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“The Historical Impact and Current Challenges of Christian Ministry

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“The Historical Impact and Current Challenges of Christian Ministry ABSTRACT The purpose of this research is to assess and address issues of contextualization and reconciliation as they pertain to Christianization and cultural preservation within the three Nanticoke-Lenape American Indian tribal communities remaining in the states of New Jersey and Delaware in the United States. The study seeks to provide insight into the challenges for ministry within the socio-cultural and political context of the tribal communities, particularly in regard to meaningful healing and reconciliation over the lingering effects of colonization, in a manner that promotes integral, holistic, contextualized Christian ministry. To achieve this, the study investigates the historical backdrop of the tribal communities, including European contact, colonization, missions, assimilation and cultural survival. Past and present tribal lifeways, beliefs, and practices are evaluated through documented historical sources and contemporary accounts. The research highlights the histories and current ministries of the principal historic tribal congregations, and their role in the spiritual, cultural, and political survival of the tribes. It also assesses possible approaches for effective, mission oriented, compassionate engagement as a matter of faithful contextualization and social justice. It should be noted that within this work the terms “American Indian,” “Native American,” “Indigenous American,” “Aboriginal American,” and “First Nations People” are all used to describe the indigenous people of America. These terms should not be confused with the term “Indian American,” which describes an American citizen whose ancestors can be traced to the nation of India on the continent of Asia. Key Words: American Christianity; American Indians; Contextualization; Delaware Bay; Delaware Indians; Doctrine of Discovery; Indigenization; Lenape; Ministry Challenges; Missions; Nanticoke; Native Americans ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Much gratitude is extended toward those who were my angels of grace in the completion of my dissertation. My promotors, Dr. Ron Galloway of the Greenwich School of Theology and Dr. Flip Buys of North-West University provided guidance, constructive critiques, and encouraging words, while exhibiting Christian patience with the slowness of my pace in research and writing. The Greenwich School of Theology Liaison Administrators, Tienie Buys in South Africa and Peggy Evans in the United Kingdom, were always swift in responding to questions (of which I had many) and attentive to their ministry of gentle prodding, which kept me moving toward the goal of completion. My language editor, Dr. Stuart Rochester, provided not only helpful suggestions, which improved the final draft of my work, but also provided gracious and kind words to lift my spirit. I am grateful to all those who shared their thoughts and experiences through the many interviews conducted during this research, especially the late William Davis, Nanticoke elder and tribal historian, who died at 91 years old in December 2014. I deeply regret that Richard Twiss, Lakota minister and missiologist, died in February 2013, before we were able to schedule an interview. The wonderful work they have done continues to speak for them. I thank the Lord for my loving wife and children, who supported me with their words, with their prayers, and with their understanding of my occasional grumpiness during this process. I pray that my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, is honored by this effort. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM STATEMENT …………………. 1 1.1 Background ……….……………………………………………... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ………..…………………………………………... 1 1.3 Aim and Objectives ……………………………………………..……. 3 1.4 Central Theoretical Argument ……………………………………..….. 3 1.5 Methodology …………………………………………………………… 3 2.0 CLASH OF CULTURES, FAITHS, AND WORLDVIEWS ……… 5 2.1 Introduction to the Three Nanticoke-Lenape Tribal Communities in the area of the Delaware Bay ………….……………………….. 5 2.1.2 The Nanticoke-Lenape Confederated Tribes as they are Today …...... 5 2.1.3 Early Christian Institutions among the Three Tribal Communities ..… 8 2.1.4 A Brief Overview of the Core Historic Tribal Congregations from the 19th Century ………………………………………………………... 13 2.2 Historical Overview of the Lenape from the Colonial Period ………………………………………………….. 19 2.2.1 Lenape Identity, Lifeways, Worldview, and Placement among Other Tribes …………………………………………………………….. 22 2.2.2 Analysis of Traditional Lenape Spiritual Beliefs …………………..…... 33 2.2.3 Lenape Interaction with European Explorers, the Swedes, and the Dutch…………………………………………………………………. 43 2.2.4 Lenape Interaction with the English ………………………………..… 45 2.2.5 The Lenape and British Colonies of New Jersey and Pennsylvania ...... 46 2.3 Historical Overview of the Nanticoke from the Colonial Period ..… 47 2.3.1 Nanticoke Identity, Lifeways, Worldview, and Placement among Other Tribes ……………………………………………………..……... 48 2.3.2 Nanticoke Interaction with European Explorers ……………………….. 52 2.3.3 The Nanticoke and British Colonies of Maryland and Delaware …..... 53 2.4 Historical Overview of the Nanticoke-Lenape of the Delaware Bay .. 54 2.4.1 The Breakup of Lenape and Nanticoke National Life around the Delaware Bay and the Coalescing of the Remnant Tribal Communities.. 55 2.4.2 The Adoption of New Lifeways and Nanticoke-Lenape interactions during the early Federal Period ……………………………………….. 56 iv 2.5 Traditional Spiritual Foundations and Adapting Christian Spiritual Formation during the Era of initial Nanticoke and Lenape Conversion to Christianity ………………….……….. 57 2.5.1 Ancient Spiritual Traditions among the Nanticoke and Lenape during the Rise of the “Praying Indians” and “Praying Indian Towns” and the Impact of Colonial Era Missionaries ……………………………… 57 2.5.2 Racial Misidentification, Reclassification, and the Consequences of Conversion when a Common Perspective was that One Could Not Be Both Indian and Christian ……………………………………………… 59 2.5.3 The Rise of Church Based Tribal Governance among the Nanticoke- Lenape ………………………………………………………………….. 61 2.6 Conclusion ………………………………………………………… 62 3.0 DISCOVERY DOCTRINES AND THE ASSAULT ON NANTICOKE-LENAPE TRIBAL SURVIVAL ……………………. 63 3.1 European Formal and Informal Discovery Doctrines Influence on Early Contact with American Indians …………………….………... 63 3.1.1 The Doctrine of Discovery …………………………………………….. 64 3.1.2 The Doctrine of Discovery’s Influence on Early European Colonial Interactions with American Indians ……………………………………. 67 3.1.3 Mission Efforts Misused Instruments of Conquest and Domination ……………………………………………………………… 72 3.2 The Codification of the Doctrine Of Discovery in American Indian Law and Policy ………………………………….………………….. 78 3.2.1 The Doctrine of Discovery, Nanticoke and Lenape Reservations, and The Loss of Traditional Homelands ……………………………………. 83 3.2.2 Treaty Breaking ………………………………………………………… 85 3.3 Perspectives Impacting Tribal Cultural and Spiritual Survival …. 86 3.3.1 Federal and Mission Indian Boarding Schools ………………………… 88 3.3.2 The Denial of Continued Tribal Existence and Perpetuation of Stereotypes in New Jersey and Delaware Public Education …………… 91 3.3.3 The Efforts of Organized Anti-Tribal Groups and Elements of an Ongoing Push for Detribalization ……………………………………… 95 3.3.4 The Continuing Perception among Some Churches and Religious Leaders that Traditional Ways are of the Devil …………………… 99 v 3.4 Tensions In Indian Country Impacting the Nanticoke-Lenape ….. 101 3.4.1 Difference Between the East and West ………………………………. 102 3.4.2 Racism’s Continuing Impact among Tribes …………………………… 105 3.4.3 Federal Acknowledgment and Alienation …………………………….. 107 3.5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………… 110 4.0 THE TRIBAL CHURCHES AND THE CONTINUING ELEMENTS OF NANTICOKE-LENAPE TRADITIONAL SPIRITUALITY …. 111 4.1 The Tribal Congregations …………..…………………………... 111 4.1.1 Core Tribal Congregations which Served as the Seat of Governance for Each of the Three Tribal Communities …………………………… 112 4.1.2 Congregations with a Strong Connection to the Tribal Communities.. 125 4.1.3 Tribal Institutions Originating from the Tribal Congregations ……….. 128 4.2 Pan-Indianism and the Re-Embracing of Tribal Spirituality …….. 130 4.2.1 The Reaffirmation of Tribal Identity and Spirituality within Modern Tribal Practices …………………………………………………………. 132 4.2.2 The Rise and Impact of the Modern Powwow ……………………… 137 4.2.3 A Renewed Connection with the “Sacred” …………………………. 138 4.2.4 The Continuing Influence of Christianity within Tribal Governance …. 140 4.3 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………. 150 5.0 HOLISTIC CHRISTIAN MINISTRY IN CONTEXT FOR NANTICOKE-LENAPE PEOPLE …………………………………….. 152 5.1 Compassionate Contextualization of the Gospel .............................. 152 5.1.1 The Importance of an Increased Understanding of the Sensitivities and Concerns of Tribal Communities ………………………………… 157 5.1.2 Contextualization as a Part of Evangelization ……………………….. 161 5.1.3 Respectful and Compassionate Engagement …………………………. 178 5.2 The Jesus Way on Turtle Island …………………….……………… 187 5.2.1 Contextualized Spiritual Formation …………………………………… 190 5.2.2 Contextualization in Christian Worship Among the Nanticoke-Lenape. 198 5.2.3 Compassionate Engagement in the Context of the Personal Life of Nanticoke-Lenape Christians …………………………………………... 207 5.3 The Call For Repentance and Reconciliation in Context ……… 212 5.3.1 Reconciliation Requires More than an Apology …………………… 215 5.3.2 Justice and Advocacy in Context ……………………………………… 217 vi 5.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………. 222 6.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ……………………………………… 224 6.1
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