from Manchuria near the top of the Yellow Sea 115 miles North. The source is Cassell’s History of the Russo-Japanese War, 1905; the map is now accessible as commons. wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Jap-Rus_Image7.jpg . cer was to be one of the Japanese communication with Japanese Fleet’s intelligence offi cers. Thus stations, and act as a link to the James intentionally made himself Japanese Fleet.” 36 and his vessel operatives for Japa- The Haimun with the two de nese naval intelligence.34 Forest wireless stations and the The Navy agreed and gave him two de Forest wireless operators sailing orders empowering the on- got to Weihaiwei on February 18. board offi cer to manage the wire- Athearn and Brown overcame less communications and control many challenges in getting opera- the travel of the vessel. The Navy tional. “…It was necessary to erect also assigned to the Haimun a a pole 170 feet in height for the unique wireless numerical identi- receiver. ”37 fi er, as a callsign. By this means Commander Kurakichi Tonami it could call to Japanese stations came aboard, in civilian clothes and specifi cally be called by them, and not in uniform, on March 7, as without identifying itself.35 (The the Haimun (at Japanese Navy di- transmission from the Haimun rection) called on Nagasaki osten- differed in speed, and for anyone sibly to take on coal.38 On March listening, tonality, but the callsign 14, James met de Forest’s men at may have provided some more Weihaiwei, (see Figure 16) and security at least in reception). sailed that night, very pleased to Slattery notes: “The offi cer was a have effected his new and unique wireless specialist who would have idea of reporting war by wireless. his own codebooks and wireless After a test at 20 or more miles out

20 AWA Review Lee from Weihaiwei, James started his also carried this and all subsequent war reporting by marine wireless marine dispatches, all (but one) telegraphy.39 See Figure 17 for the noting: “By de Forest’s wireless Haimun rigged with the de Forest telegraphy.” James, with a much antenna. -involved Tonami aboard, moved At one point, Brown’s trans- the Haimun into the action. missions could be copied from When James saw Russian bat- 240 miles at sea. As soon as At- tleships ten miles out of Port Ar- hearn at Weihaiwei got good copy, thur in the third week of March, he passed it on to the Eastern he radioed his observations direct Extension Telegraph and Cable to the Japanese Fleet, pleasing Company (one of the Porthcurno Tonami.42 After a lull, Tonami companies), by messenger, for suggested sailing out of Weihai- transmission to London. “In less wei to contact the Japanese Navy than half an hour after a message for leads as to the most produc- started, and it started as soon as tive areas.43 James and Tonami anything developed, it was on its developed a cordial working rela- way by cable.” 40 tionship, once Tonami appreciated James’s fi rst radioed dispatch the care with which James treated appeared in the London Times on Japanese naval interests in his March 16: “By de Forest’s wire- reporting at sea.44 less telegraphy.” 41 The New York In James as a spy, the Japanese Times, a partner in the enterprise, got a great deal – commitment, years of expe- rience as a war correspondent, g o o d c o v e r , and de Forest’s unique and ad- vanced commu- nications sys- tem. In James as a paying cus- tomer, Lee de Forest also got a bargain: world -wide publicity. He reports a 1904 letter from his brother in New York, about the New York Times advertis- ing of the dis- patches: “ ‘They [the Figure 16. Harry Brown, Pop Athern, Lionel James and N e w Y o r k Commander Tonami (on the right) standing in front of the Times] h a v e wireless station at Weihaiwei in 1904. David Fraser, a cor- placarded all respondent colleague of Lionel James, took the photo in 1904 and published it in his book A Modern Campaign (1905). t h e e l e v a t e d A larger version appears in Peter Slattery’s Reporting the stations in New Russo –Japanese War [note 3] as Plate 7, after page 76. York with the

Volume 25, 2012 21 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War content, because the messages were ciphered, but on the basis of ru- dimentary ‘traf- fi c analysis’ tech- niques.” 47 J a m e s w e l l understood what became known as traffic analy- sis. In a barely fictionalized se- ries of accounts of the war,48 he tells of an instance. A Figure 17. The S.S. Haimun sails the Yellow Sea at war in 1904. Note the antennas on the aft mast. One F.L. Russian Admiral Blanchard made this drawing after a sketch by Lionel gets a strip of ink- James and it was published in The Graphic (London) on er tape from the May 14, 1904, according to Peter Slattery in Reporting wireless room. the Russo –Japanese War [note 3], where a larger ver- “It was a jum- sion appears as Plate 10, after page 76. Slattery notes ble of dots and that at one point, Jack London also took passage on the Haimun as a war correspondent; he was accredited to dashes. The mes- the San Francisco Examiner. sage was Japa- nese. It did not “Times – de Forest” posters and matter if it was in cipher. The great is the wrath of our rivals, Admiral could read the history the Marconi, Fessenden, Graf-Arco.’ tape related as clearly as if it had ” 45 been in his own language. It meant James appears to have sent that the Japanese patrol-boats had about nine such marine dispatches made his movement out. That they from the Haimun. had raced to the guardship with The de Forest wireless operator the news, and that the guardship aboard the Haimun, Harry Brown, was now transmitting it, as fast thought Tonami, whom he took to as the wires could make it, to the be the “censor,” nonetheless “ … a Japanese fl eet…” great little fellow.” He continued: James tells a second wireless “He knew everything about na- story from a Japanese perspective: val affairs. Maybe he was an offi cer “Two men sat crouching over a in the Japanese Navy. You never charcoal fi re in the worst apology can tell just what a Jap really is, as for a hut that imagination could they are not inclined to be talkative conceive…. Outside a very tumult about their offi cial positions. At raged… [but] the light was good any rate, from the messages he and bright – well it might be for it passed, he was the best censor was electric…. A bell rang – electric Capt. James could have had.” 46 too – and presently a wheel began A recent American analysis to click, slowly but deliberately…. suggests: Both men listened, nodding out the “During the Russo -Japanese dots and dashes as they read them. War … the Times personnel began Then one of them jumped to his to base stories on analysis of in- feet. ‘That is it – that is our own tercepted transmissions – not the – not the honourable Russian.’ …

22 AWA Review Lee the symbols were ticked off on it at the rate of ten to fi fteen words a minute. All the men could tell was that it was their own cipher… it was to be transmitted farther…. The great spark crashed out, fi lling the room with a white blue glare…. Over sixty miles across that stormy sea it had come. It was now going seventy miles through space to the receiving station. In two hours, the Admiralty in Tokio would know how two destroyers had … at Port Arthur … disabled another Russian battleship.” On a least two occasions, Brown copied Russian traffi c, passing it on to the Japanese. One intercept per- mitted the Japanese to destroy a Russian wireless station just north of Weihaiwei. The other led to Figure 18. Admiral Stepan O. Ma- decipherment by the Japanese and karov, Russia’s leading exponent of naval use of wireless, and commander signifi cant news for James as well, of the Russian naval forces until his about the later death in mid -April death on April 13, 1904, when his fl ag- of Russian Vice-Admiral Stepan ship, the Petropavlosk, hit a Japanese O. Makarov, the Commander of mine. This portrait comes from Ra- the Russian Fleet. See Figure 18. dovsky, Alexander Popov -- Inventor It is likely that James was writing of Radio [note 58], plate after page 92. about Admiral Makarov, a wire- less expert, in his account of an would recognize him as a Japanese Admiral drawing inferences from staff offi cer. He prepared himself the facts of Japanese naval wire- to take his own life rather than be less traffi c. The story also fi ts the captured as a spy.50 facts of the naval engagement in James claimed that he had a which Makarov lost his life and his better idea and disguised him as battleship. a Malay sailor and made him the James kept up his roving mari- temporary helmsman. The board- time reconnaissance from the be- ing offi cer inspected the wireless ginning. 49 But the Russians, and cabin and read the offi cial traffi c. likely Admiral Makarov, who was James had sent a last message say- the Russian Navy’s foremost expo- ing that the Russians were board- nent of wireless communications, ing. He gave a copy to the offi cer, smelled a rat. who then knew the world was The Russians boarded the Hai- waiting for further word. Then, mun on April 6. James knew he pure, seasoned genius, James lied could face internment but Tonami to the offi cer, claiming to have seen knew he faced death if discovered. four Japanese cruisers nearby that On diplomatic duty in Paris, he could cut off the Bayan and its and the Captain of the Russian Admiral (Makarov) from their port intercepting ship, the cruiser and maybe sink them as well. The Bayan, had known each other. Bayan fl ed. James and Tonami got Tonami knew that the Captain away with it.51

Volume 25, 2012 23 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War The de Forest operator, Brown, boats was one equipped with wire- shared his perspective: less telegraphy… then we made “On April 6 we had our most out, or … thought we made out, trying experience…. There were her wireless apparatus hanging two Russian offi cers in charge of from the mainmast…. We obeyed the party that boarded, and they orders. It was not until we picked inspected everything, from our up the captain … that we realized papers to the wireless instruments. we had been in error. The vessel The Russians had not yet reached proved to be the Hipsang…. Such the side of the Haimun when Capt. mistakes and accidents must occur Tonami disappeared from view. in war.” 53 He didn’t put in an appearance at The Russian sinking of the all, and we explained his absence Hipsang, despite offi cial courts of to the Russians by saying he was inquiry, and formal protests, was a coolie whom we employed as a never otherwise explained. servant, and that he was mortally On April 13, James, Tonami and afraid of Russians. The Russian of- the Haimun steamed with the Jap- fi cers laughed, and said we needn’t anese Fleet, and close into battle. send for him. After the Russians Tonami disclosed to James that the had left, and they left in a big hurry, Fleet had laid mines outside Port too, I went to search for the Jap. Arthur. During the engagement, I found him in his cabin. He had James saw, at a long distance, a disrobed, and was standing, knife big Russian ship go down.54 Ad- in hand, ready to commit hara-kiri miral Makarov’s battleship, the if any attempt has been made by Petropavlosk, hit at least one mine the boarding party to make him and sank quickly, taking Admiral prisoner. When we told him they Makarov, and Russian hopes in the were gone he laughed and said Far East, down to a cold wet grave. ‘All right,’ but he would have killed Brown reported: himself as sure as I live if one of “We were still in plain sight of the Russians had made any move Port Arthur when the Petropavlosk toward him. He didn’t propose to came out of the harbor and ran into be captured for a minute.” 52 the mine which put an end to her Brown continued, speculating career…. We saw the Petropavlosk on the hasty exit of the boarding leave the harbor, and then start party: back when she saw that the ves- “The way I fi gure it out is that sels standing in close were merely the Russians had heard the Japs decoys. Suddenly a great shaft of working their wireless, and then water shot up from her side, and had heard our message, and con- she began to wobble like a drunken cluded that they didn’t have time man. She plunged this way and to pull us into Port Arthur.” that. Suddenly she gave a plunge The British steamer S.S. Hip- and disappeared.” 55 sang, a little later, was not so lucky. Peter Slattery reports that after A Russian destroyer sank her on leaving port, the Russian ships July 16, 1904. James believed the intercepted wireless signals of the Russian Captain mistook her for Japanese Fleet. He suggests that his wireless boat. In his “fi ctional- this intercept prompted Admiral ized” account, he has the Russian Makarov’s fateful return to port, captain explain about “newspaper through the minefi eld he did not boats”: know about, although James did.56 “ … the most noxious of these It is likely this intercept that James

24 AWA Review Lee “fi ctionalized” provides an early example of traffi c analysis. The Japanese strategy of laying mines and then luring Admiral Ma- karov’s Flagship through the mine- fi eld worked. Makarov’s death had special signifi cance with respect to Russian battle communications. Admiral Itoh57 writes: “Makarov took up his new po- sition in Lushun [Port Arthur] as the Commander of Pacific Fleet Figure 19. Alexander Popov as com- on March 8, immediately after the memorated on a 2009 Russian memo- rial postage stamp along with one of start of the war. Right after assum- his early wireless receivers, and his ing his position, he delivered de- notes, as interpretive material. tailed instructions on the operation of telegrams [wireless equipment] to each ship, making it compulsory to activate telegrams twenty-four hours per day and to undertake a roll call every day. Also, he pro- vided each ship with the Japanese Morse code. The ships of Russia’s Lushun Fleet were equipped with wireless telegraphs made by Tele- funken Co. The crew members of the Lushun Fleet included some experienced active duty offi cers. One month after his assuming the position of Commander on April 13, Makarov died when the battle ship the Petropavlovsk with Ma- karov on board, was sunk by an un- derwater mine offshore of Lushun. If Makarov was alive, he might have skillfully operated wireless telegraphs and been a formidable opponent for the Japanese. ” The Soviet era appreciated Makarov as well,58 as a promoter of Alexander Popov’s wireless te- legraphy technology (see Figures Figure 20. Naval wireless equipment 19 and 20): designed by Alexander Popov and “Makarov was one of the very made by the Ducretet company in Paris. These captioned drawings after few naval offi cers who realized the photographs come from Radovsky importance of the work of Popov [note 58], plate after page 116. Accord- and supported it.” ing to Radovsky, the Russians could James wrote as part of his “fi c- have had the advantage of Popov’s tion” account59 (in the voice of a discoveries and engineering, such as Russian offi cer): this set, along with the coordination of communications that Admiral Makarov “That was a fateful period, be- tried to institute. Russia, however, cause we lost our fl eet then. That is, failed to exploit Popov’s lead.

Volume 25, 2012 25 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War we lost Makaro[v] in the Petropav- permit, and summarily dismantled losk; and when Makaro[v] went, his tug, forcing him thereafter to we felt that we couldn’t hope to resume the tedious, time honored do much until we were reinforced methods of his competitors. from Europe.” “ ‘It ceased because the sys- At the beginning of the April 13, tem proved to be of far greater 1904 battle, Russian shore batter- excellence than was believed by ies started fi ring at the Japanese the Japanese to be possible; far Fleet. James got a dispatch out superior to their own military and within a minute.60 Brown re- naval wireless system of commu- called: “Capt. James was writing nication.’ the story of the bombardment as “These were the exact words it progressed, and I was sending of Capt. James at a banquet given right away.” 61 James regarded his in November, 1904, in London, in reporting of this critical day of the honor of him and the Americans war as “ … the most successful day who had amazed the newspaper of my whole journalistic career.” 62 world by the astonishing effi ciency Lee de Forest63 happily claimed of our wireless in war journalism. credit (although decades after the “It had proven indeed a lucky events, de Forest reversed the chance that Horton and I had actual roles of his two operators caught the ship at Liverpool, which shoreside and at sea): carried Lionel James to our shores. “It is safe to say that never in But it was a sore disappointment the annals of telegraphy had any to both Horton and Cornish that service performed a more faithful neither could accompany to the work at a critical time than did Orient the wireless gear which they the De Forest system on board the had so brilliantly broken in across Times boat Haimun on that morn- the Channel of St. George.” ing far out in the Yellow Sea. On April 16, the Russians de- “Cruising all about the Yel- clared to London and Washington low Sea, from Chemulpo [Korea] that they regarded even neutral Harbor, 240 miles away, and even vessels with wireless capabilities when at Nagasaki to coal, Pop for foreign correspondents as [sic: Brown] kept always in touch spies. That meant the Haimun. with Brown [sic: Pop Athearn] at The New York Times said that Weihaiwei. One notable war mes- that promised hanging, and pro- sage of 800 words fl ashed over this tested. The British and American distance at twenty-five words a governments protested. The De minute, without a single error. And Forest Company protested. Lee de that, remember, was in early 1904, Forest delighted in the extensive when wireless over such distances new publicity given to his system and for swift press purposes was at work at sea.64 an absolutely untried experiment. Ashore, Athearn radioed the Nothing whatever today -- true. warning to the Haimun of the Rus- But those two lads made wireless sians announcement that if such history. Made such signifi cant his- a wireless equipped vessel were tory that after the fi rst six weeks of taken, its crew would be treated war, during which period Lionel as spies.65 James and his wireless continued For James, it all became moot consistently to scoop the press of because the Japanese thereafter the world, the Japanese military kept him out of the combat zones authorities suddenly revoked his in the north of the Yellow Sea

26 AWA Review Lee near Port Arthur. Brown reported (The Russian Army used Marconi that the Haimun’s wireless traf- equipment, and maintained a sta- fi c had interfered with Japanese tion at Vladivostok).70 commanding Admiral’s wireless James sent his last dispatch via transmissions of general orders.66 Weihaiwei “By de Forest’s wireless It may well be that the Japanese telegraphy” and from the Haimun Navy did not want either of its on June 6, 1904.71 James went on seagoing spies captured, interro- to cover the land war in Manchuria gated and hanged. James reported with great distinction after great his restriction in a dispatch on hardship.72 Ten years later as an the 15th of May: “By de Forest’s offi cer in the British Army, Peter wireless telegraphy.” James ac- Slattery reports, he fought bravely cepted the Japanese limitations, in World War One, twice honored in part: “Out of deference to … our as “mentioned in despatches” and peculiar national relationship.” 67 awarded a combat Distinguished (“Peculiar” means “unique” in this Service Order (DSO). context, likely a reference to the Treaty of 1902). But James was COMMANDER KURAKICHI out of the action if not totally out TONAMI’S WIRELESS WINS of business and not happy about it. Nonetheless, Britain appreci- THE WAR, 1905 ated his accomplishment. Peter After June 1904, the new wire- Slattery quotes68 William Preece less technology played a disposi- of the British General Post Offi ce tive role in the ultimate Japanese (Marconi’s mentor): victory – thanks to Commander “The Times transmitted much Tonami’s earlier work. The Rus- news to Printinghouse Square by sians had the advantage of Alex- Eastern Telegraph Cable: 2,000 ander Popov’s discoveries a decade uncensored words were one day prior, but made nothing of them. sent across 180 miles of sea at a Popov, for example, fi rst used a mean speed of 30 words a minute, tapper to reset a coherer. Then he and thence 14,010 miles to Lon- invented a coherer that did not don, where they were printed in require tapping. Popov made wire- the Times the next morning with less telegraphy available to Russia, marvelous accuracy.” but the Russian military establish- ment mostly ignored his work. A Wireless as an adjunct to the 73 cable system had proved its worth. Soviet era history termed that In the Far East, intrigue con- dereliction criminal complacency: tinued: A Russian agent offered “Although the Ministry of the James 20,000 British Pounds Navy acknowledged the impor- to get an encrypted message to tance of wireless telegraphy in Port Arthur using the Weihaiwei naval affairs, in deed it did not wireless. James refused, which is show any initiative at all. In reality, hardly surprising inasmuch as he the Navy remained without radio was a Japanese agent, journalistic equipment, and the production ethics aside. Later James had to of such was at the lowest possible hold the Russian agent off with a level. The Russo-Japanese War, Colt pistol. Shortly thereafter, Pop which broke out in 1904, showed Athearn reported copying a fi gure how criminal was the complacency -cipher Morse wireless message of bureaucratic heads in the Army to Port Arthur; he could tell it had and Navy… they did not take a been sent on Marconi equipment.69 single practical step to organize properly the production of radio Volume 25, 2012 27 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War equipment and to supply the units ment for the Japanese Navy. The of the Army and warships with nomenclature refers to the year it…. Makarov spoke of the absurd of the Meiji era; 36 is 1903. Type state of affairs in the country, for 36 bears a strong resemblance to although radio was invented in Marconi/Jackson British Navy Russia, the country had to order sets, tapped coherer and all. See radio equipment from abroad.” Figures 22 and 23. Admiral Makarov saw the naval Thus, and unexpectedly, the potential of wireless telegraphy Russians faced an enemy with su- as early as 1897, but a Japanese perior although not cutting edge mine took him to the bottom of the communications technology. The sea. Despite Makarov, the Russian Russians were at a disadvantage in Navy had not exploited Popov’s capability with unsuitable German lead, and ended up buying Ger- equipment, and the Japanese had man Slaby -Arco -Braun wireless an enormous advantage in readi- equipment for its fl eets. It was not ness. The Russians hardly under- seaworthy, and the German com- stood how to use their equipment. pany engineers did not long stay The Japanese wove theirs into a with their equipment. Like the powerful, integrated communica- Marconi gear the Russian Army tions web, on land and at sea. bought, it detected signals with The Japanese naval histori- a tapped coherer, and was slow an Admiral Kazuo Itoh argues75 and insensitive compared to the that Japan created what we now de Forest system (although some call “net-centric” warfare in 1901 magnetic detectors may have been through 1905. Wireless and cables in use in the Russian Army). linked shoreside installations. Yet aside from Tonami’s use Wireless linked an extensive ob- of James’s de Forest system, the servation network on islands and heart of which was the electrolytic detector, the Japanese Navy also used coherer equipment. It was, however, better, Japanese -made gear and Japan used it in its inte- grated communications and com- mand system.74 But the only reason they had it at all was Tonami’s (and other progressive officers’) investiga- tions of British Navy wireless equipment (with the consent of the British) and perhaps other European systems. The British saw every mutual advantage, after the Treaty of 1902 with Japan, to full disclosure of modern methods Figure 21. Professor Shunkichi of communication. Tonami and Kimura, later in life. He worked with his engineer Professor Shunkichi Commander Tonami to investigate Kimura brought the designs back wireless systems in Europe and the to Japan. (Kimura much later United States, and in Japan to imple- founded the Japan Radio Company ment their principles as the Japanese Type 32 and Type 36 wireless sys- -- see Figure 21). They built Type tems. Image from Sato and Sato, [note 34, then Type 36 wireless equip- 79] at pages 460.

28 AWA Review Lee

Figure 22. A Type 36 coherer receiver Figure 23. A display of the Type in service. Note tapper beneath the 36 wireless telegraphy system circa coherer. Image from Sato and Sato 1905, on display aboard the memo- [note 79] at page 460. rial battleship Mikasa in Japan. The coherer receiver is on the far left. In coasts. The Navy equipped its war- the center is a 30 cm (12 inch) induc- tance coil and spark gap in front of it. ships with state of the art devices The antenna transmit -receive switch and trained operators and offi cers is at the top center above it. The motor to use them. Admiral Itoh lays this and belted wheel device on the right out, proving examples: may be a motor generator to power the “One dispatch boat was as- spark coil primary. The device in front signed to each Japanese fleet. of it may be a keying relay. Image from There were three dispatch boats Rear Admiral Kazuo Itoh, The Battle of Tashima Was Real Network Centric in total. When dispatch boats are Warfare, [note 4]. located between ships engaging in communications, the distance of communications becomes longer. telegraphs. Other than those, the Dispatch boats may be allocated ‘Secret Telegraph Code’ and the between the fl eet and coastal sta- ‘Naval Signal Book’ were devel- tions and may link up telegraphic oped. The ‘Telegraph Addresses’ messages. The distance range of that used to be prepared for each communications for the Type 36 fl eet, were prepared as calmly as Wireless Telegraph was approxi- those for the Combined Fleet for mately 80 miles between large the fl eet battles. The ‘Type 36 Wire- warships, even though the distance less Telegraph Handling Manual’ differed depending on the condi- and ‘The Russian Signals Book’ tion of the air and the locations of that recorded Morse Codes used by antennas. The Japanese Navy used Russians, were also prepared and the dispatch boats for information distributed to each ship.” exchange with the shore by deploy- After the losses of 1904 to their ing them inside and outside ports Pacific Fleet, the Russians sent and offshore near watchtowers.” their Baltic Fleet, enlarged, to the Another example has to do with Far East. The smaller vessels tran- readiness: sited the Suez Canal. The British “Also, in accordance with prog- monitored the Russian wireless ress on the wireless telegrams on- communications: board ships, the ‘Handling Regula- “An intelligence report on sig- tions for Wireless Telegraphs’ and nals intercepted by HMS Diana at the ‘Regulations on the Wireless Suez shows that the rate of sending Telegraphs of the Combined Fleet’ was extremely slow by British stan- were enacted to direct the op- dards, while the Royal Navy inter- erational methods of the wireless preters were particularly critical

Volume 25, 2012 29 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War of the poor standard of grammar left Cam Rahn Bay in French Indo- and spelling among the Russian China. operators.” 76 On May 27, 1905, the cruiser Commander Tonami then spied Shinanomaru spotted the Rus- on the Russians at Suez with Brit- sian Fleet near the mouth of the ish assistance.77 He watched the Tsushima Straits between Korea Russian vessels go by, observed and Japan. The Shinanomaru’s the antennas, and may well have wireless message to the Japanese also monitored the same wireless Fleet ensured an ambush in the transmissions, and reported back ensuing Battle of Tsushima Straits, to Japan. Admiral Itoh78 writes: a classic “Crossing the T” naval “Tonami reported to the Vice engagement. See Figure 24. The Minister of the Navy as to whether Shinanomaru’s message was sent the ships had wireless telegraphs or and received on the Type 36 sets not, what kinds of telegraphs they which Tonami and Kimura (and were equipped with, and where the the British Foreign Office) had telegrams [wireless rooms] were made possible. It was pure, vital installed, based on the installation intelligence: “Enemy fl eet observed positions, the heights, and shapes at position 203, enemy moves to of communication antennas on east channel.” 79 the ships.” The Russian Fleet had been The Russian fl eet got to Asia, ordered to turn off its unreliable some through Suez and the rest wireless sets on May 16, leaving around the Cape of Good Hope, a Indo -China, lest transmissions be tour de force. The Japanese knew detected by the Japanese. There is the Baltic Fleet was coming. But no indication that any Russian ves- the Japanese did not know, in the sel heard the Shinanomaru’s mes- vastness of the Pacifi c, which of sage to her fl eet, although the Rus- the several possible routes, East or sians did intercept enough wireless West of Japan, which the Russians traffi c to know that they had been would take to get to Vladivostok. seen, but not soon enough for it to They knew only that the fl eet had be of any use.

Figure 24. The Battle of Tsushima Straits. The Russian Fleet is in blue. The Japanese Fleet, in red, “Crosses the T” in front of the Russian Fleet, permitting the Japanese to fi re broadside while the Russians could only use their fore turrets. From wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/ commons/ thumb/e/ea/ Bataille_de_Tsushima… The Japanese in this battle lost 172 men; the Russians more than 4,000 men and most of their warships.

30 AWA Review Lee The Shinanumaru’s transmitter complete victories at sea. used a 30 cm spark coil made by It has been said that this was the the company Annaka Seisakusho fi rst use of radio, wireless telegra- (now Anritsu) for the Ministry of phy, in combat.83 Lionel James’s the Navy.80 Its receiver was of the earlier adventures, however, and coherer Type 36, as was the receiv- what is known of Japanese naval er in Japan’s fl ag battleship, the communications in 1904, suggest Mikasa (which now, as a historical that earlier date as the advent vessel, displays a reproduction).81 of combat wireless in the Russo According to a summary82 in Wiki- -Japanese War. Moreover, both pedia: belligerents used tactical wireless “At 4:55 AM, Captain [Hakaru] in the 1904 land battles around Narukawa of the Shinano Maru Port Arthur, including jamming. sent a wireless message to Admiral The potentials and hazards TŮgŮ [Heihachiro] in Masampo [in of communications through the Korea] that ‘Enemy is in square ether could not be ignored. Its time 203’ By 5 AM, intercepted wireless had come. Commander Tonami’s signals informed the Russians that vision of the future of this then they had been discovered and that -primitive technology promoted Japanese scouting cruisers were Japan’s victory. Within three years, shadowing them. Admiral TŮgŮ Tonami captained a Japanese received his message at 5:05 AM, cruiser, the Yakumo. and immediately began to prepare Thus, as Japanese experts have his battle fl eet for a sortie…. the en- concluded: “In the Russo-Japanese tire Japanese fl eet put to sea, with war electronics clinched the victory Admiral TŮgŮ from his flagship for Japan …”84 Many historians Mikasa leading over forty vessels have suggested that the loss of to meet the Russians. Meanwhile, the war caused the Russian Navy the shadowing Japanese scouting mutinies of 1905 and contributed vessels sent wireless reports every to the Revolution of 1917, and thus few minutes as to the formation cost Tzar Nicholas II his Romanov and course of the Russian fl eet. reign and then his life. See Figure There was still mist which reduced 25. Japan’s victory established it visibility and the weather was poor. as a world power for the next sev- Wireless gave the Japanese an ad- eral decades. vantage; in his report on the battle, Admiral TŮgŮ noted the following: CONCLUSIONS ‘Though a heavy fog cov- In the crucibles of war as well ered the sea, making it impossible as the competitions of commerce, to observe anything at a distance wireless telegraphy played early of over fi ve miles, [through wire- and important roles. Men like Lee less messaging {wiki insert}] all de Forest, using innovations like the conditions of the enemy were Fessenden’s (and Vreeland’s) elec- as clear to us, who were 30 or 40 trolytic detector, and Lionel James, miles distant, as though they had in his innovative real-time report- been under our very eyes.’ ” ing with wireless from the midst of The Imperial Japanese Navy sea battles, and Kurakichi Tonami, won a stunning and overwhelming master spy, each envisioned its victory over the Imperial Russian possibilities and advanced the art. Navy. The Battle of Tsushima ranks Although wireless was in an early with the most important battles in state of development in 1904 -’05, naval warfare, and among the most employment of the art fostered and

Volume 25, 2012 31 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War

Figure 25. A recent painting of Tzar Nicholas II and behind him the scene of the second day (February 9, 1904) of the opening engagement of the naval war. The cruiser Varyag chose to make a fi ght of it against a superior Japanese fl otilla intending to capture Chemulpo (Inchon) Korea. It was lost. See en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Rus- sian_cruiser_Varyag_(1899). The painting by Gherman Komlev appears on a 1998 (revenue -raising) postage stamp of the Marshall Islands, which at its bottom right, in blue, shows the Yellow Sea and the Korean peninsula, West of which this and subsequent Figure 26. Cable and wireless teleg- 1904 battles took place. I am grate- raphy working together in the British ful to Judy Mears for supplying this Empire world-wide after the fi nances image. -driven merger of the cable interests and the Marconi interests into Cable frustrated even Imperial Russian and Wireless, Ltd. in 1929. (See Baker ambitions. In three short years, [note 13] at Chapter 27, page 226). wireless telegraphy went from a As the cable interests had feared, little understood wonder and a cu- wireless communications (by 1929 riosity to a weapon of war, remak- short wave radio, the Marconi “beam ing Empires. As the art advanced system”) had cut their revenues badly, inasmuch as “half their traffic had (see, e.g., Figure 26), it has played gone over to the beam” according to roles in every war, and in every Baker (page 229). Baker concludes economy, that perhaps not even that the merger “… gave Great Britain visionaries like Lee de Forest, Lio- and the Empire the fi nest system of nel James and Kurakichi Tonami world communications ever to exist could foresee – although maybe under the control of a single body….” (at page 232). Baker reports that when Nicola Tesla did. an undersea earthquake broke ten of 21 Atlantic cables in 1929, the traffi c Notes and sources follow. I seamlessly shifted over to radio (page hope I have acknowledged in the 233). On the map, cables loop around text and the following notes the and wireless circuits appear as dotted many people who have helped me straight lines. The map (showing the whole world with interesting images in putting this article together. I in the margins) dates from 1947. It am grateful to each of them and comes from the archives of the Porth- all the more so to anyone I have curno Telegraph Museum whichrepro- inadvertently omitted. duces it as a poster. This image is from a photograph by Bob Berry of part of the map, gracing a postcard from the Museum. The world now has a much more extensive cable network, but mostly fi ber optics.

32 AWA Review Lee ENDNOTES and Wireless Porthcurno and 1 Lee de Forest, Father of Radio, Collections Trust, Porthcurno, Wilcox & Follett Co., (1950) Penzance, Cornwall, UK, used (self -published); Chapter 15, by the kind written permission Wireless Goes to War, page 135. of Mr. Packer. Excerpts are De Forest is often charged with edited for American usage and self-aggrandizement, with his continuity. I am grateful to Keith autobiography cited as “Exhibit Matthew, GØWYS, a principal A.” From the perspective of a of the Poldhu Amateur Radio century, perhaps not even he gave Club, for the connection to Mr. Lee de Forest enough credit for all Packer, and to Archivist Alan he accomplished. His memory is Renton, and for many years of tarnished by business failures, and hospitality in Cornwall in our hostility from engineers as a result mutual investigations into early of the courts siding with him over wireless. E. Howard Armstrong regarding 3 Peter Slattery, Reporting The radio frequency oscillations Russo -Japanese War, 1904-5 from vacuum tubes. Armstrong – Lionel James’s first wireless knew what he was doing, but transmissions to the Times, Global de Forest just did it – but time Oriental, (2004). Cited below as after time. Still, Armstrong’s “Slattery.” See also: Peadar [Peter] claims to unique invention with Slattery, EI2JA, From the Irish Sea respect to both regeneration and – to the Yellow Sea, PW [Practical the superheterodyne principle Wireless – U.K.], February 2001, are dubious. So too are de p. 24. Mr. Slattery’s texts and Forest’s with respect to the triode, communications have been given Fleming’s prior art, and extraordinarily helpful. His work to his “Responder” given his is thorough and compelling, well acknowledgement that he got written and interesting beyond the idea from Dr. Vreeland in the merely technical as an incisive Fessenden’s lab. But that was history of nations and of the (and is) the nature of invention. advance of journalism into the 20th While Athena may have leapt fully Century and its implementation formed from the head of Zeus, the of newly available means and birth of an invention is a messier methods to inform the world. process, and most inventions have 4 Rear Admiral Kazuo Itoh, The many fathers (as we know at least Battle of Tashima Was Real from the patent paternity disputes Network Centric Warfare, in the courts). I fi nd de Forest’s translated by [Commander (US) autoredemptive autobiography to Naval Forces Japan] CNFJ Political be trustworthy, although he omits and Civil Affairs Specialist Takuya a great deal: a wife here, a fact Ueji (no date, circa 2008) at page there. The sections here quoted 9, accessible at U.S. -Japan Naval are particularly reliable having Friendship Association, http:// been written and published in the janafa.com/ronbun/janafa36- 1930s when many of the principals ronbun-2.pdf. This is a detailed could have spoken up if need be. history of communications People who worked with Lee de electronics in the Japanese armed Forest loved him as “Doc” and forces through 1905. Cited below respected him for his pioneering as Admiral Itoh. and accomplishments; Armstrong 5 John E. Packer also kindly partisans, not so much, and many supplied me with a copy of: Graeme of them were the most capable Bartram, Wireless and the Art engineers of the day. of Magic: A Reappraisal of Nevil 2 John E. Packer, FRGS, The Maskelyne and His Contribution Spies at Wireless Point, (2005), to Wireless Telegraphy, BVWS pages 6ff, published by The Cable Bulletin [British Vintage Wireless

Volume 25, 2012 33 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War Society – U.K.], Vol. 28, No. 4, long back. Winter 2003, page 28, from which 12 Tony Breathnach, EI5EM, in the my initial discussion of Maskelyne Guidebook to the Ye Old Hurdy derives. Gurdy Museum of Vintage Radio 6 Packer, above, pages 6ff. (sited in the Howth, Ireland 7 Vivian J. Phillips, Early Radio Martello Tower) (2007) at p. 20. Wave Detectors, Peregrinus and 13 W.J. Baker, A History of the the Science Museum (1980), at Marconi Company, Methuen fi gure 4.4 on page 71, attributed to & Co., London, (1970), at pages A.F. Collins, 1906. 143ff; Chapter 17, “The Marconi 8 Wireless Telegraphy – The De Scandal.” This book is cited below Forest System, Dublin Penny as W.J. Baker. One recent IEEE Journal, (1903) page 745, as history notes: preserved and graciously provided “The ‘Marconi Scandal,’ although by Tony Breathnach, EI5EM, not ruinous, eventually ended who is, along with Pat Herbert, a Marconi and Britain’s chances Curator of the Irish radio museum of regaining global dominance now in that same Martello Tower, of radio, leaving the door open Ye Old Hurdy Gurdy Museum for the fast-rising American of Vintage Radio. The Scientifi c telecommunications industry.” American report appears at Vol. www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/ xc (90), no. 3, January 16, 1904 at Guglielmo_Marconi page 40. I am grateful to both Tony This too was too late for de Forest. Breathnach and Pat Herbert for At this remove it is difficult to their hospitality at their museum. determine to what extent the 9 Mike Adams, Lee de Forest – King events of 1904 – ’05 involving of Radio, Television and Film, de Forest played a role, even as Springer, New York, (2012). background, in the 1912 scandal. 10 De Forest, Father of Radio, above, But Tony Breathnach is certainly at p. 149. right that Marconi interests were 11 Lee de Forest, Pioneer Radio close to the British Government Operators, a series in CQ (“A even then. Magazine OF, BY and FOR 14 Robin Paige, Death on the Lizard – Commercial Radio Operators and An Edwardian Mystery, Berkeley Technicians”), December 1931, Prime Crime (2006) at p. 92: “… page 9; substantially reprinted at Lizard point … A man there in Father of Radio, above, pages says he’s come all the way from 153-54 but there abridged. The America to play golf, although he’s CQ texts are somewhat fuller spending most of his time nosing and perhaps more accurate, they about the village….” Marconi in being only three decades after this fi ction (p. 186) is alarmed that the events rather than five. For “The De Forest Wireless Telegraph example, in CQ, de Forest tells Company has put out a fi ve million of experimenting with wireless dollar stock offering” as well he reception on the voyage East to the might actually have been at the U.K. on the S.S. Majestic: time, although it was actually “With a single antenna wire, by only $3,000,000. Paige has the [Mac] Horton surreptitiously hung cable companies at Porthcurno in the shrouds and brought into intercepting all of Marconi’s traffi c our cabin’s port -hole, we held New but then doing nothing with it (p. York until the ship was 75 miles out 211). They did, however, use the – and were well satisfi ed thereat.” fact of interception to rebut claims But in Father of Radio, de Forest of privacy, and the product of the claims 140 miles (p. 152). I interception to show unreliability have found this sort of minor in wireless communications. exaggeration decades later fairly 15 Minutes, of the Board of Directors common in several writers looking of the Eastern Telegraph Company,

34 AWA Review Lee July 22, 1904, (n.p.), extracted and This article, cited below as NYT graciously provided by John E. 1904, is an interview with Athearn Packer, FRGS. and Brown. It lays out their 16 Minutes, of the Board of Directors whole adventure. It is accessible of the Eastern Telegraph Company, at radio historian Thomas H. July 22, 1904, page 36, extracted White’s website, United States and graciously provided by John Early Radio History - Pioneering E. Packer, FRGS. U.S. Radio Activities: http:// 17 W.J. Baker, above, p. 95. earlyradiohistory.us/1904back. 18 Minute Book of the Board of htm. See also Father of Radio at p. Directors of the Eastern Telegraph 158. Company, No. 12, Wireless 32 Slattery, above, p. 27, quoting the Telegraphy, November 28, 1906, London Times story of February extracted and graciously provided 13, 1904. by John E. Packer, FGRS. 33 NYT 1904. 19 Father of Radio, p. 150. 34 Slattery, above, p. 37. 20 Father of Radio, Chapter 13: 35 Slattery, above, appendix, p. 123: Wireless goes to War, p. 155. “Regulations issued to Lionel James 21 Slattery above, p. 2, quoting a by the Japanese Imperial Navy.” James article of 1905. Moreover, according to Slattery, 22 Slattery, above, p. 12-13. the British Navy also assigned 23 Father of Radio, p. 156. the Haimun a callsign, HN, to 24 Slattery, above, p. 16. identify itself in communications 25 Slattery, above, p. 119. with Weihaiwei. Weihaiwei was 26 Phillips Payson O’Brien, The Anglo assigned WH. Some 26 British -Japanese Alliance, 1902 -1922, Navy warships also got two letter Routledge (2004) (via Google callsigns, based on their names. Books); cited below as O’Brien. The communications at least 27 Wikipedia, Russo-Japanese War, related to needs for coal as the at n. 24 citing Chapman, John ships came to port. Slattery, above, W.M., ‘Russia, Germany and at p. 80. Thus James’s Haimun the Anglo-Japanese Intelligence enjoyed assigned callsigns from Collaboration, 1896-1906’ pages two navies hostile to the Russians 41-55 from Russia War, Peace and at the same time. Diplomacy, ed. Mark & Ljubica 36 Slattery, above, p. 37. Erickson, London: Weidenfi eld & 37 NYT 1904. Nicholson, (2004), page 55. 38 Slattery, above, p. 37. 28 Capt. L. S. Howeth, USN (ret.), 39 Slattery, above, at pages 39-40. History of Communications James much later said 70 miles -Electronics in the United States out. Perhaps later recollections are Navy, Bureau of Ships and Offi ce often given to exaggeration, e.g., de of Naval History, Washington [DC] Forest’s of his range of reception (1963) at page 85, note 1. out of New York (note 11 above). 29 Japan and America, Vol. III, No. 40 NYT 1904. 1, New York, (January, 1903) at p. 41 Slattery, above, p. 42. 16 (via Google books). 42 Slattery, above, p. 49. 30 Admiral Itoh, above. 43 Slattery, above, p. 51. 31 Wireless Workers Back from the 44 Slattery, above, p. 53. Scene of War, New York Times, 45 Father of Radio, p. 171. August 31, 1904, page SM6, 46 NYT 1904. subtitled: 47 Charles N. Dragonette, “The Birth “New York Operators Tell of their of COMINT,” Naval Intelligence Oriental Experiences. Adventures Professionals Quarterly, Vol. 11, of the Haimun. Describe Capture No. 2 (April 1995) at page 16. by Bayan and the Sinking of the 48 Lionel James (writing as “O”), Petropavlosk after Port Arthur The Yellow War, McClure, Phillips Bombardment.” & Co., New York, (no date, circa

Volume 25, 2012 35 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War 1905), a fi ctionalized, but James Japan: Past and Present (cited says entirely accurate, series of below as Sato and Sato) appears accounts of specifi c actual events as Chapter 14 in Tapan K. Sarkar, of the war as published in London et al., History of Wireless, Wiley, press, at pages 123 and 145ff. Cited Hoboken, NJ, (2006) at pages below as: James as “O”. 460ff, section 14.4: “Sea Battle 49 Slattery, above, p. 55. of the Tsushima Straits and the 50 Slattery, above, p. 57. Japanese Radiotelegraph”; the 51 Slattery, above, p. 57-58. message appears at page 461. 52 NYT 1904. 80 Sogo Okamura, History of Electron 53 James as “O” at pages 219ff. Tubes, Ohmsha Tokyo, IOS Press, 54 Slattery, above, at pages 64ff. Washington [DC] et al., (1994); sec. 55 NYT 1904. 4.1: Early Wireless Communication 56 Peadar [Peter] Slattery, EI2JA, (via Google Books). From the Irish Sea – to the Yellow 81 Sato and Sato, above. Sea, note 3 above, at page 27. Cited 82 Admiral Togo’s report on the below as Slattery PW. Battle of Tsushima, as published 57 Admiral Itoh, above. by the Japanese Imperial Naval 58 M. Radovsky (trans. G. Yankovsky), Headquarters Staff, Sept. 1905 Alexander Popov -- Inventor of at www.russojapanesewar.com/ Radio, Moscow, (1957), page 97, togo-aar3; cited in Wikipedia: note. Cited below as Popov. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_ 59 James as “O” at p. 297. of_Tsushima. I have inserted full 60 Slattery, above, p. 66. names and located Masampo in 61 NYT 1904. Korea. The insert in brackets [] 62 Slattery, above, p. 66, quoting in Togo’s text -- “through wireless James. messaging” -- is Wikipedia’s. 63 Lee de Forest, Pioneer Radio 83 Evans, David C. & Peatie, Mark Operators, in CQ [see note 11 R., Kaigun: strategy, tactics above] (May, 1932), p. 11. and technology in the Imperial 64 Slattery, above, p. 7 Japanese Navy, 1887-1941, Naval 65 NYT 1904. Institute Press, Annapolis, MD 66 NYT 1904. (1997) cited in Wikipedia/ Imperial 67 Slattery, above, p. 92. Japanese Navy, at n. 64. “Kaigun” 68 Slattery PW p. 26; Slattery, note was the Japanese word for its 3 above, at page vii, cites Preece to Imperial Naval Forces. a book by E.C. Baker, Sir William 84 Sato and Sato, above, at p. 471. Preece F.R.S., Victorian Engineer Extraordinary, Hutchinson, London (1976). 69 Slattery, above, p. 97. 70 W.J. Baker, above at pages 102-03. 71 Slattery, above, p. 99. 72 Slattery, above, p. 110. 73 Popov, at pages 103-04. 74 Admiral Itoh, above. 75 Admiral Itoh, above. 76 R.F. Pocock and G.R.M. Garratt, The Origins of Maritime Radio, London, Her Majesty’s Stationery Offi ce (1972) at p. 47. 77 O’Brien, above, at page 73: “Port Said: Japanese naval officer’s sneaking.” 78 Admiral Itoh, above, p. 36. 79 Gentei Sato and Motoyuki Sato, The Antenna Development in

36 AWA Review Lee ABOUT THE AUTHOR Offi cer for the San Francisco Aux- iliary Communications System, Bartholomew (Bart) Lee, and as an ARRL ARES Emergency K6VK, xKV6LEE, WPE2DLT, Coordinator. He presently serves is a long time member of AWA as an ARRL Government Liaison and a Fellow of the California and Volunteer Counsel. Bart has Historical Radio Society (CHRS), been a litigator by trade, prosecut- for whom he serves as General ing and defending civil cases in Counsel Emeritus and Archivist. both state and federal court for 40 He has enjoyed radio and radio- years. He also had taught Law & related activities in many parts of Economics for 20 years, including the world, most recently in Asia the economic history of telecom- and the Middle East. Radio tech- munications. He is a graduate nology and history have fascinated of St. John’s College (the ‘Great him since he made his fi rst crystal Books School’) and the University set with a razor blade and pencil of Chicago Law School. Bart’s son lead more than 50 years ago. He Christoffer Lee is also a licensed is especially fond of those sets of amateur radio operator and is which it is said: ‘Real Radios Glow now also a practicing lawyer. Bart in the Dark.’ Bart is a published invites correspondence at: KV- author on legal subjects and most [email protected] . recently on the history of radio. He has written about and lectured on early radio technology, radio intelligence activities (‘episodes in the ether wars’) from 1901 into the latter 20th Century, wireless telegraphy especially Marconi’s early work, wireless developments on the West Coast since 1899, radio ephemera including radio stamps, and radio in emergency and di- saster response. Since 1989 he has made some 20 presentations to the AWA conferences on his research interests including short wave radio and the development of television in San Francisco in the 1920s. The AWA presented its Houck Award for documentation to him in 2003 and CHRS made its 1991 ‘Doc’ Herrold Award to him in connection with his work for the Bart Lee. Photo by Paula Carmody Perham Foundation Electronics taken in Indonesia; copyright Bart Museum. In 2001, during disaster Lee 2009. recovery operations in New York after the ‘9/11’ terrorist enormity, he served as the Red Cross deputy communications lead from Sep- tember 12 to September 21, (the ‘night shift trick chief’). He has served in RACES as the Liaison

Volume 25, 2012 37 Lee de Forest and Wireless in War

38 AWA Review