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Journal of Human Development A Multi-Disciplinary Journal for People-Centered Development Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713431425 Human Development: Beyond the Human Development Index Gustav Ranis; Frances Stewart; Emma Samman
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Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 , for Ethics chosen are not included. of the UNDP (1990). choices available. The actual not et al. ex ante G. Ranis Human Development Report It has long been recognized that the HDI is, therefore, aOur very first task is to identify which aspects of life might reasonably HD concerns potential achievement (i.e. choices), following Sen’s 324 Defining whatphilosophers makes and for politicians throughout a history. full Aristotle’s life has been a central theme of Defining the full life,development or a broad definition of human rights and[UNDP], 1990, self-respect’’ p.incorporating 10). (United The just HDImeasure, Nations a which itself includes life subset is expectancy, Developmentmodified literacy, clearly measure years of of of a income, Programme education, is possiblecritical’ and reductionist directed a in at measure, human the the choices first referred choices. to as ‘most In fact, the incomplete measure offundamental HD, importance. The leaving aim out ofmeasures this many of paper choices aspects is that towell of might identify or life a qualify poorly wider as that the setby more part of are extensive the of of list HDI, HD, of using and choices to international is analyze cross-country in how data. practicequalify represented as part of HD.have To do been this, we madedifferent survey a philosophical to few underpinnings, of they define thethe are many main in the attempts dimensions broad that full agreement toof about be life; the included. categories In although of theof life light these we of HD. feel generally this, are wedimensions Having have good draw candidates of up identified to a HD, be list each the we included as then of main part tryavailability. the categories to For categories, identify we eachthe indicators category, bearing wish indicators, of we aiming in to to performance thenrepresent identify mind explore in include a each the single category. both as indicator relationships Weindicators (or measurability among then correlate a across few estimate and countries indicators) how withprogress, to well data the including widely these the accepted representative measures HDI,mortality of rate. income This per enables capitaof us HD (PPP) to requires see and a whether thethis adopting wider under-five a set broader of should concept indicatorscomparisons, than permit as the well HDI. improved asbe In so of far measurement analysis definitive, as andmeasurement it of policy of does, but choices. HD progress, Ourway to to aim one a of is should broader explore not measure set country and to of whether assess dimensions countrycapabilities seriously performance. extending affects approach the theattempts (Sen, to assess concept 1999). HD, andachievements rather indeed and We than capabilities, the we should range can of only note observe actual that, as in most set of achievements on anyof variable, of the course, set indicates thatmuch of it beyond possible is actual a performance, choices, member as but options the range of choices presumably goes
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 325 necessary , primary goods ‘‘are in general 2 analyses (Narayan-Parker, 2000) represent what each of which adopts a different philosophical An overlapping consensus is an informed view of 1 of a good or flourishing life (e.g. Aristotle and Finnis 3 Human Development: Beyond the HDI The Theory of Justice ., 1987), which has a lot in common with ‘deliberative of such a life (e.g. Doyal and Gough, and Rawls in relation , commonly interpreted as ‘‘the best life’’ (Bostock, 2000, et al Voices of the Poor .), while others are concerned primarily with the Broadly, these efforts reflect two approaches: some aim to identify the necessary for the‘‘following full framing deliberative rationality, and thatof is, execution with careful the consideration ofconsequences’’ a relevant (Rawls, rational facts‘some 1999, plan general facts and pp. of about 359, humanof life’’, wants after 380). social and abilities’ interdependence. They a and the are necessities careful derived consideration from of the what people agreereligions. about, even with different overall philosophies or The the poor identify ascarried their out needs, around based the onA developing focus similar world. groups exercise ofWell-being is poor in people being Developing conducted Countriesare by (Camfield, the 2005), consulted ESRC incountries. as which Research people Group to of what makes for a good quality of life in four Nussbaum’s list is developed onconsensus’ the (a basis concept of developed what by isa Rawls termed plural (1993) ‘overlapping as society) a plus basis(Nussbaum, intuition for as 2000). justice to in what is needed to be ‘truly human’ Doyal and Gough’s definition of‘the basic avoidance needs is of basedpeople serious on realizing the harm’, principle activities where of thatand harm Gough, are is 1991). essential defined to as their preventing plan of life (Doyal Finnis’ approachFinnis is derivedrationality’, from as it practical is derivedone’s reasoning from ‘‘critical life’’ reflection (Finnis, (Nussbaum about the 2000,person 1980; planning upon of p. 79); her own or(Nussbaum, thoughts, the reading, 2000, ‘‘internal imagination p. 39, and reflection experiences’’ and of Table each 3.2, pp. 110–111). Rawls identifiesAccording primary to goods through ‘deliberative rationality’. approach and justification: constitutive elements et al requirements to primary goods). Thishuman is one flourishing reason why areconstitutive the not six requirements sets of in of a requirements total for good agreement life place — less those emphasis looking on at material the N N N N N N example, was devotedeudaimonia to identifyingp. 15). the Alkire conditions (2002)what needed makes provides to for lists achieve aconsider flourishing produced six life in (Table over 1), 39 the years attempts 1938–2000. to Here identify we will
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 G. Ranis et al. (Bangladesh and Ethiopia, not Thailand or Peru) Camfield (2005) Quality of life (2000) environment well-being services Assets Dimensions of functional capabilities Imagination Thought Emotions Practical reason Play Central human LifeBodily health Access to health Bodily well-being a and Safe Physical Safe birth control and Health care Bodily integrity Good physical Nutrition: food and environment child-bearing water Intermediate Needs Doyal and Gough (1991) Nussbaum (2000) Narayan-Parker Basic Needs Economic securityBasic education Senses FoodWork Shelter Education Work N N N Physical health N Table 1. Requirements for human flourishing Grisez (1987) reasonableness in work and play vigor and safety Skillful performance Rawls (1972) Finnis, Boyle and occupation
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 Mental development Knowledge Practical Defining concepts Primary goods Basic human values Material well-being Income and wealthWork Protective housing Freedom of Material well-being Food Bodily well-being Bodily life —health,
326 Human Development: Beyond the HDI (important in Bangladesh and Thailand) Camfield (2005) Religion (2000) Community Family Self-respect and relations dignity environment justice) security and action N Physically safe Lawfulness (access to Personal physical Security in old age N N Freedom of choice self-respect environment AffiliationSocial bases for Social well-being Family Control over one’s Other species (Continued.) relationships Doyal and Gough (1991) Nussbaum (2000) Narayan-Parker Autonomy of agency Civil and political rights Political participation Table 1. Grisez (1987) Harmony with ultimate source of reality Friendship Significant primary are in bold and Intermediate Needs are in normal type. Rawls (1972) Finnis, Boyle and Basic Needs self-respect opportunities prerogatives of office and positions of responsibility Freedom of movement Rights, liberties, Powers and
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 : Derived from Alkire (2002), Doyal and Gough (1991), Narayan-Parker (2000), and Camfield (2005). a. Intermediate Needs are instrumental for the political freedom Spiritual well-being Self-integration SecuritySocial relations Social bases of Physical security Civil peace Empowerment and Respect for other species Source achievement of Basic Needs —
327 and et al. et al. G. Ranis It is not our aim here to select among these lists (or characteristics), It is useful to start with the broad dimensions first, because objectives In the light of the efforts to identify dimensions of human flourishing well-being and mental development. Of course, it itself is a 328 aspects, while those exploringtend the to necessary emphasize requirements materialNussbaum for are aspects quite such more. thin a Foraspects on life example, material Finnis such aspects, butno emphasize as non-material emphasis friendshipNussbaum, and by whileNussbaum emotions, others. they is which are the Environmentalsignificant only are dimension. neglected issues author given or to appear record little discussed ‘respectbut explicitly or briefly for rather other by in toPeople/societies species’ may identify others. as or a may a and not comprehensive we choose view to do promote ofpoint, not all the the wish aspects relevant identified, to dimensions setthat make of of have the dimensions HD. been is choicesaim, identified the for then, set as them. is that possible Hence,dimensions. to includes aspects as try all of a There elements toincluding, human starting measure flourishing. are country first, The achievementswould identifying obvious ideally on be, these what and problems then manifold available finding a what (normally in with imperfect) good measuresmeasurement practice. are such measure issue easier, The of we measurement, categories first latter each draw up to varies dimension aachievement. comprehensive across use set For of societies.important example, broad as category To we of a HD; makeinclude identify measures then, of the starting as ‘community ‘crime indicators‘AIDS rate’, well-being’ of point deaths’, ‘alcohol use’, this ‘membership as ‘corruption’, in elusive tolaw’, ‘orphan civic concept, an rate’, associations’, we ‘confidence ‘trust search in‘natural in others’, disaster for ‘rule rates’. public of indicators institutions’, ‘tolerance of of of human development neighbors’more are and generally detailed thought andconstituent of elements measurable in of human this indicators,while flourishing way indicated as in there rather Table than suggestednot 1. may necessarily Secondly, the by same be agreement ourand on measurable selection agreement list of ways more of may on of narrowly defined agree fulfilling that these the politicaldimensions broad freedom broad of categories. and HD, political For categories, butand participation example, this are there we does important constitution. notbroad is imply a Thirdly, categories precise may formthe the of vary level government of across bestdata development countries or ways availability according, geography.data varies for Fourthly, of on example, partly across some achievingothers). for to indicators countries this relevant progress reason, (i.e., to in any each single countryjust broad cited, may category, we propose but have the not following1. broad categories of The HD: HDI itself. This broadly covers bodily well-being, material
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 329 Human Development: Beyond the HDI In contrast to the categories of Table 1, we have not included spiritual Any list of categories is inevitably both subjective and ethnocentric multidimensional indicator. We include itit as a is single the indicator generally because accepted measure of achievement on HD. well-being, givenwe problems of includedenvironmental definition respect sustainability. andsocial measurement, On for relations nor the from otherpeople have other community individually species, well-being. hand, havingsuch The although we satisfactory measures former relations as haveand we is divorce with tolerance a separated do rates, for others, matterfunction different the of including consider of types importancesuch the of of elements neighbors. as well-being family low Theseparated crime of and rates latter, empowerment friends, and a in a fromto thriving community turn, political civil the is as society. freedom, We powerpoor a a have as also (or people whole the lackconditions and and former of more women, relates includes it)category, generally. while which of We the in thecategories. have latter principle relatively We added relates should disempowered,independently do inequalities to measure such affects this inequalities as liberal as people’sWe because in political a well-being, also the the have especially general risks other two existence that to conditions of people’s offrom to the HD; risk various represent poor. one ofsecurity inequalities security, encompasses political (or or political violence),vicissitudes). freedom the security and from absence (or the of risk freedom other of encompassesboth economic loss with ofweight respect livelihood accorded to through toexample, each. various the by Some the broadhow of people variations these categories define found differencesCountries’ and, the are across Research quality even illustrated, countriesthis of Centre for more, and type life (Camfield, of generations by totion 2005). approach the in to the helpful ‘Well-being Hence,cultures. reflect should in anyone be Developing different finding able views. to This amend applies the categoriza- especially across different 2. Mental3. well-being. Empowerment. 4. Political5. freedom. Social6. relations. Community7. well-being. Inequalities. 8. Work9. conditions. Leisure10. conditions. Political security. 11. Economic security. 12. Environmental conditions.
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 et al. G. Ranis Our basic purpose is to identify a set of indicators that broadly 330 Selection of indicators and proceduresIdeally, for there their would use seembroad to categories. In be practice, manyof there potential are the measures difficulties. categories for In ofwell-being). each the Some HD first of data are place, are the some based inperceptions on principle of surveys observers, of difficult achievements with tosubjectivity. and the measure some on latter (e.g. In involving mental incomplete, an covering obvious addition, only element athemselves of small constructed data sample out ofthat of are countries. might a Some be variety indices oftenand subject of are pitfalls to elements of challenge. and unavailable, datawe Thus sources in could we in this find; or hence are field. ways ourby What aware choice we seriously of of indicators have data the is donewarranted. to limitations is a availability. Table to certain 2 extent collect dictated presentsWe whatever Additional should our note that efforts initial somechosen of category, set the while to indicators others of represent representwell-being, failure achievements categories improve (e.g. on life with and the respect data to satisfaction indicators. measure mental is of are failure) aaccordingly. — measure clearly Moreover and of thereexample, the achievement ‘union are density’ data, and could overlaps pertain ofconditions, suicide both among course, to and empowerment a our need andenvironmental ‘natural to to categories work well-being — disasters’ be — but interpreted where to for we they try add both to the placeneighbors community most indicators — new in was well-being information. the felt One category well-being and to indicator in characterize — equal both tolerance measure social for relations and and was community includedrepresent in both the categories. categories identified more above.core all-encompassing For this, indicators version werepresentative need indicators of already to of knowcore HD, achieve indicators. each how These far category covering corecountry this. existing indicators with are the what performance: those Wemortality commonly we used rates. HDI, call shall to The assess human the HDI, PPP development, therefore as three incorporating noted, basic per-capita aspectsmaterial represents correlate well-being. of a Income health, income, per education reductionist capita and of is, measure of assessing and of course, overall the country mostBank. under-five common performance, We way used have in alsoof particular chosen assessing under-five by country mortality, the performance, used World be for by able two UNICEF to reasons: as focus one a ona is way health composite that alone in as we the is wantmortality often form to to advocated life of (instead expectancy the of becausechanges HDI); as it over part and, is time, of secondly, while a encompassing much weinfant a more mortality prefer wider accurate rate, under-five concept measure which of of in is health often spite than the used. of We thewe are fact using that wish all they three are toworse indicators highly at investigate correlated representing with whether a each wider other different range because of core categories indicators of HD. are better or
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 Human Development: Beyond the HDI conditions Environmental sustainability index Environmental stability flows violence violence security Political Collective Political stability Economic coverage total exports investment/ GDP fluctuations GDP cycle Political Social security Foreign portfolio Terms of trade Leisure conditions availability ownership attendance circulation Internet use CPI fluctuations Refugee Television Radio use Manufactured/ Newspaper conditions conditions employment wage policy Unemployment Telephone Employment Informal Minimum Inequality Work Gini Inequalities inequality inequality inequality Health Table 2. Categories and indicators well-being Community in civic associations institutions affected by natural disasters neighbors Crime rate Income Alcohol use Horizontal Membership Corruption Rural/urban Rule of law Public Population Tolerance of Orphan rate GDI Child labor Cinema AIDS deaths Happiness Social very important very important of neighbors divorce rate relations Friends Family Tolerance Crude freedom civil liberties worship independence terror index freedom the press Juridical Political Political Freedom of
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 $1 a day national HPI females in parliament secondary education enrolment for contraceptives 15–19 Empowerment Political Poverty rates: Political and N N N GEM Freedom of Ratio of Union density Trust in others Unmet need Married girls, : See Appendix 1 for full details of the data-set. rate rate population Male suicide Female suicide Mental well-being Life satisfaction Female/male Prisoners/ Source 331 et al. G. Ranis In exploring each category we have two objectives: first, to examine We decided on a number of rules of procedure. When the sample size To select which of two or more variables that are correlated at the An alternative procedure would have been to adopt principal 332 the relationships among the variablescalculating within rank-order correlations each among set, them whichperformance across we developing will for country do by variables the that same would beso time appropriate to that period. represent we eachother can Secondly, category as determine we a core how whole depends aim the measures on categories to relate the ofsignificantly identify to first related country HDI to in each and the other, performance.highly the we sense correlated select two variables. just that, The Where one where variables tohighly in second represent variables correlated a the particular set are with objective category of stronglyrepresent each are not the and other, category. we choose more thanfor one an variable indicator to isindicators 25 representing the or category. less,as We we define being do the ‘very not rank-order correlation when select high’ the that when correlation variable coefficient the is aswhen correlation 0.6 one it and coefficient of over, is and is the 0.3determining below above and 0.8; which ‘moderate’ 0.8; over, variables and ‘high’ representlation, below others 0.6; because we and ofcorrelations low take high when intercorre- (at 0.6 itcorrelations is the refer and below only 5% 0.3. above to In significant level) as ones. arerequired our level counted is requirement. chosen andvariable to Only represent all the ‘carries’ significant category, statementsvariables. we (i.e. first When about consider is which theygreater level correlated are of equal, correlation atof with we the procedure the other are consider variables. somewhat requiredwhether which Obviously, arbitrary. and these However, variable how rules rate) it far showsconclusions our is most do results the relatively not would easy seem other vary to tocorrelation by vary test with coefficient), changing changes them. but (e.g. The the in broad the details cut-off would. rate of the components analysis, whichwork (see, has for been example,2005); Schokkaert widely and however, van usedseveral our Ootegem, in 1990; theoretical initial McGillivray, similar andstructure experiments of types technical our with of data. shortcomings,commonalities First, this within the in purpose a procedure of part setthe factor of relating analysis suggest data, uniqueness is while to toextracted our identify within the factor concern the is explained each alsoon very to the different category. category, consider amounts therebytechnique of Second, impeding only variance included comparison countries we between depending inavailable, them. each which Third, category found for at the which timessignificant that all drastically data amounts reduced were of each our relevantlinear sample information. relationships size Finally, between and the variables omitted which method (it we felt imposes is was based too on constraining. While a we Pearson’s may matrix), experiment further with
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 333 4 0.0228 1 2 Table 3. Mental well-being indicators 0 0.8740.0898 0.926 0.7235 0.1226 0.0403 44 44 46 1844 19 46 30 30 124 2 Human Development: Beyond the HDI MaleSuicide FemaleSuicide LifeSatisfaction Prisoners : See Appendix 1. Of the indicators available, male and female suicide are highly : The first line presents the correlation measure, the second line presents the significance level (all MaleSuicideFemaleSuicide 1 LifeSatisfaction 0.8632* 1 Empowerment Empowerment and politicalinterpretation of ‘empowerment’ freedom is particularly concerned are with therelatively ability weak clearly of groups related. intheir society However, lives, while to political freedom our relates be primarily to formal autonomous societal political and take control over correlated, andmeasure neither of life is satisfaction, unhappinessis and therefore correlated prisoners not per particularly with population).male important It which suicide the we rate select, othermen given but we that than variables choose deaths the womensatisfaction by (i.e. and suicide (Payne prisoners a are — and aretherefore more not select common Lart, significantly life among related 1999). to satisfaction,independent each indicators prisoner The other. of We population other mental and well-being. male variables suicide — as life Our mental well-beingness, indicators as shown (Table 3) byprison cover suicide, population, and lack measures life of of satisfaction. adjustment unhappi- to society as shown by the Mental well-being Correlations within the categories Adopting the procedures already outlined, we obtain the following results. factor analyses inmight future not work, be our optimal analysis for to the date purpose here. suggests the method Note observations that are significant atobservations the available 95% level for are each starred) calculation. and Indicators the third retained line to presents represent the the number of category are shaded. PrisonersSource 0.2588 0.0536 0.2881 1
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 et al. G. Ranis The $1 a day poverty rate is highly correlated with national poverty rates, The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) is highly correlated with 334 Social relations This is ansamples are area small. wherefamily, We tolerance for information have different types indicators is(Table of 6). neighbors, for particularly as The values well scarce aswith crude placed the the divorce and on divorce importance rate of friends available ratethe families, and variables. but is We there are therefore moderatelyfamilies, no retain value (negatively) high all placed correlations four correlated among on variables— friends, — to neighbor the represent value tolerance this placed and category. on the divorce rate Political freedom As indicators forcomposite political indicators, freedom ‘politicalFreedom House, (see and rights ‘political freedom’, Table anddistinct 5) prepared indicators by civil we the of World liberties’,worship political have Bank, and terror produced (Freedom chosen (Amnesty House), by (World two International), Economic freedom and Forum). of free Bothfreedom’ ‘political are press and highly and correlated civil withfreedom liberties’ juridical each of and other, the independence ‘political and press, withis and free not therefore worship can much and be toand used choose to between civil represent the them. two,Political liberties There therefore, terror as but and we juridicalany its select independence other political correlation are variables not and with highly we correlated select free with them press as well. is slightly higher. liberties and isvarious measures of treated poverty, as separately. economicthe poverty status is Our of disempowering, and females, empowerment as of well indicators as a cover measure ofthe unionization Human (see Poverty Table Index 4). (HPI) andare the married, share while of the other girls poverty agedvariables indices 15–19 within are the years highly category. who Therefore, correlated following with our fewer procedures, wethe adopt $1 a day poverty rate as an indicatorfemale for this parliamentarians. category. Wewider choose range thesecondary of GEM education female because isalthough empowerment. it not it represents The highlymeasures a is correlated and ratio with theunmet moderately of need rate any for female contraceptives. (negatively) of other Thewith rate any to teenage variable, of correlated of the union marriage, male other densityhighly with variables, is correlated and while not unmet with correlated (positively) the needchoose other for with contraceptives variables the poverty is in the not education, the $1 category. the a Consequently,representing we unmet day the empowerment need poverty category. for rate, contraceptives GEM and and union female/male density secondary as
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 Human Development: Beyond the HDI evel are aded. 0.1051 1 0.2508 0.1016 1 2 2 0.5033* 1 2 0.5017* 2 0.0647 0.5799* 1 0.3393* 2 2 Table 4. Empowerment indicators 0.5318* 1 0.5831* 0.2623 1 0.7539* 0.1283 0.8685* 0.1957 0.0815 2 2 2 2 0.3245* 0.145 0.0015 0 0.2097 0.076 0.3535* 0.0436 0.1712 2 2 2 2 2 0 00 0.7742 0.4133 0.0014 0.4073* 0.003 0.0101 0 0.1403 0.5883* 0 0.0156 0 0.7864 0 0 0 0 0.0322 0 0 0.0073 0.9519 0.7202 0.228 0 0.0692 0.4838 0.2882 0.8023 0.4616 0.9936 1 0.3253 0.7368 0.1462 0.5615 Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 0.0453 0.0537 70 5966 70 66 94 31 25 33 40 51 52 68 33 92 52 55 64 20 53 79 70 68 86 40 83 68 112 70 70 90 40 87 76 104 127 33 28 32 19 24 22 35 35 36 2 2 2 2 2 Poverty1day PovNational HPI GEM SecFemMale ContraceptiveLack MarriedGirls FemParliamnt UnionDensity : See Appendix 1. : The first line presents the correlation measure, the second line presents the significance level (all observations that are significant at the 95% l Poverty1dayPovNational 1 HPI 0.7271*GEM 1 0.7350* 0.5392* 1 SecFemMale ContraceptiveLack MarriedGirls 0.6264* 0.5937* 0.5498* FemParliamnt UnionDensity Source Note starred) and the third line presents the number of observations available for each calculation. Indicators retained to represent the category are sh
335 0.2633 1 2 0.6894* 1 0.4378* 0.1856 1 2 2 et al. 0.4492* 1 2 0.3792* 2 G. Ranis 0.7942* Table 6. Social relations indicators 2 Table 5. Political freedom indicators 0.1367 0.0017 0.7464 0.1185 0.3489 0.0072 0.0771 0.0388 0.1856 1 75 75 75 72 72 73 49 49 46 68 2 2 FriendsVeryImpt FamilyVImpt NgbTol CrudeDivorce 0 0.0002 0.2996 0.9351* 00 0 0 0.0027 0.0621 0 0.1049 0.0966 0.0198 0.0004 0.1522 39 39 61 27 56 61 61 61 27 56 61 61 61 2 137 111 38 111 136 39 111 136 PolrtCivlib FreeWorship PolTerror PolFreedom FreePress JuridIndp : See Appendix 1. : See Appendix 1. : The first line presents the correlation measure, the second presents the significance level (all : The first line presents the correlation measure, the second presents the significance level (all 336 We have a wide varietyonly of small potential samples indicators for herepopulation trust (see Table in involved 7). others, There in the are them. crime civic AIDS rate, work; and deaths therefore, the are share for highly of the the correlated moment, with we the drop rate of orphans. AIDS Community well-being FriendsVeryImpt 1 FamilyVimptNgbTol 0.3563* 1 PolrtCivlibFreeworship 1 0.7951*PolTerror 1 PolFreedom 0.3420* 0.1728 1 CrudeDivorce FreePress 0.7526* 0.5551* 0.251 Source Note observations that are significant atobservations the available 95% level for are each starred) calculation. and Indicators the third retained line to presents represent the the number of category are shaded. JuridIndp 0.2096 0.3264 0.3106* Note observations that are significant atobservations the available 95% level for are each starred) calculation. and Indicators the third retained line to presents represent the the number of category are shaded. Source
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 Human Development: Beyond the HDI are starred) 0.2679 1 2 0.4470* 1 2 0.1526 2 0.0131 1 0.0805 0.8229* 1 0.0574 0.1006 0.2162 2 2 2 0.2187 1 0.0485 0.2936 0.2421 2 2 2 0.1736 1 0.0904 0.4707* 0.0396 0.3060* 0.1963 0.0185 2 2 2 2 2 0.1665 0.4519* 2 Table 7. Community well-being indicators 2 0.4405* 1 0.4777* 0.7162* 1 0.2464 0.2721 0.2887* 0.1217 0.1899 2 2 2 2 0.04 0.4856* 2 2
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 0.1121 0.0462 0.7466 0.0469 0.6907 0.70470.6718 0.0001 0.3532 0 0 0.534571414121314 0.4 0.0543 0.5028 0.7006 0.5707 0.28619252520211125 0.1495 0.0139 0.1223 0.2351 0.8879* 0.2458 0.6967 0.5183 0.5668 0.1691 0 0 0 0.893 0.9505 0.1054 0.0117 0.8541 0.2265 0 0.2528 0.0244 0.5013 0.7086 0 0.5394 0.0981 0.0764 0.215 0.6873 0.8958 0.0052 0.2453 0.0683 0.8693 0.1544 0.0806 0.0003 0.1076 0.6059 0.6935 0.3245 0.9301 0.4255 0.79 0.597 0.2691 0.1523 Crime Alcohol Corruption Orphans AIDS CivicWork Trust RuleofLaw PublicInst NatDisaster NgbTol 17 1717 128 15 9116 92 93 93 70 77 93 84 94 17 128 93 93 94 14 25 134 16 60 61 49 54 14 24 61 61 17 128 92 93 93 14 25 132 60 134 10 30 29 23 25 13 24 30 28 30 30 2 2 2 2 2 : See Appendix 1. : The first line presents the correlation measure, the second presents the significance level (all observations that are significant at the 95% level CrimeAlcohol 1 Corruption 0.4893* 0.0847 1 Orphans 0.2089*AIDS 1 CivicWork 0.1149 0.2857 0.0974 0.5242 0.1956 0.1242 Trust RuleofLaw PublicInst 0.05 0.1585 0.8866* NatDisaster NgbTol and the third line presents the number of observations available for each calculation. Indicators retained to represent the category are shaded. Source Note
337 0.0775 1 2 0.0186 2 et al. 0.0305 2 G. Ranis Table 8. Inequality indicators 0.151 0.0572 0.9982* 1 0.4065* 1 0.0646 0.0136 1 2 2 2 0.2950* 0.2248 0.0577 0.0125 0.1719 0.1307 0.3824 0.5795 0.9268 0.2844 0.212 0.7189 0 0.0288 0.1127 0.8579 0.8881 0.574 0.1016 0.2788 47 37 48 59 78 78 76 76 48 122 69 70 42 111 111 55 51 37 60 55 61 2 2 2 IncomeGini HI RurUrbIneq GDI HappyIneq HealthIneq : See Appendix 1. : The first line presents the correlation measure, the second presents the significance level (all 338 GDI RurUrbIneq IncomeGini 1 HI 0.1803 1 Inequalities Of theDevelopment various Index measures (GDI)inequality) is of very (the highly correlated inequality UNDP’s withthe dispersion happiness of inequality (Table ‘life composite 8), (a satisfaction’). We select measure the measure of GDI thea because it broader encompasses of set Gender—related of gender with variables. While the health income inequalityeliminate Gini, is either indicator, moderately the as correlated is correlation also is the case not with rural–urban inequality high and enough to allow us to deaths represent a morehigh comprehensive orphan condition, rates and and arepublic a of institutions cause variable other is of problems highlyrate the in correlated of society, with the corruption. so rule wethe We of choose chose law latter and it. that two the The three to were represent variables—rule only these of highlyhighly two law, correlated intercorrelated, variables, public since with withrule little institutions one to of and other choose law corruption—are variable.confidence among (a all The them. World in We Bankcomprehensive choose the indicator measure the than of the rulesinvolved other the two. in of extent The natural to shareother society of disasters which the indicators, agents and was population selected have not nor AIDS abide highly deaths, was the by correlatedof rule natural tolerance with of them) disasters law, any as of tolerance as representative of of of neighbors. neighbors the a community and well-being. Consequently, the more rate we HappyIneq HealthI- neq Note observations that are significant atobservations the available 95% level for are each starred) calculation. and Indicators the third retained line to presents represent the the number of category are shaded. Source
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 339 0.0387 1 2 Table 9. Work conditions indicators 0.03910.7964 0.4452 1 0.4862 0.7881* 0.1617 0.00230.8755 0.4401 0.0085 0.9002 0.2468 1 Human Development: Beyond the HDI 67 4618 76 27 28 1234 25 44 13 28 41 16 47 2 2 Unemployment EmplConditions InformalEmpl ChildLabor MinWagePol : See Appendix 1. : The first line presents the correlation measure, the second presents the significance level (all Leisure conditions We have sixInternet variables use, radio in use, this television category ownership, newspaper (Table 10): use telephone per person, availability, We have five indicatorsrate of at work conditionsconditions a (Table reflecting 9): the the recentproportion unemployment regulatory date, situation, of informal childminimum the employment as labor wage total, a unemployment (5–14), policy. and rate, an although an Childboth there index index labor are sets only of indicatingavailable of is for 12 a employment the data. cases much inversely largerthat of existence We number correlated of data countries countries. retain of for However, with with itsince this unemployment a is definitions (as well the differ because known well markedlyindicators across as the countries. for are Since indicator child nonemoderate highly of labor) is the correlation are correlated other unreliable betweenconditions, with and minimum we variable, each retain wagement, the other, policy minimum remaining wage and although policy three andunemployment employment variables there employment rate conditions — to is — informal represent as a well the employ- as work the conditions category. Work conditions horizontal inequality (HI) (i.e.we inequality between select groups). the Consequently, inequality to income represent their category. Gini, HI, rural/urban inequality, GDI and health EmplConditions Unemployment 1 InformalEmplChildLabor 0.192 0.14 1 Note observations that are significant atobservations the available 95% level for are each starred) calculation. and Indicators the third retained line to presents represent the the number of category are shaded. MinWagePolSource 0.0279 0.3922* 0.2263 1
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 et al. G. Ranis Table 10. Leisure conditions indicators 0 00 0.00220 0.00490 0.0304 0 0 0 0 0.0284 0.0102 0 3467 34 66 34 67 34 26 67 135 134130 134 129 130 130 129 128 34 66 130 PhoneAvail InternetUse RadioUsage CinemaAtt Newspaper Television : See Appendix 1. : The first line presents the correlation measure, the second presents the significance level (all 340 This category wasface, selected to which representachievements economic at is one risksthey point that an in are individuals time. important likelymanufacturing Variables exports to (inversely chosen aspect related), (Table causeof 11) portfolio GDP investment of fluctuations because and as fluctuations a inGDP well-being in share business incomes the cycle. terms in includefrom of Individual these trade. the economic addition macro-fluctuations We vulnerability share and alsorate, is include also to although of the from likely individual actual fluctuationssecurity to economic coverage. in result Our insecurity the data for may inflation for all social be these variables security, reduced are which forbetween by relates 1980–2000 the to social except 2000. terms Aexports of high in trade correlation output. was fluctuations Sinceimmediate observed and terms the effect of share trademanufacturing on of fluctuations exports manufacturing many are as likelyvariables people’s was to a highly have incomes, correlated share an with other we of variables, although retain total the portfolio it exports. None instead of of the other Economic stability and cinema attendance.other. The first We fivehighest, choose are and all cinema telephone highly attendancevariables) availability, (which correlated as is with because our moderately each indicators related the for to the this correlations other category. are Note observations that are significant atobservations the available 95% level for are each starred) calculation. and Indicators the third retained line to presents represent the the number of category are shaded. PhoneAvail 1 InternetUse 0.9064*RadioUsage 1 0.7235*CinemaAtt 0.6928* 0.5078*Newspaper 1 0.4712* 0.8204*Television 0.3717* 0.8067* 0.8249*Source 1 0.6766* 0.7728* 0.4299* 0.6775* 1 0.4348* 0.8068* 1
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 341 0.0537 1 2 0.5989* 0.0224 1 2 Table 11. Economic insecurity 0.2529* 1 0.0815 0.0965 0.5786* 2 2 Human Development: Beyond the HDI 0.2944 0.4426* 0.0001 0.0389 0.7891 0.18380.0577 0.0003 0.0866 0 0.866 0.8983 0.6266 0.57 0.0002 0.7423 87 92 7276 6781 65 76 69 57 56 79 59 89 43 38 37 36 40 46 2 GDPcycle CPIcycle ManufExpts Portfolio TermsofTrade SocSecPol 108 : See Appendix 1. : The first line presents the correlation measure, the second presents the significance level (all We relyenvironmental upon sustainability just — one produced composite by indicator the for World this Economic category — Environmental conditions The fourcomposite indicators index reflecting in thecompiled likelihood this of by the the area overthrow Worldpopulation of Bank; government (Table net 1998–2002 12) refugee (from outflowsincluding are: excessive as UNHCR); civilian a ‘political an targeting proportionviolence (Marshall); stability’, of index (defined and the as an of a index anyMarshall’s collective for type political of violence, data-set). armedviolence conflict Political are from stability, all 1990) (derived highlythe collective from intercorrelated. correlation We violence coefficients chooserefugee are and political violence higher flow political since thanindicators indicator in and the iscategory. is other only two therefore cases. moderately retained The correlated as with an the indicator representing other this Political stability share of investment andcorrelated, social presumably security because polices each were isincome. higher moderately We at positively higher therefore levels retain of per all capita the other indicators noted earlier. CPIcycle 0.1137 1 GDPcycle 1 ManufExpts PortfolioTermsofTrade 0.0312 0.2117SocSecPol 0.1669 0.4209* 0.0201 0.229 1 Note observations that are significant atobservations the available 95% level for are each starred) calculation. and Indicators the third retained line to presents represent the the number of category are shaded. Source
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 0.0407 0.6217* 1 et al. 2 G. Ranis 0.001 0.6072*0 0.4692* 0.0003 1 0.6153* 0 0.7617 0 0.4202* 1 58 58 2 2 2 125 109 56 109 125 58 109 137 PolStability Refugees CollViolence PolViolence Table 12. Political stability indicators emission efficiency, all of which were moderately correlated with 2 : See Appendix 1. : The first line presents the correlation measure, the second presents the significance level (all 342 PolStabilityRefugees 1 Relating the selected indicators toNow the that core we indicators haveexplore how selected these indicators relate to toperformance the represent three for each core the measures category, used(PPP) same we to and period can assess under-five country of mortality. timeprominent We measure — start of the with HD HDI,between the performance. income HDI, Table currently per HDI 13 thecategories. capita shows most and the We correlations eliminate the then any variable follow 39 thatcore has similar indicator. retained a Life procedures high satisfaction, correlationrate, indicators as the (i.e. the rate above rule representing before; 0.6) of ofall with law, contraceptive that highly our the telephone use, positively availability the is, correlated anddeaths 11 with divorce and social we the the security HDI, rate policies of whilemay child are $1 therefore labor a represent are day highly all poverty, correlatedwould these negatively. AIDS indicators not The and HDI need a tosince broader measure include of a them HD (with higher the exception rate of is the divorce generally rate viewed as worse for HD). Table 14 Forum, Yale Center forwill Environmental Law therefore and represent Policy,range and this of CIESIN, indicators category. which including We greenhouseand gas initially CO emissions, CFC began consumption with a broader each other. However, theirwas relative unclear. importance Accordingly, and we decided correcton it interpretation would a be mostColombia appropriate multi-component to rely universities, measureaspects which of developed incorporates environmentalLaw by and progress 121 Policy (see experts and indicators CIESIN, Yale 2005). at Center of for Yale various Environmental and CollViolence PolViolence Source Note observations that are significant atobservations the available 95% level for are each starred) calculation. and Indicators the third retained line to presents represent the the number of category are shaded.
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 343 0.2115 0.295 0.171 0.1127 0.3413* 0.4276* 2 2 2 2 2 2 0.0266 EnvSustain 0.2553* 0.5379* SocSecPol 0.6072* 0.5929 0.1275 0.6585* PhoneAvail 0.8585* 0.3866* PolViolence 0.7339* 0.1017 InformalEmpl 0.1506 0.3223* CPIcycle 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Human Development: Beyond the HDI 0.1849 EmplConditions 0.2991* GDI 0.013 Refugees 0.0276 0.0448 0.0008 0.1535 0.7843* AlcoholUse 0.2483* GDPcycle 000 00 0 0.0058 0.0019 0.2502 00.0031 0.0003 0.5891 0.0009 0.0295 0 0.0033 0.1176 0.2719* HealthIneq 0.3344* Unemployment 0.00070.0048 0.8916 0.0021 0.8428 0 0.7257 0.0001 0 0.0084 0.8309 0.0152 0.3281 0.1941 0.4594 0 44 21 47 3070 93 122 125 106 7540 124 78 92 78 90 74 85 36 48 46 61 67 90 30 76 30 39 2 2 2 2 2 126 30 28 117 126 35 126106 113 61 54 126 Table 13. Correlations between retained indicators and the HDI : See Appendix 1. This exercise shows that HDI alone does not encompass many other : Retained variables are shaded. The first line represents the correlation measure; the second the important dimensions of HD, even on our rather modest requirements of summarizes our results,category. showing which indicators are retained for each IndicatorHDI ranking HDI ranking 1 Indicator NgbTolerance HDI ranking Indicator HDI ranking MaleSuicide 0.3041* CrudeDivorce 0.6764* MinWagePol LifeSatisfaction 0.6877* AIDSdeaths PrisonersPoverty1day 0.5817*Contraceptive RuleofLaw 0.7610* NatDisaster 0.6528* CinemaAtt 0.5074* GEMSecFemMale 0.4555* 0.5666* IncomeGini HorizIneq (HI) 0.3370* 0.0621 TermsofTrade Portfolio 0.2466* UnionDensity 0.0606 RurUrbIneq PolTerror JuridIndp PolrtCivlib FriendsVeryImpt 0.1404 ChildLabor Note significance level; and the third the number of observations for each calculation. Source FamilyVimpt
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 Prisoners Union density Political terror Juridical independence Value of family Tolerance of neighbors Divorce rate Tolerance of neighbors Horizontal inequality Rural/Urban inequality GDI Health inequality Employment conditions Informal sector proportion Minimum wage policy CPI cycle Portfolio investment Terms of trade Refugee flows et al. G. Ranis Contraceptive access Fem/male secondary educ. Rule of law Natural disasters Table 14. Relationship of indicators to the core measures : See Appendix 1. We proceed in the same way with per-capita income (PPP). For the : Shaded areas indicate retained indicator. In all the other categories,of the same the indicators HDI. are retained as in the case In the mental well-being category,than life satisfaction highly was correlated moderately rather satisfaction, with prisoners income, and so maleIn that suicide community — the would three well-being,moderately need variables correlated in to — with be contrast income, life retained. and to thus HDI, should be AIDS retained. deaths are only 344 N N N a 0.6 correlation.variable For needs each toand be of altogether included the we in add eleven order 31 categories, to indicators. assess atmost the least overall part, one state other thedifferences of were HD, results as follows: were the same as for the HDI (Table 15). The Category of human developmentMental well-being Indicators eliminated Indicators retained Life satisfaction Male suicide rate Note EmpowermentPolitical freedomSocial relations $1 a day povertyCommunity well-being NoneInequalities None GEM AIDS deathsWork conditions Political/civil liberties Leisure conditions NoneEconomic Alcohol stability consumption Value of friends Child LaborPolitical stabilityEnvironment Phone availability SocialSource security Income Gini Unemployment Cinema attendance None GDP cycle None Political violence Environmental sustainability
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 345 0.1158 0.3431* 0.1729 0.4379* 0.2962* 0.0677 0.4530* 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0.129 InformalEmpl 0.4967 0.5574 0.5447* PhoneAvail 0.8708* 0.3084* CPIcycle 0.5347* SocSecPol 0.6419* 0.0671 Refugees 0.4017* PolViolence 0.7154* 0.2259 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Income per capita is, of course, also a less 5 0.33180.00150 0.0025 0 0 0.0182 0 0.0045 0 0.0039 0.0822 0.7592* AlcoholUse 0.2718* GDPcycle 00.002 0.0009 0.0937 0 0.0383 00.642 0.0027 0.0001 0.008 0 0.3471* GDI 0.0002 0.4966 0.6442 0.2806* HealthIneq 0.0059 0.0015 0 0.4524* Unemployment0.0003 0.15170.6225 EnvSustain 0.2990* 0.2354 0 0.0054 0.19090.3123 EmplConditions 0.0513 Human Development: Beyond the HDI 4030 18 89 47 113 70 111 102 7140 112 78 86 73 8236 72 48 79 46 95 60 113 6030 63 38 85 30 75 2 2 2 2 2 113 30 28 107 113 31 113 105 49 Table 15. Correlations between retained indicators and per capita income : See Appendix 1. Thus, the HDI is a somewhat more encompassing general indicator of good measure of the basicthis elements of very HD purpose. than HDI,with This which is is designed life confirmed for illiteracy by expectancy, than the shown stronger by infant correlations per-capita of income mortality, HDI (see Table maternal 16). mortality and adult HD than per-capita income. IndicatorIncomePPP IncomePPP 1 Indicator IncomePPP NgbTol Indicator IncomePPP Malesuicide 0.1575 CrudeDivorce 0.6663* MinWagePol Poverty1day LifeSatisfactionPrisoners 0.5540* AIDSdeaths 0.6229* RuleofLaw 0.6748* CinemaAtt 0.4968* ContraceptiveLack 0.6497* NatDisaster GEMFemSecmale 0.4735* 0.5404* IncomeGini HorizIneq (HI) 0.3487* 0.1911 TermsofTrade Portfolio 0.2430* UnionDensityPolrtCivlib 0.0802 RurUrbIneq PolTerror JuridIndp FriendsVeryImpt 0.0937FamilyVimpt ChildLabor Source
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 not 0.9135* 1 2 0.8745* 1 2 0.6216* et al. 2 0.9184* 2 G. Ranis 0.8142* 0.9947* 0.7393* 0.9050* 0.8227* 0.9177* 0.6895* 1 0.7082* 0.7393* 1 0.8258* 1 2 2 2 2 0.8762* 0 0 000 00 00 0.8760* 00 0 0.8091* 00 0.8789* 0 0 0 000 0 2 2 2 2 120 109 125 107 120 126 115 105 120 105 120 106 99 107 108 125 112 113 113 126 125 112 136 107 120 125 136 Table 16. Correlation among basic indicators of human development HDIranking IncomePPP Under5mort AdultIllit MatMortality LifeExpectancy InfantMort : See Appendix 1. The correlations with under-five mortality yield exactly the same Given the fact that — for most categories — more than one variable : The first line presents the correlation measure, the second line presents the significance level (all 346 highly correlated withsome one method of another.bound weighting Moreover, the to any components,composite composite be and measure requires any arbitrary. ofview such achievement Yet of weighting for comparing there is eachinvestigating country category could changes performance from over in be thecomposites time. different at point advantages categories However, this of and we stage. in also have devising not developed a such results as thewith HDI. the basic Under-five elementscourse, mortality of also HD a as showsmortality with much rate similar HDI has advantages (see correlations more for Tableterms some 16). of purposes, widely The since changes HDI it over is accepted is, more time of precise and measure. in less(and complicated But in to most calculate. the casesprocedures, several under-five variables) the emerge question asindicator a arises for result each of whether category followingresult one these similar of to should the theone seek procedures HDI. variable we a We emerges have should composite implies followed, note that the that, we as very are a fact left that with more variables than that are Infantmort Lifeexpectancy 0.8784* 0.7462* MatMortality Adultillit Under5mort HDIranking 1 IncomePPP 0.8789* 1 Note observations that are significant atobservations the available 95% level for are each starred) calculation. and the third line presents the number of Source
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 347 with the HDI and therefore retained sustainability Telephone availability Indicators not correlated with the HDI OECD countries None Environmental Indicators eliminated, because high correlation each category Socsec policiesPolitical stabilityPolitical violence ability Socsec policies Political violence Indicators retained within Life satisfactionPrisonersHPI2F/M secondaryUnionsMarried teenage girls Political terrorPolitical freedomValue of familyTolerance of neighborsDivorce rate Life satisfaction** Rule of lawAlcohol use Prisoners* Trust in others Unions Tolerance of neighborsAIDS deaths F/MNatural secondary disasters, Married teenage girls Political PoliticalHorizontal terror freedom inequality Divorce rate Minimum wage Tolerance of neighbors Internet use, telephone availability AIDS deaths* Alcohol use Trust Tolerance in of others neighbors Horizontal Natural inequality disasters Minimum wage Human Development: Beyond the HDI Table 17. Selected indicators for OECD countries, and relationship to the HDI : *High correlation with under-five mortality; **high correlation with PPP income per head. High-income countries Performing the same exercise forsimilarity OECD countries, with we the found a developingsame good country indicators deal for story of comparability, (Table although, 17). notavailable surprisingly, Here data for we were not used somemight the indicators be more (e.g. appropriate(e.g. for child some labor), the of the and share categories different for of richer indicators countries manufacturing exports is probably not relevant to Category of human development Economic stabilityPolitical stability GDP cycleEnvironment Regime durabilityNotes Shaded areas Environmental indicate sustain- None Regime retained durability indicator Political stability GDP cycle Mental well-being Male suicideEmpowerment GEMPolitical freedom None Pol/civilSocial liberties relations Value ofCommunity GEM friends Male well-being suicide None Civic assoc. Value of friends HPI2* Inequalities Pol/civil liberties Civic assoc. Value of family Work conditionsLeisure conditions Health inequality Rule Long of run law u/e Library books None None Library books Health inequality Internet use Long run u/e**
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 6 et al. G. Ranis Our next step was to see how well the selected variables for each We subsequently performed the same exercise with two commonly 348 This paper has consideredbroadly defined. how Following well other theistics contributions of HDI in a represents defining full HDthe the life, major when character- we dimensions more of identifiedidentified human 11 development. a categories For potential that each set seemand category, of for we to indicators which then encompass data that all aremeasures, seem available. to and, We investigated us in correlations plausibleeach order among measures category, these to we included reduce onlyare the one indicator highly number for of any correlateddoes set variables with of not indicators representing each that showcategory. other, a also The retaining highindependent. aim any correlation indicator with was that the to anycategory are other include correlated with indicator thehighly only HDI. correlated in Any with variable variables HDI its invariables was any were then that already category eliminated encompassed that by on was the31 are the HDI variables, grounds measure. each We that representing broadly were these an leftthat independent with the dimension of HDI HD, is showing not adequate as aused measure of alternative a aggregate broadcapita definition measures of (PPP) of HD. and countrythey under-five progress ‘carried’ mortality a — — largerunder-five income or mortality in per performed smaller order exactly set the to of same determine our as the whether HD HDI, indicators. while We income found that Conclusions It is interesting, and perhaps surprising,found that between the life same satisfaction lack and offive relationship the mortality is HDI. each Income performed per evenother capita worse indicators and than in under- the the HDI caseimperfect, as of the correlates the HDI of OECD is the countries.development a So, than better income even per indicator though capita of highly in bothrich the rich countries, wider and it poor dimensions countries; is of and in better human than under-five mortality also. economic stability in thewere OECD countries). very Fordifference similar the was that most the to various part, indicatorscorrelation the of those inequality with results showed each much for higher otherdeveloping among developing countries. the Another countries. rich differenceindicator countries was One of than that interesting in thedeveloping our the HDI countries case various was — of indicator a categories with poorer correlated of seven outdeveloping with well-being countries this of applied than HDI only the ininteresting in four at 11 examples out are of the categories above that the 11and having in case categories. poverty the developing Two no proved countries of to both cut-offcase be life of correlated rate, satisfaction with the HDI, OECD whereas(or whereas countries. ‘happiness’) neither It is for was is not in now correlated the with well income established per that capita life-satisfaction in rich countries.
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 349 Human Development: Beyond the HDI The HDI has been criticized as being redundant because of its high This paper explored empirical correlations and did not attempt to In future work in this area, we intend to identify typologies of Acknowledgements The authors are gratefulprevious to draft. M. QizilbashCorporation They of for New very also York. helpful comments acknowledge on the a support of the Carnegie per capita diddimensions less of a well; broader conceptionof that of HD course, is, than income using usingelements the per income of HDI alone. HD. alone capita And, Carryingsimilar misses is out the results, even also same more although aindicators. exercise for Both less the OECD PPP good countries HDI incomeHDI gave indicator and in represented under-five this of a mortality respect. the did smaller basic worse proportion thancorrelation the of with per-capita incomevalid (McGillivray, objection 1991) In since factincome the this correlation is countries, not isperformance a so imperfect, on especially some that basic amongfindings HDI elements low- show of that does HDadopts HDI than a tell per-capita broader is definition income. also us ofit Our HD, better is although, more than of still course, income very about they also imperfect per show a in capita that this when country’s investigate respect. one causality. Wearbitrary recognize and a thatdefinition of change our thresholds, and in procedures soOur on, the are could basic yield categories somewhat somewhat purpose,extending different deployed, results. however, indicators the is adopted, dimensions concept not seriously and tocountry affects measurement be performance. the of definitivecategories, We way HD but indicators, are one data to to sources show should open a and rules that measure to broader ofdeveloping procedure. and the set countries/regions assess deployment of accordingrespect to of to the different their alternative dimensionschoices. of success To HD and the or relate extent thisthe failure to that available with historical data policy arecategories, progress available, which we of may would helptime. the also in like Comparing drawing current to conclusions country about trace the OECD performance transitions number of over would countries retained indicators. bea in This facilitated could change the be by achieved, indeveloping for various reducing some example, composite the by indicators for correlationthe each category. coefficient However, original unless cut-offsummarized from indicators in 0.6information, are the a to problem sufficiently 0.5,when new of or successful, multidimensionality correlated single by interpretation, a will as to composite persist; it measure will andintuitive indicator be ultimately appeal. without even is remain a effectively likely significant hybrid to measure loss with pose limited problems of of
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 , , , , , 57, Review of ESRC Research Radical Statistics , Oxford University , Macmillan Education, , Penguin Press, New York. , 3(1). Social indicators research , Clarendon Press, Oxford. , 19(10), pp. 1461–1468. et al. , 5(1), pp. 1–31. Nuclear Deterrence, Morality and Realism , Columbia University Press, New York. A Theory of Human Need , Oxford University Press, Oxford. G. Ranis , Pluto Press Ltd, London. World Development Crying Out for Change: Voices of the Poor Women and Human Development: The Capabilities Approach Happiness: Lessons from a New Science , 51, pp. 337–364. Growth Fetish Aristotle’s Ethics Valuing Freedoms: Sen’s Capability Approach and Poverty Reduction Natural Law and Natural Rights Political Liberalism Research Centre) has been produced more recently. and sophisticated activitiessimpler are ones. generally For example, preferred,arithmetic according and and to chess hence Rawls to (1999), more checkers algebra (draughts) desirable, would because than they bethis are preferred conception, more to without complex acceptingparticular activities. any comprehensive particular ethical metaphysical orperson view religious of or the view, human world, orthe nature’’ and even (Nussbaum, ‘‘primary any 2000, particular weighthuman p. view 76). functioning of of However, and the justification Nussbaum what argues that remains entails’’ that with (2000,Ootegem, p. the 76). 1990; intuitive McGillivray,difficulties conception 2005), in of comparing many truly dataapply, of between given these categories these and criticismsworking researchers incomplete with — are data-sets a seeking notably — more to do limited relating extract not number to variables ofarguing variables. from that one the data-set HDIwith and may its be component a parts. redundant measure of HDHamilton given (2004) it and is Layard highly (2004). correlated Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 70(Winter). Press for the World Bank, Oxford and New York. Income and Wealth development indicator?’, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Basingstoke. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Group on Well-being in Developing Countries Newsletter pp. 119–169. Psychological Science in the Public Interest literature review and guide to needed research’, 1 Five of these are2 contained He in adds ‘the Alkire Aristotelian (2002); principle,’ which, the roughly sixth interpreted, is (from that the more complex ESRC3 Well-being ‘‘By ‘overlapping consensus’, I take John Rawls’ meaning: that people may sign on to 4 Note that in the factor analyses referred to here (for example,5 Schokkaert and This van finding stands in contrast to6 some See, critiques for (for example, example, Diener McGillivray and 1991) Biswas-Diener (2002), Diener and Seligman (2004), Payne, S. and Lart, R. (1999) ‘Researching suicidal behaviour’, Rawls, J. (1993) Nussbaum, M.C. (2000) Narayan-Parker, D. (2000) McGillivray, M. (1991) ‘The Human Development index: yet anotherMcGillivray, redundant composite M. (2005) ‘Measuring non-economic wellbeing achievement’, Hamilton, C. (2004) Layard, Richard (2004) Finnis, J. (1980) Finnis, J., Boyle, J.M. and Grisez, G. (1987) 350 Bostock, D. (2000) Camfield, L. (2005) ‘Researching quality of life in developing countries’, Doyal, L. and Gough, I. (1991) References Alkire, S. (2002) Diener, E. and Seligman, M.E.P. (2004) ‘Beyond money: toward an economy of wellbeing’, Notes Diener, E. and Biswas-Diener, R. (2002) ‘Will money increase subjective well-being? A
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 351 , Yale Environmental , 56(3–4), pp. 429–450. , Oxford University Press, Oxford. , revised edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford (first Recherches Economiques de Louvain Human Development: Beyond the HDI A Theory of Justice Development as Freedom published 1972). the Belgian unemployed’, Sustainability Index:University, New Benchmarking Haven, Conn. National Environmental Stewardship UNDP. Appendix 1. Summary of indicators and sources Schokkaert, E. and Van Ootegem, L. (1990) ‘Sen’s concept of the living standard applied to Rawls, J. (1999) United Nations Development Programme (1990), Human Development Report, NewYale York: Center for Environmental Law and Policy and CIESIN (2005) Sen, A.K. (1999)
Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 G. Ranis et al. (HDR) 2004 (WBDI) 2004 www2.eur.nl/fsw/research/happiness www.prisonstudies.org Millennium Dev Goals website WHO WBDI 2004 UNFPA recent available) (more recent av) 2002200220022000 UNDP Human Development Report UNESCO WHO, UNICEF, UNDP UNDP HDR HDR 2004 2004 1990s2004 World Database of Happiness, King’s College World Prison Brief, per 1,000 live births (% age 15 and above) rate (per 100,000 live births) exp., adult literacy & mean schooling, & p/c GDP satisfied population per 100,000 people 2003 (or most FemSuicide PrisonersPoverty1day per 100,000 of 1990–2002 Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 WELL-BEING (%) $1/day (%) Appendix 1. Summary of indicators and sources p/c GDPChild mortality ratePHYSICAL WELL-BEING Adult Under5Mort illiteracy IncomePPP underMaternal 5 mortality years old, AdultIllit PPP US$ MatMortality Adult Maternal illiteracy mortality rate 2002 World Bank Development Indicators INDICATORCORE INDICATORS HDI rank CODE HDI NOTES Composite of life DATE ORIGINAL SOURCE SOURCE TAKEN FROM (if different) Life expectancyInfant mortalityINDIVIDUAL MENTAL Suicide rates LifeExp InfantMortLife satisfactionPopulation incarcerated per 1,000 MaleSuicide, live birthsEMPOWERMENT LifeSatisPopulation living below 2002 0–10 ladder, 10 most 2000–05 estimate UNDP HDR 2004 WHO (www.who.org)
352 Human Development: Beyond the HDI Corporate Governance, http:// iicg.som.yale.edu/data/datasets.shtml Report Yale International Institute for WBDI 2004 UN Population Division World Fertility Millennium Dev Goals website World Bank 2001 union (IPU) UNFPA Population Reference Bureau (most recent av) (most recent year available) (most recent year available) 20022002 UNDP HDR 2004 1990–2002 UNDP HDR 2004 1997 ILO Laborstat & deprivation in life expect., illiteracy, and lack of access towater safe & health services & malnutrition inequality in parliament, occupational status & income men/women not using modern contraception who don’t want children for at least 2 yrs affiliated with labor unions PovNational 1990–2001 HPI CompositeGEM of SecFemMale Composite of gender ContraceptiveLack % of sexually active 2000–2001 UNESCO UNDP HDR 2004 MarriedGirls 1985–2002 FemParliamnt 2004 Inter-parliamentary Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 (Continued.) the national poverty line (%) (HPI) measure (GEM) secondary school enrolment planning females age 15–19 (%) seats (%) INDICATORPopulation living below CODE NOTES DATE ORIGINAL SOURCE SOURCE TAKEN FROM (if different) Human Poverty Index Gender empowerment Ratio of female to male Unmet need for family Currently married Union Density UnionDensity % of labor force Women in parliamentary Appendix 1.
353 G. Ranis et al. Competitiveness Report (2004/2005) Competitiveness Report (2004/2005) Freedom faculty-staff/gibney_docs/pts.xls Freedom House Center for Religious http://www.unca.edu/politicalscience/ in the World International 20032000avg. 2000–2003 Amnesty Religious Freedom 2004 Freedom House 20041999/20011999/20011999/2001 World Economic Forum Global World Economic Forum Global World Values Survey World Values Survey World Values Survey 2002 World Bank Governance Indicators s better # most free; average of ‘political rights’ & ‘civil liberties’ scales. most free perceptions, 104 countries (rank order) more imptance more imptance whether would want to live next totypes various of people; lower numbers indicate more tolerance. repressive rights & ability of citizens to participate, higher perceptions, 104 countries (rank order) PolRtCivLib Scale of 1–7 with 1 PolTerrorPolFreedom 1 to 5 with 5 Measures most political Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 (Continued.) CULTURAL FREEDOM liberties indicator political terror index index Appendix 1. Freedom of worship FreeWorship Scale of 1–7 with 1 Juridical Independence JuridIndpSOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS FriendsVeryImpt Business leaders FamilyVeryImpt FriendsValueNeighbor Tolerance FamilyValue lower numbers NgbTol indicate lower numbers indicate Average response to INDICATORPOLITICAL AND Combined pol rights/civ CODE NOTES DATE ORIGINAL SOURCE SOURCE TAKEN FROM (if different) Amnesty international Voice and Accountability Freedom of the press FreePress Business leaders
354 Human Development: Beyond the HDI International Disaster Database - www.cred.be/emdat & WBDI (2004). Sector Project Competitiveness Report (2004/2005) 2004 Calculated from The OFDA/CRED UN Demographic Yearbook WHO Global Status Report on Alcohol, Trends 2003 UNODC UNDP HDR 2004 1980–2000 recent (most recent year available) 200320031999/20012002 UNICEF 2004 John’s Hopkins Comparative Nonprofit Average World of Values Survey World Bank Governance Indicators World Economic Forum Global 2003 data FAO World Drink 2001 or most + population (includes paid & volunteer work) ‘‘most people can be trusted’’, lower numbers show more trust confidence in & abiderules by of society; higher better of quality of public institutions number affected each year divided by total population. both parents 15 divorces to population. CivicWork % of economically active NatDisaster Average for period of AlcoholUse p/c litres pure alcohol, ages CrimeRate % of population 1990–2001 Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 (Continued.) associations affected by natural disasters recorded WELL-BEING crime Estimated AIDS deathsParticipation in civic AIDSTrust in others % ofRule population of law TrustPublic institutions index 2003 PublicInst RuleofLaw Extent to which peopleShare feel of population Business leader Extent perceptions to UNAIDS which agents have Millenium Dev Goals website Corruption indexOrphaned children Corruption OrphanCount % of children 0 w/o to 1 10 or with 10 least corrupt 2004 Transparency International Alcohol consumption, COMMUNITY People victimized by Appendix 1. INDICATORCrude Divorce Rate CrudeDivorce Ratio of number CODE of NOTES DATE ORIGINAL SOURCE SOURCE TAKEN FROM (if different)
355 G. Ranis et al. Competitiveness Report 2004/05 ILO LaborStat Calculated from WBDI 2004 data. World Bank UNDP HDR 2004 (Most recent available) (most recent available) (most recent available) 2004 World Economic Forum Global 1990s World Database of Happiness 2001 UNDP HDR 2004 20001990–2002 Minorities at Risk 1999/2001 World Values Survey 4, + 2to 2 access to health care, rich & poor, business leaders survey; lower no. less ineq. on 0–10 ladder ofsatisfaction life (std dev.) adjusted to account for gender inequality. higher no. represents more disadv. rural/urb pop (Calculated from WBDI data) whether would want to live next to variousof types people; lower numbers indicate more tolerance. HealthIneq Perceived inequality in HappyIneq Dispersion of responses GDI Human Development Index Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 (Continued.) care inequality Index WORK CONDITIONS Unemployment rate Unemployment 1992–2003 Inequality in health Life satisfaction Horizontal inequalities HIRural urban inequalities RuralUrbIneqGender-related ratioDevelopment rural/urb pov * share Range from INEQUALITIES Gini of income IncomeGini 1990–2000 INDICATORNeighbor Tolerance NgbTol CODE Average response to NOTES DATE ORIGINAL SOURCE SOURCE TAKEN FROM (if different) Appendix 1.
356 Human Development: Beyond the HDI The Regulation of , World Bank working paper Entry (see www.nationmaster.com) Corporate Governance, http:// iicg.som.yale.edu/data/datasets.shtml Corporate Governance, http:// iicg.som.yale.edu/data/datasets.shtml UNICEF Yale International Institute for UNESCO UNESCO (average) (most recent available) recent available) 1999 Djankov et al. 2000, 20001999–2001 Yale International Institute for 1981–20021981–20021980–2000 Calculated from WBDI 2004 data. Calculated from WBDI 2004 data. Calculated from WBDI 2004 data. reflecting more regulation in unofficial economy in capital city of eachas country % of officialData labor from force. surveys & econometric estimates. labor. from mean from mean 2000 (or closest year) wage policy in country. 2000 EmpConditions Index 1–100 with higher no. InformalEmp % of labor force employed ManufExpts average of 1980, 1990 and MinWage Dummy equals ‘‘1’’ if min PhoneUse per 100 population 2002 ITU Millennium Development Goals website Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 (Continued.) conditions are regulated informal sector exports in total wage policy subscribers INDICATORExtent to which empl. CODE NOTES DATE ORIGINAL SOURCE SOURCE TAKEN FROM (if different) Share employed in Child labor ChildLabor % age 5 to 14 involved in CPI CycleShare of manufactured CPIcycle average annual deviation Existence of minimum Newspaper circulation NewspapersTV ownership ECONOMIC STABILITY GDP Cycle per 1,000 people 1997–2000 GDPcycle average annual deviation LEISURE CONDITIONS Telephone/Cell phone Internet usersRadiosCinema attendance InternetUse CinemaAtt per RadioUsage 100 population per 1,000 people per 1,000 people 2002 1995–1999 (most 1997 ITU UNESCO Millennium Development Goals website WBDI 2004 Appendix 1.
357 G. Ranis et al. . Global terrorism: Major episodes of pol Corporate Governance, http:// iicg.som.yale.edu/data/datasets.shtml An overview and analysis M.G. (2005), violence, 1946–2004 Environmental Law & PolicyCIESIN & (see www.ciesin.org) 1980–20002000 Calculated from WBDI 2004 data. Yale International Institute for 1980–2000 Calculated from WBDI 20042002 data. 1990s World Bank Governance Indicators Marshall, M.G. (2002). 1990 on Derived from data given in Marshall, 2002 World Econ Forum, Yale Center for mean benefits as avg. ofdisability, old death age, benefits; sickness/health benefits; unempl. benefits. portfolio inv. (current $ excluding LCFAR) as share of GDP perceptions of likelhood of destab/overthrow of govt. within country & whether excessive civilian targetting, 0–8 with 8 worst. type of armed conflict of progress toward env sustainability; higher measure indicates greater progress. PolStability Composite reflecting CollViolence Reflects levels of violence PolViolence Dummy equals ‘‘1’’ if any EnvSustain Multicomponent measure Downloaded By: [Yale University Library] At: 13:58 6 February 2007 (Continued.) measure violence in 1990s episode of political violence since 1990 WELL-BEING sustainability index Social security policy SocSecPolicy Measures social security Terms of Trade Cycle TermsTrade Avg. annual deviation from POLITICAL STABILITY Political stability Net refugee outflowCollective political Refugees 1998–2002 UNHCR Statistical Yearbook 2002 INDICATORPortfolio Cycle Portfolio CODE average for period of share of NOTES DATE ORIGINAL SOURCE SOURCE TAKEN FROM (if different) Countries with major ENVIRONMENTAL Environmental Appendix 1.
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