Index A and maize, 316–317 α ab. See Fractionation factor plant domestication in, 302 Aardwolf, 298 savanna ecosystems in, 415 Abiotic triggers in angiosperm radiation, urban society development in, 309 155–156 African mammals, environmentally-driven Abutilon theophrasti, 236–238, 243–245 dietary adaptations in, 258–270 Acanthaceae, 192–194 discussion, 269–270 Acclimation, physiological, 449–451 equids, 261–262 Acid rain, 167 giraffids, 266–269 ACR (Antarctic Cold Reversal), 68 methods and materials, 259 Adrar Bous, 306 proboscideans, 262–264 Aerva, 193, 194 suids, 264–266 Africa, 275 tooth enamel as paleoenvironmental re- age of C4 photosynthesis in, 196, 197 corder, 260–261 C3 and C4 grasses in, 221 African rice, 302, 309 C4 monocot distribution in, 222 Afropollis-type pollen, 152 diet of mammals in ancient, 279 Age domestication of plants in, 294, 304– of ice vs. air, 64–65 310 of soils, 19–20 geographical evolution of C4 photosyn- Agriculture, development of, 294 thesis in, 193, 194 Aizoaceae, 193, 194 glacial periods and C4 expansion in, Albedo effects, 235 223 Albian Age, 134, 136, 137, 157 hominins in, 294–300, 300 Alert station, 86 509 510 Index Algae, 189 and environmental trends/events, 136– Alkaloids, 478–479 140 Alkenone-based estimates of past CO2 material and methods, 140–142 levels, 35, 45–56 and other abiotic triggers in angio- and errors in ∆ε, 49–52 sperm radiation, 155–156 and isotopic biogeochemistry of and plant fossil record evidence, 153– alkenone-producing organisms, 39– 155 40 results and discussion, 142–158 measured properties, 45–48 vegetation composition during Creta- Miocene, estimates for, 54 ceous, 142–146 Paleozoic studies, 54–56 Animals, domestication of, 301 and phosphate concentrations, 51–54 Annual plants, 420 propagation of errors in calculation of, Anomalous biospheric flux (Fano,bio), 94, 48–49 96, 97, 101, 102, 104, 105, 107 sediment test of alkenone method, 43, Anomalous oceanic flux (Fano,oce), 94, 101, 45, 46 102, 104, 105, 107 Alkenones, 35, 39–40, 45 Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR), 68 Allometry, 237–239 Antarctic ice cores, 330, 332–334 Alternanthera, 193, 194 Antarctic records, 62–63, 65, 66, 68–78, Altitude, 24, 25 84 Amaranthaceae, 189, 192–195, 219 Anthropogenic perturbation of carbon cy- Amaranthus retroflexus, 243–245 cle, 329–331 Amazon basin, 174 Aptian Age, 134, 136, 137, 153, 157 Americas Arabidopsis thaliana, 236–238, 248, 249, domestication of maize in, 310–314 457 humans in, 301 Archaefructus liaoningensis, 134 plant domestication in, 302 Arctic ecosystem, herbivores in. See Her- See also North America; South America bivores in Arctic ecosystem AmeriFlux, 83 Arctic plants, 371–373 Ancient CO2 levels, alkenone-based esti- Arctic stations, 92 mates of, 45–56 Arid and semi-arid ecosystems, 415– See also Alkenone-based estimates of 433 past CO2 levels community responses of, to rising at- Andes mountains, 124, 174, 294, 313 mospheric CO2, 419–424 plant domestication in, 302 geographical evolution of C4 photosyn- Angiosperms thesis in, 193, 194 C4 photosynthesis in, 189–191, 214– and multiple global change factors, 428– 216 431 and C4 photosynthetic evolution, 124 physiological responses of plants from, and dinosaurs, 478–479 416–419 radiation and diversification of, 134– and precipitation, 429 136 and rising atmospheric CO2, 424–428 water conduction in, 150 and temperature, 428–429 Angiosperms and Cretaceous CO2 de- Aridity cline, 133–159 and angiosperm origins, 155–156 causal factors in, 156–158 and C4 adaptations, 220–221 and CO2 fluctuations/trends, 138–140 and C4-photosynthesis evolution, 124, comparative plant ecophysiologic evi- 126, 186, 197–199, 204–206 dence, 146–153 Arizona, 224 Index 511 Asia Body size, 286–287, 374–375, 381–382 C4 monocot distribution in, 222 Bogota basin, 223 geographical evolution of C4 photosyn- Bølling-Allerød period, 68–70 thesis in, 193, 194 Boraginaceae, 148, 192–194 plant domestication in, 302 Bordered pits, 147–149 savanna ecosystems in, 415 Borehole temperatures and climate Asteraceae, 148, 190, 192–194 change, 487–505 Atlantic Ocean, 195 alternative multicentury records, 502– Atmosphere-to-ocean CO2 flux (Fam), 95– 505 96 geothermal data, 489–493 Atmospheric pCO2 model, 23–30 geothermal method, 488–489 Atriplex, 219 meteorological records vs., 496–501 Australia, 136, 193, 194, 415 observations, 493–495 Australopithecines, 297, 299 SGT and SAT comparisons, 501–502 Avena, 236 Borszczowia aralocaspica, 189, 204 BP (Before Present), 301 B Brachiopods, 27 Bagra Formation, 11, 17–19, 21, 22, 25–30 Brachyphyllum, 156 Barakar Formation, 24 Bradley & Jones nth hemisphere tempera- Barbed wire syndrome, 471 ture anomalies, 341 Barley, 294, 301–305, 308, 309 Brassica, 236 Barremian Age, 134 Brassicaceae, 192–195 Base cation supply, 167, 171–175, 179– Breeding season, 370, 378, 379, 386 180 Brent geese, 377, 378 Beech, 457 Bristlecone pine trees, 225 Before Present (BP), 301 Bromus japonicus, 240 Belliolum, 147 Bromus tectorum, 241 Bennettites, 136 Browsing animals, 258–268 Bennettittales, 147 deer and tapirs as, 278 Beohari (India), 16 evolution of, 480 Bern model, 71, 72 giraffids as, 267, 268, 270 Berriasian Age, 146, 157 and Great C3-C4 Transformation, 281, Betulaceae, 147 283–288 Bienertia cycloptera, 189, 204 proboscideans as, 263–264 Bijori Formation, 24 suids as, 264 Bioapatite, 260 Bruniaceae, 155 Biogeochemical models, 140, 409 Bubbia, 147 Biomass production Buluk, 263 above- vs. below-ground, 237–238, 424 Bundle sheath cells, 186–189, 193, 202– allocation of, to reproduction, 238–239 203, 216 and CO2 levels, 248–250 Bush pig, 264 and herbivores, 285, 286 Byrd station, 68, 70, 72–74, 76, 77 and leaf area, 243, 245 in low atmospheric CO2, 235–236 C BIOME4, 224 C37,40 Biome-BGC model, 352, 365, 409 C3 photosynthesis Biospheric exchange flux (Fbio), 93–102, C4 photosynthesis vs., 215, 217–219 104, 105, 108 as CO2-unsaturated biochemical reac- Bison, 278, 472 tion, 416 512 Index C4 photosynthesis, 185–207, 214–229 selection responses of modern plants, as adaptation, 219–221 249–251 age of, 194–197 summary of responses, 252 C3 vs., 215, 217–219 C4 plants ecological factors affecting, 226–228 availability of, 477–478 ecological scenarios for evolution of, defenses in, 476 204–206 and diet of mammals (see African factors promoting origin of, 197–204 mammals, environmentally-driven geographic evolution of, 193–194 dietary adaptations in) during glacial periods, 223–225 domestication of, 303–310 impact of, 185 as food resources, 285–286 and low atmospheric CO2, 198–202, and fossil grazing-mammal teeth, 281 216–219 and human evolution, 293–300 and monocot abundance, 222–228 isotopic discrimination in, 97 multiple evolutions of, 191–193 and low CO2 levels, 234, 242–245 seasonality’s effect on, 225–226 paleobotanical evidence for, 275–277, taxonomic distribution of, 189–191 460 C3 plants pathway dominance in C3 vs., 421–422 availability of, 477–478 photosynthetic pathway of, 122–125 C4 cycle in, 189 seasonality’s impact on growth of, 225– and CO2 compensation point, 201, 202 226 defenses in, 476 Caeca length, 385 and diet of mammals (see African Caffeine, 471 mammals, environmentally-driven Calcareous glebules, 17, 19 dietary adaptations in) Calcareous rhizocretions, 12, 17 domestication of, 301–303 Calcic paleosols, 11, 12 evolution of, at low CO2, 246–251 Calcium silicates, weathering of, 176–178 as food resources, 285–286 Caliche carbonate analyses, 224 and fossil grazing-mammal teeth, 281 California, 196, 226 growth of, at low atmospheric CO2, Calligonum, 193, 194 235–236 CAM. See Crassulacean Acid Metabolism and human evolution, 294 Cameroon, 223 isotopic discrimination in, 97–98 Campanian Age, 134, 137, 138, 140 in low atmospheric CO2, 198 Canada, 180, 375, 376 and low CO2 levels, 234, 242–245 Canada goose, 380–385 paleobotanical evidence for, 275–277, Canadian model scenario, 407, 408 460 Canopy conductance, 404, 406 pathway dominance in C4 vs., 421–422 Canopy productivity index (CPI), 448 photorespiration vs. photosynthesis in, Cape Kumukahi, 86, 92 217 Capparales, 148 photosynthetic pathway of, 122–125 Caprifoliaceae, 147, 148 seasonality’s impact on growth of, 225– Carbon allocation, 238–239, 446–449 226 Carbon assimilation rate, 243, 244 See also C3 plants, low CO2 and evolu- Carbon conservation, 202 tion of Carbon cycle, ice core data of C3 plants, low CO2 and evolution of, 246– anthropogenic perturbation of, 329–346 252 double deconvolution modeling of, genetic variation of modern plants, 247– 338, 340–345 249 forward modeling of, 334–338 Index 513 single deconvolution modeling of, 338, and isotopic discrimination by terres- 339 trial vegetation, 97–101 Carbon cycle models, 138–140 and organic burial rate, 5 Carbon cycle(s), 1–3 and short-term variability in global car- in arid and semi-arid ecosystems, 424– bon cycle, 107 426 13C fractionation, 85 GEOCARB model of, 3–5 Cenomanian Age, 136, 137, 140, 146, geochemical model of, 115 153 processes affecting, 468–469 Cenozoic Era short-term variability in the global, 107 horses in (see Fossil horses, effect of Carbon dioxide (CO2) atmospheric CO2 on) global fluxes in levels of, 101–106 paleobotanical evidence for C3 and C4 as plant resource, 232–233 plants during, 275–277 Carbon flow (during marine photosyn- Central America thetic carbon fixation), 36 domestication of plants in, 294 Carbon isotope fractionation glacial periods and C4 expansion in, See Fractionation of carbon isotopes 223 during photosynthesis seasonality’s impact on plant growth Carbon isotope ratios, 223 in, 226 See also 13C/12C