509 a Αab. See Fractionation Factor Aardwolf, 298 Abiotic Triggers In

Home , Carex subspathacea, Eurygnathohippus, Puccinellia phryganodes

Index

A and maize, 316–317 α ab. See Fractionation factor plant domestication in, 302 Aardwolf, 298 savanna ecosystems in, 415 Abiotic triggers in angiosperm radiation, urban society development in, 309 155–156 African mammals, environmentally-driven Abutilon theophrasti, 236–238, 243–245 dietary adaptations in, 258–270 Acanthaceae, 192–194 discussion, 269–270 Acclimation, physiological, 449–451 equids, 261–262 Acid rain, 167 girafﬁds, 266–269 ACR (Antarctic Cold Reversal), 68 methods and materials, 259 Adrar Bous, 306 proboscideans, 262–264 Aerva, 193, 194 suids, 264–266 Africa, 275 tooth enamel as paleoenvironmental re-

age of C4 photosynthesis in, 196, 197 corder, 260–261

C3 and C4 grasses in, 221 African rice, 302, 309

C4 monocot distribution in, 222 Afropollis-type pollen, 152 diet of mammals in ancient, 279 Age domestication of plants in, 294, 304– of ice vs. air, 64–65 310 of soils, 19–20

geographical evolution of C4 photosyn- Agriculture, development of, 294 thesis in, 193, 194 Aizoaceae, 193, 194

glacial periods and C4 expansion in, Albedo effects, 235 223 Albian Age, 134, 136, 137, 157 hominins in, 294–300, 300 Alert station, 86

509 510 Index

Algae, 189 and environmental trends/events, 136– Alkaloids, 478–479 140

Alkenone-based estimates of past CO2 material and methods, 140–142 levels, 35, 45–56 and other abiotic triggers in angio- and errors in ∆ε, 49–52 sperm radiation, 155–156 and isotopic biogeochemistry of and plant fossil record evidence, 153– alkenone-producing organisms, 39– 155 40 results and discussion, 142–158 measured properties, 45–48 vegetation composition during Creta- Miocene, estimates for, 54 ceous, 142–146 Paleozoic studies, 54–56 Animals, domestication of, 301 and phosphate concentrations, 51–54 Annual plants, 420

propagation of errors in calculation of, Anomalous biospheric ﬂux (Fano,bio), 94, 48–49 96, 97, 101, 102, 104, 105, 107

sediment test of alkenone method, 43, Anomalous oceanic ﬂux (Fano,oce), 94, 101, 45, 46 102, 104, 105, 107 Alkenones, 35, 39–40, 45 Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR), 68 Allometry, 237–239 Antarctic ice cores, 330, 332–334 Alternanthera, 193, 194 Antarctic records, 62–63, 65, 66, 68–78, Altitude, 24, 25 84 Amaranthaceae, 189, 192–195, 219 Anthropogenic perturbation of carbon cy- Amaranthus retroﬂexus, 243–245 cle, 329–331 Amazon basin, 174 Aptian Age, 134, 136, 137, 153, 157 Americas Arabidopsis thaliana, 236–238, 248, 249, domestication of maize in, 310–314 457 humans in, 301 Archaefructus liaoningensis, 134 plant domestication in, 302 Arctic ecosystem, herbivores in. See Her- See also North America; South America bivores in Arctic ecosystem AmeriFlux, 83 Arctic plants, 371–373

Ancient CO2 levels, alkenone-based esti- Arctic stations, 92 mates of, 45–56 Arid and semi-arid ecosystems, 415– See also Alkenone-based estimates of 433

past CO2 levels community responses of, to rising at-

Andes mountains, 124, 174, 294, 313 mospheric CO2, 419–424

plant domestication in, 302 geographical evolution of C4 photosyn- Angiosperms thesis in, 193, 194

C4 photosynthesis in, 189–191, 214– and multiple global change factors, 428– 216 431

and C4 photosynthetic evolution, 124 physiological responses of plants from, and dinosaurs, 478–479 416–419 radiation and diversiﬁcation of, 134– and precipitation, 429

136 and rising atmospheric CO2, 424–428 water conduction in, 150 and temperature, 428–429

Angiosperms and Cretaceous CO2 de- Aridity cline, 133–159 and angiosperm origins, 155–156

causal factors in, 156–158 and C4 adaptations, 220–221

and CO2 ﬂuctuations/trends, 138–140 and C4-photosynthesis evolution, 124, comparative plant ecophysiologic evi- 126, 186, 197–199, 204–206 dence, 146–153 Arizona, 224 Index 511

Asia Body size, 286–287, 374–375, 381–382

C4 monocot distribution in, 222 Bogota basin, 223

geographical evolution of C4 photosyn- Bølling-Allerød period, 68–70 thesis in, 193, 194 Boraginaceae, 148, 192–194 plant domestication in, 302 Bordered pits, 147–149 savanna ecosystems in, 415 Borehole temperatures and climate Asteraceae, 148, 190, 192–194 change, 487–505 Atlantic Ocean, 195 alternative multicentury records, 502–

Atmosphere-to-ocean CO2 ﬂux (Fam), 95– 505 96 geothermal data, 489–493

Atmospheric pCO2 model, 23–30 geothermal method, 488–489 Atriplex, 219 meteorological records vs., 496–501 Australia, 136, 193, 194, 415 observations, 493–495 Australopithecines, 297, 299 SGT and SAT comparisons, 501–502 Avena, 236 Borszczowia aralocaspica, 189, 204 BP (Before Present), 301 B Brachiopods, 27 Bagra Formation, 11, 17–19, 21, 22, 25–30 Brachyphyllum, 156 Barakar Formation, 24 Bradley & Jones nth hemisphere tempera- Barbed wire syndrome, 471 ture anomalies, 341 Barley, 294, 301–305, 308, 309 Brassica, 236 Barremian Age, 134 Brassicaceae, 192–195 Base cation supply, 167, 171–175, 179– Breeding season, 370, 378, 379, 386 180 Brent geese, 377, 378 Beech, 457 Bristlecone pine trees, 225 Before Present (BP), 301 Bromus japonicus, 240 Belliolum, 147 Bromus tectorum, 241 Bennettites, 136 Browsing animals, 258–268 Bennettittales, 147 deer and tapirs as, 278 Beohari (India), 16 evolution of, 480 Bern model, 71, 72 girafﬁds as, 267, 268, 270

Berriasian Age, 146, 157 and Great C3-C4 Transformation, 281, Betulaceae, 147 283–288 Bienertia cycloptera, 189, 204 proboscideans as, 263–264 Bijori Formation, 24 suids as, 264 Bioapatite, 260 Bruniaceae, 155 Biogeochemical models, 140, 409 Bubbia, 147 Biomass production Buluk, 263 above- vs. below-ground, 237–238, 424 Bundle sheath cells, 186–189, 193, 202– allocation of, to reproduction, 238–239 203, 216

and CO2 levels, 248–250 Bush pig, 264 and herbivores, 285, 286 Byrd station, 68, 70, 72–74, 76, 77 and leaf area, 243, 245

in low atmospheric CO2, 235–236 C

BIOME4, 224 C37,40

Biome-BGC model, 352, 365, 409 C3 photosynthesis

Biospheric exchange ﬂux (Fbio), 93–102, C4 photosynthesis vs., 215, 217–219

104, 105, 108 as CO2-unsaturated biochemical reac- Bison, 278, 472 tion, 416 512 Index

C4 photosynthesis, 185–207, 214–229 selection responses of modern plants, as adaptation, 219–221 249–251 age of, 194–197 summary of responses, 252

C3 vs., 215, 217–219 C4 plants ecological factors affecting, 226–228 availability of, 477–478 ecological scenarios for evolution of, defenses in, 476 204–206 and diet of mammals (see African factors promoting origin of, 197–204 mammals, environmentally-driven geographic evolution of, 193–194 dietary adaptations in) during glacial periods, 223–225 domestication of, 303–310 impact of, 185 as food resources, 285–286

and low atmospheric CO2, 198–202, and fossil grazing-mammal teeth, 281 216–219 and human evolution, 293–300 and monocot abundance, 222–228 isotopic discrimination in, 97

multiple evolutions of, 191–193 and low CO2 levels, 234, 242–245 seasonality’s effect on, 225–226 paleobotanical evidence for, 275–277, taxonomic distribution of, 189–191 460

C3 plants pathway dominance in C3 vs., 421–422 availability of, 477–478 photosynthetic pathway of, 122–125

C4 cycle in, 189 seasonality’s impact on growth of, 225–

and CO2 compensation point, 201, 202 226 defenses in, 476 Caeca length, 385 and diet of mammals (see African Caffeine, 471 mammals, environmentally-driven Calcareous glebules, 17, 19 dietary adaptations in) Calcareous rhizocretions, 12, 17 domestication of, 301–303 Calcic paleosols, 11, 12

evolution of, at low CO2, 246–251 Calcium silicates, weathering of, 176–178 as food resources, 285–286 Caliche carbonate analyses, 224 and fossil grazing-mammal teeth, 281 California, 196, 226

growth of, at low atmospheric CO2, Calligonum, 193, 194 235–236 CAM. See Crassulacean Acid Metabolism and human evolution, 294 Cameroon, 223 isotopic discrimination in, 97–98 Campanian Age, 134, 137, 138, 140

in low atmospheric CO2, 198 Canada, 180, 375, 376

and low CO2 levels, 234, 242–245 Canada goose, 380–385 paleobotanical evidence for, 275–277, Canadian model scenario, 407, 408 460 Canopy conductance, 404, 406

pathway dominance in C4 vs., 421–422 Canopy productivity index (CPI), 448 photorespiration vs. photosynthesis in, Cape Kumukahi, 86, 92 217 Capparales, 148 photosynthetic pathway of, 122–125 Caprifoliaceae, 147, 148 seasonality’s impact on growth of, 225– Carbon allocation, 238–239, 446–449 226 Carbon assimilation rate, 243, 244

See also C3 plants, low CO2 and evolu- Carbon conservation, 202 tion of Carbon cycle, ice core data of

C3 plants, low CO2 and evolution of, 246– anthropogenic perturbation of, 329–346 252 double deconvolution modeling of, genetic variation of modern plants, 247– 338, 340–345 249 forward modeling of, 334–338 Index 513

single deconvolution modeling of, 338, and isotopic discrimination by terres- 339 trial vegetation, 97–101 Carbon cycle models, 138–140 and organic burial rate, 5 Carbon cycle(s), 1–3 and short-term variability in global car- in arid and semi-arid ecosystems, 424– bon cycle, 107 426 13C fractionation, 85 GEOCARB model of, 3–5 Cenomanian Age, 136, 137, 140, 146, geochemical model of, 115 153 processes affecting, 468–469 Cenozoic Era short-term variability in the global, 107 horses in (see Fossil horses, effect of

Carbon dioxide (CO2) atmospheric CO2 on)

global fluxes in levels of, 101–106 paleobotanical evidence for C3 and C4 as plant resource, 232–233 plants during, 275–277 Carbon flow (during marine photosyn- Central America thetic carbon fixation), 36 domestication of plants in, 294

Carbon isotope fractionation glacial periods and C4 expansion in, See Fractionation of carbon isotopes 223 during photosynthesis seasonality’s impact on plant growth Carbon isotope ratios, 223 in, 226 See also 13C/12C isotopic ratio Central Atlantic Magmatic ﬂood basalts, Carbon isotopic analysis, 8 120 Carbon isotopic composition. See δ13C CENTURY, 409 Carbonate paleosol method, 4 Ceratotherium, 262 Carboniferous period, 3, 5, 6 Chad, 295

C4 photosynthesis in the, 197 Channel-ﬁll bodies, 15 leaves in the, 119–121 Chaotic system modeling, 365 photosynthetic pathways in the, 122– Cheirolepidaceae, 134, 153 126 Cheirolepidaceous conifers, 152, 156 stomata in the, 117, 118 Chemical weathering, 167–173 Carbon-nutrient balance hypothesis, 472 Chenopodiaceae, 189, 192–196, 215, 219 Carex subspathacea, 379 Chenopods, 192 Caribou, 374 Chickpeas, 301 Carnian Age, 20 Chihuahua (Mexico), 226 Caryophyllaceae, 193, 194 China, 134, 294, 302–304 Caryophyllales, 191, 192 Chlamydomonas, 233 Cascade Mountains, 396 Chloranthaceae, 147 Cassava, 294 Christmas Island, 86–88 Cation nutrients, 166–167 Circular bordered pits, 148 Cations, 168–175 Clastics, 10 Cavitations (in plants), 150–151 Claystone, 12, 13, 17, 19 13C/12C isotopic ratio, 83–111 Climacocerus, 266, 267 atmospheric observations of, 86–91 Climate

and deconvolution of global data into and C4 photosynthesis, 186

terrestrial and oceanic components, and C4 photosynthetic evolution, 126 93–97 in Cretaceous Period, 137

and estimation of exchange ﬂuxes, 108– and elevated atmospheric CO2 at high 109 latitudes, 370–371

and global ﬂuxes in CO2 levels, 101– and fossil horses from North America, 106 280–284 514 Index

Climate (continued) Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM), and rise of vascular plants, 5, 6 124, 125, 185, 214 and rock weathering, 167 Cretaceous Period

and short-term variability in global car- angiosperms and CO2 decline in (see

bon cycle, 107 Angiosperms and Cretaceous CO2 Climate change decline)

borehole temperatures (see Borehole C4 plants in North Africa in the, 124

temperatures and climate change) CO2 ﬂuctuations/trends in the, 138–140

in Cretaceous Period, 138 CO2 levels in the, 30, 473 in future-forest models, 407–410 environmental trends and events in the, interactions among multiple factors of, 136–138 429–431 Gondwana’s latitude during the, 24 models of, 502–504 soils from the, 19, 20 Climate Prediction Center, 90 vegetation composition during, 142– Climate variability, ecosystem responses 146 to, 350–366 Crop production studies, 233 dynamics, 364–365 C-T boundary, 152–153 experimental design, 352–355 Cultural evolution, 293, 294 lagged effects, 361–363 Cupresaceae, 152 methods, 352–355 Cycadales, 147 model, 352 Cycads, 135, 136 and multiple steady states in total car- Cyclic grazing, 377 bon storage, 361, 362 Cylindrical-axis plants, 119 Net Ecosystem Exchange, 355–366 Cyperaceae, 195 response hierarchy, 363–364 results and discussion, 355–365 D sites, 355 D–O (Dansgaard-Oeschger) glacial, 72 state variable dynamics, 357–359 ∆age (of ice vs. air), 64–65

Climate-induced CO2 uptake, 343, 345 Dansgaard-Oeschger (D–O) glacial, 72 Climate-vegetation models, 234–235 Danthoniopsis, 196 Climatic cycle, 63 Dark respiration, 445, 450 C:N ratio, 454, 456 Darwin (Australia), 90 ∆13 CO2. See Carbon dioxide C (carbon isotopic composition), 330

CO2 compensation point, 200–202, 233 of atmospheric CO2, 27–28

CO2 cycle, 92 and CO2 over past 1000 years, 332–

CO2 pump, 202–204 334 Coal deposits, 3, 6, 24, 122 and deconvolution of global data, 93– Colombia, 223 94 Combustion of fossil fuels. See Fossil of diet, 259–268, 270 fuel combustion ice core record of, 341 Comparative plant ecophysiologic evi- of Indian paleosols, 21–23 dence, 146–153 in Northern and Southern Hemispheres, Coniacian Age, 138 86–88 Coniferales, 147 of pedogenic carbonates, 9

Conifers, 135, 136, 150, 152, 353, 355– of plant-respired CO2,27

360, 362 and seasonal CO2 cycle, 92 Convolvulaceae, 148 of soil carbonate, 24

Cormohipparion, 288 and terrestrial vs. oceanic CO2 ﬂuxes, CPI (canopy productivity index), 448 85, 88–89 Index 515

of tooth enamel, 283 ∆18O (oxygen isotopic composition), 21, 13∆ cov (carbon isotope discrimination ), 92 22, 25–26 Deciduous trees Dome C, 68–70, 73, 76, 77 in arctic ecosystem, 377 DomeC, 63 and climate variability, 353, 355–360, DomeF, 63 362–363 Domestication of plants, 300–314 Decomposition, 2 in Africa, 304–310 Deep drainage, 427–428 in the Americas, 310–314

Defenses, plant, 285–286, 470–475, 480 C3 plants, 301–303

Deforestation, 227 C4 plants, 303–310 Deinotheres, 270 in China, 303–304 Deinotheriidae, 262 and human evolution, 294 Deinotherium, 263 in Levant, 301–303 Delnortea, 153 maize, 310–314 Denwa Formation, 11, 14–15, 20–22, 25– Double deconvolution modeling of carbon 30 cycle, 331, 338, 340–345 Deserts, 224 Drainage, deep, 427–428 See also Arid and semi-arid ecosys- Drepanophycus spinaeformis, 118 tems Drimys, 147 Dessication cracks, 15 Drought

Destructive land-use ﬂux (Fdes), 94, 96– and low CO2, 243, 245 97, 101, 102 physiological, 127, 146 Devonian Period See also Aridity

CO2 estimates for, 55

decline of atmospheric CO2 between, E and Carboniferous, 115 ECOCRAFT database, 447 leaves in the, 119–121 Ecosystem memory experiment, 352, 361– stomata in the, 117–118 363 DIC (dissolved inorganic carbon), 108 Ecosystem Respiration (ER), 359–361, Dicots 363, 364, 366

age of C4 photosynthesis in, 196, 197 Eddy covariance, 351, 352

C4 adaptations in, 219 Egypt, 294, 305–306, 309

C4 origins in, 192 Eklahara (India), 10, 12, 13

C4 photosynthesis in, 189–191, 215, El Nin˜o, 89, 106–111, 343, 344 216 El Nin˜o–Southern oscillation (ENSO) and diet of mammals, 258 cycle, 89–91, 105–107, 109, 110,

geographical evolution of C4 photosyn- 344 thesis in, 193–194 Elephantidae, 262 Diet Elephantids, 263–264, 269 of African mammals (see African Elephas, 263

mammals, environmentally-driven Elevated atmospheric CO2, 369–373, 377– dietary adaptations in) 383 of hominins, 295–300 and arid/semi-arid ecosystems, 424– Diffusive resistance, 152 428 Dinohippus, 288 climate, effect on, 370–371 Dinosaurs, 478–479 community responses of water-limited Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), 108 ecosystems to, 419–424 Distichlis, 219 growth and nutrient quality of arctic Diversity, 127, 128, 286 plants, effect on, 371–373 516 Index

Elevated atmospheric CO2 (continued) Fano,bio. See Anomalous biospheric ﬂux

herbivores in (see Herbivores in ele- Fano,oce. See Anomalous oceanic ﬂux

vated CO2 environment) Fast ﬂuxes, 351

herbivores in arctic ecosystem, effects Fba. See Respiratory ﬂux

on (see Herbivores in Arctic ecosys- Fbio. See Biospheric exchange ﬂux

tem) Fdes. See Destructive land-use ﬂux and plant quality, 472–476 Feather growth, 382 plants in, 233 Ferns, 151, 155 reduced plant quality resulting from, Fertile Crescent, 301–303

377–383 Fertilization effect of CO2, 370

Elevation, 145 Fertilization ﬂux (Ffer), 94, 101, 102 Elliptical pits, 147 Festuca rubra, 379

Embolisms, 150–151, 156 Ffer. See Fertilization ﬂux Emiliania huxleyi, 35, 39–42 Fiber, 371, 377–385, 471, 479

End walls (in plants), 147–150 Find (industrial ﬂux), 93 End-wall inclinations, 148, 149 Finger millet, 302, 305–309 ENSO cycle. See El Nin˜o–Southern oscil- Finland, 354–359, 362 lation cycle Fire, 227, 423, 424 Eocene, 196 Firn, ice, 63–65 Equidae, phylogeny of, 282 Flakaliden (Sweden), 454 Equids, 269 Flaveria, 196, 205 See also Fossil horses, effect of atmo- Floodplain deposits, 12, 14–17

spheric CO2 on Florida, 226, 288 dietary adaptations in, 261–262 Flower, time to, 250 Equisetum, 155 Flux measurements, 83 Equus, 287, 288 Flux(es), 93–109 ER. See Ecosystem Respiration and deconvolution of global data, 93– Ericaceae, 147 97 Ericalean clade, 147 and double deconvolution modeling, Erosion, 2, 168 228, 340–345 Ethiopia, 297, 300, 305, 308–309 factors of, 350–352 Euphorbiaceae, 148, 189, 192–194 and forward modeling, 334–337

EuroFlux, 83 global CO2, 101–106 Europe, 134, 179, 260 gross/net, 330–331 Eurygnathohippus, 261 and isotopic discrimination by terres- Evergreens, 122 trial vegetation, 97–101 Evolutionary responses of land plants. reliability of deduced, 104–106 See Land plants, evolutionary re- and single deconvolution modeling, sponse in 338, 339 Evolutionary timescale, 456–460 ways to reduce uncertainty in estima- Exchange ﬂux estimation, 108–109 tion of exchange, 108–109

Experimental timescale, 445–451 Fma. See Ocean-to-atmosphere CO2 ﬂux

Foce. See Oceanic exchange ﬂux F Fonio, 294, 302, 305, 308

Fab. See Photosynthesis ﬂux Food production, development of. See FACE. See Free air carbon dioxide en- Domestication of plants richment Food selection, determinants of herbivore,

Fam. See Atmosphere-to-ocean CO2 ﬂux 469–472 Fanning Island, 87, 88 Foraminifera, 47 Index 517

Forest base cation supply, 167, 179–180 control on relative amount of carbon Forest hog, 264 ﬁxed, 37–38 Forest inventory analysis, 397–398 ﬁeld observations, 42–44 Forest Sector assessment, 407 isotopic biogeochemistry of alkenone- Forests, 227 producing organisms, 39–40 See also Trees laboratory observations, 40–42 Forests in a changing atmosphere, 394– sediment test of alkenone method, 43, 411 45, 46 experimental studies with young trees, F-ratio test, 501 399–401 Free air carbon dioxide enrichment forest inventory analysis, 397–398 (FACE), 133, 401, 402, 404, 406, future, 398–406 447 modeling responses of future, 406–410 Fungi, 242 modern, 395–398 Fused platy glebules, 12 Oak Ridge sweetgum experiment, 401– 403 G primary response, 395 G’DAY model, 453, 455 stand-level responses, 401 Geese (as keystone herbivores in Arctic tree-ring evidence, 396–397 ecosystem), 373–386 and water use, 403–406 and plant quality, 377–383 Forward modeling of carbon cycle, 331, reciprocal interactions between plants 334–338 and, 376–377 Fossil fuel combustion, 8, 103, 105, 330 and trophic cascades, 374–376

Fossil horses, effect of atmospheric CO2 Genetic variation, 383–384 on, 273–289 GEOCARB I model, 142 implications of, 285–286 GEOCARB II model, 5, 9, 139–142 North America case example, 280– GEOCARB III model, 3, 9, 29, 139–142 284 GEOCARB model of carbon cycle, 3–5

and paleobotanical evidence for C3 and Geophyrocapsa oceanica, 39, 40

C4 plants, 275–277 Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, and reconstruction of ancient diet, 277– 46 280 Geothermal temperature reconstruction, Fossil record evidence 488–493

and age of C4 photosynthesis, 196–197 data, 489–493 of angiosperm radiation and diversiﬁca- method, 488–489 tion, 134, 153–155 Ghana, 223 and evolutionary reponses to atmo- Gigantoclea, 153

spheric CO2, 114–115 Gingantoclea guizhouenensis, 154 of leaf evolution, 120, 122 Gigantopteridales, 150 of photosynthetic pathway, 122, 124, Gigantopterids, 153, 154 125 Ginkgoales, 147 of plant species, 127 Ginkgos, 136 of stomatal formation, 118 Giraffa, 266 of xylem evolution, 149 Giraffa jumae, 268 Fossil teeth, 259 Giraffa stillei, 268 α Fractionation factor ( ab), 96, 97 Girafﬁds, 266–269 Fractionation of carbon isotopes during Girafﬁnes, 270 photosynthesis, 36–46 Giraffoids, 267 active-transport problem, 39 Gizzard mass, 385 518 Index

Glacial-interglacial CO2 variations (in ice proboscideans as, 263–264

core CO2 data), 66–72 suids as, 264–266 Glacial periods, 223–225, 246 Great Plains of North America, 222, 275, Glaciation, 5, 6 472 Glebular horizon, 12, 13 Great Transformation, 281 Glebules Greenland records, 62–65, 68–70, 72–74, in Bagra Formation, 18, 19 333, 334 in Denwa Formation, 14, 15 GRIP ice core, 70, 73

in Lameta Formation, 19 Gross CO2 ﬂuxes, 330–331 in Motur Formation, 12, 13 Gross primary production (GPP), 359– in Tiki Formation, 16, 17 361, 363, 364, 366, 397 Global carbon cycle, 107 Growing-season temperature, 222

Global CO2 ﬂuxes, 101–106 Grubbiaceae, 155 Global Ocean Fluxes Study, 83 Guatemala, 226 Global temperature, 24 Gymnosperms, 136, 142–146, 150–152, Global warming, 370 156, 214 Glossopterids, 117–118 Glycine decarboxylase, 202, 204, 205 H Gnetales, 136, 150, 151 Hadley model scenario, 407, 408 Gnetum, 155 Halophytes, 215 Gomphotheres, 263 Halosarcia, 196 Gomphotheriidae, 262 Harvard Forest, 353–360, 362, 363 Gomphrena, 193, 194 Hauterivian Age, 140, 146 Gondwana, 9–11, 24, 29 Helianieae, 192 GPP. See Gross primary production Helianteae, 193, 194 Granitic material, 173, 175–178 Heliotropium, 193, 194 Grasses Heptatriaconta-8E, 15E,22E-dien-2-one,

age of C4 photosynthesis in, 194–197 40

C4 adaptations in, 220, 221 Heptatriaconta-15E,22E-dien-2-one, 40

C4 origins in, 192 Herbivores

C4 photosynthesis in, 189 hominins as, 297

C3 vs. C4, as food resources, 285–286 keystone, 369 and diet of mammals, 264 large, as ecological factor, 227

distribution of C4, 222–223 Herbivores in Arctic ecosystem ecological factors limiting, 227–228 geese, 374–376

geographical evolution of C4 photosyn- genetic variation/phenotypic plasticity thesis in, 193 of, 383–385 Grasslands importance of, 373–374 and last glacial maximum, 224 migration/mobility, effect of, 384–386 paleobotanical evidence for, 275–277 reciprocal interactions between plants Grazing animals, 259–270 and, 376–377 in arctic ecosystem, 370, 371 response of, to reduced plant quality, bison as, 278 377–383

equids as, 261–262 Herbivores in elevated CO2 environment, evolution of, 479, 480 468–482 geese as, 374–376 current and future trends, 480–482 girafﬁds as, 267, 268 determinants of food selection for, 469–

and Great C3-C4 Transformation, 281, 472 283–288 geologic history, 478–480 Index 519

and plant availability, 476–478 Hypsodonty, 280, 281, 283 and plant quality, 472–476 Hypsodonty index (HI), 280 HI (hypsodonty index), 280 Hyracotherium, 287 High-elevation angiosperm origin theory, Hyvitiala (Finland), 354–359, 362 145 Himalayas, 174, 176, 177, 222 I

Hippotherium, 261 Ice core CO2 data, 8, 62–78

Holocene Epoch and air extraction for CO2 measure-

CO2 compensation point in the, 201 ments, 66

ice core data from the, 66–76 and anthropogenic increase in CO2 lev-

variability of ice core CO2 data from, els, 75–76 74–76 carbon cycle inferred from (see Carbon Hominin evolution, 295–300 cycle, ice core data of)

Homo genus, 296–297 glacial-interglacial CO2 variations, 66– Homo sapiens, 296 72 Homo sapiens sapiens, 300 and millennial changes in last glacial, Horses 72–74 and declining plant productivity, 480 and occlusion of trace gas records in diversity of, 284 ice, 63–65 size of, 286–287 and plant functioning, 234 tooth crown height from, 279, 283 reliability of, 65–66 tooth enamel carbonate shift in, 283 stomatal index measurement vs., 76– See also Fossil horses, effect of atmo- 78

spheric CO2 on variability of, during Holocene, 74– Hudson Bay (Canada), 375, 376 76

Human evolution, 293–300 and Vostok CO2 record, 71–72

and C4-plant expansion, 294 Iceland, 4

and C4 plants, 295–300 Illiciaceae, 147 and domestication of plants, 294–295 Incident shortwave, mean, 354

and end members of C3 and C3 plants, India, 10, 12, 13, 16, 19, 307, 308 298–299 Indian paleosols, 8–30 and meat in diet, 295 Bagra Formation, 17–19 meat in diet of, 300 Denwa Formation, 14–15 savanna hypothesis of, 295–296 description of, 10–19 and sedges in diet, 299–300 Lameta Formation, 19

and variety of C4 plants in diet, 299 model for estimating atmospheric CO2 Human food production based on, 23–30 evolution of (see Domestication of Motur Formation, 12–13 plants) observations, 21–23 sugar and maize in colonial era, 314– procedures for analyzing, 20–21 317 reappraisal of ages of, 19–20 Human timescale, 451–456 Tiki Formation, 15–17 Humans Indirect methods. See Proxy methods

as ecological factor, 227, 234 Industrial CO2 emissions, 101, 102, 104, effects of, on forests, 395–396 105 tooth crown height from, 279 Industrial Era, 84

Humidity, 220–221 Industrial ﬂux (Find), 93 Hydrocharitaceae, 195 Insects, 145, 479, 481 Hydrothermal systems, 176–177 Intercellular leaf space, 146 520 Index

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Land plants, evolutionary response in, Change (IPCC), 101, 103–105, 452– 114–129 454 leaves, 118–122 Interstadials, 72 and photosynthetic pathways, 122–126 Invasive species, 422–424 stomata, 116–118 IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on from whole plant/species perspective, Climate Change 126–128 Isochrysis galbana,40 Large vascular plants Isotopic composition (of marine sedimen- in Devonian period, 126 tary carbon and boron from carbon- rise of, 1–6 ate fossils), 8 Larix gmelinii, 152 Isotopic discrimination by terrestrial veg- Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), 223–225, etation, 97–101 235, 294

Isotopic evidence for C4-type photosyn- Lateral walls, 147 thesis, 123 Latitude, 24, 25

Isotopic signature of seasonal CO2 cycle, Law Dome, 75, 84, 91, 331–334, 341, 92 343, 344 Israel, 134 Leaf area, 243, 245 Italy, 398 Leaf Area Index (LAI), 350, 351, 357– 359, 363, 364, 448 J Leaf waxes, 122, 124, 197 Jasper Ridge Global Change Experiment, Leaves 430 adaptations of, 193 JGOFS program, 108 and angiosperm origin, 145, 146, 155

Jurassic Period, 19, 20, 24, 26 C3 vs. C4, 215, 216, 218–219

and CO2 compensation point, 201 K evolutionary response in, 118–122 Kalman ﬁlter, 340, 342–344 See also Stomata Kenya, 196, 223, 259, 276, 296 Lemmings, 374 Kermadec, 86 Lentils, 301, 308 Keystone herbivores, 369, 373–374 Lesser snow goose, 375, 380 Kolpochoerus, 264–266 Levant, 301–303 Koobi Fora Formation, 261, 262, 265, LGM. See Last Glacial Maximum 268 LIA. See Little Ice Age Ko¨rner, C., 369 Lignin, 3, 6, 155 Kranz anatomy, 188–189, 191, 196, 205 Limestone, 19 Kubanochoerinae, 264 Listriodontinae, 264 Litter carbon, 357, 358, 360, 361, 363 L “Little Foot,” 296–297 La Jolla (California), 86, 92 Little Ice Age (LIA), 76, 333–335, 338 La Nin˜a, 344 Loblolly pine, 402, 403, 448

Lagged effects (in ecosystem memory ex- Long-term sequestration of CO2, 179– periment), 361–364 180 LAI. See Leaf Area Index Lothagam (Africa), 261 Lake Barombi Mbo (Cameroon), 223 Lovejoy, Thomas E., 350

Lake Bosumtwi (Ghana), 223 Low atmospheric CO2, growth of plants Lake Turkana basin. See Turkana basin at, 232–252 Lameta Formation, 11, 19, 21, 22, 25–30 allometry, 237–239 Laminate leaves, 120 biomass production, 235–236 Index 521

and C4-photosynthesis advantage, 216– Middle East, 294 219 Migration, 384–386

and C4-photosynthesis evolution, 124, Millet, 294, 303–309 198–202 Miocene Epoch

in C3 vs. C4 species, 242–245 alkenone-based estimates of CO2 levels development rate, 237 in, 54

and evolution of C3 plants, 246–251 angiosperms in the, 136

and history of low CO2 studies, 233– C4 photosynthesis in, 196

235 C3 plants in the, 27

and nitrogen, 240 CO2 estimates for, 54 symbionts, 242 diet of mammals in the, 261–264, 266, and temperature, 239 267, 269, 270 and water relations, 239–241 grasses from the, 275–277 Loxodonta, 263 grazing animals in the, 479, 480 Lycopods, 124, 155 Mobility, 384–386 Lycopsids, 117, 118 Modeling challenges of, 351–352 M of future forests, 406–410 Maastrichian Age, 140, 158 of steady-state chemical weathering, Maboko, 263 168–172 Maize, 294, 302, 308, 309 Modjadji lineage, 316–317 in colonial era, 315–317 Modular Ocean Model, 46 domestication of, 310–314 Mohave Desert, 429 Mammals, 286–287 Molluginaceae, 193–195 See also African mammals, Monocots

environmentally-driven dietary adap- C4 adaptations in, 219–221

tations in; Fossil horses, effect of and C4 photosynthesis, 215, 216, 222–

atmospheric CO2 on 228 Mammuthus, 263 and diet of mammals, 258

Mann, Bradley and Hughes temperature distribution of C4, 222–223 reconstruction, 340–342 ecological factors limiting, 226–228 Mantle evolution, 9 Motur Formation, 11–13, 20–22, 25–30 Marine brachiopods, 27 Mt. Pinatubo volcanic eruption, 89 Marine phytoplankton. See Alkenone- Mudstone, 12, 14, 17

based estimates of past CO2 levels Multicentury records, 502–505 Marine strontium isotope record, 176–178 Muskox, 374 Mauna Loa Observatory, 84, 86–90, 92 Mustard, 241 Mean annual precipitation, 354 Mychorrizal fungi, 242 Mean incident shortwave, 354 Myrtales, 148 Mean vapor pressure, 354 Mediterranean, 260 N Merychippus, 287 Nabta Playa, 305–306 Mesoamerica, 302, 312 Nachukui Formation, 261, 266 Mesohippus, 287 NAD-ME, 227–228 Mesophyll, 205 NADP-malic enzyme (NADP-ME), 188, Mesophyll cell number, 193 192, 193, 228 Meteorological records, 496–501 NADW (North Atlantic Deep Water), 69 Metridiochoerus, 264–266 Nakali (Africa), 261 Mexico, 193, 194, 226, 294 Namurungule Formation, 261, 263 522 Index

Nannippus, 287, 288 herbivore diversity in, 286 Narmada River (India), 19 leaf evolution in, 120 National Assessment of the Potential plant domestication in, 302 Consequences of Climate Variability pollen records from, 141 and Change, 407–410 vegetation composition in, 142–145 Nawata Formation, 261, 262 North American Palynological Database, Near East, 294, 301–303 141 NEE. See Net Ecosystem Exchange North Atlantic, 74 Nelumbo, 147 North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), 69 Nelumbo Cornalean clade, 147 North Carolina, 402 Neocomian Age, 139 Northern Hemisphere NEP (net ecosystem production), 397 atmospheric observations for, 86–88

Net CO2 ﬂuxes, 330–331 borehole temperature data for the, 490, Net Ecosystem Exchange (NEE), 352– 491, 493–495 353, 355–366 Bradley & Jones temperature anomalies Net ecosystem production (NEP), 397, of, 340–342 425 climate reconstructions for the, 502– Net primary production (NPP) 504 and climate variability, 353, 355, 358, Cretaceous ﬂora in, 136

363–365 glacial-interglacial CO2 variations in, and forests, 397, 401, 402 68–69 and terrestrial/oceanic exchanges, 94, grasses in the, 275 97, 106, 107 isotopic discrimination in, 97

New Mexico, 224 isotopic signature of seasonal CO2 cy- New Zealand, 86–88, 172, 174 cle in, 92 Ngeringeriwe (Africa), 261 Little Ice Age in, 335 Nicotiana tabacum, 199 Mann et al. temperature reconstruction Nitrogen for, 340–342 in arid and semi-arid ecosystems, 425– POM temperatures for the, 497–499 426 SAT temperatures for the, 499, 500 and carbon cycle, 357–359, 361 SGT temperatures for the, 501

effects of, and low CO2 on plant Norway spruce, 454 growth, 240 Notochoerus, 264, 265

and elevated CO2, 371, 372 Notochoerus jaegeri, 264 and experimental timescale, 449 Notoungulates, 280 and keystone herbivores, 379 NPP. See Net primary production plant defenses based on, 473–475 Nutritive value

Nitrogen ﬁxing bacteria, 242 of C3 vs. C4 grasses, 285

North America and elevated CO2, 469, 470 angiosperms in, 134, 135 and seasonality, 370 arid ecosystems in, 420 Nuts, 301–303

C4 grass distributions in, 222 Nyanzachoerus, 264, 265 diet of mammals in, 261 Nyctaginaceae, 193, 194 domestication of maize in, 311–313 fossil horses from, 277, 280–284 O

geographical evolution of C4 photosyn- O2 (oxygen), 122 thesis in, 193, 194 OAEs. See Oceanic anoxic events

glacial periods and C4 expansion in, Oak Ridge sweetgum experiment, 401– 223, 224 403 Index 523

Oats, 241, 301, 308 P Occlusion of trace gas records in ice, 63– Paciﬁc Ocean basin, 86–92, 107 65 Pack rats, 225 Ocean carbonate shift, 277 Pagiophyllum, 156 Ocean circulation patterns, 137, 138, Pakistan, 261, 277 225 PAL (present atmospheric level), 9 Ocean crust production, 137 Paleobarometer model, 23 Ocean water, 25–26 Paleobotany, 458–460 Oceanic anoxic events (OAEs), 137–140, Paleochoerinae, 264 142 Paleolatitude, 24–25

Oceanic exchange flux (Foce), 93, 94, 101, Paleosol carbonates, 9 102, 104, 105, 108 Paleosols, 277 Oceanic flux, 342, 343 See also Indian paleosols Oceanic influence, 97 Paleotragus, 266 13 Oceans, atmospheric CO2 and CO2 Paleotragus primaevus, 267 exchange with terrestrial biosphere Paleozoic Era

and, 83–111 alkenone-based estimates of CO2 levels atmospheric observations, 86–91 in, 54–56

deconvolution of global data, 93–97 atmospheric CO2 in late (see Indian pa-

global CO2 ﬂuxes, 101–104 leosols)

isotopic discrimination by terrestrial and C4 photosynthetic evolution, 124, vegetation, 97–101 125

isotopic signature of the seasonal CO2 CO2 estimates for, 54–56 cycle, 92 evolutionary responses of land plants

reliability of deduced ﬂuxes, 104–106 to atmospheric CO2 in the, 115–118 short-term variability in the global car- rise of large vascular plants in, 1–6 bon cycle, 107 Pangaea, 6, 137 ways to reduce uncertainty in estima- Pangea, 126 tion of exchange ﬂuxes, 108–109 PAR (photosynthetically active radiation),

Ocean-to-atmosphere CO2 ﬂux (Fma), 95– 119 96 Parallel venation, 216 Oleaceae, 148 PCA. See Photosynthetic carbon assimila- Oligocene, 194–197 tion

Omnivores, 297–299 PCO2, atmospheric. See Atmospheric

Ordovician Period, 55–56, 114 pCO2 Organic burial, 5, 6, 122, 138 PCO (photosynthetic oxidation cycle), Organic cycle, 2, 3 187 Organic litter, 2 PCR. See photosynthetic carbon reduction Organic matter cycle δ13 and C of atmospheric CO2,27 Pearl millet, 302, 305–307, 309 δ13 and C of plant-respired CO2,27 Peas, 301 in Indian paleosols, 22–23 Pedogenesis, 15 Origination rates of new species, 126– Pedogenic carbonates, 8, 9, 21–23 128 Peiligang culture, 304 Orogens, 174 PEP carboxylation. See Phosphoenol py- Oxaloacetic acid, 186 ruvate carboxylation Oxygen isotope ratios, 25–26 PEPCase, 205 Oxygen isotopic composition. See δ18O Perforation plates (in plants), 151

Oxygen (O2), 122 Perforation plates, 147–149 524 Index

Permian Period, 3, 5, 6 Physical weathering, 167

CO2 level in the, 29 Physiological acclimation, 449–451 Gondwana’s latitude during the, 24 Physiological drought, 127, 146 ocean water during the, 26 Physiological responses, 416–419 photosynthetic pathways in the, 122– Physiological timescale, 442–445 126 Phytoliths, 275, 276 soil temperature in the, 24 PIL. See Preindustrial levels soils from the, 20 Pinaceae, 152 stomata in the, 117–118 Pit arrangements (in plants), 147–149, Phaeodactylum tricornutum,40 151 Phanerozoic period, 5, 6 Planated leaves, 119–120, 145 Phaseolus vulgaris, 199, 238 Plant availability, 471–472, 476–478 Phenolics, 474, 476 Plant community

Phenotypic plasticity, 383–385 C3 vs. C4 composition of, 451 Phosphate concentrations, 48, 51–54, and herbivores, 481 172 Plant community responses, 419–424

Phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) carboxyla- C3 vs. C4 photosynthetic pathway dom- tion, 186–189 inance, 421–422 Photorespiration functional, in xeric ecosystems, 419–

and C4 photosynthesis, 188, 202–204, 420 218, 219 woody plant encroachment/invasive

C3 photosynthesis vs. C3, 217 species, 422–424

CO2 in, 232 Plant development rate, 237

and low atmospheric CO2, 198, 201 Plant fossil record, 153–155 and Rubisco, 217 Plant growth Photosynthesis and experimental timescale, 446–449

C3 (see C3 photosynthesis) rock weathering and nutrients for, 166–

C4 (see C4 photosynthesis) 167

C3 vs. C4, 187 Plant quality down-regulation and gas exchange in, and arctic herbivores (see Herbivores in 416–417 Arctic ecosystem)

fractionation of carbon isotopes during effects of elevated CO2 on, 472–476 (see Fractionation of carbon isotopes and herbivore food selection, 469–471 during photosynthesis) Plantago maritima, 378

and leaves, 119–121 Plant-respired CO2,27 optimal, 146 Plants physiological timescale of, 442–444 domestication of (see Domestication of and stomata, 116, 117 plants)

Photosynthesis ﬂux (Fab), 94–95, 98–100 herbivore response to reduced quality Photosynthetic carbon assimilation of, 377–383

(PCA), 186–189, 203 in low atmospheric CO2 (see Low at-

Photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle mospheric CO2, growth of plants at) (PCR), 187–189, 203 reciprocal interactions between arctic Photosynthetic down-regulation, 416–417 animals and, 376–377 Photosynthetic oxidation cycle (PCO), response of arctic herbivores to re- 187 duced quality of, 377–383 Photosynthetic pathways, 122–126 size of, in Devonian period, 126 Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), See also Land plants, evolutionary re- 119 sponse in Index 525

Pleistocene Proxy methods, 8, 9

C4 photosynthesis in, 196 Pseudofrenelopsis parceramosa, 152

CO2 compensation point in the, 200, Pseudofrenelopsis varians, 152 201 Pteridium, 152

CO2 levels in the, 233 Pteridophytes, 135, 136, 142–146, 150, diet of mammals in the, 261, 267, 268 151, 155, 214 Poaceae, 189, 275 Puccinellia phryganodes, 379 Poales, 192 Pyralid moth, 480 Podocarpaceae, 152 Point Barrow station, 86–88, 105 Q Polar ice melt, 301–303 Quail, 380 Pollen records, 140–141, 153, 224 Quantum yield model, 222, 223, 225, 226 Polygalaceae, 148 Quaternary, 473 Polyganaceae, 193, 194 Quinoa, 302, 308, 313 Polypodiaceous ferns, 151 POM. See Pre-observational mean POM I, 498, 499 R POM II, 498, 499 Radiocarbon measurement, 301 POM III, 498, 499 Ramp model, 495, 501

POM-SAT model, 499–505 RCO2 Population density, 373–375 in Cretaceous Period, 143, 144 Porosira glacialis, 40–41 deﬁnition of, 3 Porous perforation plates, 147 on GEOCARB model, 3–5 Portulaca, 193, 194 Resource availability hypothesis, 472 Portulacaceae, 192–194 Respiration Potatoes, 294, 302, 308, 313 and climate variability, 359–361 Potomachoerus, 264 dark, 445, 450 Prairies, 228 physiological timescale of, 445 Precipitation See also Ecosystem Respiration; Photo- and arid/semi-arid ecosystems, 429 respiration

mean annual, 354 Respiratory ﬂux (Fba), 94–95, 98–100 and seasonality’s impact on plant Reticulate venation, 153–155 growth, 225–226 Rhinoceroses, 262 and soil temperature, 25–26 Rhizocretions, 12, 13 Precocious hypsodonty, 280 in Bagra Formation, 18, 19 Preindustrial levels (PIL), 140, 146, 234, in Denwa Formation, 15 330 in Tiki Formation, 16, 17 Pre-observational mean (POM), 497–501, Ricardo formation, 196, 275, 276 503 Rice, 303 Present atmospheric level (PAL), 9 Rise of large vascular, in Paleozoic Era, 1– Primary productivity, 216 6 Primelephas, 263 Riverine cation ﬂuxes, 173–175 Proboscideans, 262–264, 269 Rock weathering, 67, 166–168 Prodeinotherium, 263 Root systems Productivity, ecosystem, 285, 286 and experimental timescale, 448–449 Prolibytherium, 266 and semi-arid ecosystems, 418–419 Proteaceae, 148 Rootlets, 2 Protein, 371, 378–382, 384, 385, 450– Rosaceae, 148 451, 470 Rubiaceae, 148 526 Index

Rubisco Seasonality, 151, 225–226 and angiosperms, 146 Secondary metabolites, 471

and C4 photosynthesis, 186–189, 205 Sedges

in C3 photosynthesis, 216–217 age of C4 photosynthesis in, 195, 197

and C3 photosynthetic evolution, 122 C4 adaptations in, 220

and CO2 compensation point, 200 C4 origins in, 192 efﬁciency of, 416 in hominin diet, 299–300

and low atmospheric CO2, 198 Sediment test, 43, 45, 46 and photorespiration, 202–204 Sediments, 10 in photosynthesis, 232 See-saw effect, 74 RuBP carboxylation, 201 Seed ferns, 117, 118, 136, 154 RuBP oxygenation, 187–188 Seed number, 248–251 Ruminants, 479, 480 Senonian Age, 139 Runoff, 427–428 Sensitivity analysis, 4

Rye, 294, 301 Sequestration of CO2 , long-term, 179– 180 S SGT. See Surface ground temperature Sacred Lake (Kenya), 223 Sierra Nevada Mountains, 168, 225, 396 Sahara Desert, 306, 307 Silica, 471 Salicornia borealis, 375 Silicate minerals, 166–167 Salinity, 198, 204, 219, 375, 376 Silicate-carbonate cycle, 1–2 Salivary proteins, 471 Silurian Period, 114, 117 Salsola, 192, 219 Simple tracheids, 147 Samburu Hills (Africa), 261–263, 267 Single deconvolution modeling of carbon Samoa, 86 cycle, 331, 338, 339 Samotherium, 266, 267 Sivatheres, 269 Sandstone Sivatherium, 266, 268 in Bagra Formation, 17 Sivatherium hendeyi, 268 in Denwa Formation, 14 Sivatherium maurusium, 268 in Motur Formation, 12 Slaves, 315 in Tiki Formation, 15–17 Slickenslides, 13, 15 Santonian Age, 136, 137 Slow pools, 351, 359 SAT. See Surface air temperature Slugs, 481 Satpura basin, 10, 11, 20 Small intestine length, 385 Savanna ecosystems, 228, 415 Snow geese, 377, 380–385

C3 and C4 grasses in, 220, 221 Social evolution, 294 hominins in, 295–296 and maize, 311–317 and last glacial maximum, 224 and sugar cane, 314–315 Savanna hypothesis, 295–296 SOI. See Southern Oscillation Index Saxifragaceae, 147 Soil, paleo-. See Indian paleosols

Scalariform arrangement, 147, 149 Soil CO2, 9, 23–24 Scandinavia, 180 Soil moisture, 426–427 Schizachyrium scoparium, 243 Soil temperature, 24–26 Schwander model, 71, 72 Soil water, 357 Scrophulariaceae, 148, 192–195 Solanum dimidiatum, 240 Sea level changes, 138 Solar energy, 119–120

Seasonal CO2 cycle, isotopic signature of Solar variability, 341 the, 92 Son Valley basin, 10, 11 Seasonal harmonics, 87–88 Sorghum, 294, 302, 305–309 Index 527

South Africa, 296–298, 316–317 evolutionary response in, 116–120 South America paleobotany evidence of, 459

C4 monocot distribution in, 222 and xylem evolution, 151 diet of mammals in ancient, 279–280 Stomatal conductance, 146, 151–152

domestication of maize in, 313 and enriched CO2 of sweetgum, 404, domestication of plants in, 294 405

geographical evolution of C4 photosyn- and low CO2 on plant growth, 240, thesis in, 193, 194 243, 244

glacial periods and C4 expansion in, physiological timescale of, 443–445 223 in semi-arid ecosystems, 417, 418 mammalian grazers from, 278 Stomatal index count savanna ecosystems in, 415 of fossil leaves, 8 South Pole, 84, 86, 105 ice core data vs., 76–77 Southeast Asia, 302 Stomatal ratio method, 4 Southern beech, 457 Strontium isotope record, marine, 176– Southern Hemisphere 178 angiosperms in the, 153 Styletes, 124 atmospheric observations for, 86–88 Suada, 192 borehole temperature data for the, 490, Succulent species, 419 491, 493–495 Sugar beets, 308

geographical evolution of C4 photosyn- Sugar cane, 294, 302, 308, 314–315 thesis in, 193, 194 Suids, 264–266, 269

isotopic signature of seasonal CO2 cy- Sunﬂower, 302, 312–313, 418, 419 cle in, 92 Supersaturation, 9 and last glacial period, 74 Surface air temperature (SAT), 487, 488, SAT temperatures for the, 499, 500 496–505 SGT temperatures for the, 501 Surface ground temperature (SGT), 488– Southern Ocean, 74, 78 493, 495, 497, 501–502 Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), 89–91, Surface temperature, 8 107, 110, 343, 344 Sweden, 454 Soybeans, 236, 238, 308, 418–419 Sweet potatoes, 308

Span Pond CO2 record, 76 Sweetgum, 401–405 Spar-ﬁlled cracks, 14, 15 Symbionts, 242, 471

Spartina, 219 Sz parameter, 28 Speciation rates, 145, 156 Spline function, 87 T Spore-bearing plants, 155 Tahiti, 90 Spores, 114 Tahkajania, 147 Starch, 372 Taiga communities, 370, 371 Steady-state chemical weathering model- Tajika model, 139–142, 146 ing, 168–172 Talchir Formation, 10, 24 Stem growth, 459–460 Taldhana (India), 10, 15, 16 Steppe ecosystems, 220 Tannins, 371, 470–471 Stomata Tanzania, 299 and angiosperm origin, 146 Tapir, 277, 278 in arborescent lycopods, 124 Tarsus length, 381–382 and carbon isotopic fractionation, 98 Tasmania, 147

and CO2 compensation point, 202 Taylor Dome, 73, 74

and CO2 starvation, 152 Tectonic plate movements, 137 528 Index

Tectonic uplift and CO2 levels, 166– reliability of deduced ﬂuxes, 104–106 181 short-term variability in the global car- and base cation supply, 172–175, bon cycle, 107 179–180 ways to reduce uncertainty in estima-

and long-term sequestration of CO2, tion of exchange ﬂuxes, 108–109 179–180 Terrestrial biosphere ﬂux, 342, 343 and marine strontium isotope record, Terrestrial Ecosystems Model (TEM), 176–178 408, 409 and modeling of steady-state chemical Terrestrial vegetation, 97–101 weathering, 168–172 Tertiary Period and rock weathering, 166–168 angiosperms in the, 136

Tef, 294, 302, 305, 308–309 atmospheric CO2 levels in the, 126

TEM. See Terrestrial Ecosystems Model CO2 levels in the, 473 Temperature diet of mammals in the, 279 and arctic ecosystem, 372 Tetracetron, 147 and arid/semi-arid ecosystems, 428– Tetracetron, 151 429 Tiki Formation, 11, 15–17, 20–22, 25–30 Bradley & Jones temperature anomalies Timber inventories, 410

of, 340–342 Time, atmospheric CO2 concentrations

and C4 monocot distribution, 222 over, 29

and C4-photosynthesis evolution, 198, Time to ﬂower, 250 199, 204–206, 219 Timescale(s), 441–461

and CO2 compensation point, 200 and arctic ecosystem, 371–373

effects of, and low CO2 on plant evolutionary, 456–460 growth, 239 experimental, 445–451 and forward modeling, 335, 337–338 human, 451–456 and herbivores, 482 physiological, 442–445 and photosynthesis, 416 summary of, 442 and planated leaves, 119–122 variability in, 353, 354 soil, 24–26 Tobacco, 233 surface (see Surface temperature) Tools, development of, 297, 299 See also Borehole temperatures and Tooth enamel climate change and ancient grasses, 276–278

Temperature reconstruction, 488–489 and C4 expansion, 224 Tennessee, 401–403 as dietary record, 259 Termination III, 68 of hominins, 295 Termites, 297–300 as paleoenvironmental recorder, 260– Ternan, Fort, 263, 267, 275, 276 261 Terpenoids, 474 problems with, 264 Terrestrial biosphere and oceans, atmo- and reconstruction of ancient diet, 277– 13 spheric CO2 and CO2 exchange 280 with, 83–111 shift in, 283 atmospheric observations, 86–91 Total carbon storage, 361, 362 deconvolution of global data, 93–97 TPU. See Triose-phosphate utilization

global CO2 ﬂuxes, 101–104 rate isotopic discrimination by terrestrial Trace gas records in ice, occlusion of, 63– vegetation, 97–101 65

isotopic signature of the seasonal CO2 Tracers, 108 cycle, 92 Tracheids, 147, 149, 150, 156 Index 529

Transpiration, 2 V and angiosperm origin, 146 Valaginian Age, 157, 158 in arid and semi-arid ecosystems, 427– Vapor pressure, 354 428 Vascular plants

and enriched CO2 of sweetgum, 404, climate and rise of, 5, 6 406 size of, in Devonian period, 126 and leaf temperatures, 120 See also Large vascular plants

and low CO2 on plant growth, 243, Vegetation composition during Creta- 244 ceous, 142–146 stomatal function in, 119 Vegetation Ecosystem Modeling and Tree-ring evidence, 396–397, 459–460 Analysis Project (VEMAP), 407, Trees 408 and diet of mammals, 264 Vein spacing, 193 experimental studies with young, 399– VEMAP. See Vegetation Ecosystem Mod- 401 eling and Analysis Project rise of, 1–6 Venation, 153–155, 216 Triassic Period Vessel members (xylem), 150, 156 Gondwana’s latitude during the, 24 Volcanic activity, 89, 91, 120, 137, 138, ocean water during the, 26 341 soils from the, 20, 22 Voles, 374, 472 Triose-phosphate utilization rate (TPU), Vostok records, 62, 63, 65–68, 71–73, 78 443, 444 Triticum dicoccum, 199 W Trochodendron, 147, 151 Warthog, 264 Trophic cascade, 375, 376 Water, 98, 357 Trophic ladders, 373 Water availability, 426–427 Trophic webs, 373 Water use Tropical forest, 224 in arid and semi-arid ecosystems, 426– Tubers, 294 427

Tugen Hills (Africa), 261 effects of, and low CO2 on plant Tundra communities, 370, 371 growth, 239–241

Turkana basin, 259, 261, 265, 268 and falling atmospheric CO2 levels, Turonian Age, 137 127 Tuscany (Italy), 398 and forests, 403–406 Type I paleosols, 16 and semi-arid ecosystems, 417–418 Type II paleosols, 16 Water-use efﬁciency (WUE), 146, 417– Type III paleosols, 16 418, 459 Water vessels (in plants), 150–151 Watershed acidiﬁcation, 179–180 U Weathering Ungulates, 374, 480 of angiosperms and gymnosperms, 156– United States 158

atmospheric CO2 over the, 84 of calcium silicates, 176 seasonality’s impact on plant growth modeling of steady-state chemical, 168– in, 226 172 watershed acidiﬁcation in, 179, 180 physical vs. chemical, 167 Uplift, tectonic. See Tectonic uplift and plants and rate of, 2–5

CO2 levels rock, 67, 166–168 Uptake sink, 101 silicate, 2 530 Index

Wheat, 241, 294, 301–305, 308, 309 Y White-tailed deer, 277, 278 Yams, 294, 302, 305, 308 Wind River Mountains, 180 YD period. See Younger Dryas period Winteraceae, 147 Yixian Formation, 134 Woody plants, 377, 418, 422–424 Younger Dryas (YD) period, 62, 68–71, World Ocean Circulation Experiment, 76, 77, 302 108 WUE. See Water-use efﬁciency Z Zaraffa, 266 X Zygognum, 147 Xylem, 125, 126, 146–153, 155 Zygophyllaceae, 192–194