Edited by: Nikolaos Lavidas Thomaï Alexiou Areti-Maria Sougari
Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics Volume 3 Versita Discipline: Language, Literature
Managing Editor: Anna Borowska
Language Editor: Edgar Joycey Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics: Selected Papers from the 20th International Symposium on Theoretical and Applied Linguistics (April 1-3, 2011) / Edited by: Nikolaos Lavidas, Thomaï Alexiou & Areti-Maria Sougari.
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Copyright © 2013 Selection and editorial matter: Nikolaos Lavidas, ThomaÏ Alexiou, Areti-Maria Sougari; individual contributors, their contributions.
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ISBN (hardcover): 978-83-7656-090-8
ISBN (for electronic copy): 978-83-7656-091-5
Managing Editor: Anna Borowska
Language Editor: Edgar Joycey www.versita.com
Cover illustration: © Istockphoto.com/skvoor Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics contains 80 papers on Theoretical and Applied Linguistics by prominent and young researchers, representing a large variety of topics, dealing with virtually all domains and frameworks of modern Linguistics. These papers were originally presented at the 20th International Symposium on Theoretical and Applied Linguistics at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in April 2011. The third volume includes the section Language Teaching/ Learning – Education. Contents
Part II Selected Conference Papers
Section 6: Language Learning/Teaching - Education
Alexandra Anastasiadou The Impact of the Application of a Process Writing Component on the Students’ Writing Output in English as a Foreign Language...... 11
Alejandro García Aragón An Etymo-Cognitive Approach to Modern Greek Vocabulary Learning...... 33
Βασιλική Γιαννακού Η λαϊκή, η ταβέρνα, τα Χριστούγεννα και… ο Σεφέρης ή η θεματολογία των κειμένων στα εγχειρίδια διδασκαλίας της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας...... 51
Carol J. Everhard Is Autonomy in Language Learning Attainable through Assessment?...... 77
Athina Geladari and Konstantinos Mastrothanasis The Employment of Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies in Bilingual Pupils’ Creative Writing...... 97
Konstantina Iliopoulou and Areti-Maria Sougari Motivation-Related Issues to Learn Different Languages in an Intercultural School...... 115
Μαρία Καρακύργιου, Βικτωρία Παναγιωτίδου και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου Τα νέα επίπεδα και η νέα δομή του πιστοποιητικού ελληνομάθειας του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας...... 131 Eirene C. Katsarou Grasping the Nettle of L2 Idiomaticity Puzzle: The Case of Idiom Identification and Comprehension during L2 Reading by Greek Learners of English...... 143
Άννα Κοκκινίδου, Βασιλική Μάρκου, Θωμαή Ρουσουλιώτη και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου Η συμβολή του Κοινού Ευρωπαϊκού Πλαισίου Αναφοράς για τις Γλώσσες στη διδασκαλία και στην αξιολόγηση...... 163
Stergiani Kostopoulou Analysing the Lexical Demands of Subject Textbooks Used in Irish Post-Primary Education to Facilitate Immigrant Students’ Curriculum Access...... 183
Maria Kotsiomyti Teacher Observation and Greek State Teachers of English: Current Practices and Suggestions for Improvement...... 197
Marina Mattheoudakis, Thomaï Alexiou and Chryssa Laskaridou To CLIL or Not to CLIL? The Case of the 3rd Experimental Primary School in Evosmos...... 215
Elena Meletiadou and Dina Tsagari An Exploration of the Reliability and Validity of Peer Assessment of Writing in Secondary Education...... 235
Evangelia Michail Raising Pragmatic Awareness through Teacher Illocutionary Acts...... 251
Σπυριδούλα Μπέλλα Καθάρισε αμέσως την κουζίνα παρακαλώ!: Αιτήματα μαθητών της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας...... 267
Ελισσάβετ Νουχουτίδου Δείκτες εισαγωγής συμπληρωματικών προτάσεων στη Νέα Ελληνική ως Γ2: Πειραματική προσέγγιση με ρωσόφωνους μαθητές...... 285
Liliana Piasecka The Effects of Working on Multi-Word Expressions on the Development of Lexical Competence: A Case of 25 Students Enrolled in One Course...... 301
Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel Proximal Predictors of L2 Willingness to Communicate in Polish Adolescents...... 315 Evangelia V. Soulioti Implementing CLIL in a Tertiary Setting: Research on Learners’ Attitudes and Perceptions...... 329
Maria Stathopoulou The Linguistic Characteristics of KPG Written Mediation Tasks across Proficiency Levels...... 349
Δημήτριος Τζιμώκας και Μαρίνα Ματθαιουδάκη Δείκτες αναγνωσιμότητας: Ζητήματα εφαρμογής και αξιοπιστίας...... 367
Dina Tsagari Contact Sessions in Distance Education: Students’ Perspective...... 385
Athina Vrettou Language Learning Strategy Use by Elementary School Students of English in Greece...... 407
George J. Xydopoulos, Anastasios Tsangalidis and Athena Prountzou Linguistics Textbooks in Greek: Publication Practices in the Last Three Decades...... 431
Thomas Zapounidis Breadth of Vocabulary, and Frequency and Recycling of Vocabulary Items in Primary Schools’ English Course Books...... 455 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
8 Section 6:
Language Learning/Teaching - Education
9 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
1 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education The Impact of the Application of a Process Writing Component on the Students’ Writing Output in English as a Foreign Language
Alexandra Anastasiadou
State School Advisor- Regional Directorate of Education for Central Macedonia Greece & Hellenic Open University [email protected]
Abstract
Various theories concerning the teaching of writing in both an L1 and an L2 have been burgeoning since 1945, given the importance of mastering the ability to write legibly, fluently and coherently for the students’ academic success. The aim of this paper is to delve into young learners’ performance influenced by the applicability of the “process writing” approach in learning English as a foreign language and at the same time to trace any gender differences. More specifically, a study was conducted at the sixth grade of two Greek state primary schools. The findings presented in this paper are part of a greater study which involved two experimental (44 students) and two control (46 students) groups. The two experimental groups of the study attended seven specially designed writing lessons, whereas the control group members followed the materials of the coursebook. Both groups were given similar written assignments in order to receive comparable results. Entry and exit writing tests were administered to the participants of the study in order to explore their performance in the beginning and the end of the research and trace any differences due to the intervention, regarding both group and gender. The analysis of the group and gender parameters shows that there is change of performance between the two groups and genders.
1. Introduction
Eminent linguists and researchers (Kroll, 1990; Brookes & Grundy, 1990; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Tribble, 1996; O’Brien, 1999; Hyland, 2002) argue that the teaching of writing has always gathered momentum in all educational systems, and many,
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mostly contradictory, suggestions have been worded about the best methods of teaching it. The first model concerning teaching writing, which surfaced in 1945 and prevailed until 1965, was controlled or guided writing (Pincas, 1962). Following the behaviourist approach, this model regarded writing in second language as a habit formation leading to a decontextualised text consisting of a series of sentences without any consideration for audience and purpose. In the mid-sixties the attention shifted to the layout of the product and, thus, the product-oriented pedagogy emerged, being a text-based approach (Tribble, 1996: 37). Model texts were introduced to students who were required to unquestionably apply their organisation to a similar piece of writing without any previous experimentation with their layout. In this light, writing was seen as simply imitation of input (Badger & White, 2000) without any active involvement of the students in the formation of the written text. In the early seventies, the process-approach (Taylor, 1981; Zamel, 1982; Raimes, 1983) refuted the linearity and excessive concern with form and predetermined patterns of the previous paradigms of teaching writing. Writing is a recursive problem-solving process to discover meaning. By no means does this emphasis on process indicate negligence of form, though. Hedge (1994: 2) claims that “process writing” takes equal consideration of both the form and the procedure, taking into account the students’ level and needs for writing, at the same time. Later other theorists like (Hedge, 1988; Byrne, 1988; and White & Arndt, 1991) elaborated more on the method, keeping its creative thinking aspect but also stressing other significant traits such as the purpose and audience, context and collaboration among the students and between the teacher and the students embedding, therefore, the interactive and social angles in writing. Finally, White & Arndt (1991) focused on the experimentation with the characteristics of various text types. The latest important approach to teaching writing is the genre approach (Hyland, 2002), the main tenet of which is to demand that the learners consciously discover and apply the rules of the written product, which varies according to the social context, where it is communicated. Every text type complies with the conventions of a recognisable generic type, takes into consideration the target audience and assumes that the content and layout of a piece of writing should pertain to a social purpose. The genre approach evoked criticism which was explicitly articulated by Harbord (2005: 5) who supports the view that this paradigm “is inherently prone to prescription” contradicting, thus, the assumptions of the learner-centred teaching. Another weak point is that it downgrades the cognitive struggle the writers go through while producing a text. In this paper the use of the “process approach” was selected as the most suitable pedagogy with the aim of empowering students to become familiar with the process of organising various texts and simultaneously obtain transferrable skills being, in this way, aided in their future writings.
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1.1. Description of the Process-Oriented Pedagogy
Having prioritised process writing as the appropriate approach for teaching writing, an effort will be made in this section to present its underlying philosophy and stages, and suggest a proposed model. This paradigm stresses the process without neglecting the product, though, supplying the students with the opportunity to ameliorate their writing capacity. As early as 1971 Emig identified five stages of the composing procedure in the process approach: (a) prewriting (being motivated to write, generating ideas, outlining and rehearsing, making notes), (b) drafting (writing in progress individually or in collaboration), (c) revision (replanning, adjusting according to readers, and redrafting after receiving peer or teacher comments), (d) editing (getting ready for publishing the written text), and (e) publication (sharing the product with the public). During the whole process, the writers tend to their audience, the purpose of writing, the topic requirements, the generic type of the text and the social situation whereby writing is presented. Even though it could be corroborated that the elements of establishing the social context of a piece of writing and experimenting with the layout of different text types have been informed by the genre approach, these two vital issues were fully incorporated in the process writing philosophy by White & Arndt (1991). Thus, “process writing” has been developed to operate in an extended context, having assimilated vital elements of the genre approach. In this light, the present writer proposed a framework for process writing which indicates that writing is recursive rather than linear and exhibits the relationships between the various subcomponents of writing as well as the interactions of the participating members (Figure 1). The writer always bears in mind the task requirements encircling the target audience, the aim of writing, the genre of the text type, the topic specifications and the social situation within which writing is embedded. The teacher is also connected with all these elements in an effort to help the learner to fully comprehend and monitor the task specifications. Moreover, these task requirements interact with the text, in the sense that they define the layout of the constructed piece of writing. The task specifications initiate the process of writing which is cyclical, allowing the writers to move backwards and forwards while following the above mentioned stages of process writing. This recursive process is interdependently related to the text, since the process leads to the generation of the text and the text feeds the process. Both the teacher and the writer participate in the writing process and in the generation of the text and interact during the entire endeavour.
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2. Research Evidence on the Effi cacy of “Process Writing” to Teaching Writing
2.1. Research on the Introduction of the Process Pedagogy in Various ESL/EFL Contexts
Only a few studies have attempted to explore the wholesale application of the process approach to a product-oriented educational milieu. Three of these studies (Kern & Schultz, 1992; Gallego de Blibeche, 1993; Akyel & Kamisli, 1996) indicated positive results from the implementation of the process paradigm, namely on the students’ performance and attitudes towards writing. Nevertheless, no control group was included in Kern & Schultz (1992). Pennington et al. (1996) showed that the students’ reaction to the introduction of process writing was aligned with the teachers’ positive or negative preferences of the integration of the new approach. Hammouda’s (2005) study revealed the necessity to fi ne-tune and redefi ne the pedagogy to fulfi l diff erent learning styles and educational traditions. A study with disparate fi ndings is the one by Gomez, Parker, Lara-Alecio & Gomez (1996) seeking to investigate the eff ectiveness of process writing against the product-centred method with a group of low achieving English profi cient (LEP) sixth grade SL students.
Social Situation + Purpose + Audience + Genre + Topic
Teacher Revising Writer
Text
Figure 1. The proposed model of process writing (Anastasiadou, 2010)
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The process writing group gained in meaning and productivity but there were not any statistically significant differences between the two groups. On the contrary, the product writing members equalled or even outperformed in organisation their process writing counterparts. The researchers admitted that these findings may be due to the limited time span of the study. With particular reference to Greek educational context, only a few studies have been carried out in Greece, involving early primary students (Giannakopoulou, 2002), Greek high school students (Hasiotou, 2005; Koutsogeorgopoulou, 2007; Drepanioti, 2009) or computer assisted process writing (Nikolaki, 2004; Simou, 2006; Takou, 2007), all of them demostrating beneficial effects on the students’ performance and attitudes towards writing due to the application of process writing.
2.2. Research on Gender-Related Differences
A host of SLA studies addressed the differences between the two genders and offered evidential support that girls usually outperform boys. Two surveys regarding motivation in second/foreign language learning (Muchnick & Wolfe, 1982; Sung & Padilla, 1998) detected that females had significantly higher scores than their male counterparts. As far as time devoted to studying English and willingness to prepare homework are concerned, Nikolaou (2004) traced superiority of female performance over male output based on statistically significant difference.
3. Aim and Scope of the Present Study
The aim of the current study was to explore the application of process writing in teaching young learners in the Greek state primary school with a view to investigating any improvement in performance concerning both group and gender. The original assumption of the present research is that it is the syllabus and the lack of active student participation in the writing process which prevents learners from developing writing ability in English. Therefore, a new syllabus was designed by the present writer for the purpose of the present research based on the “process-focused” (White & Arndt, 1991) approach to writing, which aims to familiarise students with the process of writing and on approaches about correct learning methodologies for young learners. The current study compares the existing syllabus1 at the state primary schools, which prioritises the product of
1 The syllabus which was in effect at the time of the conduct of the research, that is 2007- 2008, was guided by the course book FUN WAY 3.
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writing, with the experimental syllabus concentrating on the process of writing on two dimensions: 1) the performance parameter: whether the parallel syllabus will manage to improve the students’ written performance, and 2) the gender parameter: whether the gender has an impact on the students’ reaction to the intervention. To this end, two research questions were addressed: • Will the students of the experimental group of the sixth grade of state primary schools, who receive process writing tuition, outperform the students of the control group as far as the overall writing ability in English is concerned? • Will there be any gender differences, as previous research has suggested? More specifically, will the girls of the experimental group respond more positively to this approach and present better results than the boys?
4. Methodology and Design
A longitudinal research was conducted lasting one school year (2007- 2008) as part of a doctoral thesis. The study was carried out in the sixth grade of two state primary schools in Katerini, a northern town in Greece exhibiting the characteristics of the majority of the state elementary schools all over Greece as far as the student population is concerned, that is, most of the students are Greek and a percentage of them belong to families who have emigrated from the countries of the former Soviet Union, Albania and Romania.
4.1. Instrumentation
A combination of qualitative and quantitative techniques was employed in order to “ensure greater reliability through triangulation” (Hyland, 2002: 158). The quantitative approach involved the use of 1. the reading, vocabulary and grammar sections of the Oxford Quick Placement test (2001) which is a standardised test, trialled with more than 5.000 students in 20 countries. Two versions were used to minimise the risk of cheating and determined the students’ level at A2- . This level matches the classification of the Pedagogical Institute and corresponds to the lower/early Waystage level according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2001), whereby the students are basic users of a foreign language. 2. an entry writing test specified the students’ writing performance in the beginning of the study, while an exit writing test of similar difficulty detected the students’ writing capacity at the end of the research with a view to tracing any differentiation between the entry and exit point.
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The qualitative method consisted of the analysis of the presentation, organisation, coherence and layout of the main ideas of the students’ texts both at the entry and exit point and during some writing lessons. In an effort to formulate an efficient rating scale for the participants of this level, the CEFR was thoroughly examined. As a result, an analytic marking scheme (Appendix A) was designed providing detailed information about the students’ strengths and weaknesses. The requirements of the assessing scale of Cambridge ESOL Examinations KET (1998, 2006) and the KPG (Dendrinos, 2007) were also consulted for the construction of the present marking scheme. Thus, three criteria with respective sub-criteria, which evaluate both meaning and form, were singled out to be included in the analytic rating scale: Criterion 1: Sociolinguistic Competence. If the learner responded in terms of (a) communication of message, (b) fulfillment of required function, and (c) audience awareness. Criterion 2: Linguistic Appropriateness. The written text was assessed for (a) spelling, (b) punctuation, (c) grammatical accuracy, and (d) vocabulary range. Criterion 3: Pragmatic Competence. The written text was assessed for (a) organisation according to genre, (b) cohesion, (c) style, and (d) coherence. Both the entry and exit writing tests were graded by two experienced raters, holders of a Master’s degree specialising in the teaching and testing the four skills in English. Both raters thoroughly studied and experimented with the marking scheme with the aim of correctly and impartially implementing the predetermined criteria.
4.2. Participants
Four mixed proficiency classes took part in the research: two experimental (44 students) and two control (46 students). One class from each of the two schools was randomly chosen as the experimental group while the other two classes served as control groups. In Greek state schools, the students are assigned in classes alphabetically minimising, thus, the risk of selection bias. The control group members followed the materials of the coursebook while the experimental group students attended seven writing lessons specially written by the researcher following the process writing tenets. Both groups were offered the same writing assignments so as to obtain comparable results. The two teachers of English who taught the experimental and control groups in both schools participated in the research. These two colleagues were present during the writing sessions but it was the researcher who did the actual teaching of writing.
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4.3. Analysis of the Collected Data
Difficult as it may be, a qualititative analysis, which involved the comparison of the students’ entry and exit writing tests and their texts during the writing lessons, was ventured based on the implemented marking scheme. The statistical analysis was conducted using the SPSS 15.0 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL) and a p-value < 0.05 was defined as significant. The independent samplest- test was employed to gauge the participants’ grades according to group and gender at the beginning of the study. At the end of the research, the two-way ANOVA was preferred so as to measure not only the performance according to gender and group but also the interaction effect between the sex and the group with the aim of detecting any influence of the two variables on one another and the students’ output.
5. Findings and Discussion
This section presents the results of the study and discusses their interpretation in an attempt to explore whether the research questions were verified in order to offer plausible explanations and to argue about the pedagogical implications of the received data.
5.1. Qualitative Analysis
Some pieces of writing, corresponding to the entry test and the exit test (appendix B) respectively, will be presented and discussed here, in order to trace any differences between the two groups and justify the efficacy of the intervention. The participants’ writings will be provided exactly as they were worded.
Experimental group ►Case one Student 53 E Entry text 15-10-07 Dear George How are you in boston? Are you OK? Here in Katerini weare all OK but the school year is beginning. How are you feeling?. Did you go for holidays? I go for holidays in Mykonos. It was really nice. I was swimming in the morning then I go for fishing with my father. How about your summer holidays? I hope see you soon. Whith love Alex (his surname- not to be provided for anonymity reasons). Katerini 60100 P.D I’m writing for your letter. And your dog isn’t in life
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Final text 60100 Greece Katerini 19 Pythagora Dear George I’m really fine and very very happy because the scools will end at two weeks. but I’ll loose my friends and that’s something bad maybe very bad. If we go for holidays we’ll go to germany with my family. There I have my cousins. I’ll play ther with them. What will you do on your summer holidays? Please write me soon. Love Dimitris P.S. If you want come in Greece
In the first piece of writing the three parts of the message are introduced, whereas the fourth is partly attempted (i.e. there is no address) and partly wrong (that is, he signs off with his own name and surname instead of using the name given in the instructions. Furthermore, the postscript is incoherent). There is a fairly good organisation of ideas and the text is mostly comprehensible. There are a few problematic grammatical issues, mainly wrong use of tenses. The second text is far superior to the first one as far as structural organisation, communication of message, coherence, cohesion, ordering of ideas and audience awareness are concerned. To be more specific, all four parts of the message are sufficienty presented, the ideas are well-organised producing an intelligible text with appropriate linking words. There are some surface errors (i.e. loose, come in Greece), which do not interfere with the meaning, nonetheless.
Control group ►Case two Student 2 C Entry text 35 Xandou St. Dear George, I’m sick. I feel happy because I see my friends. in school I went from holidays in Xalkidiki. There I went to swim, ate many ice-creams and bote souvenirs. There I lived two weeks. Were were you went in summer? Haved fun? What you did there? What do their parents? Love Dimitris P.S. In my holidays I went in Patra, Sparty and in Athens.
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Final text Xanthou 35 T.K. 60100 20/5/08 Dear George, How are you? I’m fine and happy, because is the last week. I play all day and go out with my friend. I’ll go with my syster and my parents to Corfu. I’ll take with me lots of money I’ll go swimming, I’ll play beach volleyball, football and basketball. I’ll travel by fery. I’ll go shopping all day. I’ll eat out with my parents and my sister. That’s all for me. Where you will go for holidays? Will you go to island? I wish you to be happy and excited. Love Christos
In the first piece of writing, two parts of the message are adequately presented, whereas the other two are unsuccessfully addressed (i.e. the postscript is correct but irrelevant, since in the preceding text the student mentioned having gone to Chalkidiki on holidays and then in the postscript different holiday destinations are included). The ideas are not well-organised, even though the text is generally comprehensible. Besides, the occurrence of spelling, punctuation and grammar errors is more than frequent. The final writing displays significant improvement. Three parts of the message are explicitly introduced and one is partly addressed (i.e. there is no postscript) and partly incorrect as he signs off using his own name rather than the one given in the rubrics. There are some spelling errors with no influence on intelligibility but grammar agreement is occasionally neglected. (e.g. Where you will go for holidays?) Brief as the qualitative analysis of the written texts as it may be, it, nevertheless, revealed that the experimental group members were trained to read the assignment rubrics carefully, follow the task specifications, try to organise and reorganise their ideas, be careful while correcting their errors, and, as a result, they were able to produce better texts than the control group participants. In other words, the experimental group outperformed the control one in all the essential levels of writing, namely, the textual, ideational and organisational. Moreover, the interpretation of the presented written texts indicated that the experimental group students realised that writing represents a recycling, re-organisation and re-structuring of both ideas and form, rather than a linear process where the layout of the content and the structure is “a preliminary and finite stage” (White & Arndt, 1991: 78). In this vein, it was proved that far from being susceptible to prescription, neglecting individual differences, limiting the learners’ active participation, and shaping their way of thinking, as criticism (Reid, 184a, b; Horowitz, 1986; Hyland, 2002) levelled towards process writing supported, it ameliorates their creativity.
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5.2. Quantitative Analysis
Table 1 illustrates that no statistical significance was found between the experimental and control group at the outset of the study, consequently, it can be easily deduced that the two sample groups were homogenous presenting equal writing performance in the entry test.
Table 1. Independent samples t-test for grades at pre-test according to group
GROUP N Mean SD t - score p (t-test)
CONTROL 46 4.27 2.62 -1.365 0.176 EXPERIMENTAL 44 5.08 2.98
The independent samples t-test which was computed to compare the differences in grades between male and female participants at the initial point of the research demonstrated the following findings:
1. The mean score of the girls is 5.45 and for the boys 3.85 irrespective of the group they belong to (Table 2). 2. Since significance is 0.007, and therefore p< 0.01, it can be concluded that the difference in performance between the two genders is statistically significant.
Table 2. Independent samples t-test for grades at pre-test according to gender
GENDER N Mean SD t - score p (t-test)
MALE 44 3.85 2.70 -2.779 0.007 < 0.01 FEMALE 46 5.45 2.73
Table 3 indicates that both the gender and the group have an impact on the students’ written attainment. For the two parameters the difference was significant at 0.017 level (gender) and 0.049 level (group). This points to the fact that in the exit test the experimental group outperformed the control one with a marginal significance at 0.049 which verifies the first research question. The statistical analysis concerning the two genders shows that the girls outperformed the boys in the post-test. This numerical superiority of the girls proves that females indeed presented better results. Consequently, the second research question is substantiated on statistically significant terms.
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No statistical significance was found for the interaction between gender and group, which signifies that gender and group have affected the final score as distinct variables and as a result the efficacy of the intervention is highlighted (Table 3).
Table 3. Two-way ANOVA results for the post-scores by gender and group (Tests of Between-Subjects Effects)
F p
GENDER (main effect) 5.88 0.017 < 0.05
GROUP (main effect) 3.98 0.049 < 0.05
GENDER by GROUP(interaction effect) 0.229 0.633
On the other hand, the percentage rise of the experimental group at the entry and exit point shows a parallel increase between the two genders (Figure 2). Thus, it can be deduced that the applied intervention was challenging and affected positively both genders. This issue is worth noticing since the need for further research surfaces, which will investigate whether appealing teaching approaches and challenging, well-organised materials could lead to similar results in both sexes and trigger parallel improvement.
Gender ------Male Female
Figure 2. Comparison of pre- and post- scores of the two genders of the experimental group
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Alexandra Anastasiadou
In Greece, it is the norm for students to attend private instruction in English which is differentiated into FL schools “frontistiria” or private lessons apart from the tuition they receive at the state schools. This is indicative of the prestige the English language holds in Greek society, as it is considered as a tool for professional and financial advancement. When the control and experimental group of the present study were asked about the attendance of private tuition, an interesting finding emerged as is indicated in table 4, that more members of the control group had received tuition through private lessons where instruction is individualised and covers the students’ needs more effectively.
Table 4. Attendance of English classes at a private language school (frontistirio) or in private lessons at home
EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL TOTAL N % N % N %
FRONTISTIRIO 32 88.9 30 75.0 62 81.6
PRIVATE LESSONS 3 8.3 10 25.0 13 17.1
BOTH 1 2.8 0 0.0 1 1.3
χ2 (2)=4.636, p=0.098
This finding verified that it was the application of process writing that affected the performance of the experimental group members rather than any other external factors.
6. Pedagogical Implications
An attempt will be made in this part to provide certain recommendations concerning the teaching of writing, the salience of cooperation, the formulation of appropriate materials and the effective training of teachers.
6.1. Stressing the Importance of the Process of Writing
The following suggestions are provided concerning the application of process writing, rendering, in this way, students into able writers: 1. Students should be trained in the process of writing by being given ample practice with planning, drafting, redrafting after receiving peer or teacher feedback and revising before editing their final product. 2. Devoting time to writing in the classroom is imperative, because students will develop linguistically and cognitively.
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6.2. Exploiting Collaboration
One of the most central tenets of process writing is the capitalisation on cooperation: • Cooperation among the students during writing will engage them in an appealing context, whereby they will actively participate in the learning process and at the same time boost their “interpersonal intelligence” (Gardner, 1983) by interacting meaningfully with other people. • Moreover, collaboration between the teacher and the students will provide children with input within the Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978) with the assistance from one more knowledgeable than themselves.
6.3. Maximising the Learning Milieu
The learning context can be improved in the following aspects: a) The materials used at state school should be optional rather than preset by the Ministry of Education, giving each teacher the opportunity to select the syllabus which he/she believes is appropriate to the needs of his/her students. b) If the Ministry selects to assign a book for all schools, they have to hire well- qualified materials writers, who are familiar with the process paradigm, so as to design challenging syllabuses equipped with lessons which will foster the procedure of writing. c) Teacher trainers ought to be familiarised with the process approach and provide pre- and in-service training to teachers. This will enable teachers to create or choose appropriate supplementary materials to cover the inadequacies of the syllabus. d) Teachers need to reconsider their role as feedback and reward providers. They should concentrate more on what the students have attained rather than on where they have failed. Their role is redefined as a facilitator relinquishing the one of the omnipotent judge. e) Should any problems arise while implementing process writing, the teachers ought to be ready to do any necessary adjustments to fit the local context.
7. Conclusion
In order to contribute to the need for more research on the efficacy of the process writing approach in the Greek context, the current study explored the extent to which this paradigm facilitated the students of the experimental group of the
2 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Alexandra Anastasiadou
sixth grade of Greek state primary schools to improve their writing capacity in English as compared to the performance of the control group members. It was found that indeed the experimental group participants were aided to outperform their control group counterparts. Not only did this research investigate the group parameter but it also analysed the dimension of gender, showing that females presented better writings than males substantiating, thus, the second research question on statistically significant terms. On the other hand an interesting finding arose: even though the original assumption was that the girls would respond more positively to the intervention, both sexes of the experimental group displayed similar reaction to the new treatment and managed to benefit from its application. This necessitates further research on the importance of the value and the quality of the employed instruction techniques that will enable both genders to fully develop their potential. The contributions of the present research are the following: 1. The students realised that writing is not final and predetermined but a dynamic procedure, which follows a cyclical process and can be organised, reorganised and improved. 2. The process writing approach can turn sixth grade learners of the Greek state school into more autonomous, competent users of written discourse in English. 3. Learners in the process classroom are aided to assume more responsibility as writers participating meaningfully in the process of their own learning. 4. Finally, pedagogical and methodological innovations can succeed in the Greek state school if they are carefully designed and applied in classroom.
Finally, further research is proposed in other learning environments, such as secondary schools and tertiary education, in order to validate the efficacy of process writing.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
References
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Anastasiadou, A. 2003. Improving the Teaching of Writing in the Greek State Primary Schools: Developing Supplementary Writing Materials for the Sixth Form Students. Unpublished MA Thesis, Hellenic Open University: Patras.
Anastasiadou, A. 2010. Implementing the Process Writing Approach in the English Language Classroom: An Innovation for the Development of Young Learners’ Writing Skills in the Greek State Primary School. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki: Thessaloniki.
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Reid, J. 1984b. The Radical Outliner and the Radical Brainstormer: A Perspective on Composing Processes. TESOL Quarterly, 18: 529-533.
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Appendix A
Marking scheme (Anastasiadou, 2010)
All four parts of message clearly Minor spelling and punctuation errors 10 communicated. Good organisation of ideas. which do not impede communication Fully coherent text. Simple connectors of meaning. Uses simple grammatical ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘because’ have been used. No structures correctly most of the times. effort is required by reader. Use of simple vocabulary that is in his/her range. All four parts of message communicated. Few spelling and punctuation errors 9 Good organisation of ideas. Coherent text. which do not distort meaning. Uses simple Simple and mostly correct connectors used. grammatical structures correctly but No effort is required by reader. occasionally mixes tenses and forgets agreement. Occasionally uses inappropriate words. All four parts of message attempted Some spelling and punctuation errors 8 or three parts of message are clearly which do not affect meaning seriously. communicated but one is unattempted. Uses simple grammatical structures but Quite good organisation of ideas. Coherent often mixes tenses and forgets agreement. text. Simple and mostly correct linking Repetition of vocabulary. words used. Minor effort required by reader. Only three parts of message attempted Some incorrect spelling and punctuation, 7 or two parts of message are clearly and simple grammatical structures with communicated but two are unattempted. a few errors which do not interfere with Quite good organisation of ideas. Fairly intelligibility seriously. Some incorrect coherent text. A few incorrect cohesive words. devices. Minor effort required by reader. Only two parts of message are adequately Some incorrect spelling and punctuation. 6 communicated. Fairly good organisation A few problematic grammatical structures. of ideas. Cohesion devices are sometimes Some incorrect vocabulary. These problems incorrect or inappropriate. A little effort partly affect intelligibility. may be required by reader. Only two parts of message communicated. Frequent spelling and punctuation errors 5 Somewhat disorganised ideas but the text which affect interpretation of meaning. is generally coherent. Frequently incorrect Frequent errors in grammar. Limited and inappropriate cohesive devices. A little vocabulary. effort is required by reader. Only one part of message communicated. Spelling, punctuation, grammar and 4 Poor sequencing of ideas. The text is vocabulary errors are frequent and parts mostly incoherent and the cohesion is very of the text are sometimes difficult to problematic. Considerable effort may be understand. required by reader. Question unsuccessfully attempted. Very Spelling, punctuation, grammar and 3 poor ordering of ideas. The text is mostly vocabulary errors are very frequent and a incoherent and the cohesion is seriously few parts of the text are unintelligible. problematic. Considerable effort is required by reader. Question unattempted. The reader must Spelling, punctuation, grammar and 2 rely on own interpretation. vocabulary errors are so severe that intelligibility is almost impossible. No response or scattered words. Intelligibility is impossible. 1
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Appendix B
Writing test (entry)
(Based on an idea by Anastasiadou, A. (2003) You are Dimitris. You live in Katerini. This is the beginning of the school year. Send a letter to your cousin George who lives in Boston with his family. Say: How you are and how you feel about the beginning of the school year. Where you went for holidays and what you did there. Ask: About his summer holidays. Start and finish your letter appropriately and at the end of your letter add something you have forgotten. Write up to 100 words.
Writing test (exit)
You are Dimitris. You live in Katerini. Your cousin George, who does not speak Greek well, lives in Boston with his family. This is the end of the school year. Send a letter to your cousin George. Write: How you are and how you feel about the end of the school year. Where you will go for holidays and what you will do there. Ask: Ask his plans about his summer holidays. Start and finish your letter appropriately and at the end of your letter add something you have forgotten. Write up to 100 words.
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3 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education An Etymo-Cognitive Approach to Modern Greek Vocabulary Learning1
Alejandro García Aragón
University of Granada [email protected]
Abstract
Modern Greek textbooks generally introduce new vocabulary in very short contexts or long lists, and only sometimes do they provide the etymology of the vocabulary in order to give meaning to these ‘empty’ words. The etymo-cognitive approach aims to systematise and make explicit the semantic information that goes unnoticed in words sharing the same etymon. This is achieved using widely known words in the learner’s mother tongue and by means of etymo-cognitive maps. These are graphical devices in which etymologically related words can be logically structured and grouped according to the activity, the course level, and the type of learners involved.
1. Introduction
The Structural Approach still predominates in standard textbooks addressed to Modern Greek (MG) learners. This approach was in fashion until the recent past: words and sentences were “presented and practised in a way which is intended best to help the learners to internalize them as forms containing meaning within themselves, as semantic capsules” (Widdowson 2002: 157). The assumption is that once learners have achieved this semantic knowledge through taught knowledge, they would be able to use it autonomously in communicative activities as in their mother tongue (L1). It goes without saying that words or phrases are easier to remember in context rather than as independent items (Robinson 2003). In an attempt to contextualize
1 This research has been carried out within the framework of the project RECORD: Representación del Conocimiento en Redes Dinámicas [Knowledge Representation in Dynamic Networks, FFI2011-22397], and supported by an FPU grant to the author (AP2009-4874), both funded by the Spanish Ministry for Science and Innovation.
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new lexical knowledge, MG vocabulary and its declensions, conjugations, and derivatives are generally learnt separately in very short contexts or simply out of context that students have to learn on their own account (cf. Ibáñez et al. 1997; Villar 1997). Some MG textbooks include texts which may be preceded or followed by a list of ‘unknown’ or new vocabulary. However, if the textbook contains a great number of lists, or if their texts become increasingly longer, learners may encounter obvious recall or motivation problems. Besides, if the items on the lists are ‘explained’ by means of synonyms, whether in MG or other languages, there is the risk of including words that are more obscure than the word(s) they intend to explain. Not every synonym, if more than one is included, is adequate in any context or even in the text in which the ‘explained’ words are inserted. This may lead learners to believe that they are simpler or interchangeable synonyms or equivalences which are valid in any context (Hurtado 2007: 51). Some textbooks provide complete linguistic information about each unknown word or idiom. However, this is not useful information for every student level, especially intermediate and advanced students who are supposed to have mastered the basic rules. Other textbooks divide vocabulary into parts of speech. This may be helpful at first, but there are more efficient ways of organising it; for example, introducing new vocabulary by relating it to Ancient Greek roots in order to give meaning to these ‘empty’ words. However, this is done rather vaguely and never systematically.
2. The Etymo-Cognitive Approach
The etymo-cognitive approach (ECA) is the result of qualitative research aiming to make explicit a type of semantic information that goes unnoticed in the process of learning MG as a second language (L2), while improving traditional MG learning methods. This approach is based on both the internal and external structure of MG, i.e. roots or etymons2 and their word-forms or derivatives. A large part of the Ancient Greek lexicon from around 800 BC has survived in MG. It has undergone very few changes, especially from around 330 BC on (from
2 By etymons and roots we mean complete words or isolated morphemes or letter strings which carry and transmit a basic or core concept(s) to other directly or indirectly related words, morphemes or letter strings, thus creating ‘families’ that can be normally identified by orthographical patterns. These core concepts are generally transmitted from etymon to etymon generally through metaphor, metonymy, derivation, analogy, and other cognitive and linguistic processes.
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Koine or ‘Common’ Greek), preserving and adapting its high morpheme-per-word ratio. The MG percentage of ‘derivativeness’ (or derivational synthesis) is thus higher than in other languages (cf. Rodríguez Adrados 1999; Polychrou 1997). As a consequence, the great number of derivatives is one of the most difficult obstacles a MG learner must overcome, as well as an ancient and apparently irrational orthography. However, this is only apparent because the greater the number of etymologically-related lexical units, the easier it is to group them. Due to MG iotacism and other phonological phenomena, many words may sound similar, and similar-sounding words interfere with recall (Baddeley & Hitch 1974 apud Randall 2007: 17). For instance, the word/etymon hypothesis = υπόθεση (from υπό ‘sub’ + θέση ‘position’), is pronounced /ipóθesi/. If the learner is to write down the word, there are several phonetically correct but orthographically incorrect ways to write it: ιπόθεσι, ειπόθεση, υπώθεσι, υπώθαισι, ιπώθεσυ, ηπόθαισει, υπόθεση.... However, only the last one is orthographically correct, and it is semantically motivated and relegates this word to a specific family. This identification is easier in some languages (e.g. English, French, German) than others (e.g. Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Romanian) due to their orthographical systems. Even if users of the second group of languages knew the Greek origin of hypothesis, they would not know if the first i corresponds to an upsilon (υ), if the t corresponds to a theta (θ), and they may even wonder if the z in Romanian or s in Italian corresponds to a sigma (σ) or a zeta (ζ). Thus, knowledge of English and/or French is extremely useful when learning the orthography of a new MG word, since it would be easier for the learner to identify, retain, and thus transcribe and spell MG words/etymons. As a result, the learner’s L1 lexicon coming from Greek etymons can be easily identified and thus exploited in order to improve mnemonics. According to Goswami et al. (1997), the transparency of MG orthography may facilitate the recognition of smaller units within words. Our approach is based on the assumption that these smaller units frequently bear the same, or nearly the same, implicit semantic information. The shared semantic information between each etymon and its derivatives is made explicit through their orthography. For instance, ‘lunch’ (μεσημεριανό) is pragmatically and etymologically related to when it is eaten: ‘noon’ (μεσημέρι, from μέση ‘middle’ + ημέρα ‘day’). Roughly, the ancient word ημέρα (‘day’) is found in many other MG words, such as ημερήσιος, καθημερινός, ισημερινός, μεσημέρι, μεσημεριανό, ευημερία, εφημερίδα, πενθήμερο, καλημέρα, σήμερα, ενημερώνω, εφήμερος, ημερομηνία, ημερολόγιο, etc. Initially, their corresponding meanings may not be interrelated in the learner’s L1 vocabulary: daily, everyday, equator, noon, lunch, prosperity, newspaper, five-day, good morning, today, to update, ephemeral, date, calendar, etc. Nevertheless, there is a semantic relation to the concept day in these terms that is not evident in English. This phenomenon is more prominent in MG than in other languages, and we believe it should be structured and exploited for both natives and learners.
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Instead of taking MG etymology from a strict point of view, this approach takes advantage of widely known words in the learner’s L1 whose etymons come from Ancient Greek roots (as with most European languages) and which are still used in MG. Thus, the learner’s previous knowledge is transformed and re-directed in order to extract and underscore any shared meaning between the learner’s L1 and MG. In a nutshell, the ECA is based on both the internal (semantic) and external (orthographical) structure of MG, and more specifically on the following assumptions: • MG has a higher percentage of ‘derivativeness’ (or derivational synthesis) in its lexical units than other languages; • MG derivativeness implies having a greater number of etymologically related lexical units than in other languages; • MG roots/etymons and their derivatives share at least a pattern-related orthography, and thus they can be grouped orthographically; • MG derivatives frequently bear the same, or nearly the same, implicit semantic information through their etymons and their orthography, and thus can also be grouped semantically. Graphical representations of mental models are based on categorization and are implemented in the etymo-linguistically motivated cognitive maps or etymo-cognitive maps (ECMs) proposed in section 4.
3. Theoretical Underpinnings
The ECA integrates part of the experientialist approach of Johnson (1987), Lakoff (1987) and Langacker (1987). Experientialism considers that language is based on the human experience of the real world, and thus language is seen as a tool of human cognition in order to convey meaning. Humans conventionalize and store cognitive categories in their brain, which constitutes the mental lexicon (Ungerer & Schmid 1996: 38). Categorization is thus the basis for linguistic comprehension and production. Since categories are dynamic and are the basis for language, language itself is inherently symbolic and contextual. In turn, there is ambiguity between cognitive and linguistic categories because they are structured according to prototypical relations and family resemblances, consisting of more or less prototypical members of idealized cognitive models, i.e. schematic simplifications and understandings of the real world as perceived by humans (Lakoff 1982: 165). It goes without saying that categorization and memory are highly interdependent facets of cognition (Heit 1997: 30). One important function of categorization is allowing inductive inferences or predictions about additional features (ibid.), and discovering hidden ‘systematicity’ in instances of apparent
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chaos or randomness (Lakoff 1987: 96). In this case, these ideas are applied to MG etymons/headwords of ECMs (central members of a map) and to prefi xes, suffi xes and other morphological changes or rules (which are the forms/shapes in which other family members are linked to the central members). Multidimensionality or poly-dimensionality (cf. Bowker 1997; Kageura 1997, inter al.) then arises when there are various possibilities of classifying the same concept into the same conceptual system, which is the case for VEHICLE (Figure 1):
Figure 1. A multidimensional classifi cation for vehicle (adapted from Bowker 1997: 17; Faber & Jiménez 2004: 71)
The concept caR is thus represented from three points of view or dimensions. D1: medium of transportation, which categorizes caR as a land VeHicle; D2: type of propulsion, which categorizes caR as a MotoRiZed VeHicle; and D3: type of load, as a PaSSenGeR VeHicle. Our approach was heavily infl uenced by this notion, but also by the concept of graded structure (Barsalou 1987), which refers to a continuum of category representativeness, “beginning with the most typical members of a category and continuing through its atypical members to those nonmembers least similar to category members” (ibid.). Graded structure is central to predicting ease of category learning, with typical exemplars being easier to acquire than atypical exemplars (e.g. Rosch 1973, 1975, 1978; Mervis & Pani 1980; Rosch,
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Simpson & Miller 1976). In the following example, there is a graded structure of prototypicality of birds, from the most typical (robin, sparrow) to the most atypical exemplars (penguin, ostrich):
Figure 2. Prototype theory example: birdiness ranking (Hatch & Brown 1995: 58; Aitchison 2003: 54)
Graded structure goes hand in hand with conceptual salience and Relevance Theory (Sperber & Wilson 1986), which argues that an assumption is irrelevant in a context to the extent that the eff ort required to process it in this context is large. Moreover, what you remember well depends heavily on the context in which you are exposed to it, how relevant it is to your life. This is why typical or almost universal Greek-rooted words in the learner’s L1 should be included as the main infographical object of each etymo-cognitive map as symbolic units in a chain of family resemblance, multidimensionality, and prototypicality. According to Nuopponen (apud Rogers 2004: 216), conceptual systems can be organized into three types: hierarchical, sequential and heterarchical. Rogers argues that the latter is a formal organisation of connected nodes (MG symbolic units), without any single permanent uppermost node (headwords in ECMs). This means that heterarchical systems are a type of interconnected and alternating
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instantaneous hierarchical conceptual systems, in the way that an ECM can behave. Our premise is that heterarchy depends on a situated-contextualized purpose-based conceptualization (Barsalou 2005). In this way, the permanence of a specific uppermost node or concept (etymon, headword of an ECM) depends on the situated knowledge purpose (task, exam, knowledge field, type of learner, etc.). The interrelated cognitive abilities of category learning, inductive reasoning, and memory are significantly guided by people’s background knowledge, including both specific knowledge and more general principles (Heit 1997: 33). With this in mind, representation and multidimensionality depend on who is classifying. Therefore, it is not surprising that different types of users may use different criteria to classify the same domain or knowledge node (Picht & Draskau 1985: 48 apud Rogers 2004: 219). According to Armstrong (2006: 31), learners have different intelligences or minds which can be developed and work jointly. This multiplicity of intelligences was explored as early as 1983 by Gardner, who initially established eight basic intelligences that everyone possesses in a unique way (Sygmund 2006: 35). Among these intelligences, or minds (Gardner 2008), the most important for our approach is the linguistic intelligence. This is vital in order to master MG vocabulary, declensions, orthography, and etymology, the most challenging parts for most learners. This kind of intelligence can benefit from ECMs as tools to organize and interrelate a substantial amount of linguistic information. In the process of structuring an ECM, the logical-mathematical type of learner can also benefit from considering etymons as meaningful symbols that can be logically structured. One of the most attractive features of ECMs is that they can integrate different colours, lines, shapes, space, and relations among them, and people with a prominent spatial intelligence have a special sensitivity to them. Besides, the emotional type of learner can benefit from choosing which kind of ECM suits best his personal interests or style (Gardner apud Armstrong 2006: 18-22; Robinson 2003; Sygmund 2006). Moreover, the ECA is backed up by computational lexical access models. Following Forster’s search model, each headword or head-concept of each ECM becomes a recognizable symbol that triggers at least three different codes, modules or access files to the master file, which is the mental lexicon. These access files (i.e. orthographic, phonological, syntactic-semantic files) are arranged in our mind in order of decreasing frequency and recent activation (cf. Forster’s search model 1976, 1979, 1994 apud Randall 2007). The orthographic file is a crucial concept for our approach, since it is a starting point for the recognition of etymons, which are considered here as letter strings which bear a basic sense that relates every word that contains it. These files or codes are linked and interact also in other word recognition theories, such as Seidenberg and McClelland’s 1989 Triangle Model. According
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 3 9 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
to these authors, there are three basic principles that need to be mastered by learners of English: a) The alphabetic principle, which states that “there are systematic correspondences between the spoken and written forms of words” (Seidenberg & McClelland 1989: 524). This principle can be fully applied to MG, since these correspondences are more systematic than in English. b) The orthographic redundancy principle, which states that not all combinations of the letters of the alphabet are equally permissible. In MG, for instance, “ηση” is more common than “τμη”, whereas “υυε” does not exist. This principle is very interesting for the ECA because it establishes whether a word belongs to the natural system of a language, and determines its frequency and recognisability of etymons. c) The morphological redundancy principle, which states that not all combinations of the morphemes of a language are “equally permissible”. This is also useful for our word recognition and the abundant derivative processes in MG. For example, the morpheme “ως” may follow roots like “κακός”, and never the other way around. Whereas single-route models like this assume that both regular and irregular morphology are processed by a single mechanism, dual-route models hold that morphologically regular words are processed by rules of inflectional concatenation, whereas irregular words are thought to be stored as wholes and can be accessed from lexical memory, such as Coltheart’s et al. 2001 dual route model of “visual word recognition and reading aloud”. Taft and Foster (1975 apud Randall 2007: 108) also argue that there is economy of storage involved in a morphological (root + affix) storage system. Regular derivatives are thus omitted in our approach, since they are stored as ‘rules’, not as ‘lexicon’. On the contrary, irregular words or etymons are highlighted in order to help store them as ‘wholes’ and so that they may be accessed from lexical memory.
4. Etymo-Cognitive Maps
Etymo-cognitive maps (ECMs) are one of the most efficient implementations of the ECA. These are infographical maps in which the mentioned concept- term relations can be logically structured in word clusters of etymologically related words. ECMs thus become representations of the individual’s specific lexical structuring and understanding of a language, and are based on ad hoc categorizations and motivations. These maps are always heterarchical, and can be mono-, bi-, or multilingual depending on the learner’s background and objectives, and the organization of ECMs is flexible and dynamic depending on the activity, the course level and the type of learner involved.
4 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Alejandro García Aragón
ECMs cannot be domain-derived since they do not represent the relations shared by concepts in a specific (sub-)domain or event. Instead, ECMs represent a specific common meaning shared by the representation of different concepts. The main constraint is directionality, which must be from MG to the learner’s L1. However, ECMs can be goal- and user-derived, as well as in continuous development. We believe ECMs are a mnemonic improvement at various levels of knowledge-oriented and mental lexicon-inspired representations of the general lexicon of a language. ECMs are useful in highlighting the abstract sense relations between lexical items, and thus can be used as frames of reference when comparing the learner’s L1 and MG. Moreover, even though each infographical element or object seems to be isolated words or pairs of word-and-equivalent, this is far from being the whole story. Each object in each infographical node carries general intra- or interlinguistic relations (whose guiding thread are MG semes), thus helping learners establish subliminal ‘equivalences’ as well as ‘differences’ (because not every object must, or rather can, contain multilingual relations). Semantic relations cannot be considered as a matter of objective truth, but instead as a matter of users’ idiosyncratic mental representations of language, and processes involving them, and thus are not necessarily fixed in our minds but can be generated as needed (cf. Murphy 2003: 5, 42). In ECMs, the main semantic load is carried by and etymologically related to the head-concept/word. Then, this relation can be structured or grouped by any other relation(s), such as
part_of_speech: verb / adjective / noun, etc. has_high / medium / low: frequency_in / relevance_for / number_of_derivatives, etc. has_suffixes / prefixes / no_affixes has_the_same_suffix / prefix_as is_antonym / synonym_of belongs_to > domain: GEOGRAPHY, MEDICINE, PHYSICS, etc. belongs_to > (sub)language: dialect / jargon / Ancient Greek / region, etc.
These relations can be explicit or implicit in the maps. We recommend each ECM be provided with an archi-lexeme or headword in MG that should comply with the basic cognitive level requirements (Kleiber 1990: 84-87). According to this author, the basic level words are rapidly identified because they are linked to a simple and global idea; these words are generally short, frequently used words, and thus they belong to neutral contexts, contain a great amount of information, and are easier to process. Moreover, prototypical categories can be fully developed from the basic level to the superordinate and
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 4 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
subordinate levels (Ungerer & Schmid 1996: 72). Therefore, each headword of an ECM should: • be the nearest MG lexical unit to the general concept that the etymon evokes: e.g. preferably clinic to clinometer; • have a typical equivalent/counterpart in the learner’s L1, which is the case for clinic. • be a complete MG lexical unit/etymon, not an isolated prefix or suffix (e.g. preferably starting with clinic/κλινική and continuing with -κλιν/ο-, but never starting with συν-, απο- or -ηση). • be the shortest MG lexical unit with that etymon (e.g. preferably clinic to polyclinical). According to Baddeley and Hitch (1974 apud Randall 2007: 17), the word length effect shows that memory is better for short words than long words.
Accordingly, we also recommend that each etymologically related word: • be less frequent than the headword; • be preferably longer than the headword; • have a higher degree of specificity than the headword, and thus less easily recognised by learners; • be complete lexical units/etymons, not an isolated prefix or suffix.
4.1. Creating an ECM
When it comes to creating an ECM, e.g., for the etymon -κλιν-, we could start by taking the almost universally salient Greek-rooted word clinic (κλινική) (Figure 7). This word is also shared by other languages such as English, Spanish, French, etc. In order not to miss all relevant words related to this specific etymon, a thorough analysis of a comprehensive mono- or bilingual dictionary of MG is extremely useful. A quick way of having a list of words containing that etymon is by consulting the Αναστασιάδη-Συμεωνίδη’s Reverse Dictionary Online. Through a simple search of the letter strings %κλιν% (Figure 3) and %κλίν% (Figure 4), we obtain an alphabetical word list. These word lists are then analyzed in order to dismiss any word not including typical concepts evoked by -κλιν-: inclination, declination, bed. Then, the resulting words can be individually checked against the web in order to see their frequency or relevance, in order to discard other words which are not found in current MG texts. Dictionaries and the web can also be consulted in order to add definitions, alternative senses or frequent collocations. Monolingual dictionaries online, such as Τριανταφυλλίδης On-Line (Figure 5), are quite useful. However, paper dictionaries are strongly recommended, such as Μπαμπινιώτης, in which a great amount of compounds and derivatives are provided (Figure 6).
4 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Alejandro García Aragón
Figure 3. List of words sharing the letter string -κλιν- (Αναστασιάδη-Συμεωνίδη’s Reverse Dictionary)
Figure 4. List of words sharing the letter string -κλίν- (Αναστασιάδη-Συμεωνίδη’s Reverse Dictionary)
Figure 5. Entry example for On-Line) κλινική (Τριανταφυλλίδης
The teacher or learner can draw and distribute the final word list according to different criteria or dimensions: e.g. typicality or salience, derivative formation (prefixes, suffixes), word types, semantic criteria, etc. In Figure 7, the semantic and formal resemblance of the words clinic, clínica and κλινική was considered a relevant symbolic unit in order to become a
headword. Each infographical object derived from the central nodes (κλινική, κλίνη) is a representation of concepts in a family resemblance context. A clinic is a place where beds can be found and, not surprisingly, the Greek etymon of κλινική (clinic) is again etymologically related to the concept bed, which, in turn, is best expressed as κλίνη (the second central infographical object), which is the learned word for bed.
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Figure 6. From Μπαμπινιώτης’ Λεξικό της Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, Β’ Έκδοση 2005: 906
Figure 7. ECM of L1 word clinic (κλινική) and an etymologically related MG word (κλίνη)
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Alejandro García Aragón
In the case of κλινική, on the left-hand side, the main criteria for derivatives were prefixes αστυ-,( πολυ-, προ-) and suffixes (-άρχης/-άρχισσα). These derivatives are grouped semantically in terms of space and colour, thus becoming sub- nodes with related words or expressions of their own (marked with arrows). The majority of these conceptual objects also contains English and Spanish equivalents to facilitate the comprehension of the readers, not to be learnt as the only possible equivalents. The MG learner or teacher can add frequent collocations or phrases, such as private clinic, psychiatric clinic, university clinic, and other uses of the same form κλινική, shifted from noun to adjective in clinical medicine (κλινική ιατρική). Of course, this distribution of the nodes is dynamic. Categories, collocations, positions and colours can be goal-derived or even ad hoc, i.e. not well-established in memory but are instead newly created to achieve a novel goal (Barsalou 1985, 1983 apud Barsalou 1987). The goal of the ECM in Figure 7 is to show the relation potential of a learned word, such as κλίνη in everyday words such as μονόκλινο, δίκλινο, τρίκλινο, etc. In the context of “booking a hotel room in Greece” these words are commonplace. It goes without saying that each ECM could be extended with proverbs or more specific sub-headwords, or be reused for different tasks. For example, Figure 7 can serve as an introduction to medical terminology in MG. Markers such as ΛΟΓ. (learned term/expression) and ΙΑΤΡ. (medical term/expression) were added. The common word for bed in MG, however, is κρε(β)βάτι, which could be the headword of another unrelated ECM. In addition to this, colours are a useful tool to express or highlight semantic or derivative relations, new attributes, or values to the headword (cf. Hampton and Dubois 1993: 15). For example, in Figures 7 and 8 colours were used to point out which items were more relevant for the task of the lesson.
Figure 8. ECM of the etymon -κλιν/ο-, etymologically-related to κλινη
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In Figure 8, the etymological relation of etymon -κλιν/ο- with κλίνη and κλινικη is expressed with a dotted line. This indicates that, even though the same etymon can be found in most objects of Figure 7, the semantic content varies from bed to inclination. We believe this semantic distribution is more useful than the strictly etymological one from Μπαμπινιώτης (Figure 6). In order to avoid confusion, we recommend these items be grouped separately. In contrast with popular words (ΔΗΜ.) in Figure 7, almost all derivatives of this etymon are rather learned (ΛΟΓ.) or belong to a specific domain, such as anatomy, archaeology, architecture, geology, navigation, technology, and physics. These domains are marked in Greek capitals (ΑΝΑΤ., ΑΡΧ., ΑΡΧΙΤ., ΔΗΜ., ΓΕΩΛ., ΓΡΑΜΜ., ΛΟΓ., ΝΑΥΤ., ΤΕΧ., ΦΥΣ.).
5. Conclusions and Future Research
It goes without saying that a great part of MG etymons and lexicon has spread to almost all Occidental languages. As a result, the learner’s L1 lexicon coming from Greek etymons can be easily identified and thus exploited. The ECA takes advantage of the learner’s previous knowledge in order to provide meaning, prototypicality, and family resemblance to ‘empty’ words3, ‘irrational’ orthography and ‘isolated’ expressions. Since a great amount of MG words are related to each other both semantically and orthographically, they can be grouped and structured so that they can be retrieved more easily, as proposed in our ECMs. While elaborating an ECM, learners get involved in a challenging purpose that makes vocabulary items clearer according to their own needs and intelligences. Learners are drawn into participation in order to find rules, central nodes and family resemblances on their own: How are these words/concepts related? How can I relate them in order to retrieve them best according to my needs and background? Can I find a rule or do I have to learn these items independently? The outcome of this reasoning is a pictorial or diagrammatical device which, in turn, can be re-used for learning and refreshing already controlled information. Future research will explore feasible applications of ECMs in lexicography.
3 I.e. words that initially appear to be semantically void or obscure to a layperson, but in fact are not if their morphology and etymology are examined.
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References
Aitchison, J. 2003. Words in the mind. An introduction to the mental lexicon. 3rd edition (1st edition 1987). Oxford and New York: Blackwell.
Armstrong, T. 2006. Inteligencias múltiples en el aula. Guía práctica para educadores. Barcelona: Paidós.
Barsalou, L.W. 1987. The instability of graded structure: Implications for the nature of concepts. In U. Neisser (ed.), Concepts and conceptual development: Ecological and intellectual factors in categorization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 101-140.
Barsalou, L.W. 2005. Situated conceptualization. In H. Cohen and C. Lefebvre (eds.), Handbook of categorization in cognitive science. St. Louis: Elsevier, 619-650.
Bowker, L. 1997. Multidimensional classification of concepts and terms. In S.E. Wright and G. Budin (eds.), Handbook of Terminology Management: Basic Aspects of Terminology Management. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 133- 143.
Faber, P. and C. Jiménez Hurtado. 2004. Traducción, lenguaje y cognición. Granada: Comares.
Gardner, H. 2008. Las cinco mentes del futuro. Barcelona: Paidós.
Goswami, U., C. Porpodas and S. Wheelwright. 1997. Children’s orthographic representations in English and Greek. European Journal of Psychology of Education 12(3): 273-292.
Hampton, J. and D. Dubois. 1993. Psychological Models of Concepts: Introduction. In I. Van Mechelen, J. Hampton, R.S. Michalski and P. Theuns (eds.), Categories and
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Concepts. Theoretical Views and Inductive Data Analysis. San Diego: Academic Press.
Hatch, E. and C. Brown. 1995. Vocabulary, semantics, and language education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Heit, E. 1997. Knowledge and Concept Learning. In K. Lamberts and D. Shanks (eds.), Knowledge, concepts, and categories. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
Hurtado Albir, A. 2007. Traducción y traductología. Introducción a la traductología. Madrid: Cátedra.
Ibáñez, M.E., J.L. Casado and A. Masiá (1997). Estudio metodológico del griego moderno como lengua extranjera. In M. Morfakidis and I. García Gálvez (eds.), Estudios Neogriegos en España e Iberoamérica. Granada: Athos-Pérgamos, Fundación de la Cultura Helénica, Sociedad Hispánica de Estudios Neogriegos, 107-113.
Johnson, M. 1987. The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imagination, and reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kageura, K. 1997. Multifaceted/Multidimensional concept systems. In S.E. Wright and G. Budin (eds.), Handbook of Terminology Management: Basic Aspects of Terminology Management. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 119-132.
Kleiber, G. 1990. La sémantique du prototype. Paris: P.U.F.
Lakoff, G. 1982. Categories and Cognitive Models. Cognitive Science Program, Institute of Cognitive Studies, Berkeley: University of California.
Lakoff, G. 1987.Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. What Categories reveal about the Mind. Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press.
Langacker, R.W. 1987. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar Vol. 1: Theoretical Prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Mervis, C.B. and J.R. Pani. 1980. Acquisition of Basic Object Categories. Cognitive Psychology 12: 496-522.
Murphy, M.L. 2003. Semantic Relations and the Lexicon. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
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Picht, H. and J. Draskau. 1985. Terminology: An Introduction. Guildford: University of Surrey.
Polychrou, T. 1997. Aprendizaje y aplicación. Selección metodológica en la didáctica del griego moderno. In M. Morfakidis and I. García Gálvez (eds.), Estudios Neogriegos en España e Iberoamérica. Granada: Athos-Pérgamos, Fundación de la Cultura Helénica, Sociedad Hispánica de Estudios Neogriegos, 125-128.
Randall, M. 2007. Memory, Psychology and Second Language Learning. John Benjamins: Amsterdam / Philadelphia.
Robinson, D. 2003. Becoming a Translator: An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Translation. London: Routledge.
Rodríguez Adrados, F. 1999. Historia de la lengua griega: de los orígenes a nuestros días. Madrid: Gredos.
Rogers, M. 2004. Multidimensionality in concepts systems: a bilingual textual perspective. Terminology 10(2): 215-240.
Rosch, E. 1973. On the Internal Structure of Perceptual and Semantic Categories. In T.E. Moore (ed.), Cognitive Development and the Acquisition of Language. New York: Academic Press, 111-144.
Rosch, E. and C.B. Mervis. 1975. Family Resemblances. Studies in the Internal Structure of Categories. Cognitive Psychology 1: 573-605.
Rosch, E., C. Simpson and R.S. Miller. 1976. Structural Bases of Typicality Effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 2(4): 491-502.
Seidenberg, M.S. and J.L. McClelland. 1989. A Distributed, Developmental Model of Word Recognition and Naming. Psychological Review 96: 523-568.
Sperber, D. and D. Wilson. 1986. Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Oxford: Blackwell.
Sygmund, D. 2006. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences and its Influence on our Learning and Teaching. In A.J. Moya Guijarro, J.I. Albentosa Hernández, C. Harris (coords.), La enseñanza de las lenguas extranjeras en el Marco Europeo. Cuenca: Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha.
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Ungerer, F. and H.-J. Schmid. 1996. An introduction to cognitive linguistics. London: Longman.
Villar Lecumberri, A. 1997. Διδακτικά μέσα στο μάθημα της Νέας Ελληνικής γλώσσας: εικόνα και λόγια. In M. Morfakidis and I. García Gálvez (eds.), Estudios Neogriegos en España e Iberoamérica. Granada: Athos-Pérgamos, Fundación de la Cultura Helénica, Sociedad Hispánica de Estudios Neogriegos, 115-123.
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Dictionaries
Αναστασιάδη-Συμεωνίδη. Αντίστροφο λεξικό. http://www.greek-language.gr/ greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/reverse/
Μαγκρίδης, Α. and P. Olalla. 2006. Το νέο ελληνοισπανικό λεξικό - El nuevo diccionario griego-español.
Μπαμπινιώτης, Γ. 2005 [1998]. Λεξικό της νέας ελληνικής γλώσσας. Αθήνα: Κέντρο Λεξικολογίας.
Τριανταφυλλίδης On-Line. Λεξικό της κοινής νεοελληνικής. http://www.greek- language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/triantafyllides/
5 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Η λαϊκή, η ταβέρνα, τα Χριστούγεννα και… ο Σεφέρης ή η θεματολογία των κειμένων στα εγχειρίδια διδασκαλίας της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας
Βασιλική Γιαννακού
Εθνικό και Καποδιστριακό Πανεπιστήμιο Αθηνών [email protected]
Abstract
This paper deals with the topics and the content of the texts which are included in the most widely used coursebooks of Modern Greek as a foreign language. It depicts the variety of thematic areas and also focuses on thematic deficiencies. Furthermore, it compares the frequency of particular topics which appear in coursebooks with the students’ preferences and their learning expectations. Finally, the paper formulates conclusions and specific proposals about teaching Reading Comprehension through L2 texts and also about creating and reshaping text material of coursebooks of Modern Greek as a foreign language.
1. Εισαγωγή: Ο ρόλος των εγχειριδίων, της κατανόησης γραπτού λόγου και του κειμένου στη διδασκαλία της ξένης γλώσσας
Τα εγχειρίδια, αποτελούν σημαντικά εργαλεία γλωσσικής κατάκτησης της ξένης γλώσσας (Tomlinson 2001: 67) και ταυτόχρονα συμβάλλουν στο γνωστικό, πολιτισμικό, ψυχολογικό και - σε ορισμένες περιπτώσεις- στον ηθικό και τον διαπροσωπικό εμπλουτισμό των μαθητών, διαμορφώνοντας ως ένα βαθμό την κοινωνική και την πολιτισμική ταυτότητά τους (Tomlinson 2001: 67, Kramsch 2000, Arikian 2008: 72). Κύρια, ωστόσο, χρησιμότητά τους παραμένει η συμβολή τους στην ανάπτυξη των γλωσσικών δεξιοτήτων και ιδιαίτερα της Κατανόησης Γραπτού Λόγου (ΚΓΛ), η οποία συνιστά ενεργή μαθησιακή διαδικασία και πολύτιμο διδακτικό εργαλείο και για τους δύο πόλους της διδακτικής πράξης, τόσο για τον δάσκαλο όσο και για τον μαθητή (Κοντός κ.ά. 2002). Οι Lynch & Hudson (1991) και ο Arkian (2008) θεωρούν την ΚΓΛ, εξαιρετικά σημαντική, ίσως την πιο σημαντική από τις τέσσερις δεξιότητες για την εκμάθηση της ξένης γλώσσας. Πρόκειται για μια διαδικασία διαρκούς αλληλεπίδρασης ανάμεσα στο
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 5 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
κείμενο και τον αναγνώστη, (Grellet 1981), η οποία προϋποθέτει και εμπλέκει μια ποικιλία δεξιοτήτων και οδηγεί στην ερμηνεία του κειμένου πέρα από το ίδιο, δηλαδή στη σχέση του με τον κόσμο (Nuttall 1982: 21-22). Η σημασία της ΚΓΛ ενισχύεται και από τον αναβαθμισμένο ρόλο του κειμένου γενικά στη διδασκαλία της ξένης γλώσσας. Ειδικότερα στα εγχειρίδια, το κείμενο έχει αντικαταστήσει -σύμφωνα με τις αρχές των νεότερων διδακτικών μεθόδων και κυρίως της Επικοινωνιακής- την πρόταση ως βάση ανάλυσης και διδασκαλίας της γλώσσας και πλέον αυτό εξοικειώνει τον μαθητή με τα φαινόμενα και τις μορφές της. Συνεπώς, έχει τοποθετηθεί στο κέντρο της διδασκαλίας της ξένης γλώσσας και λειτουργεί ως πυρήνας των δραστηριοτήτων, αλλά και ως άξονας ανάπτυξης όλων των γλωσσικών δεξιοτήτων, κυρίως όμως της ΚΓΛ. Τέλος, το κείμενο στα σύγχρονα εγχειρίδια συνδυάζει την ήδη υπάρχουσα γνώση με τη νέα, αναδιαμορφώνοντας συνεχώς τη σχέση του μαθητή με την ξένη γλώσσα και τον κόσμο (Nuttall 1982; Kramsch 2000; Wallace 2001).
2. Αρχές για την επιλογή κειμένων για ΚΓΛ στη Γ2
Η καταλληλότητα ενός κειμένου για την εξάσκηση της δεξιότητας της ΚΓΛ στην ξένη γλώσσα είναι συνάρτηση της ύπαρξης συγκεκριμένων χαρακτηριστικών, τα οποία ακολουθούν τις παρακάτω αρχές (Nuttal 1982: 25; Day 1994; Berardo 2006): α Αναγνωσιμότητα: Σύμφωνα με αυτή την αρχή, το κείμενο πρέπει να διαθέτει λεξιλογική και γραμματική καταλληλότητα, συγκροτημένη εσωτερική οργάνωση, σωστό βαθμό δυσκολίας ανάλογα με το επίπεδο γλωσσικής κατάκτησης για το οποίο προορίζεται, καθώς και κατάλληλη έκταση και μορφή. β. Εκμεταλλευσιμότητα: Το κείμενο πρέπει να ενδείκνυται για την εξάσκηση στις γραμματικές μορφές, στην επικοινωνιακή χρήση της γλώσσας, αλλά και για άλλες δραστηριότητες, όπως π.χ. σύγκριση των νέων πληροφοριών με τις ήδη γνωστές. γ. Καταλληλότητα περιεχομένου: Το κείμενο πρέπει να περιέχει νέο λεξιλόγιο, νέες, μη γνωστές πληροφορίες και ιδέες για τους φυσικούς ομιλητές της Γ2 και τον κόσμο γενικά, να παρέχει ανανεωμένα μαθησιακά κίνητρα στο μαθητή και να είναι κατάλληλο κοινωνικά και πολιτισμικά. Τα χαρακτηριστικά αυτά μπορούν να θεωρηθούν ως αρχές επιλογής των κειμένων που προορίζονται για διδακτικό υλικό της ΚΓΛ, αφού καθορίζουν αποφασιστικά τη μορφή και το περιεχόμενό τους.
3. Κριτήρια για την επιλογή του θέματος των κειμένων για ΚΓΛ στη Γ2
Η επιλογή ενός κειμένου για ΚΓΛ στη Γ2 πρέπει, επιπλέον, να ικανοποιεί τουλάχιστον έναν από τους δύο βασικούς στόχους της ανάγνωσης: την πληροφόρηση και/ή την
5 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Βασιλική Γιαννακού
ευχαρίστηση. Συνεπώς, σημαντικό ρόλο παίζει η επιλογή του θέματος του κειμένου, η οποία καθορίζεται από τα ακόλουθα κριτήρια (Krashen 1981; Dubin 1986; Grellet 1981; Williams 1986; Davoudi 2005): α. Προηγούμενη γνώση του θέματος: διευκολύνει και εμβαθύνει τη διαδικασία της κατανόησης. Η γνώση μπορεί να ‘οικοδομηθεί’ κατά τη διδασκαλία της Γ2 τόσο με την ανάγνωση ενός θέματος σε βάθος όσο και με την παρουσίαση πολλών κειμένων με το ίδιο θέμα. β. Ενδιαφέρον: διακρίνεται σε ατομικό και καταστασιακό και είναι το στοιχείο που οδηγεί τον αναγνώστη σε σχέση αλληλεξάρτησης με το κείμενο και σχετίζεται άμεσα με τα κίνητρά του. Κατά τη διδασκαλία μπορεί να ενισχυθεί με την ποικιλία θεμάτων, καθώς και με ειδικές τεχνικές παρουσίασης. γ. Πληροφοριακό περιεχόμενο: σχετίζεται με την ποσότητα και την πυκνότητα των πληροφοριών και είναι απαραίτητο για την ενεργοποίηση του ενδιαφέροντος και τη σύνδεση με την προηγούμενη γνώση.
Ειδικότερα, για την επιλογή κειμένων με στόχο την ένταξή τους στα εγχειρίδια της Γ2, πρέπει, επιπλέον, τα κείμενα να χαρακτηρίζονται από τα εξής: α. Να διαθέτουν τίτλο ο οποίος να αποκαλύπτει σε μεγάλο βαθμό το θέμα τους. β. Να συμβάλλουν στην εξέλιξη της γλωσσικής κατάκτησης και να δίνουν κίνητρα, για να εμπλακεί ο μαθητής ενεργά στη μαθησιακή διαδικασία. γ. Να πληροφορούν τον μαθητή, καθώς και να του δημιουργούν συναισθήματα και να τον διασκεδάζουν.
Σύμφωνα με τους Carrell (1984), Williams (1986), Swan (2003) και Norton (2005) είναι δυνατό οι μαθητές να επιλέξουν τα θέματα των κειμένων που θα διδαχθούν ή και ολόκληρα κείμενα- για ΚΓΛ, πάντα, όμως, με την εποπτεία του διδάσκοντος. Προκειμένου για την επιλογή των θεμάτων των κειμένων, είναι χρήσιμο οι διδάσκοντες, αλλά και οι συγγραφείς εγχειριδίων να συμβουλεύονται τα αναλυτικά προγράμματα, τα οποία, εκτός από τις κατευθύνσεις που δίνουν για τη διδασκαλία της γραμματικής, της συντακτικής δομής και των λειτουργιών της γλώσσας, προτείνουν και νοηματικούς-θεματικούς άξονες για την οργάνωση της διδασκαλίας του λεξιλογίου. Στην παρούσα έρευνα η εξέταση του θεματικού περιεχομένου των εγχειριδίων στηρίχτηκε στο Αναλυτικό Πρόγραμμα για τη Διδασκαλία της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας σε Ενηλίκους για το Επίπεδο Επάρκειας (Κοντός κ.ά 2002) και στο αντίστοιχο για το προχωρημένο επίπεδο (Ιακώβου & Μπέλλα 2004). Βασικές έννοιες-άξονες των θεμάτων θεωρούνται η ύπαρξη, η κτήση, ο χώρος, ο χρόνος, η ποσότητα, η ποιότητα, η σκέψη, η συσχέτιση και με βάση αυτές προτείνονται οι εξής θεματικές περιοχές: α. Στοιχεία ταυτότητας (οικογενειακή ζωή, διαμονή σε ένα τόπο, θρησκεία, ηλικία, επαγγελματική κατάσταση, εξωτερική εμφάνιση, χαρακτήρας). β. Κατοικία-διαμονή (το περιβάλλον, το σπίτι ως χώρος, οι εσωτερικοί χώροι, εργασίες και έξοδα σχετικές με την κατοικία, διαμονή μακριά από το σπίτι).
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 5 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
γ. Θέματα της καθημερινότητας (καθημερινές συνήθειες, ύπνος). δ. Εργασία (τύποι εργασίας, οικονομικές απολαβές, εργασιακές σχέσεις, έλλειψη απασχόλησης, παροχή εργασίας, ασφάλιση, προϊόντα εργασίας, προσόντα, εργασιακοί ρόλοι). ε. Ελεύθερος χρόνος (σπορ, παιχνίδια, διασκέδαση, ΜΜΕ, αναγνώσματα, τέχνες και θεάματα). στ. Ταξίδια-μετακινήσεις (μέσα και συνθήκες μεταφοράς, προορισμοί, ταξιδιωτικές διατυπώσεις). ζ. Διαπροσωπικές σχέσεις (τύποι σχέσεων, προσκλήσεις, αλληλογραφία, οργανώσεις και όμιλοι). η. Πολιτική (πολιτικά πρόσωπα, εκλογική διαδικασία, διακυβέρνηση, πολιτειακά συστήματα, πολιτικά προβλήματα, αντιδράσεις). θ. Οικονομία (προϊόντα οικονομικών συναλλαγών, τρόποι οικονομικής συναλλαγής, οικονομικές πράξεις, οικονομικές υπηρεσίες, οικονομική κατάσταση). ι. Κοινωνία (δικαιοσύνη, αποφάσεις, δικαστικοί ρόλοι και λειτουργίες, κοινωνικά προβλήματα: εθιστικές ουσίες, οικονομική δυσπραγία, προσβολή ανθρώπινης αξιοπρέπειας, ανισότητες, ρατσισμός, προστασία δικαιωμάτων). ια. Υγεία και περίθαλψη (μέρη του σώματος, σωματική κατάσταση, ατομική υγιεινή, αρρώστιες και ατυχήματα, περίθαλψη, θεραπείες, ιατρικές εξετάσεις, ιατρικές ενέργειες, ιατρικά όργανα, διατυπώσεις, άθληση). ιβ. Εκπαίδευση (τύπος εκπαίδευσης, Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα, παρακολούθηση, εγχειρίδια, ερευνητικά μέσα, εξετάσεις, εγγραφές, εκπαιδευτικό προσωπικό). ιγ. Αγορές (εμπορική κίνηση, πρόσωπα της αγοράς, καταναλωτικά αγαθά, χαρακτηριστικά και αξία προϊόντων, τρόποι πληρωμής, ποιότητα προϊόντων). ιδ. Διατροφή (οδηγίες μαγειρικής, σκεύη, διατροφικές συνήθειες, τρόφιμα, ποτά, διατροφικά συστήματα, διατροφικά συστατικά, διεργασίες, γεύσεις, προβλήματα, η εστίαση στο εστιατόριο). ιε. Υπηρεσίες (ταχυδρομικές υπηρεσίες, τηλεπικοινωνίες, τραπεζικές συναλλαγές, νέες τεχνολογίες). ιστ. Τοποθεσίες -Μέρη-Αξιοθέατα (δημόσιοι χώροι, τοποθεσίες, αξιοθέατα). ιζ. Γλώσσα (γενικές έννοιες, προφορική και γραπτή παραγωγή, γραμματική, επεξεργασία λόγου). ιη. Οικολογία (κλίμα, γεωφυσικό περιβάλλον, χλωρίδα και πανίδα, προβλήματα και λύσεις, οργανώσεις).
Επιπλέον, στα εγχειρίδια διδασκαλίας της Ελληνικής ως ξένης -όπως και στα αντίστοιχα των ξένων γλωσσών (Arkian 2008)- απαντούν κείμενα και από τις παρακάτω Θεματικές Περιοχές: α. Βιογραφίες (κείμενα για τη ζωή και το έργο ατόμων ή ομάδων, π.χ. «Νέα Ελληνικά για μετανάστες,… και ξένους», επίπεδο Γ, σ. 208-211: σύντομες βιογραφίες του Γ. Σεφέρη, Οδ. Ελύτη, Κ. Καβάφη, «Συνεχίζοντας», βιογραφίες της Μαρίας Κάλλας (σ. 166) της Μελίνας Μερκούρη (169) του Μίκη Θεοδωράκη (σ.112), κλπ.).
5 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Βασιλική Γιαννακού
β. Διανοητικές και ψυχολογικές διαδικασίες (όνειρα, φαντασία, συναισθήματα, π.χ. «Συνεχίζοντας», σ. 34 απόσπασμα από το διήγημα του Περικλή Σφυρίδη ‘Ο πρώτος έρωτας’). γ. Παράδοση και Ιστορία (κοινωνικές και ιστορικές εμπειρίες που συνδέουν παλαιότερες εποχές με το σήμερα, π.χ. στο «Περισσότερα Ελληνικά», σ. 36 ‘Οι δώδεκα μήνες και το βαρέλι τους’, στο «Πλουτίζω τα Ελληνικά μου», σ. 30-31 ‘Η Ιστορία της ελληνικής γλώσσας’, στο «Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά», τεύχος 3 σ. 126 ‘Η βυζαντινή αυτοκρατορία’). δ. Λογοτεχνία και αφηγηματική χρήση της γλώσσας (π.χ. στο «Ανακαλύπτοντας το κείμενο», σ. 10 ‘Ο καπετάν Μιχάλης’ Του Ν. Καζαντζάκη και σ. 7-8 το κείμενο ‘Πώς μεταμορφώθηκε η ζωή μου’).
4. Παρατηρήσεις για την παρουσία των Θεματικών Περιοχών στα εγχειρίδια
Στην παρούσα έρευνα εξετάστηκαν 15 εγχειρίδια της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης, προκειμένου να καταγραφεί το εύρος κατανομής των Θεματικών Περιοχών και η συχνότητα εμφάνισής τους σε αυτά. Επελέγησαν εγχειρίδια και από τα τρία επίπεδα γλωσσικής κατάκτησης (τρία εγχειρίδια από το αρχάριο επίπεδο, επτά από το μέσο, και πέντε από το προχωρημένο), τα οποία έχουν εκδοθεί μετά το 1990 (λόγω της στροφής προς την επικοινωνιακή προσέγγιση στη διδασκαλία της ξένης γλώσσας, αλλά και της ποσοτικής και ποιοτικής αλλαγής στο κοινό που έχει στόχο την εκμάθηση της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας), περιέχουν κείμενα με έκταση τουλάχιστον 150 λέξεων και χρησιμοποιούνται συχνά στη διδασκαλία της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας. Από το σύνολο των Θεματικών Περιοχών (22), 2 εγχειρίδια καλύπτουν το 77,27% (17 Θ.Π.), 3 καλύπτουν το 68,18% (15 Θ.Π.), 2 το 54,55% (12 Θ.Π.), 1 εγχειρίδιο καλύπτει το 45,45% (10 Θ.Π.), 1 καλύπτει το 40,91% (9 Θ.Π.), 1 το 36,36% (8 Θ.Π.) και επίσης 1 το 22,73% (5 Θ.Π.). Η συχνότητα εμφάνισης των Θεματικών Περιοχών στα διδακτικά εγχειρίδια της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας φαίνεται στον Πίνακα 1, με αριθμητική απεικόνιση (πόσες φορές αναφέρονται στα εγχειρίδια θέματα από κάθε Θ.Π.) και με ποσοστιαία αναλογία επί τοις εκατό (τι μέρος καταλαμβάνει κάθε Θ.Π. στο σύνολο των εγχειριδίων) στο Σχήμα 1 φαίνεται η κάλυψη με γραφική παράσταση. Επιπλέον, στα πλαίσια των Θ.Π. καταγράφονται τα επιμέρους θέματα που εμφανίζουν τη μεγαλύτερη συχνότητα παρουσίας στα εγχειρίδια (Πίνακας 2).
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 5 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Πίνακας 1. Συχνότητα εμφάνισης Θεματικών Περιοχών στα εγχειρίδια
Συχνότητα εμφάνισης Ποσοστό εμφάνισης ΘΠ στο Θεματική περιοχή (ΘΠ) ΘΠ σύνολο των εγχειριδίων επί τοις % στο σύνολο των εγχειριδίων
1 Υγεία 10 45,45
2 Οικολογία -Γεωγραφία 10 45,45
3 Εργασία 9 40,91 Καθημερινότητα, 4 9 40,91 ελεύθερος χρόνος 5 Ταξίδια, προορισμοί 9 40,91
6 Παράδοση - πολιτισμός 8 36,36
7 Κοινωνικά προβλήματα 8 36,36
8 Βιογραφικά κείμενα 7 31,82
9 Οικογενειακή ζωή 7 31,82
10 Διατροφή 6 27,27
11 Αθλητισμός 6 27,27
12 Αγορές 6 27,27
13 Ψυχαγωγία-Διασκέδαση 6 27,27
14 Γλώσσα -Λογοτεχνία 6 27,27
15 Εκπαίδευση 5 22,73
16 Κατοικία 5 22,73
17 Τέχνες 5 22,73
18 Τεχνολογία -Επιστήμη 5 22,73
19 Ιστορία 3 13,64
20 Πολιτική 3 13,64
21 Οικονομία 2 9,09 Συναισθήματα, 22 1 4,55 ψυχολογικές διαδικασίες
5 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Βασιλική Γιαννακού
Ποσοστό κάλυψης Θεματικών Περιοχών ανά εγχειρίδιο
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Σχήμα 1
Πίνακας 2. Συχνότητα εμφάνισης επιμέρους θεμάτων στα εγχειρίδια
Θεματική περιοχή Επιμέρους θέματα Συχνότητα παρουσίασης αριθμητικά στο σύνολο των 1 Οικολογία Ρύπανση αέρα, υδάτων, εδάφους 13
2 Κοινωνικά προβλήματα Ανεργία 11 Σχέδια –Προτάσεις για διακοπές και ταξίδια 11 2 Ταξίδια -διακοπές Κράτηση εισιτηρίων για ταξίδι 5 3 Αγορές Λαϊκή αγορά / Σούπερ μάρκετ 9 Αναζήτηση σπιτιού για ενοικίαση 8 4 Καθημερινότητα Ταχυδρομείο 5 5 Διατροφή Μαγειρική 8
6 Τέχνη Η ελληνική μουσική 7
7 Προορισμοί Θεσσαλονίκη 7
8 Διασκέδαση-ψυχαγωγία Ταβέρνα-εστιατόριο-ουζερί 5
9 Εργασία Συνέντευξη για δουλειά 5
10 Εκπαίδευση Εισαγωγικές εξετάσεις 5
11 Γιορτές-έθιμα Πάσχα / Χριστούγεννα 5
12 Τεχνολογία Κινητό 5
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 5 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
5. Παρατηρήσεις για τα θέματα των κειμένων από την εξέταση των εγχειριδίων
Σχετικά με τις αρχές και τα κριτήρια επιλογής των κειμένων, προκύπτουν τα εξής: α. Η Αναγνωσιμότητα τηρείται σχεδόν απόλυτα. Αυτό σημαίνει ότι τα κείμενα των διδακτικών εγχειριδίων διαθέτουν την έκταση, τις γραμματικοσυντακτικές δομές, το λεξιλόγιο και το βαθμό δυσκολίας που αντιστοιχεί στο επίπεδο γλωσσομάθειας που απευθύνονται. β. Η Εκμεταλλευσιμότητα τηρείται σε μεγάλο βαθμό, ωστόσο υπάρχουν περιπτώσεις που τα κείμενα δεν συνδέονται με τις δραστηριότητες που ακολουθούν (π.χ. στο «Πλουτίζω τα Ελληνικά μου», στο οποίο η σχέση των κειμένων με τις δραστηριότητες που ακολουθούν περιορίζεται σχεδόν αποκλειστικά σε έναν μικρό αριθμό ερωτήσεων κατανόησης). γ. Η Καταλληλότητα του Περιεχομένου αναφέρεται κυρίως στην παρουσίαση νέου χρήσιμου λεξιλογίου και σε πληροφορίες για τη ζωή και τις απόψεις των φυσικών ομιλητών της Γ2 και λιγότερο στην πρόθεση να δοθούν νέα κίνητρα στους μαθητές. Από τα κείμενα δεν προκύπτουν σημαντικά προβλήματα κοινωνικοπολιτισμικού τύπου (π.χ. ίσως φανεί παράξενο σε κάποιους μαθητές το κείμενο στη σ. 10 του εγχειριδίου «Συνεχίζοντας», όπου ένα ζευγάρι συζύγων διαπληκτίζεται παρουσία ενός φίλου). δ. Η Προηγούμενη Γνώση του θέματος χρησιμοποιείται σε μεγάλο βαθμό ως κριτήριο επιλογής των κειμένων, αφού στα περισσότερα κείμενα το θέμα είναι γνωστό και οικείο στον μαθητή. Ορισμένα, μάλιστα, εγχειρίδια επιδιώκουν τη δημιουργία ή την ενίσχυση της Προηγούμενης Γνώσης με την παρουσίαση περισσότερων του ενός κειμένων για το ίδιο θέμα (π.χ. το εγχειρίδιο «Ακολουθώντας το Κείμενο», το οποίο δεν έχει ένα μεμονωμένο κείμενο, αλλά σειρά κειμένων για κάθε Θ.Π.). ε. Τέλος, τα κείμενα δεν διαθέτουν πάντα επαρκές Πληροφοριακό Περιεχόμενο, ενώ ο παράγοντας Ενδιαφέρον δεν φαίνεται να είναι σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις στόχος των συγγραφέων των εγχειριδίων, αφού σε πολλά από αυτά τα θέματα των κειμένων ταυτίζονται (βλ. πίνακα 2).
Στη θεματολογία των εγχειριδίων της διδασκαλίας της Ν. Ελληνικής ως ξένης αξίζει να επισημανθούν τα εξής: α. Υπάρχουν παρόμοια ή και ταυτόσημα θέματα, με πρώτα σε συχνότητα τον διάλογο στη λαϊκή αγορά, το φαγητό στην ταβέρνα, τη ρύπανση του αέρα, το ρεμπέτικο και τη Θεσσαλονίκη. Σαφώς, τα θέματα αυτά προσφέρονται για τη δραστηριότητα της ανάγνωσης, αφού παρουσιάζουν μεγάλο ενδιαφέρον. Για παράδειγμα, η συχνή παρουσία κειμένων για τη Θεσσαλονίκη, οφείλεται προφανώς στο ότι η πόλη είναι πλούσια σε ιστορία και αξιοθέατα, έχει έντονη παρουσία στην πνευματική ζωή και παράλληλα, είναι κατάλληλη και για αναψυχή. Συνεπώς, υπάρχει η δυνατότητα να παρουσιάζουν θεματική ποικιλία τα κείμενα που αναφέρονται σε αυτήν.
5 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Βασιλική Γιαννακού
β. Θέματα που είναι ενδιαφέροντα για τους μαθητές, όπως η διατροφή, η οικογένεια, η κατοικία, παρουσιάζονται με την ίδια οπτική (π.χ. γίνεται αναφορά μόνο στην ενοικίαση και όχι στην αγορά σπιτιού). Συνεπώς, υπάρχει περιθώριο επέκτασης και εμπλουτισμού των Θ.Π. γ. Ο σύγχρονος προβληματισμός αποτελεί βασικό άξονα της θεματολογίας των εγχειριδίων (π.χ. οικολογικά και κοινωνικά προβλήματα), σε σημείο, όμως, που σε ορισμένα εγχειρίδια στερεί το στοιχείο της διασκέδασης, επομένως και της ευχαρίστησης που προέρχεται από την ανάγνωση. Χαρακτηριστικό είναι ότι στα εγχειρίδια που εκδόθηκαν πριν από το 2000 υπερισχύουν τα θέματα που σχετίζονται με την οικογένεια, την κοινωνική ζωή και την παράδοση (π.χ. «Ελληνική Γλώσσα» του Γ. Μπαμπινιώτη), ενώ τα νεότερα εγχειρίδια φορτίζονται με προβληματισμούς όπως η δυσκολία εύρεσης εργασίας και το θέμα της ανεργίας, ακόμα κι αν απευθύνονται σε μαθητές του αρχαρίου επιπέδου (π.χ. «Ελληνικά Α΄»). δ. Στα περισσότερα εγχειρίδια βασικό χαρακτηριστικό στην επεξεργασία των θεμάτων αποτελεί η εξιδανίκευση κοινωνικών σχέσεων και καταστάσεων (π.χ. η ελληνική οικογένεια παρουσιάζεται χωρίς συγκρούσεις ή τα ταξίδια είναι ιδανικά, χωρίς προβλήματα στη μετακίνηση και/ή τη διαμονή), γεγονός που αφενός δεν ευνοεί την κοινωνική συνειδητοποίηση και αφετέρου δεν προάγει την επικοινωνιακή δεξιότητα των μαθητών σε δυσάρεστες περιστάσεις επικοινωνίας. Εξιδανίκευση παρατηρείται και στο θέμα της παρουσίας των μεταναστών, οι οποίοι εμφανίζονται πλήρως ενταγμένοι στη μεσαία αστική τάξη, που είναι, άλλωστε, και η μοναδική κοινωνική τάξη που παρατηρείται στα εγχειρίδια. ε. Αρκετές είναι οι πληροφορίες πολιτισμικού περιεχομένου (τόποι, έθιμα, γιορτές, δραστηριότητες), αλλά χωρίς την ανάλογη υποστήριξη από εποπτικό υλικό. Οι περισσότερες αφορούν την αρχαία Ελλάδα και δεν συνδέονται με την σύγχρονη (π.χ. «Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά 2» ‘Οι θεοί των αρχαίων Ελλήνων’, σ.102). Επιπλέον, στα περισσότερα εγχειρίδια δεν υπάρχουν αναφορές στη λαϊκή παράδοση, ενώ σε άλλα είναι επιφανειακές (π.χ. «Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά 3» σ. 18-21, στο κείμενο για το γάμο μπορούσε να γίνεται πιο αδρή παρουσίαση των εθίμων, να υπάρχουν εικόνες και δραστηριότητες ανταλλαγής συνηθειών και εμπειριών πάνω στο θέμα αυτό). στ. Οι τίτλοι των θεμάτων αποκαλύπτουν ότι το στοιχείο της πρωτοτυπίας είναι παρόν σε αρκετά εγχειρίδια: ‘Το κουβέρ και η ιστορία του’, ‘Η ιστορία του ελληνικού καφέ’, ‘Δώρα βάσει Savoir vivre’, ‘Νεοκλασικά κτήρια στην Αθήνα’, ‘Ο πικάντικος μεζές σπάει… τον πάγο’. Ωστόσο, ο βαθμός της παρουσίας του είναι σχετικά μικρός, αφού υπερτερεί η επανάληψη παρόμοιων θεμάτων. ζ. Αρκετά θέματα κειμένων παρέχουν πλούσιο και χρήσιμο πληροφοριακό περιεχόμενο: ‘Τα μουσεία της Αθήνας’, ‘Χρήσιμες συμβουλές για πρώτες βοήθειες’, ‘Πώς να κόψετε το κάπνισμα’, ‘Τι είναι τα Κέντρα Εξυπηρέτησης Πολιτών’, συνεπώς παρουσιάζουν αυξημένο τον παράγοντα Ενδιαφέρον. η. Εντύπωση κάνει η ύπαρξη κειμένων με απροσδόκητο περιεχόμενο, που υποστηρίζει την αντίθετη από τη συνηθισμένη άποψη σε κάποιο ζήτημα (π.χ. ‘Παραδόσεις με μέτρο για καλή υγεία’, ‘Το αλκοόλ σώζει ζωές’, κ.ά).
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 5 9 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
θ. Ορισμένα θέματα παρουσιάζουν μικρή συχνότητα εμφάνισης (Α.Μ.Ε.Α, συναισθήματα, ψυχολογικές διαδικασίες, βιογραφίες). Σχετικά με τις βιογραφίες γυναικών, τα εγχειρίδια δείχνουν σαφή έως και αποκλειστική προτίμηση σε πρόσωπα που προέρχονται από το χώρο του Κινηματογράφου και της Μουσικής (Γεωργία Βασιλειάδου, Έλλη Λαμπέτη, Αλίκη Βουγιουκλάκη, Τζένη Καρέζη, Ρένα Βλαχοπούλου, Μαρία Κάλλας). Επίσης, αξίζει να αναφερθεί ότι πολλά εγχειρίδια έχουν ξεχωριστή ενότητα για τη θέση της γυναίκας και την ισότητα των δύο φύλων, αλλά υπάρχουν και κείμενα, στα οποία διακρίνονται παραδοσιακοί ρόλοι του άντρα και της γυναίκας (π.χ. ο πρώτος εργαζόμενος έξω από το σπίτι, η δεύτερη υπεύθυνη για τη φροντίδα των παιδιών). ι. Τα θέματα παρουσιάζονται με αυτοτέλεια σε κάθε κείμενο και όχι σε συνέχειες και, όπου υπάρχουν πρόσωπα, δεν είναι τα ίδια (εξαίρεση αποτελεί το εγχειρίδιο «Ελληνικά Α΄»). ια. Στα περισσότερα εγχειρίδια τα κείμενα εστιάζουν στην παρουσίαση των γραμματικών φαινομένων και τοποθετούν σε δευτερεύουσα θέση τους παράγοντες Ενδιαφέρον και Πληροφοριακό Περιεχόμενο. ιβ. Τέλος, τα κείμενα στην πλειονότητά τους αντανακλούν χρήσεις του γραπτού λόγου και δεν αποτελούν υλικά ανάγνωσης που απαντούν στην καθημερινή ζωή.
6. Οι προτιμήσεις των μαθητών στις θεματικές περιοχές
Όπως ήδη αναφέρθηκε, είναι σημαντικό τα κείμενα που περιλαμβάνονται στα εγχειρίδια να επιλέγονται με βάση συγκεκριμένες αρχές και να διαθέτουν συγκεκριμένα χαρακτηριστικά, καθώς και να συμβαδίζουν με τις κατευθύνσεις που δίνουν τα αναλυτικά προγράμματα. Eνδιαφέρον παρουσιάζει να ελεγχθεί κατά πόσο τα θέματα των κειμένων που περιέχονται στα εγχειρίδια διδασκαλίας της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας ανταποκρίνονται στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών. Για το σκοπό αυτό διεξήχθη η έρευνα που παρουσιάζεται στη συνέχεια. Κύριος στόχος της έρευνας ήταν ο εντοπισμός των Θεματικών Περιοχών που ενδιαφέρουν τους μαθητές, ώστε να καταρτιστεί ο κατάλογος των δέκα επικρατέστερων σύμφωνα με τις δικές τους προτιμήσεις και να συγκριθεί με τη συχνότητα της εμφάνισής τους στα εγχειρίδια. Δευτερεύοντες στόχοι ήταν:α) η διερεύνηση των προσδοκιών που έχουν οι μαθητές σχετικά με τους τίτλους των κειμένων και β) η ανίχνευση της στάσης τους απέναντι στα κείμενα που δίνονται από τον διδάσκοντα και σε εκείνα που περιέχονται στα διδακτικά εγχειρίδια. Αποδέκτες της έρευνας ήταν 88 μαθητές, οι οποίοι προέρχονταν από 6 τμήματα του Διδασκαλείου της Νέας Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας του Πανεπιστημίου Αθηνών (δύο από κάθε επίπεδο Ελληνομάθειας). Η αριθμητική και ποσοστιαία αναλογία για τα τρία
6 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Βασιλική Γιαννακού
επίπεδα Ελληνομάθειας ήταν 31 μαθητές (35,2%) από το αρχάριο επίπεδο, 35 (39,8%) από το μέσο και 22 (25%) από το προχωρημένο. Ήταν όλοι ενήλικες, από 18 έως 45 ετών, από χώρες τεσσάρων ηπείρων (Ευρώπη, Ασία, Αμερική, Αφρική), με μητρική γλώσσα διαφορετική από την Ελληνική. Η έρευνα διεξήχθη στα τέλη Ιανουαρίου του 2011, ενώ οι μαθητές φοιτούσαν στα τμήματα εκμάθησης της Ελληνικής από τον Οκτώβριο του 2010. Από τα 88 υποκείμενα της έρευνας 52 ήταν γυναίκες και 36 άντρες (ποσοστό 59,1% και 40,9% αντίστοιχα). Το φύλο καταγράφηκε, ωστόσο δεν εξετάστηκαν οι προτιμήσεις με βάση αυτό για τρεις λόγους: α. Τα εγχειρίδια δεν μπορούν να διακριθούν σε «γυναικεία» και «αντρικά», όπως επίσης, και τα τμήματα εκμάθησης δεν μπορούν να αποτελούνται από μαθητές ενός μόνο φύλου. β. Το θέμα του συσχετισμού του φύλου και των προτιμήσεων στα θέματα ανάγνωσης κειμένων μπορεί να αποτελέσει από μόνο του μία ξεχωριστή έρευνα από κοινωνιογλωσσική ή/και από παιδαγωγική πλευρά. γ. Η αριθμητική αναλογία ανδρών και γυναικών θεωρήθηκε ότι μπορούσε να δώσει αποτελέσματα που αντικατοπτρίζουν την πραγματικότητα, αφού είναι και η συνήθης σε μία τάξη εκμάθησης ελληνικών, τουλάχιστον για το χώρο που πραγματοποιήθηκε η έρευνα. Ο τρόπος συλλογής των δεδομένων ήταν ένα ερωτηματολόγιο με 9 ερωτήματα (εκτός των ερωτημάτων που αφορούν τα προσωπικά στοιχεία). Με τα ερωτήματα έγινε προσπάθεια να ανιχνευτεί τι είδους ασχολίες, ενδιαφέροντα και αναγνώσματα έχουν οι μαθητές στον ελεύθερο χρόνο τους, στη μητρική τους γλώσσα και αν ισχύουν τα αντίστοιχα για την Ελληνική, έτσι ώστε να είμαστε βέβαιοι ότι οι επιλογές των Θ.Π. δεν είναι τυχαίες, αλλά ότι σχετίζονται με το επάγγελμα, τις σπουδές των μαθητών, με δραστηριότητες της καθημερινής ζωής τους ή με γενικότερες επιλογές τους. Επιπλέον, κάποια ερωτήματα τους ζητούσαν να δηλώσουν την προτίμησή τους σε ζητήματα της σύγχρονης εποχής ή παλαιότερων εποχών. Τα βασικά συμπεράσματα της έρευνάς μας προέκυψαν από το ερώτημα που περιείχε 22 επιλογές που αντιστοιχούν στις Θεματικές Περιοχές που αναφέρθηκαν παραπάνω (βλ. κεφ. 3). Επιπλέον, υπήρχε ένα ερώτημα για το τι προσδοκούν οι μαθητές από τον τίτλο των κειμένων, καθώς επίσης, και ένα ερώτημα για το αν οι μαθητές επιθυμούν τα κείμενα που διδάσκονται να περιέχονται σε κάποιο εγχειρίδιο ή αντίθετα περιμένουν να τα εντοπίσει και να τα επεξεργαστεί ο διδάσκων. Τα ερωτηματολόγια συμπληρώθηκαν ανώνυμα. Οι μαθητές κλήθηκαν να επιλέξουν τις δέκα ενότητες που τους ενδιαφέρουν περισσότερο ως θέματα κειμένων για την ΚΓΛ. Δόθηκε χρόνος να συμπληρώσουν οι μαθητές το ερωτηματολόγιο στην τάξη, ώστε να μην δεχθούν οποιεσδήποτε επιρροές. Οι δέκα πιο ενδιαφέρουσες για τους μαθητές Θεματικές Περιοχές, σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα της έρευνας καταγράφονται στον Πίνακα 3.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 6 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Πίνακας 3. Προτιμήσεις μαθητών σχετικά με τις Θεματικές Περιοχές
Αριθμός μαθητών Ποσοστό μαθητών που επέλεξαν που επέλεξαν τη Θεματική περιοχή (ΘΠ) τη ΘΠ ΘΠ (%) 1 Ταξίδια - Προορισμοί 61 69,32
2 Παράδοση 53 60,23
3 Συναισθήματα 53 60,23
4 Υγεία 50 56,82
5 Ιστορία 50 56,82
6 Τέχνες (θέατρο, σινεμά, χορός, μουσική, κ.λπ.) 45 51,14
7 Γλώσσα 44 50,00
8 Διατροφή 42 47,73
9 Βιογραφικά κείμενα 41 46,59
10 Οικογενειακή ζωή 40 45,45
11 Καθημερινότητα 40 45,45
12 Κατοικία 39 44,32
13 Εκπαίδευση 38 43,18
14 Εργασία 37 42,05
15 Διασκέδαση -Ψυχαγωγία 36 40,91
16 Κοινωνικά προβλήματα 30 34,09
17 Τεχνολογία 28 31,82
18 Οικολογία - Γεωγραφία 25 28,41
19 Αθλητισμός 25 28,41
20 Αγορές 25 28,41
21 Οικονομία 17 19,32
22 Πολιτική 13 14,77
Ο Πίνακας 4 παραθέτει σε δύο στήλες τις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών στις Θ.Π. (Πίνακας 3) και τις αντίστοιχες επιλογές των εγχειριδίων (Πίνακας 1), ενώ στα Σχήματα 1 και 2 απεικονίζεται η σύγκριση αυτή με γραφικές παραστάσεις: Από την άμεση σύγκριση προκύπτει ότι υπάρχουν ομοιότητες, αλλά και σημαντικές διαφορές.
6 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Βασιλική Γιαννακού
Πίνακας 4. Σύγκριση της σειράς προτίμησης των Θ.Π. από τους μαθητές και της σειράς συχνότητας εμφάνισης των Θ.Π. στα εγχειρίδια
ΘΕΜΑΤΙΚΗ ΠΕΡΙΟΧΗ ΚΑΤΑΤΑΞΗ ΚΑΤΑΤΑΞΗ ΘΕΜΑΤΙΚΩΝ ΠΕΡΙΟΧΩΝ ΘΕΜΑΤΙΚΩΝ ΠΕΡΙΟΧΩΝ ΣΥΜΦΩΝΑ ΜΕ ΤΟΥΣ ΜΑΘΗΤΕΣ ΣΥΜΦΩΝΑ ΜΕ ΤΑ ΕΓΧΕΙΡΙΔΙΑ 1 Ταξίδια - Προορισμοί Υγεία
2 Παράδοση - Πολιτισμός Οικολογία - Γεωγραφία
3 Συναισθήματα Εργασία
4 Υγεία Καθημερινότητα - Ελεύθερος χρόνος
5 Ιστορία Ταξίδια, προορισμοί
6 Τέχνες (θέατρο, σινεμά, χορός, μουσική, κ.λπ.) Παράδοση - πολιτισμός
7 Γλώσσα - Λογοτεχνία Κοινωνικά προβλήματα
8 Διατροφή Βιογραφικά κείμενα και περιγραφές ανθρώπων
9 Βιογραφικά κείμενα και περιγραφές ανθρώπων Οικογενειακή ζωή
10 Οικογενειακή ζωή Διατροφή
11 Καθημερινότητα - Ελεύθερος χρόνος Αθλητισμός
12 Κατοικία Αγορές
13 Εκπαίδευση Διασκέδαση-Ψυχαγωγία
14 Εργασία Γλώσσα - Λογοτεχνία
15 Διασκέδαση -Ψυχαγωγία Εκπαίδευση
16 Κοινωνικά προβλήματα Κατοικία
17 Τεχνολογία - Επιστήμη Τέχνες
18 Οικολογία - Γεωγραφία Τεχνολογία -Επιστήμη
19 Αγορές Ιστορία
20 Αθλητισμός Πολιτική
21 Οικονομία Οικονομία
22 Πολιτική Συναισθήματα
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 6 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Προτιμήσεις μαθητών
80,00 70,00 60,00 50,00 40,00 30,00 20,00 10,00 Ποσοστόπροτίμησης 0,00
Υγεία Τέχνες Ιστορία Αγορές Γλώσσα Εργασία Κατοικία Πολιτική Διατροφή Παράδοση Οικονομία Εκπαίδευση Τεχνολογία Αθλητισμός
Συναισθήματα
Καθημερινότητα Οικογενειακή ζωή
Βιογραφικά κείμενα Ταξίδια - Προορισμοί
Κοινωνικά προβλήματαΟικολογία - Γεωγραφία Διασκέδαση -Ψυχαγωγία
Σχήμα 2
Συχνότητα εμφάνισης Θεματικών Ενοτήτων στα εγχειρίδια
50,00 45,00 40,00 35,00 30,00 25,00 20,00 15,00 10,00
Ποσοστόεμφάνισης 5,00 0,00
Υγεία Ιστο ρίαΤέχνες Αγορές Γλώσσα Κατοικία Ερ γασία Π ολιτική Διατρ οφ ή Ο ικονο μία Παράδοση Τεχνο λογίαΑθλητισμό ς Εκπαίδευση Συναισθήματα Καθημερινότητα Οικογενειακή ζωή Βιογραφικά κείμενα Ταξίδια - Προορισμοί
Κοινωνικά προβλήματαΟικολογία - Γεωγραφία Διασκέδαση -Ψυχαγωγία
Σχήμα 3
6 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Βασιλική Γιαννακού
Τα ταξίδια, η παράδοση και η υγεία βρίσκονται σε υψηλές θέσεις στην επιλογή τόσο από την πλευρά των εγχειριδίων όσο και από την πλευρά των μαθητών. Η διατροφή, η οικογενειακή ζωή, η γλώσσα, η εκπαίδευση και τα βιογραφικά κείμενα είναι και στους δύο πίνακες στη μέση των προτιμήσεων. Κοντινές είναι οι θέσεις κατάταξης για τις Θ.Π. ‘Διασκέδαση-Ψυχαγωγία’, ‘Καθημερινότητα-Ελεύθερος χρόνος’, ‘Αθλητισμός’, ‘Αγορές’, ‘Κατοικία’, ‘Εκπαίδευση’. Η ‘Οικονομία’ και η ‘Πολιτική’ βρίσκονται στις χαμηλότερες θέσεις και στους δύο καταλόγους. Ανάμεσα στην επιλογή των θεματικών περιοχών από τα διδακτικά εγχειρίδια και στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών παρατηρούνται και σημαντικές διαφορές. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, η θεματική περιοχή ‘Συναισθήματα’ κατέχει την 9η θέση στη συχνότητα εμφάνισης στα εγχειρίδια, ενώ η ‘Ιστορία’ την 7η. Οι μαθητές αντίστοιχα τις τοποθετούν στη 2η και την 3η θέση των προτιμήσεών τους. Οι θεματικές περιοχές ‘Εργασία’, και ‘Οικολογία’ εμφανίζονται στην 2η θέση, ενώ στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών βρίσκονται στην 11η και τη 15η θέση αντίστοιχα. Η υψηλή θέση προτίμησης των κειμένων που αναφέρονται σε συναισθήματα, ιστορία, παράδοση και βιογραφία αποδεικνύει ότι οι μαθητές ενδιαφέρονται περισσότερο για κείμενα με ανθρωπιστικό και όχι με τεχνοκρατικό περιεχόμενο, δηλαδή για κείμενα που αναφέρονται στην εσωτερική τους διάσταση, για αυτά που τους πληροφορούν για τον κόσμο και για όσα συμβάλλουν στην προσέγγιση διαφορετικών απόψεων και πολιτισμών. Ο πίνακας που ακολουθεί μας δίνει την εικόνα σχετικά με την προτίμηση αυτή ανά επίπεδο γλωσσομάθειας.
Πίνακας 5. Προτιμήσεις Θεματικών Περιοχών ανά επίπεδο γλωσσομάθειας
α. Θεματικές περιοχές με υψηλή θέση στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών Σύνολο μαθητών Θεματική Περιοχή που επέλεξε την Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Θ.Π. 53 16 18 19 Παράδοση 60,23% 18,2% 20,5% 21,6% 53 14 20 19 Συναισθήματα 60,23% 15,9% 22,7% 21,6% 50 12 18 20 Ιστορία 56,82% 13,6% 20,5% 22,7% 41 7 16 18 Βιογραφία 46,59% 8% 18,2% 20,5%
β. Θεματικές περιοχές με χαμηλή θέση στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών Σύνολο μαθητών Θεματική Περιοχή που επέλεξε την Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Θ.Π. 28 11 12 5 Τεχνολογία 31,82% 12,5% 13,6% 5,7% 17 3 8 6 Οικονομία 19,32% 3,4% 9,1% 6,8% 13 2 5 6 Πολιτική 14,77% 2,3% 5,7% 6,8%
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 6 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Από τον πίνακα φαίνεται ότι η ‘Ιστορία’ είναι πρώτη στις προτιμήσεις των προχωρημένων, τα ‘Συναισθήματα’ είναι η πρώτη προτίμηση των μαθητών του μέσου επιπέδου, ενώ η ‘Παράδοση’ ήταν η Θ.Π. που επέλεξαν οι περισσότεροι αρχάριοι μαθητές. Στις Θ.Π. που τοποθετήθηκαν σε χαμηλή θέση προτίμησης παρατηρείται μικρότερο ενδιαφέρον στο αρχάριο και στο προχωρημένο επίπεδο και υψηλότερο στο μέσο. Με άλλα λόγια, οι μαθητές όταν βρίσκονται στα αρχικά στάδια της εκμάθησης της Ελληνικής, αλλά και στα υψηλά δεν ενδιαφέρονται για τεχνοκρατικού τύπου κείμενα. Ωστόσο, παρατηρείται μία μικρή αύξηση ενδιαφέροντος στο μεσαίο επίπεδο, γεγονός που ερμηνεύεται και από την ανάγκη των μαθητών να πλουτίσουν το λεξιλόγιό τους ακόμη και στους τομείς της ‘Τεχνολογίας’, της ‘Οικονομίας’ και της ‘Πολιτικής’. Η χαμηλή προτίμηση για τα ζητήματα της καθημερινότητας αποκαλύπτει επιπλέον ότι η ρουτίνα της πραγματικής ζωής δεν τους ευχαριστεί ιδιαίτερα ως θέμα ανάγνωσης. Με το σκεπτικό αυτό πιθανόν, τοποθετούν σε χαμηλή θέση και τη Θ.Π. ‘Αγορές’, η οποία σχετίζεται με καθημερινές δραστηριότητες και συναλλαγές, πράγμα που πρέπει να υπογραμμιστεί ιδιαίτερα, δεδομένου ότι το θέμα τη λαϊκής αγοράς παρουσιάζει εξαιρετικά υψηλή συχνότητα εμφάνισης στα εγχειρίδια. Ο Πίνακας 6 δείχνει την αριθμητική και ποσοτική διάσταση ανάμεσα στην Θ.Π. ‘Αγορές’, που αποτελεί στοιχείο της καθημερινής ζωής και της Θ.Π. ‘Ταξίδια-Προορισμοί’, η οποία σχετίζεται με επιθυμίες, όνειρα, αναμνήσεις και συναισθήματα και αποτελεί έξοδο από την καθημερινότητα. Παρατηρούμε ότι και στους αρχάριους η Θ.Π. ‘Αγορές’, βρίσκεται σε χαμηλή θέση προτίμησης και όχι μόνο στους προχωρημένους, οι οποίοι σαφώς κατέχουν το λεξιλόγιο της. Θ.Π.
Πίνακας 6. Αριθμητική και ποσοτική σύγκριση των Θ.Π. «Ταξίδια-Προορισμοί» και «Αγορές»
Σύνολο μαθητών Θεματική που επέλεξε την Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Περιοχή Θ.Π. Ταξίδια- 61 22 24 15 Προορισμοί 69,32% 25% 27,3% 17% 25 9 10 6 Αγορές 28,41% 10,2% 11,4% 6,8%
Η κατάταξη της Θ.Π. ‘Κοινωνικά προβλήματα’ στη 16η θέση από τους μαθητές (έναντι της 7ης από τα εγχειρίδια) δηλώνει ότι πιθανόν προσδοκούν εγχειρίδια με πιο ευχάριστο περιεχόμενο και λιγότερο προβληματισμό. Αυτό αποδεικνύουν τόσο οι υψηλές θέσεις που κατέχουν οι Θ.Π. ‘Ταξίδια–Προορισμοί’, ‘Παράδοση–Πολιτισμός’, ‘Τέχνες’ (θέατρο, σινεμά, χορός, μουσική, κ.λπ.), ‘Γλώσσα–Λογοτεχνία’ όσο και οι χαμηλές θέσεις των Θ.Π. ‘Εργασία’, ‘Οικονομία’, ‘Κοινωνικά προβλήματα’ και ‘Τεχνολογία’. Μάλιστα, παρατηρήθηκε ότι δεν έδειξαν ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον ούτε και οι προχωρημένοι μαθητές, οι οποίοι γνώριζαν το απαιτητικό λεξιλόγιο των ενοτήτων αυτών (βλ. Πίνακες 5 και 6). Η μεγαλύτερη απόκλιση παρατηρείται στη Θ.Π. ‘Συναισθήματα’ (3η θέση στις προτιμήσεις των μαθητών και 22η στις επιλογές των εγχειριδίων). Πράγματι, στα κείμενα των εγχειριδίων τα πρόσωπα παρουσιάζονται με βάση στερεοτυπικά πρότυπα
6 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Βασιλική Γιαννακού
(π.χ. σπάνια αντρικό πρόσωπο κάνει δουλειές του σπιτιού. Εξαίρεση αποτελεί το εγχειρίδιο «Ελληνικά Α΄»). Επιπλέον, διαθέτουν επιφανειακό συναισθηματισμό ή και πλήρη ισοπέδωση του συναισθηματικού τους κόσμου. Η έλλειψη κειμένων με αναφορά στη συγκεκριμένη Θ.Π. έχει επιπτώσεις στο γλωσσικό οπλισμό των μαθητών και στις δυνατότητες έκφρασης σε καταστάσεις που σχετίζονται με συναισθήματα. Επιπλέον, από την έρευνα φάνηκε ότι: 1. Η συντριπτική πλειονότητα των μαθητών 65 στους 88 (ποσοστό 73,86%) επιθυμούν να διδάσκονται κείμενα για την εξάσκηση της δεξιότητας της αναγνωστικής κατανόησης από κάποιο εγχειρίδιο, αλλά να τους παρέχεται και επιπλέον υλικό από τον διδάσκοντα. Λαμβάνοντας υπόψη τις διαφορές που παρουσίασαν οι δύο πίνακες, αυτός των επιλογών των εγχειριδίων και ο αντίστοιχος των προτιμήσεων των μαθητών, μπορούμε να αποδώσουμε την επιθυμία τους αυτή στο γεγονός ότι τα εγχειρίδια δεν καλύπτουν ή δεν ταυτίζονται με τις επιλογές τους στο βαθμό που οι ίδιοι θα ήθελαν. Οι 21 στους 88 (23,86%) είπαν ότι επιθυμούν να διδάσκονται κείμενα από κάποιο εγχειρίδιο και όχι να λαμβάνουν επιπλέον υλικό από τον διδάσκοντα. Είναι φανερό, πάντως, ότι οι μαθητές αισθάνονται την ανάγκη ύπαρξης μιας σταθερής βάσης, την οποία παρέχει ένα εγχειρίδιο, όπως δήλωσαν οι 86 στους 88, ενώ μόλις 2 (2,27%) προτιμούν η επιλογή και η παρουσίαση του κειμενικού υλικού να γίνεται αποκλειστικά από τον διδάσκοντα. 2. Στο ερώτημα ‘Τι περιμένετε από τον τίτλο των κειμένων’, οι 55 στους 88 (62,5%) απάντησαν ότι θέλουν να είναι άμεσα αντιληπτό το θέμα, οι 28 στους 88 (31,82%) προτιμούν έναν τίτλο μη συνηθισμένο, που δεν αποκαλύπτει πλήρως το θέμα, αλλά τους προκαλεί να διαβάσουν το κείμενο και 5 μαθητές (5,68% ) δήλωσαν ότι θέλουν να καταλαβαίνουν από τον τίτλο την άποψη του συγγραφέα για το θέμα, ίσως για να ξέρουν εξαρχής αν συμφωνεί με τη δική τους. Αξίζει να σημειωθεί ότι κανείς δεν σημείωσε την επιλογή ‘Θέλω να καταλαβαίνω αν το κείμενο γράφτηκε πρόσφατα ή παλιότερα’. Αυτό το τελευταίο συμβάλλει αποφασιστικά στο να απεμπλακούν διδάσκοντες και συγγραφείς εγχειριδίων από τον προβληματισμό και την αγωνία να υπάρχουν στα εγχειρίδια θέματα επίκαιρα, διότι, όπως φαίνεται, οι μαθητές προτιμούν να διαβάζουν για ζητήματα με ουσιαστικό ενδιαφέρον, άσχετα με το αν είναι ‘θέματα ημέρας’ ή όχι. Αυτό συμφωνεί και με την υψηλή προτίμησή τους για θέματα ιστορίας και παράδοσης, τα οποία δεν εμφανίζουν μεγάλη συχνότητα στα εγχειρίδια και συνεπώς, έχουν περιθώριο, αλλά και ανάγκη εμπλουτισμού.
7. Αντί συμπεράσματος
Συνοψίζοντας, πρέπει να αναφέρουμε ότι στη σύγχρονη Διδακτική των ξένων γλωσσών, όπου όλα σχεδιάζονται με γνώμονα τις ανάγκες των μαθητών (Richards & Rodgers 1992: 156; Sparrow, Sparrow & Swan 2000), πρέπει και τα κείμενα για ΚΓΛ στα εγχειρίδια -και έξω από αυτά- να ακολουθήσουν την ίδια τάση και να λάβουν υπόψη τις προτιμήσεις του μαθητικού κοινού.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 6 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Καταλυτικός είναι ο ρόλος του διδάσκοντος, καθώς είναι πιθανόν τα θέματα ενός εγχειριδίου να μην ενδιαφέρουν τον ίδιο, με αποτέλεσμα να τα παρουσιάζει με περιοριστική διάθεση τόσο ως προς το περιεχόμενο όσο και ως προς τις διαδικασίες που ακολουθούν την ανάγνωση. Θα ήταν πολύ θετικό για την αξιοποίηση των εγχειριδίων εάν οι διδάσκοντες αντί να απορρίπτουν συλλήβδην κείμενα που αναφέρονται σε παλαιότερα γεγονότα ή καταστάσεις, να επιδιώκουν να τα ‘επικαιροποιούν’. Ωστόσο, πρέπει να είναι σε θέση να προσφέρουν εναλλακτικές ή/και συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις για το περιεχόμενο των εγχειριδίων, εφόσον το επιθυμούν ή το χρειάζονται οι μαθητές τους. Για να ανιχνευτούν οι Θ.Π. και τα επιμέρους θέματα που ενδιαφέρουν τους μαθητές, ώστε να δοθεί το κατάλληλο συμπληρωματικό υλικό, μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ένα ερωτηματολόγιο, το οποίο θα ανιχνεύει τα θέματα που τους ενδιαφέρει να συζητούν, να αναζητούν στο Διαδίκτυο, να διαβάζουν σε βιβλία στη μητρική τους γλώσσα, καθώς και τους τρόπους που προτιμούν να περνούν τον ελεύθερο χρόνο τους και τους στόχους τους σχετικά με την εκμάθηση της Γ2 ( Nuttall 1982: 29; Cook 2005: 275). Έτσι, θα αποκαλύπτεται με όσο το δυνατόν πιο αυθεντικό τρόπο τι πραγματικά τους ευχαριστεί να διαβάζουν. Η διεξαγωγή τέτοιων ερευνών δεν βοηθάει μόνο τη διδακτική πράξη, αλλά και το σχεδιασμό της συγγραφής και της ανανέωσης των διδακτικών εγχειριδίων. Μάλιστα, απαιτείται, επιπλέον, να διεξαχθούν έρευνες για το συσχετισμό κάθε Θ.Π. με το επίπεδο γλωσσικής κατάκτησης, καθώς και με την ηλικία. Παράλληλα, οι συγγραφείς των εγχειριδίων πρέπει να αντιληφθούν ότι, πέρα από τους προβλέψιμους συσχετισμούς των επιμέρους θεμάτων στο εσωτερικό των θεματικών ενοτήτων (π.χ. ενδυμασία και μόδα, μετακίνηση και τουρισμός, κ.τ.λ.), πρέπει να επιχειρούνται νέοι απροσδόκητοι συνδυασμοί, που να ξεφεύγουν από τις στερεοτυπικές επιλογές και να είναι όσο το δυνατόν περισσότερο πρωτότυποι και πληροφοριακοί (π.χ. ενδυμασία και καιρικές συνθήκες, ενδυμασία και επάγγελμα ή μόδα και ψυχολογία, τουρισμός και οικονομία ή γεωγραφία, μετακίνηση και τεχνολογία ή ιστορικές πληροφορίες, κλπ.). Τέλος, όσοι ασχολούνται με τη συγγραφή εγχειριδίων, θα πρέπει να λαμβάνουν υπόψη τους ότι τα γραμματικά φαινόμενα είναι σταθερά και δεν είναι αυτά που κατά κύριο λόγο διαφοροποιούν τα εγχειρίδια. Αυτό που κάνει ένα εγχειρίδιο ιδιαίτερο είναι οι επιλογές των θεμάτων του (Singapor Wala 2003: 59), οι οποίες, τελικά, συνιστούν το περιεχόμενό του και, όπως αναφέρει ο Thanassoulas (1999), το καθιστούν αδιαμφισβήτητης αξίας όχημα για την κατάκτηση της ξένης γλώσσας.
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Τα εγχειρίδια που εξετάστηκαν στην έρευνα
Αγάθος, Θ., Γιαννακού, Β., Δημοπούλου, Β., Τσοτσορού, Α. 2004. Ακολουθώντας το Κείμενο. Εκδόσεις: ΕΚΠΑ.
Αγάθος, Θ., Γιαννακού, Β., Δημοπούλου, Β., Τσοτσορού, Α. 2009. Ανακαλύπτοντας το Κείμενο. Φιλογλωσσία.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 7 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Αρβανιτάκης, Κ., Αρβανιτάκη, Φ. 1994. Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά 3. Εκδόσεις: Δέλτος.
Αρβανιτάκης, Κ., Αρβανιτάκη, Φ. 2002. Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά 1. Εκδόσεις: Δέλτος (νέα έκδοση).
Αρβανιτάκης, Κ., Αρβανιτάκη, Φ. 2003. Επικοινωνήστε Ελληνικά 2. Εκδόσεις: Δέλτος (νέα έκδοση).
Βαζάκα, Μ. 2006. Στρατηγικές Ανάγνωσης. Εκδόσεις: Μεταίχμιο.
Διακουμή, Ι., Παρασκευοπούλου, Χ., Παυλοπούλου, Α. 2004. Συνεχίζοντας Εκδόσεις: Ελληνοαμερικανική Ένωση.
Δεμίρη-Προδρομίδου, Ε., Καμαριανού–Βασιλείου, Ρ. 2002. Νέα Ελληνικά για μετανάστες, παλιννοστούντες, πρόσφυγες και ξένους. Β΄ Επίπεδο. Εκδόσεις: Μεταίχμιο.
Δεμίρη-Προδρομίδου, Ε., Καμαριανού–Βασιλείου, Ρ. 2002. Νέα Ελληνικά για μετανάστες, παλιννοστούντες, πρόσφυγες και ξένους. Γ΄ Επίπεδο. Εκδόσεις: Μεταίχμιο.
Εμμανουηλίδης, Π., Εμμανουηλίδου-Πετρίδου, Έ. 1999. Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα. Εκδόσεις: Μεταίχμιο.
Καβουκόπουλος, Φ., Κουτσομητοπούλου, Ε., Αργυρούδη, Μ., Δαγκλή, Β. 1997. Νέα Ελληνικά για αρχαρίους. Εκδόσεις: Νεφέλη και Πανεπιστήμιο Κρήτης.
Μπαμπινιώτης, Γ. 1993. Ελληνική Γλώσσα. Εκδόσεις: Ίδρυμα Μελετών Λαμπράκη (χρησιμοποιήθηκε η δεύτερη αναθεωρημένη-επαυξημένη έκδοση του 1995).
Παναγοπούλου, Ε., Χατζηπαναγιωτίδη, Ά. 1997. Ελληνικά για προχωρημένους (ομογενείς και αλλογενείς), γ΄ κύκλος. Εκδόσεις: Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης, Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών (Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη).
Σιμόπουλος, Γ., Παθιάκη, Ε., Κανελλοπούλου, Ρ., Παυλοπούλου, Α. 2010. Ελληνικά Α΄. Μέθοδος εκμάθησης της ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας. Εκδόσεις: Πατάκη.
Σπυροπούλου, Μ., Θεοδωρίδου, Θ. 2004. Η γλώσσα που μιλάμε στην Ελλάδα. Τα Ελληνικά ως ξένη γλώσσα. Για προχωρημένους μαθητές της ελληνικής γλώσσας. Εκδόσεις: University Studio Press: Θεσσαλονίκη.
7 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Βασιλική Γιαννακού
Παράρτημα
Το ερωτηματολόγιο της έρευνας
Α. Μέρος Α΄ 1. Φύλο: Γυναίκα ______Άντρας ______2. Ηλικία: 18-24______25-35______35-45______45-55______πάνω από 55______3. Χώρα: ______4. Τμήμα/ Επίπεδο: Α1_____ Α2______Β1______Β2______Γ______5. Σπουδές: Έχω τελειώσει τη δευτεροβάθμια εκπαίδευση ______Έχω τελειώσει το Πανεπιστήμιο______Έχω κάνει μεταπτυχιακές σπουδές______6. Σπουδάζεις ή θέλεις να κάνεις σπουδές στην Ελλάδα;______7. Εργάζεσαι ή θέλεις να εργαστείς στην Ελλάδα; ______8. Οικογενειακή κατάσταση: Ελεύθερος/-η ______Παντρεμένος/-η ______Με Έλληνα /Ελληνίδα ______Έχω παιδί/ παιδιά ______9. Πόσο καιρό είσαι στην Ελλάδα; ______10. Πόσο καιρό μαθαίνεις Ελληνικά; ______
Β. Μέρος Β΄
1. Τι είδους κείμενα σου αρέσει να διαβάζεις στον ελεύθερο χρόνο σου, στη μητρική σου γλώσσα; a. Κείμενα που έχουν σχέση με τη δουλειά ή τις σπουδές σου ______b. Κείμενα που έχουν σχέση με τις ασχολίες που σε ευχαριστούν (hobbies, διασκέδαση) ______c. Κείμενα με περιγραφικές πληροφορίες για κάποιο θέμα (π.χ. την ιστορία ενός μνημείου, ταξιδιωτικά κείμενα) ______d. Κείμενα που δημιουργήθηκαν από τη φαντασία ενός συγγραφέα ______e. Κείμενα από τα οποία μαθαίνεις πράγματα που σε βοηθάνε στην καθημερινή ζωή (σπίτι, μετακινήσεις)______f. Κείμενα που μιλάνε για τα παλιότερα χρόνια ______g. Κείμενα που παρουσιάζουν τη γνώμη κάποιου ανθρώπου/ κάποιων ανθρώπων για ένα θέμα ______h. Κείμενα που δίνουν λύσεις σε δικά σου προβλήματα (υγείας, ψυχολογικά, εργασιακά, κ.τ.λ.)______i. Κείμενα για σύγχρονα θέματα που απασχολούν πολλούς ανθρώπους στον κόσμο (περιβάλλον, οικονομία, τεχνολογία)______
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 7 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
2. Ποια από τα παραπάνω είδη κειμένων σου αρέσει να διαβάζεις σε κάποια ξένη γλώσσα που ξέρεις ή/και στα Ελληνικά; Γράψε τα τρία που σου αρέσουν πιο πολύ. a. ______b. ______c. ______
3. Ποια είδη κειμένων θέλεις να υπάρχουν στο βιβλίο των Ελληνικών ή να διαβάζετε στην τάξη; Γράψε αυτά που σου αρέσουν πιο πολύ (μέχρι 3). a. ______b. ______c. ______
4. Πιστεύεις ότι τα βιβλία με τα οποία μαθαίνεις Ελληνικά στην τάξη πρέπει να περιέχουν κείμενα που έχουν σχέση με την καθημερινή ζωή στην Ελλάδα; (μαγαζιά, μέσα συγκοινωνίας, συνθήκες εργασίας); Ναι ______Όχι______
5. Πιστεύεις τα βιβλία με τα οποία μαθαίνεις Ελληνικά στην τάξη πρέπει να έχουν κείμενα που έχουν σχέση με την Ιστορία και την παραδοσιακή ζωή (π.χ. γιορτές, έθιμα) της Ελλάδας; Ναι ______Όχι______
6. Στο μάθημα των Ελληνικών προτιμάς: a. Να έχεις ένα βιβλίο που θα περιέχει όλα τα κείμενα που θα κάνετε στην τάξη; _____ b. Το βιβλίο να μην έχει κείμενα (π.χ. να έχει γραμματική και ασκήσεις) και τα κείμενα να τα δίνει ο καθηγητής; _____ c. Να υπάρχουν στο βιβλίο κείμενα, αλλά να δίνει και άλλα ο καθηγητής; ______
7. Αν έχεις για το μάθημα των Ελληνικών βιβλίο που περιέχει κείμενα, a. προτιμάς αυτά να είναι κείμενα που σου αρέσουν ή/και σε ενδιαφέρουν. b. δεν χρειάζεται τα κείμενα αυτά να σου αρέσουν ή να σε ενδιαφέρουν, μόνο να σε μαθαίνουν καινούργιες λέξεις και κανόνες γραμματικής.
8. Όταν διαβάζεις κείμενα στα Ελληνικά, από τον τίτλο του κειμένου θέλεις … (σημείωσε μόνο ένα, αυτό που θέλεις πιο πολύ): a. να καταλαβαίνεις αμέσως για ποιο πράγμα μιλάει το κείμενο ______b. να καταλαβαίνεις αν το κείμενο είναι παλιό ή γράφτηκε πρόσφατα ______c. να καταλαβαίνεις ποια είναι η γνώμη/ η στάση αυτού που το έχει γράψει ______d. να μην καταλαβαίνεις τι ακριβώς θα διαβάσεις, αλλά να είναι ένας «έξυπνος» τίτλος που σε κάνει να θέλεις να διαβάσεις το κείμενο ______
9. Ποια από τα παρακάτω θέματα θα σου άρεσε να βλέπεις στα κείμενα του βιβλίου των Ελληνικών ή σε κείμενα που σου δίνει ο καθηγητής/ η καθηγήτριά σου στην τάξη; Διάλεξε τα δέκα που σου αρέσουν πιο πολύ.
7 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Βασιλική Γιαννακού
Μου αρέσουν κείμενα που μιλάνε ή δίνουν πληροφορίες για…
τη ζωή των ανθρώπων, διάσημων και μη (πού γεννήθηκαν, πού και πώς έζησαν, τι ξεχωριστό 1 έχουν /είχαν) την οικογενειακή ζωή (πώς ζούνε οι οικογένειες, ποιες είναι οι σχέσεις παιδιών και γονιών, 2 προβλήματα) την εργασία (περιγράφουν επαγγέλματα, μιλάνε για τα προβλήματα και τα πλεονεκτήματα επαγγελμάτων, τη συμπεριφορά στη δουλειά, συμβουλές για να είμαστε καλύτεροι στη δουλειά 3 μας ή για να μας προσλάβουν σε μια δουλειά ευκολότερα, π.χ. πώς φτιάχνεται ένα βιογραφικό σημείωμα) το σπίτι (τη διακόσμηση, τα χρώματα και τα αντικείμενα που μας κάνουν να νιώθουμε καλύτερα, 4 συμβουλές για την καθαριότητα, πώς να μειώσουμε τα έξοδα του σπιτιού) το φαγητό (πώς φτιάχνεται, τι περιέχει, συνταγές, υγιεινή διατροφή, παραδοσιακή και εθνική 5 κουζίνα, διατροφικά προβλήματα) τις αγορές, τα νέα προϊόντα, τον τρόπο πληρωμής (κάρτες, δάνεια), την κατανάλωση από 6 οικονομική και ψυχολογική πλευρά την καθημερινότητα, τις συνήθειες και τις ασχολίες των ανθρώπων, τι κάνουμε κάθε μέρα, τι 7 κάνουμε στον ελεύθερο χρόνο μας (ανάγνωση βιβλίων, τηλεόραση, ραδιόφωνο, περίπατοι) το θέατρο, το σινεμά, τις τέχνες (χορός, μουσική, ζωγραφική, φωτογραφία, διαγωνισμούς τέχνης, 8 π.χ. Eurovision, διάφορα φεστιβάλ) την παράδοση (ήθη και έθιμα, γιορτές, τη ζωή στα παλιότερα χρόνια στην Ελλάδα και σε άλλες 9 χώρες) τον αθλητισμό, τη γυμναστική, τα αθλήματα (ποδόσφαιρο, μπάσκετ, κολύμβηση, κ.τ.λ.), τα 10 παγκόσμια πρωταθλήματα, τους Ολυμπιακούς Αγώνες, σημαντικούς αθλητές 11 τα ταξίδια, τα μέσα μεταφοράς, τον τουρισμό, για συγκεκριμένους τόπους, αξιοθέατα και μνημεία
12 την ιστορία (γεγονότα, περιόδους, ιστορικά πρόσωπα στην Ελλάδα και σε άλλες χώρες) τα συναισθήματα, την αγάπη, τη φιλία, τον έρωτα, τα προβλήματα στις σχέσεις των ανθρώπων 13 και το πώς μπορούν να λυθούν, την επικοινωνία με τους άλλους (π.χ. αλληλογραφία, τρόποι καλής συμπεριφοράς, κ.τ.λ.) την εκπαίδευση, το σχολείο, το Πανεπιστήμιο, το πώς μπορώ να σπουδάσω ή να συνεχίσω να 14 μαθαίνω πράγματα, ακόμα και από το σπίτι μου (adult education and e-learning) τη διασκέδαση, το πού και πώς μπορούμε να διασκεδάσουμε στην Ελλάδα και σε άλλες χώρες, 15 πώς διασκεδάζουν οι διάφορες ηλικίες, παιχνίδια για μέσα και έξω από το σπίτι την τεχνολογία, τον ψηφιακό κόσμο, τα καινούργια επιτεύγματα, τις τηλεπικοινωνίες, την 16 επιστήμη 17 την οικονομία, την επιχειρηματικότητα, τα θέματα των τραπεζών την υγεία, τα προβλήματα υγείας, σωματικά και ψυχολογικά και την αντιμετώπισή τους, το ιατρικό 18 σύστημα για την περίθαλψη, τις οργανώσεις υγείας (Ερυθρός Σταυρός, Γιατροί χωρίς Σύνορα, κ.τ.λ.), την ομοιοπαθητική και άλλες εναλλακτικές θεραπείες την οικολογία, το κλίμα, τα οικολογικά προβλήματα, το γεωφυσικό περιβάλλον, τη χλωρίδα και 19 την πανίδα (ζώα και φυτά) τη γλώσσα, τον τρόπο που σκέφτεται ο άνθρωπος για να μιλήσει, τη σχέση γλώσσας και μνήμης, 20 την ιστορία της γλώσσας, τις ‘γλώσσες’ των διάφορων κοινωνικών ομάδων την πολιτική, τα δικαιώματα και τις υποχρεώσεις των πολιτών, τις πολιτικές ιδεολογίες, τα 21 πολιτικά προβλήματα των χωρών τα κοινωνικά προβλήματα π.χ. ανεργία, εγκληματικότητα, έλλειψη στέγης, μετανάστευση, 22 ναρκωτικά, βία
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 7 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
7 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Is Autonomy in Language Learning Attainable through Assessment?
Carol J. Everhard
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [email protected]
Abstract
Peer- and self-assessment seem to be crucial in the promotion of autonomy in EFL higher education; paradoxically, few studies have been conducted in this area. The Assessment for Autonomy Research Project (AARP) examined the assessment-autonomy relationship, through offering st 1 year students responsibility for peer- and self-rating of oral and written assignments, using criteria checklists, and awarding real grades. Quantitative and qualitative data were gathered and analysed over a 5-year period, 2005-2010. There was clear evidence that assessment empowerment promoted critical thinking and offered students a greater degree of autonomy than they were hitherto accustomed to.
1. Introduction
The relationship between autonomy and assessment could be termed ambivalent, mainly due to the paucity of research in this area, particularly in relation to EFL in higher education. Studies have focused either on speaking or writing, have been of short duration, usually one semester, and have been conducted mainly in the Far East, where modesty prevails among language learners, causing them to rate themselves particularly severely. The Assessment for Autonomy Research Project (AARP), which was conducted over a 5-year period, with 1st Year students on Language Mastery I courses in the School of English (SOE), Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTh), between 2005-2010, provided the opportunity to examine the relationship between assessment and autonomy more closely.
1.1. Why autonomy?
Autonomy in language learning has attracted great interest amongst language instructors over the last three decades, yet understanding, concerning what
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 7 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
it is and how it can be promoted, is still somewhat vague. The creation of the European Language Portfolio (ELP) and the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) have gone some way towards furthering that understanding, since exploitation of the ELP involves learners in evaluation of their learning, through the use of criterial checklists, which promote reflection about learning, and, subsequently, autonomy. While there have been projects at local, national and international levels designed to encourage use of the ELP and the CEFR, their uptake in Greece seems to have been limited, and their implementation no more than superficial. One explanation might be that the emphasis there during the last three decades has been on “certification” for which students “prepare strenuously” (Sifakis & Sougari 2010: 305). According to Little (2003), the public examinations which provide certification have a “powerful washback effect” which can be detrimental to the fostering of autonomy and lead to “teaching for the exam”, a view supported in Greece by Prodromou (1995) and Vassilakis (Spyropoulou 2006). Testing and examinations breed fear (Boukouvalas 2001), make unreasonable demands on young people (Broadfoot 2005), and also breed reliance on more knowledgeable others (Everhard 2006), leading learners towards greater heteronomy.
1.2. Heteronomy vs. Autonomy
Speakers and writers on autonomy in language learning tend to define from the outset what they mean by autonomy, to ensure that the listener or reader has the same conception of autonomy in their minds. However, only rarely do experts mention that the word autonomy has an opposite, of similar derivation, which is ‘heteronomy’ (Namenwirth 1996; Rujiketgumjorn 2000; Schmenk 2006), as shown in Table 1 below:
Table 1. Derivation and meaning of autonomy and heteronomy
WORD GREEK DERIVATION MEANING rule, αυτός = self autonomy regulation, νόμος = law direction of self rule, έτερος = other heteronomy regulation, νόμος = law direction by others
In foreign language learning, it can be useful not only to remember the antithesis between these two words, but also to think in terms of a continuum from heteronomy to autonomy, though not a continuum with fixed gradations or
7 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Carol J. Everhard
stages, but rather one which allows for greater or lesser degrees of autonomy and heteronomy and permits of progression, regression and a great deal of fluctuation in both directions (see Figure 1 below). Thus, language instructors remain aware that certain behaviours (Breen & Mann 1997: 145), promoted in the language-learning arena, are more or less conducive to autonomy and/or heteronomy.
HETERONOMY: AUTONOMY: DEPENDENCE ON OTHERS DEPENDENCE ON ONESELF
Figure 1. Heteronomy and autonomy on a continuum
Schmenk (2006) insists we should not regard the polarity between heteronomy and autonomy as one of bad vs. good. Nevertheless, non-linguists remind us that dependence on others, while not always a bad thing, can be “debilitating” (Boud 1996: 44) and can constitute a “severe limitation” (Grow 1991: 129). Dependence on others, if perpetuated, may result in the phenomenon of “learned helplessness” (Dornyei 1994: 276), where learners are overcome by a feeling of powerlessness, remaining entrapped in the belief that things cannot be otherwise. Some researchers suggest we regard autonomy as a right (Hustler & Hodkinson 1996; Rujiketgumjorn 2000), or an entitlement (Wright 2005). Although this may sound extreme, it is important to consider the consequences, for our learners, of the continued promotion of heteronomy (Everhard 2006); thus, it is important to consider the more positive role assessment can play in the empowerment of learning.
1.3. Why Assessment?
Lewkowicz & Moon (1985: 62) describe assessment as a “powerful weapon of control”, while Gibbs (1999: 41) regards it as “the most powerful lever teachers have” to influence students’ attitudes towards learning. By placing emphasis on grades and achievement in tests, education systems promote surface rather than deep learning and, in language learning, focus on what is likely to appear in the exam (Prodromou 1995; Spyropoulou 2006), ignoring other knowledge useful to a language learner and user. If such learning prevails through to higher education, according to McKay & Kember (1997: 55), students will “wish to be spoon fed and in turn they are
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spoon fed”, with responsibility for learning remaining with the teacher. This conflicts with what Kohonen (1992: 18-19) sees as the “task” of education, which should enable learners to become “a ‘fuller’ person with the capacity to reason, to feel and to act responsibly”, which can only be achieved through “an increasing capacity to assume responsibility for what one does”.
1.4. Degrees of Autonomy and Assessment
The aim of the AARP was to examine Harris & Bell’s (1990: 111) suggestion, that the greater degree of involvement learners have in assessment procedures, the greater the degree of autonomy they enjoy, and to see if by combining it with Dam (1995) and Little’s (1996; 1999) 4 levels of necessary understanding for autonomy (see Figure 2 below), it was possible for participants to “assume responsibility” and become “fuller” persons (Kohonen ibid). Through the use of common criterial checklists, like those in Appendices 1, 2 & 3, it was possible to move from purely teacher-controlled to more learner- controlled assessment, with Peer-assessment preceding, and being used as a springboard to Self-assessment (see Figure 2 below).
HETERONOMY AUTONOMY
TRADITIONAL COLLABORATIVE PEER-ASSESSMENT ASSESSMENT ASSESSMENT SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. WHAT are we learning? 2. WHY are we learning?WH 3. HOW are we learning? 4. With WHAT SUCCESS?
Figure 2. Combining degrees of assessment and levels of necessary understanding
1.5. Turning a Constraint into an Affordance
To turn assessment into an affordance, rather than a constraint in achieving autonomy, learners have to exercise critical thinking, or what Heron (1981: 66) refers to as “criterial thinking”. Such thinking deepens learners’ understanding of the subject-matter since “measuring” or “judging” work against criteria involves
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“far more rigorous processes than simply reading, listening or watching” (Race 1998: 114). In the AARP, by “learning to assess” and by “assessing to learn” (Chen 2008: 254), learners would, hopefully, prove themselves competent and trustworthy assessors.
2. Research Methodology
To obtain information about both the products and the processes of assessment on the AARP, a mixed-methods approach was deemed suitable for gathering both quantitative and qualitative data.
2.1. Context
The research groups were those assigned to the Instructor-Researcher (I-R) on the obligatory course Language Mastery I (LM I), in the SOE, AUTh, which were therefore convenience samples. LM I is taken in the autumn semester, ranging between 10-13 weeks in length, and focuses on descriptive and narrative discourse. The AARP was conducted in three stages: (1) the Pre-Study, 2005-2006; (2) the Main Study, 2006-2009, and (3) the Post-Study, 2009-2010. There were two cycles of writing assessment, based on two home writing assignments and one cycle of speaking assessment, based on in-class presentations. Groups ranged between 18 to 30 in number, and involved 246 students in total. A reliable international placement test determined the participants’ level of English, with CEFR B2 level predominating, and details of previous certification were also gathered. The majority of SOE graduates become teachers of EFL in state or private FL schools, so assessment skills are relevant to their future lives and careers.
2.2. Hypotheses and Aims
The four working hypotheses on which the AARP was based were, if learners could: (1) peer-assess oral and writing skills, using predetermined criteria, with objectivity and reliability; (2) self-assess oral and writing skills, using predetermined criteria, with objectivity and reliability;
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 8 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
(3) assume ownership of the assessment criteria checklists and assess in an atmosphere of cooperation and trust; and whether triangulated assessment could (4) become an affordance, leading to greater self-direction and autonomy.
These working hypotheses would be tested in the Pre-Study, through particular pedagogical procedures and, if proved satisfactory, would be applied in the years that followed.
2.3. Research Instruments
Instruments used in the collecting of data were (a) criteria checklists for two writing assignments and one oral assignment (see sample Appendices 1, 2 & 3), and (b) assessment questionnaires (see Appendix 4). Additional information was also gathered on Student Profile Cards and Learner/Teacher Contracts, but these were used to track progress by the I-R and AARP participants only (Everhard 2012). Since learners were novices in assessment and responsibility for rating and grading was shared equally between Self, Peer and the I-R, in each instance, they used criteria which were: (a) pre-determined by the I-R, without negotiation1; (b) a simple check-list with five criteria on a Likert scale from 1-5; (c) known to participants in the pre-production stage of the assignment, (d) familiar to them through peer-assessment processes.
The criteria selected were holistic, avoiding specific categories such as ‘grammar’ and ‘vocabulary’ included by many other researchers. Research groups were mixed ability, so some students might be aware of their own competence or inadequacy in these areas and be negatively influenced. Figure 3 below distinguishes the differences between peer-assessment of writing and speaking. Only one Peer assessed each writing assignment, with their rating holding equal status with that of the Instructor or Self-assessor, while, with speaking, each member of the audience peer-assessed the presenter.
1 Formerly, researchers insisted that students should negotiate or create their own criteria, but recently Orsmond et al. (2000) found that this did not guarantee ownership of the criteria.
8 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Carol J. Everhard
WRITING SKILLS
Instructor Assessment Single Peer - Assessment
Self - Assessment
ORAL SKILLS
Instructor Assessment Group Peer - Assessment
Self - Assessment
Figure 3. Assessment Cycle for Writing and Oral Skills
2.4. Data Gathering
The AARP was a replicative study, year on year, fitted into normal teaching procedures to avoid unnecessary disruptions. Thus, the criteria checklists (see Appendices 1, 2 & 3), used in triangulated Peer-, Self- and Instructor assessment, served a dual purpose in a) configuring students’ assignment grades, and b)
comparing Peer-, Self- and Instructor ratings statistically. Each of the five criteria were assessed on a Likert scale of 1 to 5, with 1 = weak, 2 = moderately weak, 3 = average, 4 = moderately strong and 5 = strong. The total grade, of 25, was downscaled to 10. At the end of the assessment process, a questionnaire (see Appendix 4) was used to formulate participants’ impressions and create a fuller picture of assessment success. The questionnaire used, 2005-2009, was an abridged version of one created by Antonopoulou (Antonopoulou et al. 2008) in 2002. Responses to the 10 questions were on a Likert scale of 1 to 5, where 1 = completely disagree, 2 = tend to disagree, 3 = undecided, 4 = tend to agree, and 5 = completely agree. A new questionnaire (Everhard-Theophilidou 2012) was devised in the year 2009 to gather information about assessment intervention in the Post-Study.
2.5. Assessment Recording and Research Procedures
In the case of writing assessment, all the participants used single criteria checklists and, for both peer- and self-assessment were encouraged to make corrections
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 8 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
and comments on the texts, just as the instructor would do. Consequently, not just the grading would be triangulated, but also feedback. The assignment grade awarded to individuals was based on the average of Self-, Peer- and Instructor grades. In the case of peer-assessment of speaking, the instructor collected all the checklists, averaged the grade, added the grades from Self and Instructor, and calculated the average overall. Grades were recorded on Student Profile Cards, and electronically, for further analysis.
2.6. Statistical Analysis
All of the data gathered concerning Self-assessment (S-A), Peer-assessment (P- A) and Instructor-assessment (I-A), from each assignment completed on LM I, in each year of the AARP, in the Pre-, Main and Post-Study, was subjected to the same methods of statistical analysis. The Means, in each case, from each type of assessment, whether S-A, P-A or I-A, for each group, for each assignment, were subjected to One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), where p = .05, to permit comparison. Where significant differences were found, further analysis using the Tukey-Kramer Comparison Test of Pairwise Mean Differences was deployed. Assessment data was also analysed using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r ), where r = .05, to determine possible relationships between S-A and P-A (S-P), S-A and I-A (S-I), P-A and I-A (P-I). Chi-Square Tests were conducted (Everhard-Theophilidou 2012) with the pooled data from the two research groups each year, to determine any Self:Instructor (S:I), Peer:Instructor (P:I) and Self:Peer (S:P) rating frequency ratio patterns. Regarding the questionnaires, these were distributed at the end of each autumn semester. Frequency counts were conducted on the responses to each question by each participant and the data was recorded electronically. It was processed in two different ways: (1) using percentages which were displayed in xyz graphs, facilitating comparison; (2) according to the means of responses, which were subjected to t-analysis, permitting comparison between each pair of groups, from 2005 to 2009. The same procedures were followed with Post-Study questionnaires, this time for 22 questions (Everhard-Theophilidou 2012). Comments from students shed light on the ‘processes’ in students’ minds and their attitudes to the assessment experience. Answers to three open questions (see Appendix 4) in the Pre- and Main Studies, were recorded for further analysis. In the case of the Post-Study, space provided after each of the 22 questions furnished useful comments on intervention processes.
8 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Carol J. Everhard
3. Results
The statistical analyses outlined above, produced very interesting results, an overview of which can be found in Table 2 below. Brief summaries of the results are given in the sections which follow.
3.1. Assessment of the 1st Home Writing Assignment
ANOVA analysis of the 1st Home Writing Assignment (Writing 1) assessment, produced no significant differences in either Group A or Group B, indicating overall alignment between S-A, P-A and I-A in the AARP Pre-Study. However, in the three consecutive years of the Main Study (2006-2009), the first and larger of the two groups in each year produced significant differences, and this same pattern is repeated in the Post-Study (2009-2010). Groups A, B, D, F, H and J appear to demonstrate competence in their assessment, giving an overall success rate of around 60% among the total student constellation over the five- year period. If we also take into account the Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficients, the picture looks even more favourable, particularly in the case of Group C, 2006-2007, where we have correlation coefficients both in the case of Self-Instructor (S-I), of 0.61 and Peer-Instructor (P-I), of 0.62, which are very encouraging. The S-I correlation of 0.51 for Group F also offers confirmation that things went well, while the P-I correlation of 0.66 for Group J in the Post-Study, with Intervention, is also heartening. Although not displayed here, it should be mentioned that frequency rating ratios derived from chi-square test analyses showed, firstly, that in the Pre- Study, S:I frequency rating ratios and P:I ratios, were very similar. Secondly, these same ratios continued to follow a very similar pattern of rises and falls throughout the AARP, although, for the most part, the S:I frequency rating ratios are more deviant. Thirdly, in the Post-Study, 2009-2010, the Intervention Exercise appeared to have a less positive effect on P-A and S-A rating than hoped for.
3.2. Assessment of the 2nd Home Writing Assignment
An appraisal of assessment processes based on comparison of the means of true scores from S-A, P-A and I-A of the 2nd Home Writing Assignment, initially appears more disappointing than the 1st Home Writing Assignment. The same behavioural pattern occurs in the Pre-Study, with no significant differences in Groups A and B, demonstrating assessment alignment. The same behavioural
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 8 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics P-S 0.67 0.65 0.50 0.44 S-I 0.45 0.42 0.45 P-I 0.46 0.51 0.75 0.51 0.44 0.52 Pearson corr. coeff. corr. Pearson n.s. Oral n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s n.s. n.s. p <0.001 sig. A=B>C n.s. n.s. One-way ANOVA One-way ANOVA Kramer & Tukey P-S S-I 0.48 0.47 0.66 P-I Pearson corr. coeff. corr. Pearson 0.65 n.s. sig. p< 0.001 sig. A>B=C n.s. n.s. n.s. sig. p= 0.010 sig. A>B=C p= 0.002 sig. A>B=C sig. p =0.048 sig. A>B only p= 0.017 sig. A>B only p =0.021 sig. A>B only Writing 2 Writing One-way ANOVA One-way ANOVA Kramer & Tukey 0.50 P-S 0.61 0.51 S-I Pearson corr. coeff. corr. Pearson 0.66 0.62 P-I n.s. n.s. n.s. p =0.002 sig. A>C=B n.s. p =0.006 sig. A>C only n.s. sig. p =0.005 sig. A>B only p <0.001 sig. A>B>C n.s. Writing 1 Writing One-way ANOVA One-way ANOVA Kramer & Tukey 2009-10* J Group 2005-6 A Group 2005-6 B Group 2006-7 C Group 2006-7 D Group 2007-8 E Group 2007-8 F Group 2008-9 G Group 2009-10* I Group 2008-9 H Group Year & Group Year Table 2. Table Overview AARP Assessment p = 0.05 r Peer-Self Peer-Instructor P-S = P-I = Peer C = Instructor PEARSON - S-I Self-Instructor - A = Self B = significant ANOVA n.s. = non-significant sig. excluded. been Non-participants have exercise. Intervention Post-Study based only on participants in the are here and values offered 2009-2010* = The results
8 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Carol J. Everhard
patterns also occur in the Post-Study, with significant differences in Group I and no significant differences in Group J. From thereon the similarity in assessment patterns ends and instead we have significant differences in five out of the six groups in the Main Study, with the same pattern of A>B=C occurring in three of those, namely Groups C, D and E, indicating over-inflated self-assessment but alignment between P-I. Our picture of the 2nd Writing Assignment changes when we take correlation coefficients into consideration. S-I correlations occur in three of the groups from the Main Study, namely Groups C, G and H, which is a very encouraging sign. In the Post-Study, Group J has a correlation coefficient occurring between P-I, which is also satisfying. This seems to bring the level of assessment success to the same level as the 1st Writing Assignment, which is approximately 75% over the five-year period. Regarding rating frequency ratios (not shown here) derived from chi-square test analysis (Everhard-Theophilidou 2012), the ratios in all categories in the Pre-Study, 2005-2006, show the greatest restraint and closeness. Restraint also occurs in the Post-Study, both in the I:S value which has been reduced from 1:5 to 1:1.7 and also in the I:P value, reversed since the 1st Writing assessment cycle, from 1:3.1 to 1.5:1. There seems to be a delayed reaction to Intervention in the 1st assessment cycle, with feedback fed forward into the 2nd assessment cycle, a phenomenon described elsewhere, but in relation to Oral assessment (Cheng & Warren 1999).
3.3. Assessment of Oral Assignments
Initial impressions of oral assessment results, based on analysis of the means of true scores from S-A, P-A and I-A, for the Pre-Study (2005-2006), are the same as with writing, with no significant differences in either group, and no significant differences in five out of the six groups in the Main Study, with the one exception being Group E, 2007-2008, which also performed poorly on assessment of both the writing assignments. Pearson correlation coefficients offer confirmation of assessment success through P-I correlations for 5 and S-I correlations for 3 of the 10 groups. Group F, 2007-2008, has similar correlations for P-I, S-I and P-S, and emerges as the most successful group of all, while P-I and S-I correlations for Group H, 2008-2009, confirm healthy assessment alignment. Rating frequency ratios derived from chi-square test analysis (Everhard- Theophilidou 2012), not displayed here, showed the greatest equilibrium between ratios in the Main Study, 2008-2009. An identical I:P value and the same equilibrium appears in the Post-Study. I:S ratios in the Pre-study are close to equalisation, with 1:1.2, which rises sharply in the following year,
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2006-2007, and continues to rise steeply, in 2007-2008, only to drop sharply in 2008-2009, and rise slightly in the Post-Study. Peaks for all ratios in 2007-2008 offer convincing evidence, of the vagaries of Group E, while close agreement between all ratios in 2008-2009, shows co-incidence that might have been expected the following year, due to Intervention. The I:S ratio in the Pre-Study, with the exception of 2008-2009, never came close to repetition, but instead was usurped by the I:P ratio in 2006-2007, 2008-2009 and 2009-2010, and is close to equalisation in all cases.
4. Discussion
In the Pre-Study, there is evidence of strong assessment alignment with regard to both writing and speaking and the correlation coefficients produced between P-I in oral assessment are particularly gratifying. Questionnaire analysis also revealed that students in the Pre-Study felt they had greatly benefitted from the assessment process. In the Main Study, while the evidence of assessment alignment is not so immediately transparent with regard to writing, with only Group F producing ANOVA results consistent with those of Groups A and B, attention to the Tukey- Kramer results for Groups C, D, E, G and H in the 2nd Writing Assignment give evidence of Peer-Instructor consistency, while the correlation coefficients for 1st and 2nd writing assignments produced by Groups C, F, G and H give evidence of Self-Instructor consistency. In the case of speaking, the assessment alignment achieved in the Pre-Study was maintained in the Main Study, with the exception of one group, Group E, which constituted a rogue group. Closer inspection of participants in Group E revealed greater collaboration in pairs or groups in the presentation of their oral assignments, while all participants in Group F presented alone. This collaboration for Group E may have extended to assessment processes, resulting in friendship marking. The mixed results of the Main Study led the I-R to implement Intervention in the Post-Study in 2009-2010. While previously peer-assessment had been used as training for self-assessment, students were now offered training, through various intervention exercises (IE)s, before undertaking the peer-assessment process. Interestingly, assessment alignment in the Post-Study, both in the speaking IE and the writing IE, was impressively consistent; however, when it came to real assessment procedures, the IEs seemed to have little, no, or a delayed effect, making them seemingly redundant. This apparent redundancy was confirmed by qualitative data. This led to the conclusion that peer-assessment processes in themselves, as conducted in the Pre- and Main Studies, were sufficient practice for undertaking self-assessment, both in speaking and writing.
8 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Carol J. Everhard
5. Conclusion
The AARP was a long-term study which was unique both in its simplicity and in its investigation of both writing and speaking assessment, with the same groups of students. Like some previous studies, there was evidence that peers could assess writing and speaking skills accurately, using criteria checklists, and that this was performed in an atmosphere of cooperation and trust. In addition, there were indications, albeit less, that students could self-assess speaking and writing skills, without exploiting their position of power. In contrast with previous studies of self-assessment, modesty did not seem to be an issue. Clearly, previous societal, cultural and academic conditioning all play their role in learners’ willingness to assume responsibility for assessment and to move further along the path to autonomy. It is also evident that the relationship between assessment and autonomy in EFL deserves much greater attention.
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References
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Everhard, C. 2006. Returning the dancing bears to the wild! 40th International Annual IATEFL Conference, 8-12 April, 2006, Harrogate, U.K.
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Little, D. 1999. Autonomy in second language learning: Some theoretical perspectives and their practical implications. In C. Edelhoff and R. Weskamp (eds.), Autonomes Fremdsprachenlernen. Munich: Max Hueber Verlag, 22-36.
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Appendix 1
Paragraph writing: assessment criteria checklist
Writer’s St. No.: ______Assessor’s St. No.: ______
Use the following criteria checklist: 1=weak 2=Moderately weak 3=Average 4=Moderately strong 5=Strong
The language was precise and contained few errors 1 2 3 4 5
The paragraph had relevant and related content 1 2 3 4 5
The paragraph was of right size and well constructed around its topic 1 2 3 4 5
The paragraph flow was logical and helped the reader 1 2 3 4 5
The paragraph maintained interest throughout 1 2 3 4 5
To calculate the grade:- Add the five ratings together. Multiply the total by four. Divide by ten.
Grade awarded to PEER / SELF: …..
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Appendix 2
Narrative/descriptive essay writing: assessment criteria checklist
Code number of writer: …………….. Code number of assessor: ………
Use the following criteria checklist: 1 = Weak 2 = Moderately weak 3 = Average 4 = Moderately strong 5 = Strong
The essay conveyed an interesting message from beginning to end 1 2 3 4 5
All the information in the description was relevant and clear 1 2 3 4 5
Ideas were imaginative and nicely linked 1 2 3 4 5
Language was correct and used to good effect 1 2 3 4 5
The text was well-constructed and well-organised 1 2 3 4 5
To calculate the grade:- 1. Add the five ratings together. 2. Multiply the total by four. 3. Divide by ten.
Grade awarded to PEER / SELF: …..
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Appendix 3
Oral presentation: assessment criteria checklist
Presenter’s Name/No.: ______Assessor’s St. No.: ______Topic presented: ______Date: ______
Use the following criteria checklist: 1=weak 2=Moderately weak 3=Average 4=Moderately strong 5=Strong
The presentation appears to be well-prepared 1 2 3 4 5
The content and materials are appropriate and interestingly presented 1 2 3 4 5
The order of the presentation is cohesive and flows without too much reliance on notes 1 2 3 4 5
The parts of the presentation are well-linked together 1 2 3 4 5
Ability to be understood (voice, delivery, pronunciation etc.) 1 2 3 4 5
To calculate the final grade:- 1. Add the five ratings together. 2. Multiply the total by four. 3. Divide by ten.
Grade awarded to PEER / SELF: …..
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Appendix 4
AARP research assessment questionnaire
Circle the numbers that represent how you feel about aspects of the assessment. 1=Completely disagree 2=Tend to disagree 3=Undecided 4=Tend to agree 5=Completely agree
It was an interesting form of assessment. 1 2 3 4 5
I understood why this method of assessment was being used. 1 2 3 4 5
It was easy to assess the work of my peers (peer-assessment). 1 2 3 4 5
It was easy to assess my peers objectively. 1 2 3 4 5
It was easy to assess my own work (self-assessment). 1 2 3 4 5
It was easy to assess myself objectively. 1 2 3 4 5
The criteria checklists helped me to: understand the areas in which I was being assessed. 1 2 3 4 5
be a more active participant in the lessons. 1 2 3 4 5
pay attention to points I might otherwise have ignored. 1 2 3 4 5
develop critical thinking skills. 1 2 3 4 5
1. What were the strong points of the method? 2. What were the problems you encountered? 3. What suggestions would you make to improve the method?
9 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education The Employment of Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies in Bilingual Pupils’ Creative Writing
Athina Geladari and Konstantinos Mastrothanasis
University of Western Macedonia [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
The present research investigates the employment of cognitive and metacognitive strategies by bilingual pupils and the processes followed when they compose a short story in Greek (L2). The sample was comprised by 43 pupils enrolling in the 5th and 6th grade of Primary School. Data was collected through think-aloud protocols and individual retrospective interviews. The findings revealed variations between the two levels of language proficiency (good-weak writers) and types of bilingualism (simultaneous-successive) in terms of employing effective strategies and flexibility in strategy choice. Pupils’ difficulties were focused in the selection of appropriate vocabulary and organization of ideas.
1. Introduction
Writing is a complex, recursive cognitive process involving mental processes and strategy use. As highlighted in the theoretical frameworks of L2 writing, a host of factors affect writing performance, such as syntax, lexicon, task objectives and “socio-cultural” factors (Lantolf 2004). Various writing processes are propounded in the best known models of L1 or L2 composing (Silva & Brice 2004). These models assume that various processes are responsible for text- construction activity. The mental processes of writing encompasses a series of stages (basically pre-writing, writing, reviewing, and rewriting) involving multiple drafts. It has been underlined that among the factors that affect the process and product of L2 writing (a learner’s language proficiency, metacognitive knowledge about the writing task, employment of writing strategies, writers’ personal characteristics), writing strategies are particularly remarkable since it is their use
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that primarily separates successful from less successful writers (Baroudy 2008; Victori 1999). Strategies can pave the way toward greater proficiency, learner autonomy, and self-regulation (Hsiao & Oxford, 2002). There are various classifications of writing strategies and processes which were termed with different labels and have been used to interpret bilinguals writing processes and actions (Wenden 1991; Riazi 1997; Sasaki 2000). According to the classification of O’Malley and Chamot (1990), metacognitive strategies are those actions that aim at monitoring the writing process consciously without the direct involvement of the target language. Cognitive strategies are those writers use to implement actual writing actions and require a straightforward involvement with the target language (Carson & Longhini 2002). Cognitive strategies help students comprehend and produce language and include summarizing, translating, and taking notes while metacognitive strategies direct the acquisition of knowledge through self-monitoring, evaluating, or identifying the purpose of a language task (Olivares-Cuhat 2002). Studies investigating part of or the entire process of L2 writing commonly have reached to the conclusions that unskilled L2 writers tend to plan less and revise more at the word and phrase level (De Larios et al. 2006; Baroudy 2008), are less concerned about surface level revisions and more committed to the given assignment (Sasaki 2002). Diversly, skilled L2 writers plan more, revise at the discourse level, and elaborate in order to do the task most effectively (De Larios et al. 2006; Sasaki 2002). Strategy use is also influenced by the language proficiency, gender, school year or learning styles (Chamot 2004; Green & Oxford 1995; Lee 2003; Ehrman et al. 2003). Studies indicate that the unsuccessful writers tend to use rote memorization, repetition of spelling words, but seldom apply cognitive strategies in lesson review (Olivares-Cuhat 2002; Sasaki 2002). Skilled writers have a complete repertoire of strategies for planning, generating, organizing, and revising text (Griva et al. 2009). As for the relationship of strategy use and proficiency level, many studies had similar results that high- proficiency students used strategy use more frequently than those in the lower proficiency levels (Green & Oxford 1995; Khali 2005; Lan & Oxford 2003; Lee 2003; Oxford 1990). Much less is the literature focusing on differences between the strategies employed by simultaneous and successive bilinguals. Although, some recent studies provide evidence that simultaneous bilinguals, who have learned both languages at the same time, show different strategies and speeds in the development of writing skills (Akita et al. 2007), engage in planning, spell more correctly in both languages in spite of different orthographies (Berman 1994). Successive bilinguals, who usually learn the second language in a different age and different context, after the
9 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Athina Geladari and Konstantinos Mastrothanasis
establishment of their first language, are less flexible in lexical choice and spelling (Sousa et al. 2011). Thus, the study takes into account of the writers’ cognitive and metacognitive strategies by efficient and less efficient bilingual pupils and different types of bilingualism, simultaneous and successive. Knowing what skilled writers do as they compose, what specific strategies they use when they write, will help students to become better writers (Nyikos & Oxford 1993). Planning, revising, and managing the writing process are the “know-how” they need to become strategic writers (Harris & Graham 1994). There have been lots of studies investigating the strategy use (Green & Oxford 1995) suggesting that strategies are culture- related and culture-specific (Olivares-Cuhat 2002; Bazerman 2008) and if they are used appropriately, they can be the crucial factors related to success in language learning especially for the inexperienced students (Ehrman et al. 2003).
2. The study
The present research can be considered as an attempt to provide a source of insight into the strategies employed by bilingual children while writing in Greek. The reason of the study stemmed from the observed constant immigration influxes in Greece and the increasing immigrant pupils who are enrolling Greek primary school classes. Their differentiated linguistic and cultural backgrounds comprise of a teaching and educational challenge. The study aims at identifying the writing strategies and recording the difficulties observed during creative writing as well as tracing possible correlations between the language proficiency level and type of bilingualism. More specifically, the study investigates the following questions: a) What are the strategies that bilingual pupils use in the pre-, while- and post- writing stage of their creative writing? b) Are the employed cognitive and metacognitive strategies used efficiently? c) What are the difficulties confronted by the pupils? d) Do pupils of the two language proficiency levels and types of bilingualism differ in their strategy employment and confronted difficulties?
2.1. Sample
43 Albanian pupils (23 boys and 20 girls) who attended the 5th and 6th grade (M = 11,27 ± 0.31 years old) took part in the study. They were selected from a larger number of bilingual pupils, according to their language proficiency and type of bilingualism.
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2.2. Procedure
All bilingual pupils were distributed the screening standardized test for the detection and investigation of their deficiencies and difficulties in the process of writing (Porpodas, et al., 2007). The pupils were grouped into two writing competence levels, according to their scores at the aforementioned test: the weak writers and the good writers. Think-aloud protocols, semi-structured interviews and key-observations were chosen for the identification of the cognitive and metacognitive strategies that were employed during the writing process key-observations. Each participant was asked to write a short narrative story based on five key words they were given. At the same time, they were asked to express their thoughts while planning, organizing ideas, writing and reviewing, focusing on the difficulties encountered. The individual semi-structured retrospective interviews followed next to allow flexible data collection so that emergent issues could be explored in depth, along with the discussion of the key themes regarding the writing strategies used and the overlapping of the difficulties that occurred in writing. Pupils’ behaviors were recorded, using a key-observation created by the researchers for the reasons of this research and had been piloted on previous stage.
2.3. Data Analysis
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the quantitative data analysis. The techniques of Chi-square test (χ2), Monte Carlo test and Cramer’s V test were performed in order to identify differences in strategy use between more and less competent readers as well as the types of bilingualism. The Cramer’s V correlation is mentioned as the most statistically- sound method for determining relationships. The consistency of the ratings assigned by the two raters (the researchers) and the inter-rater reliability of the classification of data was examined. Inter- rater reliability in classifying the data in variables should be both substantive and statistically significant. In this light, we employed sequentially four reliability indexes: Scott’s Pi (p), Cohen’s kappa (Ck), Krippendorff’s alpha (a), and Fleiss’ kappa (Fk), each of which provided a high score of reliability and significance ( .82). The verbal data, after being analyzed qualitatively, resulted in groups of categories/sub-categories, (Miles & Humberman, 1994), which were classified into basic thematic strands. The analysis of qualitative data resulted in thirty- seven (37) codes that were subsumed in eight (8) categories: cognitive pre- writing strategies, metacognitive pre-writing strategies, cognitive while-writing strategies, metacognitive while-writing strategies, cognitive post-writing strategies, metacognitive post-writing strategies, word level writing difficulties
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and text level writing difficulties. The categories were grouped into four basic thematic strands: a) pre-writing strategies, b) while-writing strategies, c) post- writing strategies, and d) writing difficulties. Afterwards, contrastive tables were formed for each pupil, that were next commented. In order to evaluate writers’ strategy efficiency, each strategy was rated from 0 to 2, depending on their inefficient (0), relatively efficient (1) or efficient use (2). Similarly, the referred and detected difficulties were also assessed from 0 to 2: 0 for low difficulty, 1 for fair difficulties 2 for high difficulty.
3. Results
3.1. Cognitive and Metacognitive Writing Strategies
The qualitative analysis of verbal data (think aloud protocols and semi-structured interviews) resulted in 37 codes considering bilingual pupils’ employment of cognitive and metacognitive strategies while writing creatively. 16 of the codes correspond to the use of cognitive strategies (see Table 1) while the rest 14 are connected with the adoption of metacognitive strategies by the pupils (see Table 2). The strategies of resourcing ideas (47 reports), retrieving from background knowledge (35 reports), local (33 reports) and global rereading (31 reports), retrieving (25 reports) and generating ideas (24 reports) were the most employed cognitive strategies in all three stages of the writing process. Evaluating local production (32 reports), global planning (31 reports), error correction on the post-writing stage (29 reports) as well as on while-writing stage (26 reports), monitoring local production (27 reports) and planning (26 reports) were the strategies most preferred in all stages.
3.1.1. Pre-writing Stage
A large number of pupils employed certain cognitive and metacognitive writing strategies on the pre-writing phase, in order to plan and make drafts. The most employed strategies were: resourcing ideas (47 reports), generating ideas (24 reports), retrieving background knowledge (35 reports) and hypothesizing (14 reports). Pupils comment on their actions before writing: “when I realized what I had to do I started thinking how I will be relevant with it. I would like it to be like a fairy tale and I think I did it right” (pupil 6). The metacognitive strategies of this stage were connected to global planning (31 reports), evaluating of ideas (23 reports) and rehearsing (18 reports). A pupil mentioned: “I was thinking too long to decide what I could write. I wanted to pick
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Table 1. Codes related to cognitive writing strategies
Codes Interpretation Stage Occurrences
RESIDE Resourcing ideas Pre-writing 47
RETRIP Retrieving Pre-writing 35
LORERD Local rereading Writing 33
REREAD Rereading Post-writing 31
RETRIW Retrieving While-writing 25
GENIDE Generating ideas Pre-writing 24
AVOIDA Avoidance While-writing 23
ELABOR Elaborating While-writing 21
TRANSL Translating While-writing 19
MAKCON Making connections While-writing 18
TRANSC Transcribing Post-writing 17
LOCREV Local revising While-writing 16
REVISIN Revising Post-writing 16
HYPOTH Hypothesizing Pre-writing 14
RESIDS Researching ideas While-writing 12
RECALL Recalling While-writing 9
Table 2. Codes related to metacognitive writing strategies
Codes Interpretation Stage Occurrences
EVALPR Evaluating local production While-writing 32
GLOPLA Global planning Pre-writing 31
ERRCOR Error correction Post-writing 29
MONLPR Monitoring local production While-writing 27
PLANN Planning While-writing 26
ERCORW Error correction While-writing 26
EVALID Evaluate ideas Pre-writing 23
MONPRO Monitoring Production Post-writing 23
REHIDE Rehearsing ideas Pre-writing 18
EVAPRO Evaluating Production Post-writing 16
REHSTR Rehearsing structure While-writing 15
EVAABI Evaluating ability Post-writing 12
EVPATA Evaluating paragraph task While-writing 8
FEEDBA Feedback While-writing 7
1 0 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Athina Geladari and Konstantinos Mastrothanasis
interesting ideas. If an idea wasn’t appealing enough, I would think of something better. When I had planned every part of the story, I tried to organize the ideas and then I started writing” (pupil 32). The quantitative analysis of the pre-writing strategies (see Table 3) indicates that almost all cognitive and metacognitive strategies are used relatively efficiently.
Table 3. Descriptive indices for pre-writing strategies employment.
Categories Codes Inefficient use Relatively efficient use Efficient use
RESIDE 20,9% 41,9% 37,2%
Cognitive RETRIP 23,3% 44,2% 32,6% Strategies GENIDE 30,2% 25,6% 44,2%
HYPOTH 37,2% 27,9% 34,9%
GLOPLA 34,9% 39,5% 25,6% Metacognitive EVALID 34,9% 39,5% 25,6% strategies REHIDE 37,2% 37,2% 25,6%
However, some differentiations were observed regarding the levels of writers. The good writers used all cognitive and metacognitive pre-writing strategies more effectively than the weak, who were less engaged to the pre- writing processes. The χ2 and the Monte Carlo independence tests indicated some statistically significant differentiations between the two levels of writing competence. Similarly, the Cramer’s V test strengths the relationship between the writing level and the effective use of pre-writing cognitive and metacognitive strategies (see Table 4).
Table 4. Differences between good and weak writers in cognitive and metacognitive strategies use
Categories Codes Weak-Good Writers χ2=15,457, df=2, p=0,000 RESIDE Cramer’s V=0,600 χ2=25,306, df=2, p=0,000 RETRIP Cramer’s V=0,767 Cognitive Strategies χ2=21,974, df=2, p=0,000 GENIDE Cramer’s V=0,715 χ2=27,592, df=2, p=0,000 HYPOTH Cramer’s V=0,801 χ2=15,719, df=2, p=0,000 GLOPLA Cramer’s V=0,605 Metacognitive χ2=23,824, df=2, p=0,000 EVALID strategies Cramer’s V=0,744 χ2=25,604, df=2, p=0,000 REHIDE Cramer’s V=0,772
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Moreover, no statistical differentiations were detected for the types of bilingualism.
3.1.2. While-writing Stage
On the most creative stage, the while-writing, a major number of both cognitive and metacognitive strategies were used efficiently so that pupils achieve their goals. Particularly, almost all pupils adopted local rereading (33 reports) efficiently or relatively efficiently level (97,6%) unlike other cognitive strategies. Pupils reread locally either to detect and correct their mistakes, or to revise (16 reports) their compositions, or finally, to come up with further related ideas (12 reports) (see Table 5). A pupil mentioned on local rereading: “I read everything I have written in these two sentences to check whether I have missed a spelling mistake because I wasn’t careful enough about the spelling” (pupil 18).
Table 5. Descriptive indices for while-writing strategies employment
Categories Codes Inefficient use Relatively efficient use Efficient use
LORERD 2,3% 20,9% 76,7%
RETRIW 4,7% 27,9% 67,4%
AVOIDA 14,0% 37,2% 48,8%
ELABOR 23,3% 30,2% 46,5% Cognitive TRANSL 25,6% 53,5% 20,9% Strategies MAKCON 34,9% 41,9% 23,3%
LOCREV 34,9% 30,2% 34,9%
RESIDS 16,3% 34,9% 48,8%
RECALL 20,9% 53,5% 25,6%
EVALPR 34,9% 44,2% 20,9%
MONLPR 32,6% 32,6% 34,9%
PLANN 30,2% 37,2% 32,6% Metacognitive ERCORW 32,6% 37,2% 30,2% strategies REHSTR 44,2% 39,5% 16,3%
EVPATA 41,9% 34,9% 23,3%
FEEDBA 34,9% 41,9% 23,3%
Other cognitive strategies that were employed by the participant bilingual writers were those of retrieval (25 reports), avoidance (23 reports) and elaborating (21 reports). It is noted that the pupils were trying to retrieve ideas in this stage, too,
1 0 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Athina Geladari and Konstantinos Mastrothanasis
from their background knowledge, in order to enrich the content of their story (“...I thought what I will add! Last week I watched a cartoon on tv and I will use some parts of it in my story!”), however avoiding perplexed plots and elaborated vocabulary. As marked by a pupil “I thought of something funny but I don’t know how to describe it in Greek, so I’ll skip it” (pupil 22). In some cases pupils recalled (9 reports) in order to constrain from making mistakes or to improve their thoughts. One of the participants said: “...when I have trouble expressing something I’m thinking about, I choose to write something else. I prefer using words I already am aware of, than searching them or trying to recall, despite the fact that my story will be less exciting” (pupil 7). There were 21 reports on the strategy of elaborating while writing, when pupils’ goal was to extend their writing as much as possible. A pupil commented on that: “I want my stories to be long and rich of information, because our teacher told us to write the more we can” (pupil 2). A large majority of the pupils tried to use connecting words and linkages (18 reports) so that their stories be coherent: “I want the reader to make sense of my text, so when I compose I am concentrated on using temporal connections and be specific. Many pupils don’t do so and you can’t really say what they’ve written about” (pupil 40). Another also efficiently employed cognitive strategy proved to be translating (19 reports). The pupils who mentioned it claimed that they translated into Greek all the ideas they generated: “When I have to write something, I think about the topic firstly in Albanian and then I am saying it in Greek and, lastly, I write it down” (pupil 41). Considering metacognitive strategies, a large part of the pupils were positive in evaluating (32 reports) and monitoring local production (27 reports), while many were those who were referred to the strategy of planning (26 reports). As mentioned: “I am thinking what I am going to say with these words. When I write I am careful to write it correctly so that it makes sense. When I finish it, I read it again so as to be ascertained that I’ve said everything I had thought” (pupil 15). The metacognitive strategies of rehearsing the text structure (15 reports) and evaluating each paragraph (8 reports), were not employed effectively since, according to quantitative data, the 44,2% and 41,9% accordingly, make ineffective use of them, in reference to the goal of writing. Another strategy that was employed on the while-writing stage is error correction (26 reports). Error correction seems to occur while pupils write (“When I realize that I have written something wrong I correct it immediately”) or when pupils review their writings at the end, to spot mistakes and correct them (“When I have completed a whole paragraph I read it again to find any mistakes. I don’t want anybody to think that I am a bad student and don’t know how to write a story”). Concurrently, some pupils mentioned seeking for feedback (7 reports) as a metacognitive strategy that aids them improve their writing. As remarked “...I do my best. I want to be a good writer and I try hard for this. I think that the more I study and practice, the better writer I become”.
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Some considerable statistical differentiations were discovered through chi- square χ2 and Monte Carlo independence tests for the pupils of different writing levels and types of bilingualism. Accordingly, the Cramer’s V test indicated significant correlation between the variables of competence level and type of bilingualism with the effective use of writing strategies (see table 6).
Table 6. Differences between good-weak writers and successive-simultaneous bilinguals in cognitive and metacognitive strategies use
Successive-Simultaneous Categories Codes Weak-Good Writers Bilinguals χ2=15,062, df=2, p=0,001 ELABOR Cramer’s V=0,592 χ2=7,330, df=2, p=0,026 χ2=9,649, df=2, p=0,008 TRANSL Cramer’s V=0,413 Cramer’s V=0,474 χ2=12,539, df=2, p=0,002 χ2=11,042, df=2, p=0,004 MAKCON Cognitive Cramer’s V=0,540 Cramer’s V=0,507 Strategies χ2=16,196, df=2, p=0,000 LOCREV Cramer’s V=0,614 χ2=6,485, df=2, p=0,039 RESIDS Cramer’s V=0,039 χ2=7,604, df=2, p=0,022 χ2=7,465, df=2, p=0,024 RECALL Cramer’s V=0,421 Cramer’s V=0,417 χ2=14,437, df=2, p=0,001 EVALPR Cramer’s V=0,579 χ2=6,504, df=2, p=0,039 MONLPR Cramer’s V=0,389 χ2=10,785, df=2, p=0,005 PLANN Cramer’s V=0,501 Metacognitive χ2=23,547, df=2, p=0,000 χ2=6,661, df=2, p=0,036 ERCORW strategies Cramer’s V=0,740 Cramer’s V=0,417 χ2=21,713, df=2, p=0,000 REHSTR Cramer’s V=0,711 χ2=25,880, df=2, p=0,000 EVPATA Cramer’s V=0,776 χ2=11,650, df=2, p=0,003 FEEDBA Cramer’s V=0,521
3.1.3. Post-writing Stage
In the post-writing stage, a mediocre number of the bilingual students employed the strategies of rereading the whole text composition (17 reports), transcribing (16 reports) as well as revising (reports) all text. As pupils mentioned, they usually read the text they had composed (“I read what I’ve written to check it...”), to confirm the correctness and cohesion of their written production (monitoring production) (23 reports), to restore spelling and syntax mistakes (29 reports) (“I check the writing again at the end and I look-up some words to correct every
1 0 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Athina Geladari and Konstantinos Mastrothanasis
mistake I spot” - pupil 19), evaluate the total production (16 reports) and their skills in writing (12 reports). The quantitative analysis for the data that stemmed from this stage indicated that bilinguals tended to handle the cognitive strategies more effectively than the metacognitive ones (see Table 7). In particular, the cognitive strategies of rereading and transcribing are employed efficiently by the 41,9% and 51,2% accordingly. On the contrary, all metacognitive strategies seemed to be employed inefficiently on the post-writing stage.
Table 7. Descriptive indices for post-writing strategies employment.
Categories Codes Inefficient use Partially efficient use Efficient use
REREAD 23,3% 34,9% 41,9% Cognitive TRANSC 20,9% 27,9% 51,2% strategies REVISIN 32,6% 39,5% 27,9%
ERRCOR 39,5% 32,6% 27,9%
Metacognitive MONPRO 32,6% 37,2% 30,2% strategies EVAPRO 37,2% 34,9% 27,9%
EVAABI 44,2% 27,9% 27,9%
The χ2 and Monte Carlo independence tests along with Cramer’s V test highlighted significant differentiations concerning the effective strategy use of post-writing strategies by the two writing competence groups, as shown at Table 8.
Table 8. Differences between good-weak writers in cognitive and metacognitive strategies use
Categories Codes Weak-Good Writers
χ2=13,606, df=2, p=0,001 REREAD Cramer’s V=0,563 χ2=11,892, df=2, p=0,003 Cognitive strategies TRANSC Cramer’s V=0,526 χ2=9,946, df=2, p=0,007 REVISIN Cramer’s V=0,481 χ2=17,894, df=2, p=0,000 ERRCOR Cramer’s V=0,645 χ2=23,525, df=2, p=0,000 MONPRO Cramer’s V=0,740 Metacognitive strategies χ2=18,837, df=2, p=0,000 EVAPRO Cramer’s V=0,662 χ2=20,883, df=2, p=0,000 EVAABI Cramer’s V=0,697
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Concerning the strategies employment by the two types of bilinguals, successive and simultaneous, no statistical differentiations were found.
3.2. Difficulties in Writing
Regarding the difficulties encountered by bilinguals at a lexical level, it seems that the use of appropriate vocabulary (27 reports) and spelling (27 reports) constitute the most frequently confronted hurdles (see table 9). As many of the participants mentioned: “I can’t spell every word” (pupil 33), and “sometimes I am at short of words, I can’t recall the word I want to use” (pupil 2).
Table 9. Categories and codes regarding writing difficulties
Categories Codes Interpretation Occurrences
USAPVOC Use of appropriate vocabulary 27 Word level CORSP Correct spelling 27
GENID Generating Ideas 31
ORGID Organizing Ideas 32
Text level CONPLA Content planning 36
SYNTX Syntax 14
CORGRAMM Correct grammar 23
The general difficulties that were recorded focused on the production (31 reports) and organization of ideas (32 reports) and planning the content while thinking about the topic (36 reports). Some pupils mentioned that syntax represents also an obstacle for the completion of a successful short story (14 reports). The correct use of the grammatical rules of the Greek language (23 reports) is also a difficult point when writing in L2 (“I usually mistake the genders. They differ in Albanian and I am confused when I am in a hurry to finish my writing. I have improved myself in the articles, though!”- pupil 5) The quantitative analysis indicated that bilingual pupils face greater difficulties in selecting appropriate, matching vocabulary (32,6%), spelling words (30,6%) and the overall planning of the content of their writings (25,6%) (see table 10). The differentiations uncovered by the independence testsχ ( 2 and Monte Carlo) regarding both writing competence level and type of bilingualism indicated significant correlations with the difficulties encountered in creative writing (see table 11).
1 0 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Athina Geladari and Konstantinos Mastrothanasis
Table 10. Descriptive indices of difficulties on while-writing phase
Categories Codes Low Fair High
USAPVOC 37,2% 30,2% 32,6% Word level CORSP 37,2% 32,6% 30,2%
GENID 27,9% 51,2% 20,9%
ORGID 25,6% 51,2% 23,3%
Text level CONPLA 16,3% 58,1% 25,6%
SYNTX 67,4% 27,9% 4,7%
CORGRAMM 46,5% 41,9% 11,6%
Table 11. Differences between good-weak writers and successive-simultaneous bilinguals in cognitive and metacognitive strategies use
Categories Codes Weak-Good writers Successive-Simultaneous bilinguals
χ2=20,930, df=2, p=0,000 χ2=6,503, df=2, p=0,039 USAPVOC Cramer’s V=0,698 Cramer’s V=0,389 Word level χ2=19,523, df=2, p=0,000 χ2=6,088, df=2, p=0,048 CORSP Cramer’s V=0,674 Cramer’s V=0,376 χ2=10,942, df=2, p=0,004 GENID Cramer’s V=0,504 χ2=11,674, df=2, p=0,003 GENID Text Cramer’s V=0,521 level χ2=14,388, df=2, p=0,001 CONPLA Cramer’s V=0,578 χ2=11,983, df=2, p=0,002 CORGRAMM Cramer’s V=0,528
4. Concluding Remarks
The results of the research demonstrate that bilingual pupils employed a wide range of cognitive writing strategies, such as retrieving, rereading, avoidance, elaborating and translating. Many metacognitive strategies were also employed through all stages, like monitoring, planning, rehearsing, error correction, evaluating and seeking for feedback. Regarding the volume of strategies recorded, the most ‘strategy generating’ stage was accented to be the while-writing one. The findings highlighted some remarkable differences regarding the two levels of L2 language proficiency and types of bilingualism (simultaneous-successive).
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The less skilled writers made use of limited strategies and dealt with greater difficulties. Furthermore, they showed lower competence in the macro-processes of writing, narrow metacognitive awareness and metacognitive strategy use, in contrast to the good writers who were more efficient in their strategy use. The findings are in line with earlier research (Silva & Brice 2004; Ehrman et al. 2003), that have confirmed that good writers are more effective than their weaker counterparts in researching and generating ideas, hypothesizing. Moreover, the weak writers differ significantly regarding their use of metacognitive strategies, such as global planning, evaluating ideas and rehearsing ideas before writing (Ferrari et. al. 1998; Griva et al. 2009). The weak writers faced greater difficulties in the lexical level, like selecting the appropriate vocabulary and spelling, in contrast to the good writers, who focused on the macro process of writing demonstrating less difficulty in production and organization of ideas. In reference to the use of strategies by the simultaneous and successive bilinguals, no significant differentiations were indicated regarding the pre- writing and post-writing strategies. Some noteworthy statistical differentiations were observed between the pupils of two types of bilingualism at the while- writing stage. Simultaneous bilinguals were proved more efficient in choosing effective cognitive strategies, such as making connections, recalling and the metacognitive strategy of self-correcting. In reverse, successive bilinguals turned to translating. Previous research confirms this result as skilled writers and writers with higher L2 proficiency are less likely to use L1 while writing in L2 than the weaker ones (Victori 1999; Sasaki 2002; Lee 2003; Sousa et al. 2011). In addition, successive bilinguals dealt with extensive difficulties, in selecting proper vocabulary as well as spelling.
1 1 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Athina Geladari and Konstantinos Mastrothanasis
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1 1 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Motivation-Related Issues to Learn Different Languages in an Intercultural School
Konstantina Iliopoulou and Areti-Maria Sougari
Secondary Sector, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
This paper reports on the findings of a study involving 98 lower secondary students who receive schooling in a Greek intercultural school, aiming to investigate their motivational orientations towards the learning of Greek as a second language, English as an additional language (which is also a compulsory school subject) and a chosen additional language (i.e. French and German). The study used closed questionnaire items which examined possible varying motivation among the respondents in order to find similarities and/or differences associated with the different target languages when compared with the students’ motivation to learn the language of the host country, which is also the medium of instruction. The findings shed light into learners’ motivation towards the various languages and offer insight into learners’ attitudes towards different foreign languages.
1. Introduction
Many national language policies around the world promote multilingualism and it is quite common for students to learn a number of foreign languages simultaneously. Educational systems are faced with the challenge to address the needs of the student population while at the same time addressing social, cultural and political demands (UNESCO 2003). A number of fundamental standard-setting instruments have been trying to draw an international agreement on the issue of language and its importance in the educational system. In a number of learning environments, the choice of the language of instruction is the official language of a particular country. Certain educational policies conform to the various declarations and incorporate the languages spoken by the student population in their home environment within the school curriculum. Due to many problems associated with this undertaking, educational
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policies may dictate the teaching of particular languages which is associated with economic and socio-political principles (Tripolitakis, 2010). Admittedly, the learning of certain languages may invoke positive, ambivalent, or negative feelings. Even students who come from the same socio-cultural background may respond differently to the various languages incorporated in the school curriculum and subsequently inform their motivational orientations towards the learning of these languages. Few studies have tried to shed light on the learners’ attitudes and motivation to learn different target languages and when this was undertaken it was normally attempted within the same community (Clément & Kruidenier 1983, in the Canadian context; Schmidt and Watanabe 2001, in the Hawaiian context; Dörnyei & Csizér 2002, in the Hungarian context; Sciriha 2001, in the Maltese context; Shameem 2004, in the Fijian context; and Humphreys & Spratt 2008, in the Asian context). Furthermore, there is limited research on the effect of the cultural background of immigrant students on their attitudes and motivation to learn different languages (Bernaus et al. 2004 in Spain). The present study reports immigrant students’ attitudes and motivation to learn different languages taught in the Greek lower secondary context, while following tuition in an intercultural school, which accounts for great linguistic diversity in the language classroom. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate immigrant students’ motivational orientations towards the four languages incorporated in the curriculum: Greek as a second language and medium of instruction, English as an additional language (which is also a compulsory school subject) and a chosen additional language (i.e. French and German).
2. Background to the Study
2.1. Language Attitudes and Motivation
Early attempts to investigate language attitudes and motivation to learn a second language are associated with the work conducted by Gardner and Lambert (1959, 1972), who identified two types of motivational orientations: instrumental and integrative. The former refers to pragmatic reasons for wanting to learn a particular language, whereas the latter reflects a desire to learn a language so as to engage in conversations with the target population. Even though this dichotomy is viewed as an oversimplication of an extremely sophisticated and complex issue and as context-specific, relevant to socio- linguistic contexts similar to the Canadian, a number of studies have based their framework on the idea of the two orientations (Hamphreys and Spratt 2008).
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Extensive research has investigated the underlying motives to learn a second language over the past decades and many studies have investigated the relationship between motivation and the following: achievement (Dörnyei 2001; Gardner 1985; Masgoret & Gardner 2003; Muñoz & Tragant 2001), gender-related differences (Carr and Pauwels 2006; MacIntyre et al. 2003), the socio-educational context in which the various studies were carried out (Dörnyei 1990; Gardner 1988; Oxford and Shearin 1994; Warden and Lin 2000). Notwithstanding the fact that attitudes and motivation bear relevance to the choice of language that students opt for in schools (i.e. should they be given an option), their choice and motivation to learn these languages also relates to the status of languages (Sciriha 2001). In the Hungarian context, survey data, focusing on five target languages and six target language communities were collected with the help of the Language Disposition Questionnaire during three rounds by targeting the same population and by tracking changes over time within a particular population. This study made use of the generalized aspects of L2 motivation and its seven components as identified by Dörnyei, Csizér and Németh (2006): integrativeness, instrumentality, attitudes towards L2 speakers, vitality of the L2 community, cultural interest, milieu and linguistic self-confidence. The results demonstrated a change of the learner dispositions towards learning foreign languages over time, while English had maintained its high status due to the widely acknowledged role in the world. What is more, even though it seems that students’ attitudes towards learning a particular language can be influenced by their ethnic background (Brohy 2001), little research has attempted to highlight learners’ motivational orientations towards learning different languages in multicultural classrooms (Bernaus et al 2004; Sougari and Iliopoulou 2013). Therefore, the impetus for the present study is to contribute to the research on immigrant students’ attitudes and motivation to learn different foreign languages while attending an intercultural lower secondary school within the Greek educational context.
2.2. Intercultural Education in Greece
Immigration influx in Greece has been taking place since the early 1990s and Greece has become a host for immigrants from eastern and central Europe, co- ethic ‘returnees’ and/or their descendants from the former Soviet Republics, Greek Albanians immigrants, others from Third World countries and a few Greek emigrants returning to Greece (Triantafyllidou and Gropas 2007, 2009). It is quite apparent that this immigration influx has altered the characteristics of the population by resulting in changes on the social, economic, ethnic, educational, religious and racial level. The societal diversity has also permeated the classroom setting and the new reality called for changes at the education sector. After all,
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for the purposes of national cohesion and national consciousness, it is important to integrate the migrant population in all aspects of public life. In response to growing immigration, initially reception classes were set up so as to cater for the immigrants’ cultural, educational and linguistic needs. Various pedagogical orientations have replaced previous structures of the educational system. The development of intercultural education has marked the establishment of a new category of schools, which host reception classes for students with limited or no knowledge of Greek (Law 2416/96; Paleologou 2004) Since 1996, out of a total 26 intercultural schools across Greece, thirteen are primary schools, nine are lower secondary schools and four are upper secondary schools. A school can be identified as an intercultural one when 45% of its student population is of non-Greek origin. It is worthwhile mentioning that the student body of each intercultural school may differ substantially in terms of the students’ country of origin. The diminishing number of upper secondary schools available can be associated with the immigrant students’ low interest in pursuing further education beyond the compulsory level. Even though these schools follow the ordinary curriculum, there is no need to cover the curriculum in its entirety. Special emphasis is placed on learning the Greek language as well as the other languages that are part of the compulsory curriculum (i.e. English and a choice between French or German). Greek is the medium of instruction, but English is also used in instances that need further clarification.
3. The Present Study
The dearth of studies on immigrant students’ motivation to learn different languages in the Greek educational context have given rise to the present study. To be more specific, this study investigates the motivation to learn different foreign languages among immigrant students who follow instruction in a Greek lower secondary intercultural school. Therefore, the focus is on their motivation towards the learning of Greek as a second language, English as an additional language (which is also a compulsory school subject) and a chosen additional language (i.e. French and German). It becomes pertinent to address immigrant students’ attitudes in order to unravel the nature of the appeal exercised by the different languages.
3.1. The Respondents
The current study was carried out on a sample of 98 (52% were male students, whereas 48% were female) immigrant lower secondary students at a Greek
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intercultural school, situated in Thessaloniki. The breakdown of the sample in the three grades was conducted as follows: 1st grade: 29.6%, 2nd grade: 35.7% and 3rd grade: 34.7% of student population. With particular reference to the distribution in the class for the subject of Greek, the following placement pattern appears: 1st grade beginners: 37.9%, intermediate: 31%, advanced: 31%; 2nd grade beginners: 22.9%, intermediate: 40%, advanced: 37.1%; and 3rd grade beginners: 29.4%, intermediate: 26.5%, advanced: 44.1%. According to the curriculum, the students, apart from Greek and English, had opted for a chosen additional language as follows: 66.3% (N=65) attended German and 33.7% (N=33) attended French. Due to the influx of immigrants to Greece, this particular school accommodates newcomers who have either recently migrated to Greece or those who had previously attended an intercultural primary school. Thus, in this study the students come from various countries and different linguistic backgrounds: 22.4% come from China, 18.4% come from Albania, 16.3% come from Georgia, 16.3% come from Russia, 16.3% come from Afghanistan, 5.1% come from FYROM, and 5.1% come from various countries.
3.2. Instrumentation
For the purposes of the present study, quantitative and qualitative data were drawn in an attempt to assess students’ attitudes and motivation to learn different foreign languages in a Greek intercultural school. The respondents were granted their anonymity throughout the whole procedure. Quantitative data were gathered with the help of a questionnaire, which is an adaptation of the one used by Dörnyei and Clement (2001) in the Hungarian context. The wording of certain items was simplified, certain items were dropped and others were added; these changes were deemed necessary in order to suit the Greek context and to match the respondents’ proficiency level. Two versions of the questionnaire were made available: one in Greek and one in English. The respondents were given the option to report their views on the items in question in either one of the two languages. It is worthwhile mentioning that the majority of the respondents opted for the Greek version and explanations were provided where necessary depending on the learners’ proficiency level. In the case of beginners, the questionnaire was provided in English and further clarifications were given if needed. The questionnaire consisted of three parts: part 1 elicited some demographic information such as gender, age, country of origin, language(s) spoken in their home environment and their personal assessment of their command in the languages in question. The formation of their profile was intentionally placed in the front part of the questionnaire so as to introduce respondents to the rationale of the questionnaire; part 2 drew the respondents’ views about the
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learning of particular languages (i.e. Greek, English, French or German) as well as their attitudes towards the target speech community of each language, and part 3 elicited the students’ stance towards language learning. Due to our attempt to partially replicate the Hungarian study, the seven motivational dimensions (i.e. integrativeness, instrumentality, attitudes towards L2 speakers, vitality, cultural interest, milieu and linguistic self-confidence) identified by Dörnyei and Clement (2001) and Dörnyei and Cziser (2002) were retained. Qualitative data were drawn with the help of nine follow-up semi-structured interviews (i.e. three students of each grade and one of each proficiency level, who came from different countries, were interviewed). The interviews highlighted areas that needed further elucidation, i.e. what informs the participants’ attitudes to learning the languages included in the curriculum. The findings that were raised in the qualitative part are beyond the scope of the present paper and appear in another paper (Sougari and Iliopoulou 2013).
3.3. Data Analysis
With regard to the analysis of the sample, the computation of frequencies and the implementation of the Wilcoxon signed-ranks test were conducted. The Wilcoxon signed-ranks test was used to assess the magnitude of the difference in the sample’s answers; to be more specific, the respondents’ perception about Greek is compared to each one of the other foreign languages incorporated in the curriculum. The choice of this particular test is based on the nature of the questionnaire, which elicited answers to items that appeared in a 5-point Likert scale; to be more specific, in part 2: 1 was ‘very much’ and 5 was ‘not at all’, whereas in part 3: 1 was ‘strongly disagree’ and 5 was ‘strongly agree’. Cronbach α was used in order to draw the internal reliability coefficients for each target language and was calculated separately for each language. It is worthwhile mentioning that in the case of answers to questions pertaining to attitudes towards the learning of French and German only the answers of those learners who were attending such courses were accounted for. The significance level was set at p<.05.
3.4. Results and Discussion
With particular reference to the 27 items that were incorporated in the questionnaire, the motivational dimensions for which the Cronbach α coefficient was calculated individually for each language can be found below: • Integrativeness: three constituent items pertaining to the respondents’ desire to integratein the target speech community were used; these
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items drew on the extent to which: (1) the respondents liked the target languages; (2) they felt that it was important to know these language in order to become acquainted with the culture of the respective target group; and (3) they wanted to become similar to the people who spoke these languages (Greek: α=0.86, English: α=0.91, German: α=0.56, French: α=0.52). • Instrumentality: four items assessed the students’ perceptions about the role of the various languages in their lives. These items were as follows: how much they thought knowing these languages would help: (1) their future career; (2) to become a more knowledgeable person; and (3) when traveling abroad in the future. A fourth item enquired about how important they thought these languages were in the world (4) (Greek: α=0.81, English: α=0.71, German: α=0.90, French: α=0.81). • Attitudes towards L2 speakers: the three items were used to evaluate the students’ affective reactions toward the target speech community. These items asked the respondents to state: (1) how much they would like to travel to these countries; (2) how much they liked meeting people from these countries; and (3) how much they liked the people who live in these countries (Greece: α=0.84, English/ US: α=0.97, English/UK: α=0.92, Germany: α=0.85, French: α=0.84). • Vitality: two items assessed students’ views about the role of these countries in the modern world. In this case, the respondents were expected to respond to (1) whether they believed that these countries were rich and developed, and (2) whether these countries played an important role in the world (Greece: α=0.98, English/US: α=0.95, English/UK: α=0.88, Germany: α=0.69, French: α=0.72). • Cultural interest: four items measured students’ interest in learning these languages so as to expand their knowledge about cultural- related issues. These items drew answers on how much the respondents liked (1) the films, (2) the TV programmes, (3) the magazines made in these countries, and (4) the music of these countries (Greece: α=0.64, English/US: α=0.83, English/UK: α=0.83, Germany: α=0.39, French: α=0.43) • Milieu: two items were used to evaluate the influence exerted on the individual learners by their environment to learn foreign languages. Towards this direction, the respondents were asked to state (1) whether foreign languages were an important school subject, and (2) whether their relatives and friends considered foreign languages important school subjects (α=0.44). • Linguistic self-confidence: two items asked respondents to assess (1) the prospect of a successful language learning outcome, and (2) the effort needed to learn a foreign language (α=0.67)
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It should be noted that not all the items of the questionnaires were used in the making of the motivational dimensions due to the lack of connection with the motivation to learn any of these languages. As can be seen, most of the motivational dimensions mentioned above attained good reliability. The rather low reliability of certain items can be associated with the small number of respondents who have responded to the items connected with cultural-related issues and who have limited or no relevant cultural experience. The present paper will present the findings that reflect the respondents’ first three motivational facets, namely those of integrativeness, instrumentality and attitudes towards L2 speakers.
3.4.1. Integrativeness
With particular reference to the items that fall under integrativeness, it becomes apparent that the respondents were quite neutrally disposed towards all the languages incorporated in their curriculum. Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and the Wilcoxon singed ranks results comparing each target language with Greek, which is both the medium of instruction and a school subject. However, English seems to be more endorsed than the other two chosen languages, reflecting the importance of gaining knowledge about culture-related issues tied with the English-speaking world.
Table 1. Learners’ integrativeness
Greek English French German
M* M M M Liking these languages Greek vs English: N=54, z=-1,182, p>.05 2.60 2.50 2.76 2.71 Greek vs French: N=18, z=-,342, p>.05 Greek vs German: N=45, z=-1,008, p>.05 Importance of learning theses languages in order to learn about the culture of its speakers Greek vs English: N=47, z=-,566, p>.05 2.38 2.34 3.21 2.92 Greek vs French: N=29, z=-3,792, p<.001 Greek vs German: N=55, z=-4,417, p<.001 Wanting to become similar to the people who speak these languages Greek vs English: N=58, z=-1,886, p=.059 2.48 2.32 4.12 4.11 Greek vs French: N=29, z=-4,801, p<.001 Greek vs German: N=51, z=-6,368, p<.001
* M=mean, 1: very much, 5: not at all
The respondents felt that it is more important to learn either Greek or English in order to draw information about the respective culture, manifesting thus their preference either about the culture of the host country, i.e. Greece or about the English one. The results also indicated the similar feelings held by the
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respondents towards assimilating in the Greek and English-speaking community. However, when contrasting the attitudes towards the Greek with the German or French speaking community, it becomes apparent that the respondents held more positive feelings for the Greek one. After all, all the respondents had arrived in Greece either on their own or with their families; this issue is quite important as at some point a decision was made in relation to the selection of a preferred destination.
3.4.2. Instrumentality
The results showed no significant interaction between Greek and English for all of the motivational dimensions under instrumentality, except for the important role that English plays in the worldwide community. The high importance placed on the role of English reflects the participants’ acknowledgement of the high status that English has and the influence exercised on all facets of economy, internet, relationships among countries and so on. Furthermore, English is also acknowledged as being a necessary tool for communication purposes when traveling, even though no significant results were rendered when compared to Greek; such a finding can very well reflect the respondents’ desire to travel within Greece. However, the driving force may not be so much due to seeking a destination for leisure, enjoyment and discovery, but due to the need to seek future employment. Thus, English can serve as a means of communication with people from other countries, whereas Greek can be utilized and prove useful only within the Greek borders. Table 3 illustrates the results connected with instrumentality.
Table 2. Learners’ instrumentality
Greek English French German
M* M M M Helpful in getting to know new things Greek vs English: N=54, z=-,511, p>.05 2.53 2.49 3.30 3.09 Greek vs French: N=20, z=-3,508, p<.001 Greek vs German: N=48, z=-4,045, p<.001 Importance in the world these days Greek vs English: N=73, z=-7,541, p<.001 2.57 1.49 2.97 2.92 Greek vs French: N=21, z=-1,843, p>.05 Greek vs German: N=46, z=-2,835, p<.01 Helpful when traveling Greek vs English: N=41, z=-1,540, p>.05 2.40 2.29 3.33 2.97 Greek vs French: N=18, z=-3,318, p<.01 Greek vs German: N=44, z=-4,046, p<.001 Helpful in finding a job Greek vs English: N=58, z=-1,471, p>.05 1.91 2.04 3.31 2.78 Greek vs French: N=21, z=-3,959, p<.001 Greek vs German: N=44, z=-5,460, p<.001 * M=mean, 1: very much, 5: not at all
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When it comes to finding a job, the respondents feel that both Greek and English can prove quite useful. The two chosen additional languages (i.e. French and German) are not considered important school subjects to the extent that other subjects are. It seems that due to the importance of particular languages in the world reality, certain languages are preferred over others (i.e. English), and the respondents who learn French also contemplate quite similar roles for both Greek and French in the global village.
3.4.3. Attitudes towards L2 Speakers
In terms of attitudes towards the target L2 speakers of the different countries, it becomes apparent that overall the respondents held more positive attitudes towards Greek people (see Table 3). In descending order, the rating of the other target populations was: English speaking people, German and French. However, with particular reference to the respondents’ desire to travel, even though no significant differences emerged between Greek and any of the two English target communities, such a desire was much stronger in the case of Greece than it was for France or Germany.
Table 3. Learners’ attitudes towards L2 speakers
Greece England US France Germany
M* M M M M
Desire to travel Greece vs England: N=63, z=-,838, p>.05 Greece vs US: N=57, z=-,486, p>.05 1.52 1.59 1.56 2.48 2.40 Greece vs France: N=29, z=-4,186, p<.001 Greece vs Germany: N=46, z=-5,784, p<.001 Desire to meet people from these countries Greece vs England: N=58, z=-2,101, p<.05 Greece vs US: N= 56, z=-2,795, p<.01 1.30 1.46 1.52 2.33 2.29 Greece vs France: N=29, z=-4,441, p<.001 Greece vs Germany: N=47, z=-6,227, p<.001 Liking these people Greece vs England: N=59, z=-1,697, p>.05 Greece vs US: N=55, z=-1,499, p>.05 1.42 1.56 1.54 2.56 2.48 Greece vs France: N=26, z=-3,810, p<.001 Greece vs Germany: N=47, z=-5,443, p<.001
* M=mean, 1: very much, 5: not at all
Due to residing in Greece, the respondents were more positively predisposed towards Greek people and seemed more inclined to meet Greek people, which can be a sign of striving to become active members in the host country. Overall the respondents were quite positive toward English-speaking people and professed to like the people coming from these countries. The familiarity with
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the language, the perceived usefulness of this language in the world associated with their future quest for a job explains the favourable attitude toward English- speaking people.
3.4.4. Assessing the Motivational Dimensions
Table 4 presents a synopsis of the main findings by looking at the motivational dimensions. More particularly, the mean of the three motivational dimensions was computed for each of the four languages incorporated in the curriculum and the five target communities. The motivational dimensions are presented in ascending order.
Table 4. Ranking of motivational dimensions for the four languages: Greek, English, French and German
Scale point Greek English French German
1.0-1.49 Attitudes towards L2 speakers M=1.41, SD=0.49
1.5-1.9 Attitudes towards L2 speakers (UK) M=1.54, SD=0.52 Attitudes towards L2 speakers (US) M=1.54, SD=0.55 2.0-2.4 Instrumentality Instrumentality Attitudes towards Attitudes towards L2 M=2.35, SD=0.62 M=2.08, SD=0.56 L2 speakers speakers Integrativeness Integrativeness M=2.46, SD=0.64 M=2.39, SD=0.70 M=2.49, SD=0.70 M=2.38, SD=0.78 2.5-2.9
3.0-3.4 Instrumentality Instrumentality M=3.28, SD=0.59 M=3.23, SD=0.74 Integrativeness Integrativeness M=3.36, SD=0.69 M=3.25, SD=0.74
M=mean, SD=standard deviation
Across the four languages, the order in which the three motivational dimensions appear is the same, following the pattern of: attitudes towards L2 speakers, instrumentality and integrativeness. What seems to present a distinct pattern is the respondents’ preference for a particular target population in the following order: Greek, English, German and finally French. All the means, with the exception of those for instrumentality and integrativeness for French and German, fall under the 2.5 point of the Likert scale. As can be seen, the two dimensions of instrumentality and integrativeness for English are higher than those for Greek.
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It seems that the positive attitudes towards the target population, along with the perceived usefulness of each language, lead to subsequent desire to integrate in the respective target speech community.
4. Conclusion
The present study investigated the motivation to learn different foreign languages among immigrant students who followed instruction in a Greek lower secondary intercultural school. The findings suggest that students hold more positive attitudes towards learning Greek and English; thus they are more motivated to learn these two languages. The driving force for learning these two languages seems quite distinct. Greece has been their own or their parents’ chosen destination and thus they want to learn the language to increase prospects of a better job but also to engage in communication exchanges with the members of the target speech community. However, as it became transparent in the follow-up interviews (Sougari and Iliopoulou 2013), English is perceived as a tool for communication with speakers in the worldwide community and thus not confined within the borders of one country. In the present study, the findings showed that the students hold positive attitudes towards Greek people, more so than towards the other target groups. However, it should be noted that in an earlier study conducted in the same intercultural school, where immigrant students’ attitudes towards Greek were drawn in order to form these students’ motivational profile, it was concluded that overall the students were negatively predisposed towards the Greek speech community (Sougari and Iliopoulou 2012). This discrepancy in the findings can be explained by the fact that the previous study was conducted before the breaking news of the economic crisis in Greece. The change in the students’ attitudes can be associated with their belief that it would be easier to integrate in the Greek community, while the country is facing financial and societal problems, probably similar to the ones experienced in their home country. Furthermore, the structure of the questionnaire which was presented in the form of a grid where the respondents were expected to record their answers about the four languages and the five speaking communities may have led to unintended comparisons among the four languages and the five speaking communities. At present, the students want to come into contact with the people of the host country, rather than be alienated; at the same time they want to retain their identity. The fact, that the majority of the participants had recently arrived in the host country rather than being born and raised, plays a significant role in the formation of strong feelings of preserving their identity. However, the instrumental dimension across the four languages presented quite a variation;
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the perceived usefulness of English and Greek is the driving force to learn these languages. The pragmatic benefits of knowing these languages are connected with the prospects of finding a job either in Greece or elsewhere. With regard to the two chosen additional languages, the greater familiarity with the members of the host community (i.e. Greek people) and native speakers of English through their exposure to television series, music, reading material, etc. may have played a role in the higher disposition across all the motivational dimensions. The information drawn from this study can prove helpful to educational policy makers, materials developers and teachers in particular. After all, teachers come into close contact with their students and ought to cater for individual needs more effectively. However, attempts at all levels should be geared towards the integration of the immigrant student population into public life.
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1 3 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Τα νέα επίπεδα και η νέα δομή του πιστοποιητικού ελληνομάθειας του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας
Μαρία Καρακύργιου, Βικτωρία Παναγιωτίδου και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου
Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
The purpose of the paper is to present the new structure of the exams for the certification of attainment in Greek, organized by the Centre for the Greek Language. In May 2011 there were substantial and radical changes to the certification, concerning both the number of levels and the typology of the exam questions. There are six levels of examinations available from 2011, namely, A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2. One version of level A1 is specifically designed for young learners aged 8-10 while the other version is addressed to adolescents and adults.
1. Εισαγωγή
Σκοπός της παρούσας εισήγησης είναι να παρουσιαστούν οι τροποποιήσεις που έγιναν το 2011 τόσο στον αριθμό των επιπέδων όσο και στην τυπολογία των εξεταστικών ερωτημάτων της πιστοποίησης επάρκειας της ελληνομάθειας του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας-Υπουργείου Παιδείας και η νέα δομή των επιπέδων και των εξεταστικών θεμάτων. Από το Μάιο του 2011 οι υποψήφιοι ελληνομάθειας, βάσει του νέου αναλυτικού εξεταστικού προγράμματος, παίρνουν μέρος στις εξετάσεις των επιπέδων Α1 (Α1 για παιδιά 8-12 ετών και Α1 για εφήβους και ενηλίκους), Α2, Β1, Β2, Γ1, Γ2.
2. Ιστορικό
Ο θεσμός των εξετάσεων πιστοποίησης επάρκειας της ελληνομάθειας δεν είναι νέος. Από το 1998 και στο πλαίσιο της προσπάθειας προβολής και στήριξης της ελληνικής γλώσσας το Υπουργείο Παιδείας και Θρησκευμάτων, Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού (τότε ΥπΕΠΘ) και το Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας (ΚΕΓ) υλοποιούν το πάγιο αίτημα των ελληνόγλωσσων και ελληνομαθών: τις εξετάσεις για κρατικό τίτλο πιστοποίησης της ελληνομάθειας.
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Το 1999 διεξήχθησαν οι πρώτες εξετάσεις σε 13 εξεταστικά κέντρα στην Ελλάδα και στην Ευρώπη με 500 περίπου υποψηφίους, ενώ σήμερα τα εξεταστικά κέντρα που λειτουργούν σε όλον τον κόσμο είναι 115 και οι υποψήφιοι έχουν προσεγγίσει τις 4.000. Για τις ανάγκες της διεξαγωγής των εξετάσεων αλλά και για τη στήριξη διδασκόντων και υποψηφίων, εκτός από το υπόλοιπο βοηθητικό υλικό (οδηγοί, θέματα για την εξάσκηση των υποψηφίων κτλ.) συντάχθηκε από ερευνητική ομάδα του ΚΕΓ αναλυτικό εξεταστικό πρόγραμμα.
2.1. Το παλαιό αναλυτικό εξεταστικό πρόγραμμα
Το πρώτο αναλυτικό εξεταστικό πρόγραμμα, Πιστοποίηση επάρκειας της ελληνομάθειας, (Ευσταθιάδης κ.ά. 1997, 1999) για τα επίπεδα Α, Β, Γ και Δ, βασίστηκε αρχικά στα τρία λεπτομερειακής περιγραφής των μαθησιακών στόχων για την εκμάθηση γλωσσών έργα του Συμβουλίου της Ευρώπης, Waystage, Threshold Level και Vantage1, τα οποία αποτελούν τη βάση και τα σημεία αναφοράς του Κοινού Ευρωπαϊκού Πλαισίου Αναφοράς (ΚΕΠΑ). Μετά τις δύο πρώτες εξεταστικές περιόδους, έγινε προσπάθεια να εφαρμοστούν στο ΑΠ, κατά το δυνατό, όσα προτείνονται από την εξάβαθμη κλίμακα του ΚΕΠΑ και να υπάρχει αντιστοίχιση του περιεχομένου των επιπέδων ελληνομάθειας με αυτό του ΚΕΠΑ. Γι’ αυτό, στην αναθεωρημένη έκδοση του ΑΠ (2001) το περιεχόμενο του κάθε επιπέδου αφενός εμπλουτίστηκε με νέες πληροφορίες, χρήσιμες και για τους διδάσκοντες και για τους υποψηφίους, και αφετέρου εναρμονίστηκε με την κλίμακα των επιπέδων του ΚΕΠΑ. Έτσι, τα προαναφερθέντα τέσσερα επίπεδα του Κρατικού Πιστοποιητικού Ελληνομάθειας (ΚΡΑΠΕΛ) αντιστοιχούσαν με κάποιες παρεκκλίσεις (π.χ. συμπίεση της ύλης σε 4 επίπεδα) στα τέσσερα από τα έξι επίπεδα του ΚΕΠΑ, Α2-Γ1, ως εξής:
Πίνακας 1. Αντιστοίχιση μεταξύ επιπέδων ΚΕΠΑ και ΚΡΑΠΕΛ μέχρι το 2010
ΚΡΑΠΕΛ ΚΕΠΑ Α1 Α Α2 Β Β1 Γ Β2 Δ Γ1 Γ2
1 Τα έργα Breakthrough, Waystage, Threshold Level, Vantage έχουν αποδοθεί και προσαρμοστεί και στα ελληνικά, ενώ το ΚΕΠΑ έχει μεταφραστεί στα ελληνικά από ομάδα ερευνητών του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας.
1 3 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Μαρία Καρακύργιου, Βικτωρία Παναγιωτίδου και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου
Το ΑΠ ήταν πράγματι αναλυτικό, για να είναι βοηθητικό για τους εκπαιδευτικούς, για τους υποψηφίους, για τους διοργανωτές προγραμμάτων διδασκαλίας/εκμάθησης της ελληνικής γλώσσας, τους συντάκτες αναλυτικών προγραμμάτων μαθημάτων της ελληνικής αλλά και για τους συντάκτες των εξεταστικών θεμάτων. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, σε κάθε επίπεδο περιγράφονταν με λεπτομέρειες και παραδείγματα: οι γενικοί και ειδικοί στόχοι για την κάθε δεξιότητα, οι επικοινωνιακές καταστάσεις στις οποίες οι χρήστες της ελληνικής πρέπει να είναι σε θέση να συμμετέχουν, οι γλωσσικές λειτουργίες τις οποίες πρέπει να μπορούν να επιτελέσουν στο επικοινωνιακό περιβάλλον που περιγράφεται στο κάθε επίπεδο, τα κοινωνιογλωσσικά και τα μορφοσυντακτικά στοιχεία τη χρήση των οποίων οι υποψήφιοι οφείλουν να γνωρίζουν. Εμπειρικές έρευνες που διεξήχθησαν κατά τη δεκαετία 1999-2009 με ερωτηματολόγια και συνεντεύξεις έδειξαν ότι η δομή και το περιεχόμενο του ΑΠ ήταν σε μεγάλο βαθμό βοηθητικά, αποτέλεσαν σημείο αναφοράς για το κοινό στο οποίο απευθυνόταν και συνέβαλε στη συστηματοποίηση και τον εκσυγχρονισμό της διδασκαλίας/εκμάθησης της ελληνικής γλώσσας. Γι’ αυτό το λόγο η ίδια φιλοσοφία διέπει και το νέο αναλυτικό εξεταστικό πρόγραμμα (βλ. παρακάτω).
2.2. Η δομή των παλαιών εξεταστικών θεμάτων
Τα θέματα για τις εξετάσεις της πιστοποίησης ελληνομάθειας αναπτύσσονταν και αναπτύσσονται σύμφωνα με τις επιταγές και τις αρχές των επικοινωνιακών δοκιμασιών. Είναι πλέον γενικά αποδεκτό ότι αυτού του είδους οι γλωσσικές δοκιμασίες έχουν σαφή υπεροχή ως προς την αποτελεσματικότητα έναντι άλλων πιο παραδοσιακών συστημάτων, γιατί είναι «ρεαλιστικές», έχουν άμεση σχέση με τις δραστηριότητες της καθημερινής ζωής, ελέγχουν, εκτός από το πόσο καλά γνωρίζουν οι υποψήφιοι τη γλώσσα και ποσοτικά και ποιοτικά, την ευχέρεια με την οποία χειρίζονται τη γλώσσα σ’ ένα περιβάλλον για το οποίο γίνεται προσπάθεια κατά την ανάπτυξη των εξεταστικών θεμάτων να είναι όσο το δυνατό πιο φυσικό (Ευσταθιάδης κ.ά. 1997). Η επικοινωνιακή δοκιμασία (Wesche-Bingham 1983:42, Weir 1990:11, Porter 1991:33-40 στην Αντωνοπούλου 2000):) • ανταποκρίνεται στις ανάγκες των εξεταζομένων • βασίζεται στη χρήση της γλώσσας σε περιβάλλον συναφές με τους σκοπούς των εξεταζομένων • το περιεχόμενο δε δημιουργεί αδικαιολόγητη αγωνία και άγχος • λαμβάνει υπόψη της την ηλικία, το φύλο, την ιδιότητα και, ως ένα σημείο, την προσωπικότητα των εξεταζομένων • λαμβάνει υπόψη τις πιθανές γνώσεις ή εμπειρίες που έχουν οι εξεταζόμενοι • δε διαπραγματεύεται θέματα που μπορεί να ενοχλήσουν τους εξεταζομένους • είναι αυθεντική, ή έχει όλα τα βασικά χαρακτηριστικά της αυθεντικότητας
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Επιπλέον • είναι σαφής ο τρόπος με τον οποίο καλούνται να απαντήσουν οι εξεταζόμενοι και δηλώνεται ο αριθμός των σωστών απαντήσεων • είναι σαφείς οι δεξιότητες που εξετάζονται • δίνεται έμφαση όχι μόνο στη γραμματική ακρίβεια και ορθότητα, αλλά στην ικανότητα του εξεταζομένου να λειτουργήσει αποτελεσματικά μέσα από τη γλώσσα σε ορισμένο χώρο και σ΄ ένα συγκεκριμένο γλωσσικό περιβάλλον, φιλικό ή τυπικό. Ο σχεδιασμός και η ανάπτυξη των εξεταστικών θεμάτων αρχικά βασίστηκε σε πρότυπο που δημιουργήθηκε από το συνδυασμό των σημαντικότερων προτύπων που έχουν προταθεί από ερευνητές (Carroll 1980, Schratz 1988, Baker 1989, Hughes 1989 στην Αντωνοπούλου 2000) στη δεκαετία του 80. Στη συνέχεια το πρότυπο αυτό, αφού έλαβε υπόψη του και άλλες νεότερες απόψεις, όπως των Bachman (1990), Alderson κ.ά. (1995), Hughes (2003), με διάφορες προσθήκες και βελτιώσεις, εφαρμόζεται από το 2004 και καλύπτει όλη τη διαδικασία της διοργάνωσης και της διεξαγωγής των εξετάσεων (Αντωνοπούλου 2004 και στον Τσοπάνογλου (επιμ.) 2009). Οι υποψήφιοι από το 1999 ως και το 2010 εξετάζονταν σε όλα τα επίπεδα στις τέσσερις κλασικές δεξιότητες: κατανόηση και παραγωγή προφορικού και γραπτού λόγου με τη δομή που εμφανίζεται στον πίνακα 2.
Πίνακας 2. Δομή εξεταστικών θεμάτων ΚΡΑΠΕΛ μέχρι το 2010
Κατανόηση προφορικού λόγου Κατανόηση γραπτού λόγου
Επίπεδο Μέρη Διάρκεια Μέσο Επίπεδο Μέρη Διάρκεια
Α 2 25΄ CD Α 2 30΄
Β 2 25΄ CD Β 2 30΄
Γ 2 30΄ CD Γ 2 40΄
Δ 3 40΄ CD Δ 3 45΄
Παραγωγή γραπτού λόγου Παραγωγή προφορικού λόγου
Επίπεδο Μέρη Διάρκεια Επίπεδο Μέρη Υποψήφιοι Διάρκεια
Α 2 35΄ Α 3 2 10΄
Β 2 45΄ Β 3 2 10΄
Γ 2 75΄ Γ 3 2 12΄-15΄
Δ 2 110΄ Δ 3 2 15΄-20΄
Στις εξετάσεις μπορούσαν να πάρουν μέρος υποψήφιοι άνω των 12 ετών στα επίπεδα Α και Β, ενώ γίνονταν υποδείξεις σε υποψηφίους κάτω των 16 να μη συμμετέχουν στις εξετάσεις των δύο ανώτερων επίπεδων (Γ, Δ), λόγω της θεματολογίας και της δυσκολίας των εξεταστικών ερωτημάτων.
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Η εμπειρία που αποκτήθηκε κατά τη διάρκεια της δεκαετούς και πλέον διεξαγωγής των εξετάσεων, τα αποτελέσματα της αξιολόγησης της κάθε εξεταστικής περιόδου, η επισήμανση των πεδίων που χρειάζονταν τροποποιήσεις αλλά και η ανάγκη ανανέωσης των εξεταστικών θεμάτων οδήγησαν σε σημαντικές αλλαγές, αρχής γενομένης από την αύξηση του αριθμού των επιπέδων, τη δομή των εξεταστικών θεμάτων και επομένως την αναμόρφωση του αναλυτικού εξεταστικού προγράμματος.
3. Η δομή των νέων επιπέδων και το νέο αναλυτικό εξεταστικό πρόγραμμα
Μία σημαντική αλλαγή από την οποία απορρέουν και οι υπόλοιπες είναι η αύξηση των επιπέδων ελληνομάθειας από τέσσερα σε έξι, η μετονομασία τους και η πλήρης εναρμόνισή τους με τα επίπεδα της εξάβαθμης κλίμακας του ΚΕΠΑ. Η αλλαγή αυτή κρίθηκε απαραίτητη προκειμένου το ΚΡΑΠΕΛ: να καλύψει μεγαλύτερο μέρος των αναγκών του κοινού στο οποίο απευθύνεται, να δίνει τη δυνατότητα απόκτησης πιστοποιητικού για το πιο χαμηλό ή και για το πιο υψηλό επίπεδο ελληνομάθειας, να ανταποκριθεί σε αιτήματα ελληνόγλωσσων, κυρίως ομογενών, για την ύπαρξη κατάλληλου επιπέδου για μικρά παιδιά και ενήλικες αρχάριους και να ευθυγραμμιστεί με τα αναγνωρισμένα επίπεδα του ΚΕΠΑ, ώστε να είναι δυνατή η αναγνώρισή του από εκπαιδευτικούς φορείς και πανεπιστήμια του εξωτερικού. Μία καινοτομία για την πιστοποίηση ελληνομάθειας είναι ο διαχωρισμός του Α1 σε δύο διακριτά, αλλά με το ίδιο περίπου περιεχόμενο, επίπεδα, ένα για πολύ νεαρούς υποψηφίους και ένα για εφήβους & ενηλίκους. Στόχος της θεσμοθέτησης του επιπέδου Α1 για παιδιά 8-12 ετών είναι αφενός να ικανοποιήσει αίτημα πολλών ομογενών γονέων και αφετέρου να αποτελέσει ένα εργαλείο για τους διδάσκοντες και κίνητρο για τους μαθητές για συστηματική εκμάθηση της ελληνικής γλώσσας, ώστε να τονωθεί η ελληνομάθεια στο εξωτερικό. Το Γ2 προστέθηκε αφενός για να συμπληρωθεί η κλίμακα των επιπέδων και αφετέρου για να ικανοποιηθούν αρκετά αιτήματα υποψηφίων που επιθυμούσαν να έχουν πιστοποιητικό ελληνομάθειας ανώτατου επιπέδου. Σημειώνεται ότι η εξάβαθμη κλίμακα δεν υιοθετήθηκε από την αρχή, γιατί το ενδιαφέρον εκ μέρους των υποψηφίων για την πιστοποίηση γνώσης της ελληνικής γλώσσας στο πιο χαμηλό και στο πιο υψηλό επίπεδο ήταν σχεδόν ανύπαρκτο. Με την πάροδο του χρόνου και όσο το ΚΡΑΠΕΛ γινόταν γνωστό και εδραίωνε τη θέση του ως έγκυρο πιστοποιητικό και άρχισε να αναγνωρίζεται από διάφορους εκπαιδευτικούς φορείς του εξωτερικού, αυξήθηκαν τα αιτήματα και το ενδιαφέρον των υποψηφίων και γι’ αυτά τα επίπεδα. Με τη θεσμοθέτηση και τη προσθήκη των νέων επιπέδων και τη μετονομασία των παλαιών, υπάρχει πλέον αντιστοίχιση με τα επίπεδα που προτείνονται από το ΚΕΠΑ όχι μόνο στις γλωσσικές γνώσεις και δεξιότητες που απαιτούνται σε κάθε επίπεδο αλλά και στην ονομασία και στο χαρακτηρισμό (βλ. πίν. 3).
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Πίνακας 3. Σχέση των νέων επιπέδων ΚΡΑΠΕΛ με τα παλαιά
ΚΡΑΠΕΛ ΚΡΑΠΕΛ Επίπεδα Χαρακτηρισμός (παλαιά επίπεδα) (νέα επίπεδα) ΚΕΠΑ Α1 (παιδιά 8-12 ετών) Α1 Στοιχειώδης γνώση Α1 (έφηβοι και ενήλικες)
Α Α2 Α2 Βασική γνώση
Β Β1 Β1 Μέτρια γνώση
Γ Β2 Β2 Καλή γνώση
Δ Γ1 Γ1 Πολύ καλή γνώση
Γ2 Γ2 Άριστη γνώση
Έτσι από το 2011 οι υποψήφιοι πλέον παίρνουν μέρος στις εξετάσεις των επιπέδων Α1, Α2, Β1, Β2, Γ1, Γ2. Η προσθήκη των νέων επιπέδων έδωσε την ευκαιρία για ανανέωση και βελτίωση της δομής και του περιεχομένου των εξεταστικών θεμάτων. Οι δεξιότητες που εξετάζονται είναι και πάλι οι τέσσερις κλασικές για όλα τα επίπεδα. Στα επίπεδα όμως Β2, Γ1 και Γ2 εισάγεται ένα πέμπτο μέρος εξέτασης, η «χρήση της γλώσσας» και εξετάζεται λειτουργικά μέσα από αυθεντικά κείμενα η μορφοσύνταξη και το λεξιλόγιο. Μία άλλη σημαντική βελτίωση είναι ότι υπάρχει πλέον μεγαλύτερη ποικιλία κειμενικών ειδών και θεματολογίας, ιδιαίτερα στα ανώτερα επίπεδα, ώστε να ωθούνται οι υποψήφιοι, κατά τη διάρκεια της προετοιμασίας τους για τις εξετάσεις, να έρχονται σε επαφή και να γνωρίζουν διάφορα είδη κειμένων προερχόμενα από διάφορες και διαφορετικές πηγές. Τα εξεταστικά ερωτήματα στην κατανόηση προφορικού και γραπτού λόγου δε χωρίζονται πλέον σε Α και Β μέρος, προηγείται δε η εξέταση της κατανόηση γραπτού λόγου αυτής του προφορικού λόγου. Η τυπολογία των ερωτημάτων ανά επίπεδο είναι η ίδια σε κάθε εξεταστική περίοδο, ώστε να υπάρχει η δυνατότητα αξιόπιστης σύγκρισης των αποτελεσμάτων των στατιστικών αναλύσεων και ακριβέστερης ερμηνείας τους. Δείγματα της νέας δομής των εξεταστικών θεμάτων δίνονται στους πίνακες 4, 5 και 6. Παρόλο που οι τύποι των εξεταστικών ερωτημάτων δίνουν την εντύπωση ότι δεν έχουν αλλάξει, διευκρινίζεται ότι υιοθετήθηκαν παραλλαγές του κάθε τύπου και χρησιμοποιούνται ανάλογα με τη δυσκολία του κάθε επιπέδου. Μ’ αυτόν τον τρόπο επιχειρήθηκε να υπάρχει ισορροπία και σωστή διαβάθμιση της δυσκολίας από επίπεδο σε επίπεδο. Οι εισαγωγικές οδηγίες εξακολουθούν να είναι λεπτομερείς αλλά όχι μακροσκελείς, ώστε να βοηθούν τους υποψηφίους να «μπουν» στο πνεύμα του κειμένου που πρόκειται να διαβάσουν ή ν’ ακούσουν, να κατανοήσουν την επικοινωνιακή κατάσταση στην οποία καλούνται ν’ ανταποκριθούν, να πληροφορηθούν για τον τρόπο με τον οποίο πρέπει ν’ απαντήσουν καθώς και για τον αριθμό των ορθών απαντήσεων. Σε όλες τις εισαγωγικές οδηγίες όλων των επιπέδων δίνονται παραδείγματα, ακόμη και στα πιο προχωρημένα επίπεδα.
1 3 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Μαρία Καρακύργιου, Βικτωρία Παναγιωτίδου και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου
Πίνακας 4. Δομή επιπέδου Α1 Λέξεις & Διάρκεια Δεξιότητα Μονάδες Τυπολογία Επίπεδο εξέτασης 4 είδη ασκήσεων Σωστό Κατανόηση Σύνδεση/Αντιστοίχιση 350-400 λέξεις γραπτού λόγου 25 προτάσεων 30 λεπτά Πολλαπλή επιλογή 4. Συμπλήρωση κενών 4 είδη ασκήσεων Σωστό-επιλογή εικόνων Κατανόηση Σύγκριση 350-400 λέξεις προφορικού 25 Πολλαπλή επιλογή 25 λεπτά λόγου (CD) Α1 για 8-12 Σημειώσεις ετών και Α1 για εφήβους και Α΄ μέρος: Σύντομες σημειώσεις ή περιγραφή εικόνων (περίπου, 50 λέξεις) ενηλίκους Παραγωγή 25 Β΄ μέρος: σύντομο σημείωμα, γράμμα, 100-120 λέξεις γραπτού λόγου κάρτα ή ένα σύντομο συνεχές κείμενο, 40 λεπτά (περίπου 60 λέξεις) Α΄ μέρος: Απλές ερωτήσεις (όνομα, κατοικία, σχολείο, οικογένεια κτλ.), Παραγωγή Β΄ μέρος: σύντομος μονόλογος σε προφορικού 10-12 λεπτά (ανά 25 συνεχή λόγο, λόγου ζεύγος) Γ΄ μέρος: παιχνίδι ρόλων ανάμεσα σε δύο εξεταζόμενους.
Πίνακας 5. Δομή επιπέδου Β2
Λέξεις & Διάρκεια Επίπεδο Δεξιότητα Μονάδες Τυπολογία εξέτασης
3 είδη ασκήσεων Συμπλήρωση κενών Κατανόηση 1000 λέξεις 20 Πολλαπλή επιλογή με 4 επιλογές γραπτού λόγου 45 λεπτά Συμπλήρωση κενών σε περίληψη
Εντοπισμός επιπλέον λέξης Πολλαπλή επιλογή Παράγωγα ή 700-800 λέξεις Χρήση γλώσσας 20 σύνθετα. 30 λεπτά Συμπλήρωση κενών Κατανόηση Σημειώσεις 800-1000 λέξεις προφορικού Β2 20 Σύγκριση 30 λεπτά λόγου (CD) Παραγωγή Α΄ μέρος: φιλική επιστολή (200 λέξεις) 400 λέξεις γραπτού λόγου 20 Β΄ μέρος: τυπικό κείμενο (200 λέξεις) 85 λεπτά Α΄ μέρος: Απλές ερωτήσεις Β΄ μέρος: μονόλογος. Ανάπτυξη απόψεων για ερώτημα που του τίθεται. Παραγωγή Πιο απαιτητικό από τα προηγούμενα προφορικού 15 λεπτά 20 επίπεδα. λόγου Γ΄ μέρος: συζήτηση ανάμεσα σε δύο εξεταζόμενους με αρκετά έντονη επιχειρηματολογία.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 3 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Πίνακας 6. Δομή επιπέδου Γ2
Λέξεις & Διάρκεια Επίπεδο Δεξιότητα Μονάδες Τυπολογία εξέτασης Συμπλήρωση κενών Αντιστοίχιση παραγράφων ή ενοτήτων 2.000 λέξεις Κατανόηση 20 Πολλαπλή επιλογή με 4 επιλογές 55 λεπτά γραπτού λόγου Συμπλήρωση κενών σε περίληψη Εντοπισμός επιπλέον λέξης Συμπλήρωση κενών Χρήση γλώσσας Συμπλήρωση κενών με λέξεις που είναι 800-1000 λέξεις 20 παράγωγα ή σύνθετα. 30 λεπτά Συνώνυμα-Ορισμοί Κατανόηση Σημειώσεις 1.800 λέξεις40 20 προφορικού λόγου Πολλαπλή επιλογή με 4 επιλογές λεπτά Γ2 Α΄ μέρος: φιλική επιστολή (300-350 Παραγωγή γραπτού λέξεις) 700-800 λέξεις 20 λόγου Β΄ μέρος: άρθρο, τυπικό κείμενο (400- 115 λεπτά 450 λέξεις) Α΄ μέρος: Απλές ερωτήσεις (όνομα, κατοικία, σχολείο, οικογένεια κτλ. για μείωση του άγχους), Παραγωγή Β΄ μέρος: μονόλογος. Ανάπτυξη 20 20 λεπτά προφορικού λόγου απόψεων για ερώτημα που τίθεται. Γ΄ (ανά ζεύγος) μέρος: συζήτηση με διάρκεια ανάμεσα σε δύο εξεταζόμενους με έντονη επιχειρηματολογία.
Με αυτές τις πληροφορίες γίνεται προσπάθεια να μειωθεί το εξεταστικό άγχος που συνήθως διακατέχει την πλειονότητα των εξεταζομένων, αλλά και να δοθούν τα στοιχεία του ρεαλισμού και της αυθεντικότητας που πρέπει να διαθέτουν οι επικοινωνιακές εξεταστικές δραστηριότητες στις οποίες εμπλέκονται οι εξεταζόμενοι και ως προς τη γλώσσα που χρησιμοποιείται και ως προς τους τύπους των εξεταστικών ερωτημάτων (Wesche 1983:42, Weir 1990:11, Porter 1991:33-40 στην Αντωνοπούλου 2000)2. Η προσθήκη των δύο νέων επιπέδων επέβαλε την αναθεώρηση του ΑΠ και τη προσαρμογή του στα έξι επίπεδα. Το νέο ΑΠ έχει την ίδια φιλοσοφία με το παλαιό, είναι, δηλαδή, το ίδιο λεπτομερές, βασίζεται στα επίπεδα του ΚΕΠΑ, αλλά λαμβάνει υπόψη του και τις ιδιαιτερότητες της ελληνικής γλώσσας. Έχει εμπλουτιστεί με περισσότερα παραδείγματα και το περιεχόμενο των επιπέδων είναι ορθότερα διαβαθμισμένο. Στο
2 Το στοιχείο της αυθεντικότητας των εξεταστικών θεμάτων έχει συζητηθεί και αμφισβητηθεί έντονα από πολλούς ερευνητές. Κάποιοι δέχονται ότι η διαδικασία των εξετάσεων είναι μία τεχνητή δραστηριότητα (Shohamy και Reves, 1985:54-7, Spolsky, 1985:30, Bachman, 1990:301- 2, Weir,1990:11, Page, 1993:6), και συνεπώς δε διαθέτει το στοιχείο της αυθεντικότητας, και από άλλους υποστηρίζεται αφενός ότι οι οποιεσδήποτε εξετάσεις αποτελούν μέρος της ζωής μας και αφετέρου ότι η αυθεντικότητα συνδέεται με τα κείμενα που επιλέγονται και με τον τρόπο με τον οποίο τίθενται οι εξεταστικές ερωτήσεις (Spolsky, 1985:31), έστω και σε τεχνητά ρεαλιστική κατάσταση (Wesche, 1983).
1 3 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Μαρία Καρακύργιου, Βικτωρία Παναγιωτίδου και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου
τέλος της περιγραφής των γνώσεων που πρέπει να έχουν οι υποψήφιοι σε κάθε επίπεδο σχετικά με τη λειτουργία και τη χρήση της γλώσσας, παρουσιάζονται σε πίνακες και τα μορφοσυντακτικά στοιχεία που πρέπει να γνωρίζουν σε κάθε επίπεδο, προσαρμοσμένα και αυτά στα νέα δεδομένα.
4. Σύνοψη
Η ευθυγράμμιση των επιπέδων του ΚΡΑΠΕΛ με αυτά του ΚΕΠΑ καθώς και η μετονομασία τους δίνει τη δυνατότητα της ευκολότερης αναγνώρισης του πιστοποιητικού από ξένους εκπαιδευτικούς φορείς αλλά και από την αγορά εργασίας. Το ΑΠ εμπλουτισμένο με νέες πληροφορίες και καλύτερη διαβάθμιση εξακολουθεί να αποτελεί χρήσιμο εργαλείο για την καλύτερη οργάνωση της διδασκαλίας/εκμάθησης της ελληνικής γλώσσας. Ιδιαίτερη προσοχή πρέπει να δοθεί στις αλλαγές που έχουν γίνει και στις διαφορές που υπάρχουν ανάμεσα στα προηγούμενα και στα αναβαθμισμένα εξεταστικά θέματα. Οι διαφορές που πρέπει να τονιστούν και να ληφθούν υπόψη από διδάσκοντες και υποψηφίους που γνώριζαν την προηγούμενη δομή των εξεταστικών δοκιμασιών του ΚΡΑΠΕΛ είναι: • η προσθήκη στα επίπεδα Β2, Γ1 και Γ2 μιας ακόμη ενότητας: η «Χρήση της γλώσσας» και ο τρόπος με τον οποίο εξετάζονται τα μορφοσυντακτικά και λεξιλογικά στοιχεία • η τυπολογία των εξεταστικών ερωτημάτων είναι πλέον σταθερή ανά επίπεδο και οι υποψήφιοι θα ωφεληθούν αν εξασκηθούν στους διάφορους τύπους και τις παραλλαγές τους, π.χ. στην κατανόηση γραπτού λόγου των υψηλών επιπέδων η συμπλήρωση κενών σε περίληψη του κειμένου, για να μπορέσουν να ανταποκριθούν στα ζητούμενα χωρίς προβλήματα • τα εξεταστικά θέματα του Α1 για παιδιά και το Α1 για εφήβους και ενηλίκους • η επιλογή των κειμένων, ανάλογα με το επίπεδο, από μια μεγαλύτερη ποικιλία πηγών: εφημερίδες, περιοδικά, λογοτεχνικά βιβλία, θεατρικά ή κινηματογραφικά έργα, ιστορικά βιβλία, βιογραφίες κτλ. • η αυξομείωση του χρόνου που δίνεται στην κάθε δεξιότητα • η πρόβλεψη για άτομα με προβλήματα μερικής ή ολικής τύφλωσης και στο εγγύς μέλλον για τα άτομα με αναπηρίες ή μαθησιακές δυσκολίες Στη νέα ιστοσελίδα της πιστοποίησης της ελληνομάθειας: (http://www.greeklanguage. gr/certification) υπάρχουν αρκετές χρήσιμες πληροφορίες και σταδιακά θα προστίθενται περισσότερες και πιο βοηθητικές.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 3 9 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Βιβλιογραφία
Alderson, C.J., C. Clapham and D. Wall. 1995. Language Test construction and Evaluation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Αντωνοπούλου, Ν. 2000. Η εφαρμογή της επικοινωνιακής προσέγγισης στη διδασκαλία της ελληνικής ως ξένης/δεύτερης γλώσσας. Διδακτορική διατριβή. Θεσσαλονίκη.
Αντωνοπούλου, Ν. 2004. Φάσεις σχεδιασμού και ανάπτυξης επικοινωνιακών εξεταστικών δοκιμασιών: Η περίπτωση του Κρατικού Πιστοποιητικού Ελληνομάθειας. 3ο Διεθνές Συνέδριο για τη διδασκαλία της νέας ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας, Εθνικό Καποδιστριακό Πανεπιστήμιο Αθηνών, Αθήνα 22-23 Οκτωβρίου 2004.
Bachman, L.F. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford University Press.
Baker, D. 1989. Language Testing: A critical Survey and Practical Guide. Edward Arnold.
Carroll, J.B. 1980. Testing Communicative Performance: An interim Study. Pergamon Press.
Ευσταθιάδης, E., Ν. Αντωνοπούλου και Δ. Μανάβη [1997] 1999. Πιστοποίηση επάρκειας της ελληνομάθειας. Θεσσαλονίκη: Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας.
Ευσταθιάδης, E., Ν. Αντωνοπούλου, Δ. Μανάβη και. Σ. Βογιατζίδου [1997, 1999] 2000. Πιστοποίηση επάρκειας της ελληνομάθειας, Αναλυτικό εξεταστικό πρόγραμμα. Θεσσαλονίκη: Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας.
Hughes, A. [1989] 2003. Testing for Language Teachers. Cambridge University Press.
Page, B., 1993. The target language and examinations. Language Learning Journal 8, 6-7.
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Porter, D. 1991. Affective factors in language testing. Στο J.C. Alderson and B. North (επιμ.). Language Testing in the 1990: The Communicative Legacy. MacMillan Publishers Limited.
Schratz, M. 1988. The individual learner’s personality as an influential factor for the development of learner-centred tests. Στο Evaluation and Testing in the Learning and Teaching of Languages for Communication. Project No 12: Learning and teaching modern languages for communication. Stasbourg: Council of Europe, 34-43.
Shohamy, E. and T. Reves. 1985. Authentic language tests: where from and where to? Language testing 2(1), 48-59.
Spolsky, B. 1985. The limits of authenticity in language testing. Language Testing 2(1), 31-40.
Τσοπάνογλου, Α. (επιμ.). 2009. Ζητήματα πιστοποίησης της γλωσσομάθειας. Μαλλιάρης Παιδεία.
Weir, C. 1990. Communicative Language Testing. Prentice Hall International.
Wesche-Bingham, Μ. 1983. Communicative Testing in a Second Language. The Modern Languages Journal 67(1), 41-55.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 4 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
1 4 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Grasping the Nettle of L2 Idiomaticity Puzzle: The Case of Idiom Identification and Comprehension During L2 Reading by Greek Learners of English
Eirene C. Katsarou
State EFL Teacher [email protected]
Abstract
This study investigates the extent of identification and comprehension success achieved by Greek EFL high school students when encountering phrasal idioms during reading English as a foreign language. The study also examines the relationship of the above with five idiom type features, i.e. (i) contextual guessability, (ii) frequency of words in the idiom, (iii) interlingual similarity, (iv) transparency and (v) existence of an idiom in Greek and four learner factors: (i) L2 language proficiency, (ii) gender, (iii) motivation and (iv) field-independence/- dependence. The results indicate that overall scores for L2 idiom identification and comprehension were remarkably low. Successful L2 idiom identification was found to correlate strongly but negatively both with frequency of occurrence of the component words of the idioms and with interlingual similarity while L2 idiom comprehension was found to correlate significantly positively with interlingual similarity only. No significant correlations were obtained between any of the four learner-related variables and the two main variables of L2 idiom identification and comprehension. Some pedagogical implications are also offered that mainly consist the practical implications of the study in terms of instructional practices and methodology employed in the teaching of English idioms in predominantly EFL contexts.
1. Introduction: Two Problems for Idiom Research
Common lexical problems in the process of L2 reading comprehension caused by limited vocabulary knowledge often tend to be associated with the word as the primary unit. However, previous research findings lead us to expect that idioms can also be a source of potential communication breakdown in L2
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 4 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
reading comprehension due to two main reasons (a) their misidentification and, (b) their subsequent misinterpretation in a text context. The issue of misidentification has been researched to some extent, but hardly any of it was done on idioms. Laufer (1989), for instance, investigated deceptive transparency as a factor of difficulty in L2 vocabulary learning and reading comprehension based on students’ interpretations of various DT (deceptively transparent) words in a text i.e. words that they look as if they are familiar but are easily misidentified on the part of the learner and thus can lead to the miscomprehension of the text and her results revealed that learners more frequently made errors with DT rather than with non-DT words (t = 1.67 p<0.05) showing little awareness of their ignorance of DT words, a fact which subsequently, significantly affected their reading comprehension (p = .0001 level). According to Laufer and Sim (1985:5), misinterpretation mainly arises when the textual knowledge is itself a misinterpretation – i.e. when a word is mistakenly identified – leading to even further misinterpretation of the information in the text which is finally distorted into a false construct to suit the reader’s conviction. Since idioms are also classified as deceptively transparent words by Laufer (1997), it is suggested that this situation might apply even more to the case of idioms than to single words, as idioms often are made up entirely of words that are separately known to the learner (e.g. pull my leg) who, in his effort to make sense of the text he is reading, may resort to one-for- one translation of the words of an idiomatic expression due to his failure to recognize that he is dealing with an unknown idiom that has to be interpreted as a multi-word lexical expression with a unitary meaning.
2. A Working Definition of Idiom in English
Acknowledging the multifarious character of idiomaticity in language, we believe that it would be best to opt for a multi-dimensional definition with each property clearly delineated with the intention to reach a narrow as well as a strictly linguistic definition of ‘idiom’ as a distinct lexical unit. Given below is a summary of the defining features adopted for the characterization of a pure verbal phrasal idiom as it is currently used for the purposes of the present study: A pure verbal phrasal idiom is: 1. lexically complex – i.e. it should consist of at least more than one lexical item that can freely occur as single words outside the idiom. 2. grammatically well-formed, and for our study we have chosen to restrict ourselves to the syntactic V+NP type (e.g. kick the bucket). 3. semantically not the result of the compositional function of its constituent parts, although not necessarily totally opaque as some idioms may contain
1 4 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Eirene C. Katsarou
a metaphorical element that contributes to their partially transparent meaning. 4. syntactically stable allowing the minimum of transformational potential; in its structure. 5. a ‘double exposure’ i.e. a pure idiom has both a literal and a non-literal ‘face’, due to the existence of a literal homonymous counterpart which complements that fact that the syntax of an idiom is non-correlative.
In this study, we opt for a multi-dimensional definition of what we call pure verbal phrasal idiom (Fernando et al 1981:22). Thus:
A pure idiom is a non-literal, grammatically well-formed set expression that consists of more than one familiar lexical items and allows the minimum of syntactic transformational potential in its structure and whose meaning is not a compositional function of its syntactic constituents, but which always has a homonymous literal counterpart.
In essence, our definition of idiom stresses two key features in particular: a non- correlative syntax, i.e. the grammatical structure of an idiom does not contribute to the meaning of idiom through a one-to-one literal translation of its word components, thus resulting in non-literalness and homonymity. While Weinreich (1969) and Makkai (1972) choose the property of ‘disinformation’ or ‘potential ambiguity’ underlying our criterion (5) as the key feature of an idiom, we regard (3) and (5) as complementary and of equal importance in our definition of pure idiom in view of the delimitation of the term per se as well as of its use in the present study. On the one hand, the consequence of the two features of semantic non-compositionality and literal homonymity in a pure idiom is that the mismatch between the apparent (literal) and the intended signification (often metaphorical) is much greater than is the case with other figures of speech in general. Our definition has several consequences for what we may find with respect to (i) identification and (ii) comprehension of unknown target idioms. Being more semantically covert than most single words and other fixed expressions (e.g. clichés, collocations, catchphrases, etc), a pure idiom can also be more difficult to identify by a non-native speaker of English. If we accept that the essence of idiomaticity rests on an asymmetry between syntax and sense, then our argument is that the presence of a homonymous literal counterpart complements such asymmetry both structurally and contextually and assigns to idioms the status of being readily ‘mistakenly identified’ or deceptively transparent lexical items that constitute a major stumbling block in the course of reading comprehension in L2 contexts. Furthermore, where unknown idioms are finally identified, our definition has potential consequences for their subsequent codebreaking and interpretation in text context. In this respect, we claim that the existence of a
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 4 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
literal counterpart, the regularity of the syntax and the multiword nature of the idioms provide far more internal cues than are available in the case of single unknown words for L2 learners to use in their guessing attempts along with the cues supplied by the surrounding text context.
3. Research Questions and Hypotheses
The exploratory nature of the study together with the literature previously reviewed gives rise to questions that have not been fully answered concerning the processes of identification and comprehension of idioms carried out by L2 learners when reading an extended text. Some of the research questions and hypotheses that this study sought to answer were the following:
Research Question 1: What type of variables, idiom-type or learner-related, affect Greek EFL learners’ ability to identify unknown target idioms while reading a text in English? Hypothesis 1: There will be a negative relationship between interlingual similarity and the successful identification of idioms. In his studies, Liontas (2001) and Liontas (2002) found that different idioms (Post-Lexical Level idioms) were detected more often than the identical or similar idioms. Hence, we can predict that interlingual similarity is a factor that does not contribute to the successful identification of idioms.
Research Question 2: What type of variables, idiom-type or learner-related, affect Greek EFL learners’ ability to understand the meaning of unknown target idioms while reading a text in English? Hypothesis 2: There will be a positive relationship between interlingual similarity and the successful inferencing of idioms. This hypothesis is based on results by Irujo (1986) and Liontas (2002) who found that L1 interference plays an important role in the identification and comprehension of L2 idioms, especially when the source and the target languages are close to one another in equivalent linguistics terms.
4. The Main Study
4.1. Design
The nature of the research is to a great extent exploratory with the exception of a few hypotheses. The sample for the main study consisted of 60 EFL students in
1 4 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Eirene C. Katsarou
three senior high schools who were either in the first or in the second grade of their studies including an equal number of both males and females of all three levels of English language proficiency, i.e. upper-intermediate, advanced and proficient. The main variables used in the study include both explanatory (independent) and dependent variables and the study contains a correlational and a repeated- measures design that relates idiom types and subject variables with their successful identification and comprehension through inferencing in text context. More specifically, independent variables include (a) learner-related, i.e. (i) L2 language proficiency as measured via Nation’s Vocabulary Test (Academic Vocabulary) and Oxford Placement Test (Grammar Part only) as well as on their responses to the background questionnaire with respect to whether they were holders of either the First Certificate in English (FCE) or the Certificate of Advanced English (CAE) or the Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE). (ii) gender, (iii) motivation as measured in the background questionnaire and (iv) field-independence/-dependence as was tested via the administration of the Greek version of the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) and (b) idiom- related variables, i.e. (i) type of idiom. The English idioms used in the study were classified into three groups based on (a) degree of semantic transparency, i.e. opaque, semi-transparent and transparent, (b) degree of formal similarity to L1 Greek idioms, i.e. identical L1-L2 idioms, similar L1-L2 idioms and L1 idioms different in form from L2 idioms and (c) existence of a Greek idiom withthe same meaning for all idioms. (ii) word frequency and (iii) contextual guessability. Dependent variables include (i) successful L2 idiom identification in terms of how accurately unknown L2 idioms are identified by Greek EFL learners in the text and (ii) successful L2 idiom comprehension in terms of how accurately Greek EFL learners can infer the meaning of unknown L2 idioms in the English text.
4.2. Instruments
Five instruments were used in this study: (1) The Idiom Identification and Comprehension Task (IICT). In the first part learners were asked to find out the 18 English idioms that were incorporated in the text in a natural way without being signposted as such either by presenting them in bold type letters or underlining them (see Appendix A below). To achieve authenticity in reading for a real purpose, we also provided seven reading comprehension questions to be completed based on the information of the text. An immediate retrospective mini-questionnaire formed the second part of the instrument which was used to elicit information on the inferencing strategies used by L2 learners when trying to guess at the meaning of the unknown idioms in the text as well as to measure their confidence in relation to the accuracy of their guesses on a five-point scale.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 4 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
(2) The Academic Level of Nation’s (VLT) Vocabulary Levels Tests and (3) the Grammar section of the Oxford Placement Test were used to measure L2 learners’ level of language proficiency in English. (4) The Groups Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) was administered to determine learners’ cognitive style of field-independence/- dependence (FI/FD). (5) A background student questionnaire was used to elicit general information on EFL learners’ demographic characteristics, educational background, English language learning experience as well as on their attitudes, interest and motivation towards idioms in EFL.
The 18 idioms included in the study were selected according to the 5 following principles: (i) They had to be unknown to the learners: In a separate section in the mini-questionnaire L2 learners were asked whether or not they already knew an idiom before guessing at its meaning. (ii) Interlingual similarity: 9 idioms were grouped into 3 classes with 3 idioms each based on their formal and semantic degree of similarity to L1 Greek. Thus, three idioms were identical in form and meaning in L1 (Greek) and L2 (English) e.g. to leave a bad taste in one’s mouth (αφήνω πικρή γεύση στο στόμα), to cut the (umbilical) cord (κόβω τον ομφάλιο λώρο) and to pick up the pieces (μαζεύω τα κομμάτια μου). Three idioms were semantically similar and formally similar in L1 (Greek) and L2 (English) e.g. to add fuel to the fire (ρίχνω λάδι στη φωτιά), to build castles in the air (χτίζω παλάτια στην άμμο) and to earn your crust (κερδίζω το ψωμί μου). Finally, three idioms were semantically similar but totally different in form in L1 (Greek) and L2 (English) e.g.to ride high in the saddle (καβαλώ το καλάμι), to be caught/stuck between a rock and a hard place (μπρος γκρεμός και πίσω ρέμα) and to live from hand to mouth (μεροδούλι, μεροφάι). (iii) Semantic transparency: 9 idioms were grouped into 3 classes with 3 idioms each based on English NS’s intuitions on a judgement task as semantically (i) opaque if their component words did not contribute at all to the meaning of the idiom (e.g. to fly off the handle, to play fast and loose, to (not) turn a hair), (ii) semi-transparent when the component words contributed to some extent to their meanings (e.g. to smell a rat, to throw caution to the wind, to clean up your act) and (iii) transparent based on the extent to which their component words contributed to the idiom meaning e.g. via an obvious metaphor (e.g. to rock the boat, to set the wheels in motion, to take the rough with the smooth). These idioms had no idiom equivalence at all in L1 Greek but only corresponded to literal non-fixed expressions (iv) Frequency of use of the component words included in each idiom: The mean frequency score for every idiom was calculated by adding up the number of times each of the content words of an idiom occurred in the BNC corpus and dividing the total by the number of content words in an idiom. (v) Contextual guessability of idioms was determined by giving the modified text to 3 NSs where the 18 target idioms were replaced by blanks and asking them to fill in the blanks in the best possible way by providing either the most plausible verbal idiom or verbal phrase they could think of that fitted the context of the text.
1 4 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Eirene C. Katsarou
All instruments were translated in Greek and distributed to the students by the researcher herself in class time in the following order: the Idiom Identification task along with the reading comprehension test, the immediate retrospective mini-questionnaire on idiom guessing strategies and confidence, the Oxford Placement Test, the Vocabulary Levels Test, the GEFT test and the Background questionnaire. The SPSS program version 16.0 was used for the quantitative analysis of the data for the idiom identification and comprehension results.
4.3. Results for Idiom Identification Success
4.3.1. Overall Idiom Identification Success
With respect to overall success rate in the idiom identification task, figure 1. displays that Greek EFL learners in this study scored extremely low with a mean response that reaches only 14.75% of identified unknown idioms only. Idioms that were already known to the subjects of the study were totally discounted from this percent of identification success rate. The low score of idiom identification success is further supported by the distribution of the identification scores that appear to be widely spread (SD = 22.465) and positively skewed against the zero percent end of the scale hence not matching the superimposed normal curve. This merely indicates that Greek EFL learners overall tended to score low in the idiom identification task, displaying a prominent failure to identify idioms while reading a text in English as a foreign language.
Figure 1. Overall Success in the Idiom Identification Task
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This idiom identification score is even lower when calculated with ‘idioms as cases’, i.e. 13.12% and comes in sharp contrast with results of previous studies where the total rate of idiom identification success was: 70.01 in Liontas (2001), 89.99% in Liontas (2002) and 43.39% in Dominguez (2008). However, the results of idiom identification success presented in this study can only partly be compared with Liontas (2002) and Dominguez (2008) as both researchers were interested in investigating the process of idiom identification by foreign language learners employing an explicit identification task. The recognition of idioms in Irujo (1986) was rather testing the meaning of the idiom by learners in an ESL context. Our results only partly support Liontas (2001; 2002) and Dominguez (2008). Hypothesis 1 was confirmed, as dissimilar or different idioms in L1 and L2 were detected more often than idioms with a Greek equivalent but nevertheless at a considerably less successful rate, 11.66%, as compared to Liontas (2002) 96.43% and Dominguez (2008) 53.08% identification success for different idioms. Obviously, where subjects are directed to consciously identify idioms as the focus of a task as was the case in all these studies above, one might expect more to be spotted than when the idiom identification task is left incidental to the main task set such as for instance a reading comprehension task in our study. Nevertheless, we also believe that the size of the difference in the percent of idiom identification success rate between the two studies and ours is further exaggerated by the fact that our Greek EFL learners seem to have underreported what they identified, as there is a possibility that in cases where they had identified a new idiom but felt that they managed to figure out its meaning with the help of the text context, they did not underline it as such.
S6: …I recognized some of the idioms but I did not underline them because I did not have any specific problem with them and it was easy for me to understand their meaning based on the meaning of the paragraph and/or context of the sentences before or after the point where the idiom was. S8: I understood that there were idioms in the text and I underlined some of them. For those I did not underline it was because I could figure out the meaning of the text and the idioms were not really an obstacle. The meaning of the text was also really easy and also the sentence meaning somehow helped to understand the idiom meanings and that’s why I did not underline them as unknown. I frequently skipped throughout my reading as I thought that their meaning was not so crucial to the text. S9: I sort of understood what the text was all about and I didn’t pay attention to phrases that did not interfere with my reading…I only stopped to one or two points in the text and really wondered what the text meant there, but, on the whole, I tried to use the text context to make sense of what was going on in the passage.
1 5 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Eirene C. Katsarou
As can be seen from learners’ retrospective comments during interviews and despite clear instructions to underline anything not known prior to reading the text, subjects 6 and 8 did not feel the need to underline idioms they had identified as unknown lexical units as the text context they were resorting to in the form of the paragraph as well as of the immediate sentence where the idiom was could easily give away its meaning. By contrast, where text context offered no available clues to help subjects understand the meaning of idioms and overcome their reading comprehension difficulties, learners tended to skip the phrases which they thought were not central to the meaning of the text such as in the case of subjects 8 and 9 above. Such a difference in results can also in part be attributed to the more artificial experimental conditions under which the idiom identification tasks were carried out in both previous studies. On the one hand, in Liontas’ (2002b) study, the target idioms for identification were embedded in a context of a few lines making up a paragraph at least, not in one continuous text and subjects knew that they just had to look for the idioms that each passage contained. In Dominguez (2008), idioms were presented in one running text just like in our study but subjects still were aware of the purposes of the task as they were explicitly told that they had to search the text and find the idioms present in it. Being aware of what they were looking for, subjects were able to find the hidden idioms as their attention was directed towards the purposes for which they had to go through the text. Although like in real life reading, Dominguez’ (2008) study incorporated idioms within a text context as we did, nevertheless it is still a very much controlled task that doesn’t have to do with naturalistic situations of reading material in English as a foreign language. In order to achieve this, subjects in our study were completely unaware that they were looking for idioms in the text as our initial aim was to see whether idioms could be identified by subjects as unknown units responsible for potential lexical problems that could lead to reading comprehension misunderstandings and misconceptions. Since the notion of noticing is considered to be a prerequisite of learning in SLA terms, we wanted to examine the extent to which L2 idioms are spontaneously spotted during their reading and so can be tackled as unknown lexical units via the use of lexical guessing strategies.
4.3.2. Relationship between Idiom Identification Success and Idiom-type Variables
Spearman rho correlations showed significant but negative correlations between success in the idiom identification task and just two of the idiom-type variables used in our investigation, namely, frequency of words in the idiom (ρ = -.495, p = .037) and interlingual similarity (ρ = -.506, p = .032). These findings indicate
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 5 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
that low frequency of the words within the idiom and low interlingual similarity helped learners identify the unknown phrasal idioms that were incorporated in the reading text.
4.3.3. Relationship between Idiom Identification Success and Learner-related Variables
Pearson correlations between success in the task of idiom identification in a text context and any of the individual difference variables included in this study yielded overall nonsignificant results. However, level of the subjects in the private language school (‘Frontistirio’) they were attending was found to correlate significantly with success in idiom identification i.e. Z = -2.122, p = .034 suggesting that the higher level of L2 language proficiency subjects had attained in terms of the University of Cambridge EFL Examinations, the more readily they were to notice idioms in a text context. This finding might also possibly offer an explanation for the nearly 100% identification success rate of a few subjects in this study in that the more advanced the class they were attending opting for the certificates of CAE and CPE the more successful they were in identifying idioms during reading a text.
4.4. Results for Idiom Comprehension Success
4.4.1. Overall Idiom Comprehension Success
Similarly to the idiom identification success rate above but certainly to a far less extreme degree, overall success of idiom comprehension by Greek EFL learners during reading an English text is quite low with a mean of accurately inferred responses of 37.29% of the idioms subjects did not already know. Learners’ attempts in the task of inferencing unknown phrasal idioms vary a lot (SD = 17.786) and are mainly clustered in the low and middle parts of the scale approximating reasonable well normal distribution curve as illustrated in figure 2. Thus, this finding demonstrates learners’ difficulty in successfully inferring the meaning of the idioms they were not familiar with against the text context consciously since the target idioms were made known to the learners unlike the case in the L2 idiom identification task, and, consequently reveals their failure to overcome their lexical problems via the use of guessing strategies and further proceed with the task of reading comprehension in L2 English smoothly.
1 5 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Eirene C. Katsarou
Figure 2. Overall Success in the Idiom Comprehension Task of Unknown L2 Idioms through the use of Lexical Guessing Strategies (LGS)
This result illustrates a great difference between our case in Greece and L2 learners in different EFL contexts. Obviously our 37.29% of L2 idiom comprehension success rate is not in line with the high percentages achieved in Liontas (2001) and Liontas (2002) where L2 learners’ idiom comprehension success scores ranged from 86.42% when guessing at the meaning of Modern Greek idioms to 93.3% and 95% when guessing at the meaning of French and Spanish idioms respectively to as high as 100% in the case of learners guessing at the meaning of idioms in L2 German. Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that such discrepancy in overall L2 idiom comprehension results can also be due to the difference in the methodology followed in our study as compared to past research where the idioms that were to be guessed at were truly unknown to EFL learners and incorporated in a text context which at times might not have had enough helpful context for our L2 learners to guess from with accuracy as to the idioms’ meaning.
4.4.2. Relationship between Idiom Comprehension Success and Idiom-Type Variables
On the other hand, success in the idiom comprehension task correlated significantly positively only with interlingual similarityρ ( = .624, n = 9, p< 0.01, two tailed). This finding confirms Hypothesis 2 and is comparable to similar results produced by Irujo (1986) and Liontas (2001; 2002) where L1-
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 5 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
L2 identical idioms in form and meaning were found to be the ones that were most frequently and successfully guessed at almost 100% in and out of context across Spanish, French, German and Modern Greek more than L1-L2 similar idioms and significantly more than L1-L2 totally different idioms. Still, the overall idiom comprehension success for L2 English idioms with a Greek L1 idiom equivalence was found to be considerably lower, i.e. 48% as contrasted with 95% for L2 Spanish, 93.33% for L2 French, 100% for L2 German and 86.42% for L2 Greek and the comprehension success rate for each of the idiom types included in our study was substantially different from that in the Liontas (2001; 2002) studies: identical idioms (67.6%) were also the ones guessed more easily than either similar (56.7%) and different L1-L2 idioms (19.7%) but to a far less extent than in Liontas (2001; 2002) studies where success in comprehension reached almost 100% for identical and similar idioms in some languages. Overall comprehension success of the nine English idioms of different levels of internal L2 semantic transparency appears considerably lower, i.e. 37.5%. Transparent idioms were the most easily comprehended ones being guessed at a percent of 50.7% of the time, followed by the class of opaque idioms that were inferred accurately in 42.1% of the cases while semitransparent idioms seem to have been a cause of trouble for learners in their effort to understand their meaning within text context being comprehended successfully at a percent of only 19.8%.
4.4.3. Relationship between Idiom Comprehension Success and Learner-Related Variables
Success in the task of idiom comprehension was also examined in relation to learners’ L2 language proficiency, gender, motivation and field-independence/- dependence. Overall, results revealed non-significant correlations between success in the task of idiom comprehension via the use of lexical guessing strategies in a text context and any of the main learner-related variables.
5. Summary of the Main Findings and Implications for the EFL Classroom
The results on L2 idiom identification success revealed a remarkably overall low ability on the Greek EFL learners’ part to accurately identify unknown English phrasal idioms when reading a text for comprehension purposes. L2 idioms with no idiom equivalence in L1 Greek as well as idioms with low frequency word components were found to be identifiable most easily and successfully
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as compared to L1-L2 identical and similar idioms that were not noticed at all due to lack of salience. This finding highlights the importance of learner training in L2 idiom identification strategies raising their awareness with respect to the feature of ‘deceptive transparency’ of idioms as multiword lexical units have as well as to the potential problems that idioms’ misidentification can present L2 learners with especially in the course of reading FL material. According to Nation (2001: 63-4), noticing is considered to be the first and the foremost step in the process of L2 vocabulary acquisition followed by retrieval and creative use and can be most effectively achieved through decontextualization as an EFL teaching practice when the lexical item or the idiom under consideration is removed from its message context to be focused on as a language item. Taking into consideration then that all language learning necessarily involves some degree of decontextualization, i.e. in order to acquire a foreign language, L2 learners need to consciously see language items as parts of the language system (‘focus on form’) rather than only as message then decontextualization in the case of L2 idioms can be implemented in the EFL classroom in the following three ways, i.e. (i) while listening or reading, the learner is guided, possibly through the use of special font or underlining, to notice an idiomatic phrase and is made aware of its salient feature of non-compositional meaning that does not correspond to the interpretation of the meaning of its individual component words. (ii) The learners can negotiate the form of an idiom with each other or with the teacher, i.e. learn to identify an idiom in terms of any special features with respect to its grammar, meaning and use. (iii) The teacher highlights an idiom and writes it on the blackboard giving emphasis to its semantic transparency or lack of it, equivalence in learners’ L1, syntactic constraints and functional use in different texts and genres. (iv) The teacher explains a new L2 idiom to the learners by providing them explicitly with a definition, a first language translation or an L1 idiom equivalent. Explicit instruction on the key features of L2 idioms in terms of semantic transparency, syntactic flexibility and functional use will make FL learners’ aware of idiom’s formal characteristics and enable them to identify unknown target idioms more accurately in second language reading comprehension tasks. With respect to success in L2 idiom comprehension, the results of this study revealed again an extremely low overall result that did not even reach 50% of successful idiom meaning responses as provided by our Greek EFL learners, even when their attention was directed to try to guess them. The three idiom classes that were found to be most easily and successfully comprehended by L2 learners in this study were identical L1-L2 idioms, similar L1-L2 idioms and transparent English idioms indicating a possible learnability order for idioms in a foreign language. Thus, it could be suggested that with the exception of some common phrasal verbs that are already present in the lexical syllabus of beginner and lower intermediate levels, a selection of idioms with these characteristics
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could also be integrated within the syllabus of these levels familiarizing L2 learners with the notion of idiom in a FL and helping them build their L2 idiom knowledge incrementally starting from the early stages of their L2 education. Instruction of L2 idiomatic phrases can consist an integral part of any FL course by focusing on the appropriate types and the correct amount of L2 idioms to be presented and acquired by learners at different stages of their foreign language learning concentrating first on idioms with high interlingual similarity and semantic transparency embedded in authentic reading text material.
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References
Dominguez, A.R. 2008. Identification, code-breaking and retention of L2 by EFL Mexican University students with more and less training. Unpublished PhD Thesis. University of Essex.
Fernando, C. and R. Flavell. 1981. On Idiom: Critical Reviews and Perspectives. Exeter Linguistic Studies, 5. Exeter: University of Exeter.
Irujo, S. 1986. Don’t put your leg in your mouth: Transfer in the acquisition of idioms in a second language. TESOL Quarterly 20 (2), 287-304.
Laufer, B. 1989. A factor of difficulty in vocabulary learning: Deceptive transparency. AILA Review 6, 10-20.
Laufer, B. 1997. The lexical plight in second language reading. In J. Coady and T. Huckin (Eds.), Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition: a Rationale for Pedagogy. Cambridge University Press, 20-34.
Laufer, B. and D.D. Sim. 1985. Taking the easy way out: Non-use and Misuse of clues in EFL reading. English Teaching Forum 23 (2), 7-10.
Liontas, J.I. 2001. That’s All Greek to Me! The Comprehension and Interpretation of Modern Greek Phrasal Idioms. The Reading Matrix: An International Online Journal 1 (1), 1-32 (Available at: http//www.readingmatrix.com).
Liontas, J.I. 2002. Transactional Idiom Analysis: Theory and Practice. Journal of Language and Linguistics 1 (1), 17-53.
Makkai, A. 1972. Idiom Structure in English. The Hague: Mouton.
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Moon, R. 1998. Fixed Expressions and Idioms in English: A Corpus--based Approach. (Oxford Studies in Lexicography and Lexicology). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nattinger, J.R. 1988. Some current trends in vocabulary teaching. In R. Carter and M.J. McCarthy (Eds.) Vocabulary and Language Teaching. London: Longman, 62-82.
Nation, I.S.P. 2001. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge University Press.
Schmitt, N. 2000. Vocabulary in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weinreich, U. 1969. Problems in the analysis of idioms. In J. Puhvel (Ed.), Substance and Structure of Language. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 23-81.
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Appendix
Idiom Identification Text Task 1 Read carefully the following text and: 1) While reading, underline words and/or phrases that you do not know. 2) Try to answer questions 1-7 below by choosing the answer (A, B, C or D) which you think fits best according to the text.
Paul watched the television above the bar. Some that added fuel to the fire and would not let him turtles moved slowly across a beach in order to think clearly. Whatever it was, something had place a few smooth, white eggs in the small sand been forcing him to look for a quiet place in 55 hills nearby. He saw the babies coming out dirty order to find some peace since last night. 55 from the broken shells and, this time, walking Then, he smelt a rat: something nobody had towards the rocks near the sea. Those who decided warned him about. When he saw mother and to cut the cord and not follow their family, they baby together he realized that the reason why would surely be killed by sea birds. There was no everyone talked about fatherhood these days 60 10 pleasure in the cycle of birth and death. Yet the was because it was such an impossible state. 10 turtles managed to survive because there were so Mothers and babies were riding high in the many of them: one or two would disappear away saddle. Fathers were optional extras. If men into the sea unnoticed by the sea birds and save disappeared, the world would continue to exist themselves. He asked himself why they went to all and women would surely not turn a hair and 65 15 this trouble, though it could only be because they would manage to find some way to reproduce. 15 had no choice. Their nature forced them to move Within a generation or two it would be difficult on. If, by chance, a turtle could not give birth, then to believe that there had ever been men at all. this turtle would die without reproducing itself. Little girls would try to understand what it had 20 There was no escape for them. Once the wheels of been that men had done, how they had 70 reproduction were set in motion, it was contributed. He had suddenly seen his role as
20 unstoppable. that of a footnote and remembered the bad taste
At the present moment, his thoughts were left in his mouth when he was told that he
driving him to sleep. If he had been one of those would become a father. The books had warned
25 turtles, he would have lain down in the sand and him of this feeling of jealousy. They had said it
simply waited for his death. Parenthood had taken was natural and that he would get over it, pick 75 25 him by surprise and had definitely rocked the boat up the pieces, and move on once he stopped
of his everyday routine where he was fighting to thinking about it. Fathers deceived themselves
live from hand to mouth for most of the time. The about their role in their children’s upbringing.
30 books, the articles, the classes, had not prepared He could now see that that was like building 80 him for the intensity of it all. Now, everybody was castles in the air, and that mothers and babies
30 looking to him for the answers, blaming him for were everything. The men came and went
playing fast and loose with important decisions that causing trouble and trying to earn a crust to
could significantly affect his whole life. He flew off support their families in order to make up for it.
35 the handle when people criticized him for not He turned his attention to the television. The 85 making the correct decision. He had lived with turtles he had watched moving towards the sea
35 others all his life and knew that human relations had become parents themselves now. They were was always a matter of throwing caution to the the same turtles that had returned to the beach
wind. For him, it was easy-you had fights but if and placed their own eggs ready to take the
they became too frequent or too boring, or if rough with the smooth of becoming a parent. 90 40 serious problems came up and you were no longer
40 happy, you just left, and tried again with someone else until you found someone you could put up with. But this time, things were different and he felt 45 caught between a rock and a hard place, unable to get away from the difficult situation he was in. 45 He could not remember how it had all changed. Perhaps, it had been the demands that were suddenly being made of him to clean up his act and 50 take up his responsibilities in the new reality, or even the faces turning towards him when a decision was required. Or perhaps it was just the intensity of his emotions together with the coffee and nicotine
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 5 9
Paul watched the television above the bar. Some that added fuel to the fire and would not let him turtles moved slowly across a beach in order to think clearly. Whatever it was, something had place a few smooth, white eggs in the small sand been forcing him to look for a quiet place in 55 hills nearby. He saw the babies coming out dirty order to find some peace since last night. 5 from the broken shells and, this time, walking Then, he smelt a rat: something nobody had towards the rocks near the sea. Those who decided warned him about. When he saw mother and to cut the cord and not follow their family, they baby together he realized that the reason why would surely be killed by sea birds. There was no everyone talked about fatherhood these days 60 10 pleasure in the cycle of birth and death. Yet the was because it was such an impossible state. turtles managed to survive because there were so Mothers and babies were riding high in the many of them: one or two would disappear away saddle. Fathers were optional extras. If men into the sea unnoticed by the sea birds and save disappeared, the world would continue to exist themselves. He asked himself why they went to all and women would surely not turn a hair and 65 15 this trouble, though it could only be because they would manage to find some way to reproduce. had no choice. Their nature forced them to move Within a generation or two it would be difficult on. If, by chance, a turtle could not give birth, then to believe that there had ever been men at all. this turtle would die without reproducing itself. Little girls would try to understand what it had 20 There was no escape for them. Once the wheels of been that men had done, how they had 70 reproduction were set in motion, it was contributed. He had suddenly seen his role as
unstoppable. that of a footnote and remembered the bad taste
At the present moment, his thoughts were left in his mouth when he was told that he
driving him to sleep. If he had been one of those would become a father. The books had warned
25 turtles, he would have lain down in the sand and him of this feeling of jealousy. They had said it
simply waited for his death. Parenthood had taken was natural and that he would get over it, pick 75 him by surprise and had definitely rocked the boat up the pieces, and move on once he stopped
of his everyday routine where he was fighting to thinking about it. Fathers deceived themselves
live from hand to mouth for most of the time. The about their role in their children’s upbringing.
30 books, the articles, the classes, had not prepared He could now see that that was like building 80 him for the intensity of it all. Now, everybody was castles in the air, and that mothers and babies
looking to him for the answers, blaming him for were everything. The men came and went
playing fast and loose with important decisions that causing trouble and trying to earn a crust to
could significantly affect his whole life. He flew off support their families in order to make up for it.
35 the handle when people criticized him for not He turned his attention to the television. The 85 making the correct decision. He had lived with turtles he had watched moving towards the sea
others all his life and knew that human relations had become parents themselves now. They were was always a matter of throwing caution to the the same turtles that had returned to the beach
wind. For him, it was easy-you had fights but if and placed their own eggs ready to take the
they became too frequent or too boring, or if rough with the smooth of becoming a parent. 90 40 serious problems came up and you were no longer happy, you just left, and tried again with someone else until you found someone you could put up Major Trends in Theoretical andwith. Applied But this Linguistics time, things were different and he felt 45 caught between a rock and a hard place, unable to get away from the difficult situation he was in. He could not remember how it had all changed. Perhaps, it had been the demands that were suddenly being made of him to clean up his act and 50 take up his responsibilities in the new reality, or even the faces turning towards him when a decision 50 was required. Or perhaps it was just the intensity of his emotions together with the coffee and nicotine Paul watched the television above the bar. Some that added fuel to the fire and would not let him turtles moved slowly across a beach in order to think clearly. Whatever it was, something had place a few smooth, white eggs in the small sand been forcing him to look for a quiet place in 55 hills nearby. He saw the babies coming out dirty55 order to find some peace since last night. 5 from the broken shells and, this time, walking Then, he smelt a rat: something nobody had towards the rocks near the sea. Those who decided warned him about. When he saw mother and to cut the cord and not follow their family, they baby together he realized that the reason why would surely be killed by sea birds. There was no everyone talked about fatherhood these days 60 10 pleasure in the cycle of birth and death. Yet 60 the was because it was such an impossible state. turtles managed to survive because there were so Mothers and babies were riding high in the many of them: one or two would disappear away saddle. Fathers were optional extras. If men into the sea unnoticed by the sea birds and save disappeared, the world would continue to exist themselves. He asked himself why they went to all and women would surely not turn a hair and 65 15 this trouble, though it could only be because they65 would manage to find some way to reproduce. had no choice. Their nature forced them to move Within a generation or two it would be difficult on. If, by chance, a turtle could not give birth, then to believe that there had ever been men at all. this turtle would die without reproducing itself. Little girls would try to understand what it had 20 There was no escape for them. Once the wheels of been that men had done, how they had 70 reproduction were set in motion, it was contributed. He had suddenly seen his role as 70 unstoppable. that of a footnote and remembered the bad taste
At the present moment, his thoughts were left in his mouth when he was told that he
driving him to sleep. If he had been one of those would become a father. The books had warned
25 turtles, he would have lain down in the sand and him of this feeling of jealousy. They had said it
simply waited for his death. Parenthood had taken75 was natural and that he would get over it, pick 75 him by surprise and had definitely rocked the boat up the pieces, and move on once he stopped
of his everyday routine where he was fighting to thinking about it. Fathers deceived themselves
live from hand to mouth for most of the time. The about their role in their children’s upbringing.
30 books, the articles, the classes, had not prepared He could now see that that was like building 80 him for the intensity of it all. Now, everybody 80was castles in the air, and that mothers and babies
looking to him for the answers, blaming him for were everything. The men came and went
playing fast and loose with important decisions that causing trouble and trying to earn a crust to
could significantly affect his whole life. He flew off support their families in order to make up for it.
35 the handle when people criticized him for not He turned his attention to the television. The 85 making the correct decision. He had lived with85 turtles he had watched moving towards the sea
others all his life and knew that human relations had become parents themselves now. They were was always a matter of throwing caution to the the same turtles that had returned to the beach wind. For him, it was easy-you had fights but if and placed their own eggs ready to take the they became too frequent or too boring, or if rough with the smooth of becoming a parent. 90 40 serious problems came up and you were no longer happy, you just left, and tried again with someone else until you found someone you could put up with. But this time, things were different and he felt 45 caught between a rock and a hard place, unable to get away from the difficult situation he was in. He could not remember how it had all changed. Perhaps, it had been the demands that were suddenly being made of him to clean up his act and 50 take up his responsibilities in the new reality, or even the faces turning towards him when a decision was required. Or perhaps it was just the intensity of his emotions together with the coffee and nicotine
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 6 0 Eirene C. Katsarou
1. What did Paul notice about the turtles in the first paragraph? [lines 1-8]
A their unwillingness to return to the sea. B their behavior with their young. C the effort they made to survive. D the small proportion of young who survived.
2. Paul assumed that if a turtle did not wish to reproduce, [Par. 1. lines 8-13]
A it would be punished by other turtles. B it would end up doing so anyway. C this attitude would not spread to other turtles. D this would not come as a surprise.
3. His thoughts turned towards going to sleep because [Par. 2, lines 13-17]
A he knew that he was unlikely to get much in the near future. B he had been tired of the thought that he would become a parent. C he had become tired of his actions being criticized. D he felt that that was what many of the turtles probably wanted to do.
4. What did he feel he had been forced to do since last night? [Par. 3, lines 29-34]
A accept that he was not really in his nature to live with other people. B find a way of making himself feel better physically. C identify precisely what had caused his life to change so radically. D remind himself of how he had felt before this.
5. In what way did he feel that he had been fooled? [Par. 4, lines 37-42]
A He had expected his role to be one that differed from that of most men. B He had not been informed about how women changed when they became mothers. C He had not been told the truth by women about how they really regarded men. D He had thought fatherhood was treated as a major topic because fathers were important.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 6 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
6. He felt that the books had failed to warn him that his feeling of jealousy [Par. 4, lines 46-50] A would not disappear naturally. B would not be shared by others. C would be replaced by worse feelings. D would make him be inactive.
7. What is suggested about events on the television programme? [Par. 5] A They made him more depressed that he would otherwise have been. B They made him feel that turtles were in a better state than humans were. C They reflected his own lack of joy at becoming a father. D They gave him a chance to escape from his own thoughts.
1 6 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Η συμβολή του Κοινού Ευρωπαϊκού Πλαισίου Αναφοράς για τις Γλώσσες στη διδασκαλία και στην αξιολόγηση
Άννα Κοκκινίδου, Βασιλική Μάρκου, Θωμαή Ρουσουλιώτη και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου
Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to examine the use of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) by teachers of Greek as a second/foreign language in both teaching and evaluation contexts. Moreover the present paper discusses the use of the Greek version of the CEFR through a specific survey addressed to the target-audience. The CEFR has been translated and published by the Centre for the Greek Language (2008) but there has been no evidence concerning the extent of its use at an institutional level. Thus, a questionnaire was especially designed and given out to teachers of Greek as a second/foreign language. The information collected and all the findings of the survey are presented and discussed in the paper. Finally, suggestions are made on how the CEFR can be used for lesson planning and evaluation.
1. Εισαγωγή
Σκοπός της παρούσας εισήγησης είναι να ανιχνεύσει ζητήματα που άπτονται της εφαρμογής του Κοινού Ευρωπαϊκού Πλαισίου Αναφοράς για τις Γλώσσες: Εκμάθηση, διδασκαλία, αξιολόγηση1 (ΚΕΠΑ 2008, Council of Europe 2001). Η σχετική έρευνα πραγματοποιήθηκε μέσω ερωτηματολογίου. Τα αποτελέσματα της ανάλυσης των απαντήσεων στο ερωτηματολόγιο περιγράφουν και αναδεικνύουν την κατάσταση σε σχέση με τη χρήση και την εφαρμογή του ΚΕΠΑ από έλληνες εκπαιδευτικούς. Στο τέλος της εισήγησης, διατυπώνεται πρόταση για το σχεδιασμό, την υλοποίηση και την αξιολόγηση γλωσσικού μαθήματος με βάση το ΚΕΠΑ.
1 KEΠΑ από εδώ και στο εξής.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 6 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
2. Ιστορικό
Το ΚΕΠΑ δημιουργήθηκε χάρη στην εμπειρία που αποκτήθηκε από τις εφαρμογές της επικοινωνιακής προσέγγισης σε τάξεις γλωσσικής διδασκαλίας από τα τέλη περίπου της δεκαετίας του ’70, αλλά και στα αποτελέσματα που προέκυψαν από τη διαπίστωση και τη γενική αποδοχή των πλεονεκτημάτων των γλωσσικών επιπέδων αναφοράς (όπως σχετικά πρόσφατα μετονομάστηκαν): Breakthrough (εισαγωγικό επίπεδο), Waystage (αρχικό επίπεδο), Threshold Level (κατώφλι ή ενδιάμεσο επίπεδο), Vantage (προχωρημένο επίπεδο), Effective Operational Proficiency (επίπεδο αποτελεσματικής επαγγελματικής επάρκειας) και Mastery (επίπεδο τέλειας γνώσης)2 (van Ek 1976, van Ek & Trim 2001). Τα παραπάνω έργα συνέβαλαν σταδιακά στην αλλαγή του προσανατολισμού της μεθοδολογίας στη διδασκαλία των γλωσσών, στο σχεδιασμό και στην ανάπτυξη προγραμμάτων γλωσσικών σπουδών, στη συγγραφή βιβλίων και στην αξιολόγηση της επίδοσης των μαθητών. Άλλωστε, στόχος τους ήταν να συνδράμουν τον διδάσκοντα παρέχοντας τα μέσα που θα του έδιναν τη δυνατότητα να απομακρυνθεί από τη δομική διδασκαλία (ΚΕΠΑ 2008: 12) και να εφαρμόσει τεχνικές που φέρνουν τους μαθητές πιο κοντά στη ρεαλιστική χρήση της γλώσσας, έχοντας στην ουσία στη διάθεσή του έτοιμο υλικό. Η εμπειρία που αποκτήθηκε ήταν χρήσιμη και ετοίμασε το έδαφος για τη δημιουργία ενός πλαισίου που θα καθόριζε όχι τόσο την υιοθέτηση μιας κοινής μεθοδολογίας διδασκαλίας όσο την επίτευξη ενός κοινού στόχου: την αποτελεσματική διδασκαλία/εκμάθηση γλωσσών. Και αυτό είναι το ΚΕΠΑ, μεταφρασμένο σήμερα, σε 39 γλώσσες, μεταξύ των οποίων και η ελληνική. Το ΚΕΠΑ αποτελεί το μέσο, το εργαλείο που αποβλέπει σε μια καλά οργανωμένη και συγκροτημένη «άσκηση ενιαίας γλωσσικής πολιτικής» για την ενίσχυση και ανάπτυξη της πολυγλωσσίας, η οποία είναι αναγκαία πλέον, λόγω των πιο στενών και συχνών συνεργασιών μεταξύ των ευρωπαϊκών χωρών σε όλα τα επίπεδα της κοινωνικής ζωής, αλλά και της μετακίνησης πληθυσμών που παρατηρείται τις τελευταίες δεκαετίες. Επιγραμματικά, την πλέον πρόσφατη θεσμική υποστήριξη του ΚΕΠΑ συνιστά η έκδοση της Σύστασης (R) 7/2008 της Επιτροπής των αρμόδιων υπουργών των κρατών- μελών3. Η Σύσταση αυτή επιβεβαιώνει για άλλη μια φορά και προωθεί τους κύριους στόχους του ΚΕΠΑ που είναι συνοπτικά οι ακόλουθοι: • η δημιουργία ευνοϊκών όρων για τη χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ ως συνεκτικού, διάφανου και αποτελεσματικού εργαλείου για την πολυγλωσσική εκπαίδευση, έτσι ώστε να προωθείται η δημοκρατική πολιτότητα, η κοινωνική συνοχή και ο διαπολιτισμικός διάλογος
2 Για αναλυτικές περιγραφές των επιπέδων βλ. στη διεύθυνση: http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/ DNR_EN.asp . 3 Για το θέμα αυτό βλ. αναλυτικότερα στην ηλεκτρονική διεύθυνση: http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/ linguistic/cadre_en.asp
1 6 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Άννα Κοκκινίδου, Βασιλική Μάρκου, Θωμαή Ρουσουλιώτη και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου
• η προώθηση και ενίσχυση της συνεργασίας ανάμεσα στους εκπαιδευτικούς φορείς και της αμοιβαίας αναγνώρισης των γλωσσικών προσόντων στην ξένη/δεύτερη γλώσσα • η καθοδήγηση για τη λήψη μέτρων σε επίπεδο εκπαιδευτικών συστημάτων και την ανάπτυξη και διατήρηση της πολυγλωσσίας • η ενθάρρυνση των μαθητών, καθηγητών, εκπαιδευτών των καθηγητών, συντακτών προγραμμάτων σπουδών και εγχειριδίων, των εξεταστικών φορέων και των ιθυνόντων της εκπαιδευτικής πολιτικής για την υιοθέτηση των αρχών και της προσέγγισης του ΚΕΠΑ και του Ευρωπαϊκού Γλωσσικού Φακέλου, ο οποίος βασίζεται στο ΚΕΠΑ, σε θέματα διδασκαλίας, εκμάθησης και αξιολόγησης της απόδοσης και επίδοσης των μαθητών
Ως εκ τούτου, το ΚΕΠΑ απευθύνεται κάθετα και οριζόντια σε όλους τους παράγοντες που ασκούν γλωσσική πολιτική σε σχέση με τη δεύτερη/ξένη γλώσσα. Είναι ταυτόχρονα ένα πολυσύνθετο, δυναμικό και βασικό έργο αναφοράς και για άλλα γλωσσικά εργαλεία που αναπτύσσει ή μπορεί να αναπτύξει το Συμβούλιο της Ευρώπης (ΣτΕ). Το ΚΕΠΑ διατυπώνει ένα γενικό και συνολικό πλαίσιο, κατάλληλο για ενιαία εφαρμογή σε πολλές διαφορετικές εκπαιδευτικές πραγματικότητες, με αποκορύφωμα την καθιέρωση της γνωστής κλίμακας σε έξι κοινά επίπεδα γλωσσομάθειας από το Α1 ως το Γ24. Επισημαίνεται πως η κλίμακα των επιπέδων γλωσσομάθειας έχει υιοθετηθεί και εφαρμόζεται, με την κοινή ονομασία των επιπέδων Α1-Γ2, για την πιστοποίηση του επιπέδου γλωσσομάθειας από σχετικούς φορείς, δημόσιους και μη, όχι μόνο σε πανευρωπαϊκό επίπεδο αλλά και σε χώρες εκτός Ευρώπης (Καναδάς, Ιαπωνία, Νότιος Αφρική κ.ά.). Παράλληλα διαπιστώνεται ότι και οι επιμέρους αρχές του είναι χρήσιμες σε όλα τα στάδια της γλωσσικής διαδρομής, δηλαδή στους σημαντικούς πυλώνες της εκμάθησης, διδασκαλίας και αξιολόγησης. Σε σχέση τώρα με την ελληνική εκδοχή του ΚΕΠΑ, η ελληνική μετάφραση5 ανατέθηκε στο Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας και σε μια ομάδα συνεργατών/ συνεργάτιδων υπό την καθοδήγηση και την επιστημονική ευθύνη των καθηγητών του Α.Π.Θ. κ. Στάθη Ευσταθιάδη και κ. Αναστάσιου Τσαγγαλίδη. Το ΚΕΠΑ αναρτήθηκε για πρώτη φορά στο διαδίκτυο, το 2005, στην ιστοσελίδα του ηλεκτρονικού Κόμβου του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, ενώ από το 2008 εκδόθηκε και διατίθεται μόνο σε έντυπη μορφή.
4 Α1-Στοιχειώδης Γνώση, Α2-Βασική Γνώση, B1-Μέτρια Γνώση, B2-Καλή Γνώση, Γ1-Πολύ Καλή Γνώση και Γ2-Άριστη Γνώση είναι οι επίσημες ονομασίες-χαρακτηρισμοί που υιοθετήθηκαν για την ελληνική γλώσσα από το Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. 5 Συμβατική υποχρέωση του ΚΕΓ και των μεταφραστών ήταν η ακριβής μετάφραση του έργου στα ελληνικά και όχι η προσαρμογή του στην ελληνική γλώσσα.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 6 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
3. Υπάρχουσα κατάσταση
Πέρα από τη μετάφραση και έκδοση του ΚΕΠΑ, το Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας και ειδικότερα το Τμήμα Στήριξης και Προβολής της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας κάνει διεξοδική χρήση του έργου και προωθεί τόσο την εφαρμογή του ΚΕΠΑ στη διδασκαλία της ελληνικής, όσο και των άλλων έργων, όπως ο Ευρωπαϊκός Φάκελος Γλωσσομάθειας και το πλέον πρόσφατο CLIL6 που διέπονται από τις αρχές του, υπό την επιστημονική καθοδήγηση της διευθύντριας του Τμήματος, κ. Νιόβης Αντωνοπούλου. Άλλωστε, το ίδιο το σύστημα της πιστοποίησης επάρκειας της ελληνομάθειας συντάχθηκε και οργανώθηκε από την αρχή (1997) βάσει των επιπέδων αναφοράς που προαναφέρθηκαν και των δοκιμαστικών τότε εφαρμογών του ΚΕΠΑ, κυρίως στο DIALANG (διαγνωστικό σύστημα γλωσσομάθειας για 14 ευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες). Το ΚΕΠΑ, βέβαια, δεν έχει μόνο πλεονεκτήματα. Έχει και μειονεκτήματα, όπως άλλωστε κάθε έργο που εφαρμόζεται για πρώτη φορά. Βασικό του μειονέκτημα που αφορά κυρίως τους εκπαιδευτικούς είναι η δυσκολία που παρουσιάζει η κατανόησή του. Δεν μπορεί να θεωρηθεί ως εύληπτο κείμενο και αυτό πιθανότατα οφείλεται στο γεγονός ότι έγινε προσπάθεια μέσα σε 300 περίπου σελίδες να δοθεί όλο το σκεπτικό και η φιλοσοφία του προσανατολισμού που επιδιώκεται να έχει η γλωσσική διδασκαλία (Keedle 2004, Weir 2005). Το παραπάνω δεδομένο, πιθανόν, αποτελεί μια από τις αιτίες της καθυστέρησης της υιοθέτησης και της εφαρμογής του. Επιπλέον, προβλήματα, που έχουν προκαλέσει πολλές συζητήσεις, σχετίζονται με τη διαβάθμιση των διαφορετικών επιπέδων και εν μέρει των περιγραφητών τους στην εξάβαθμη κλίμακα γλωσσομάθειας που προτείνεται από το ΚΕΠΑ (Fulcher 2004). Η πιο κοινή ερώτηση, είναι «Πού τελειώνει το ένα επίπεδο και πού αρχίζει το επόμενο;». Η ερώτηση αυτή αντικατοπτρίζει μία πάγια δυσκολία στο διαχωρισμό των επιπέδων και στη δημιουργία κλιμάκων γλωσσομάθειας. Ως εκ τούτου γίνονται σχετικές έρευνες και ανταλλάσσονται απόψεις προκειμένου να βρεθεί κάποια σχετικά ικανοποιητική απάντηση. Ωστόσο, μπορούμε να επωφεληθούμε από τα πλεονεκτήματα που προσφέρονται από την υιοθέτηση του ΚΕΠΑ και να τα εφαρμόσουμε τόσο στη διδασκαλία των ξένων γλωσσών όσο και στη διδασκαλία της ελληνικής ως δεύτερης ή ξένης γλώσσας.
4. Η έρευνα: Σχεδιασμός και υλοποίηση
Η έρευνα που παρουσιάζεται σχεδιάστηκε με σκοπό να διερευνηθεί η διάδοση και η χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ στο πλαίσιο διδασκαλίας της ελληνικής ως δεύτερης ή ξένης γλώσσας. Το ερώτημα που τίθεται είναι κατά πόσο είναι γνωστό το ΚΕΠΑ-δέκα και πλέον χρόνια μετά τη δημιουργία του- και πόσο έχει προχωρήσει η εφαρμογή του.
6 Ο όρος στα ελληνικά αποδίδεται ως Oλοκληρωμένη Eκμάθηση Περιεχομένου και Γλώσσας.
1 6 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Άννα Κοκκινίδου, Βασιλική Μάρκου, Θωμαή Ρουσουλιώτη και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου
Προκειμένου να εξετάσουμε πώς χρησιμοποιείται και αποτυπώνεται στη γλωσσική διδασκαλία και αξιολόγηση το ΚΕΠΑ και τι είδους σχέση έχει αναπτυχθεί ανάμεσα στο έργο και τους χρήστες του, συντάχθηκε ένα ειδικό ερωτηματολόγιο7. Στο πρώτο μέρος της έρευνας οι συμμετέχοντες καλούνται να απαντήσουν σε ερωτήσεις που αφορούν την επαγγελματική τους ιδιότητα, τον φορέα εργασίας τους, τις γλώσσες που χρησιμοποιούν στο χώρο εργασίας τους και τον τομέα απασχόλησής τους. Στο δεύτερο μέρος του ερωτηματολογίου, οι συμμετέχοντες ερωτούνται αρχικά σε ποιο βαθμό πιστεύουν ότι είναι εξοικειωμένοι με το ΚΕΠΑ (ερώτημα 1) και σε ποια γλώσσα το χρησιμοποιούν (ερώτημα 2). Στόχος της δεύτερης ερώτησης είναι να διερευνηθεί η διάδοση της ελληνικής έκδοσης, καθώς η εκδοχή του ΚΕΠΑ στην αγγλική και άλλες ευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες προηγήθηκε της ελληνικής. Ως επέκταση του ερωτήματος 2, δίνεται το ερώτημα 3, στο οποίο οι συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα απαντούν με σαφήνεια, αν γνωρίζουν την ελληνική έκδοση του ΚΕΠΑ8. Στη συνέχεια διερευνάται η γνώση των κοινών επιπέδων αναφοράς για τις γλώσσες9 (ερώτημα 4), ενώ το επόμενο ερώτημα (ερώτημα 5) αφορά τη χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ. Στο ερώτημα αυτό δόθηκαν στους συμμετέχοντες εννέα επιλογές που αφορούν τη χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ αλλά και η δυνατότητα ελεύθερης απάντησης από τους συμμετέχοντες. Το ερώτημα τέθηκε με βάση την υπόθεση ότι οι περισσότεροι συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα χρησιμοποιούν το ΚΕΠΑ για συγκεκριμένες εργασίες, όπως η κατάταξη μαθητών σε επίπεδα και η αξιολόγησή τους και πιθανόν και για άλλους λόγους. Η διερεύνηση αυτού του πεδίου πραγματοποιείται και με την επόμενη ερώτηση (ερώτημα 6), στο οποίο οι συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα καλούνται να απαντήσουν πόσο συχνά χρησιμοποιούν το ΚΕΠΑ, ενώ με ερώτηση ανοιχτού τύπου (ερώτημα 10), στη συνέχεια, ζητείται να διευκρινίσουν ποια κεφάλαια χρησιμοποιούν περισσότερο. Ανοιχτού τύπου ερωτήματα διατυπώθηκαν και για τα οφέλη (ερώτημα 11) και τα προβλήματα (ερώτημα 12) που πιθανόν να αντιμετωπίζουν οι χρήστες του ΚΕΠΑ. Μέσω του ερωτηματολογίου επιχειρήθηκε, επίσης, να διερευνηθούν επιμέρους θέματα, όπως η παροχή πληροφόρησης και εκπαίδευσης/επιμόρφωσης σχετικά με το ΚΕΠΑ. Συγκεκριμένα, στο ερώτημα 7 οι συμμετέχοντες ερωτώνται ποια ήταν η πρώτη πηγή πληροφόρησής τους για το ΚΕΠΑ, ενώ στο ερώτημα 8 τίθεται το ερώτημα αν οι συμμετέχοντες έχουν λάβει επίσημη ενημέρωση/εκπαίδευση/ επιμόρφωση πάνω σε αυτό. Τέλος, μία παράπλευρη σχετική πληροφορία που ζητήθηκε ήταν η χρήση άλλων έργων του Συμβουλίου της Ευρώπης (ερώτημα 9).
7 Το ερωτηματολόγιο της έρευνας βρίσκεται αναρτημένο στην ηλεκτρονική διεύθυνση: http:// www.greeklanguage.gr/certification/sites/greeklanguage.gr.certification/files/erwthmatologio_cefr_ final.doc. Σχετικές εργασίες έχουν γίνει από το Συμβούλιο της Ευρώπης (Δεκέμβριος 2005): http:// www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Surveyresults.pdf 8 Το ερώτημα αυτό κρίθηκε απαραίτητο, καθώς διατυπώθηκε η υπόθεση ότι ορισμένοι διδάσκοντες- ερευνητές ενδεχομένως να γνωρίζουν την ελληνική έκδοση του ΚΕΠΑ (ερώτημα 3), αλλά να χρησιμοποιούν στην εργασία τους μία ξενόγλωσση έκδοση (ερώτημα 2). 9 Πρόκειται για τα επίπεδα Α1-Γ2.
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Το ερωτηματολόγιο στάλθηκε ηλεκτρονικά σε 120 παραλήπτες της λίστας διδασκόντων που έχει δημιουργηθεί από το Τμήμα Στήριξης και Προβολής του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Oι συγκεκριμένοι διδάσκοντες απάντησαν θετικά στην επιστολή διερεύνησης ενδιαφέροντος σχετικά με τη συμμετοχή τους στην έρευνα για το ΚΕΠΑ. Από αυτούς τελικά οι 35 συμμετείχαν στη συμπλήρωση του ερωτηματολογίου και για αυτό αποτέλεσαν το δείγμα της έρευνας που πραγματοποιήθηκε. Το μέγεθος του δείγματος είναι ενδεικτικό, αλλά τα αποτελέσματα που προήλθαν από τη στατιστική ανάλυση περιλαμβάνουν ένα ικανοποιητικό εύρος απαντήσεων όσον αφορά την ποιοτική έρευνα του θέματος που μας ενδιαφέρει.
4.1. Το προφίλ των συμμετεχόντων στην έρευνα
Οι συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα ασχολούνται με τη διδασκαλία της ελληνικής ως δεύτερης ή ξένης γλώσσας σε ποσοστό 35%. Σχεδόν ισόποσα απασχολούνται στην πρωτοβάθμια, δευτεροβάθμια ή τριτοβάθμια εκπαίδευση (10-12% ανά βαθμίδα εκπαίδευσης). Λιγότεροι ασχολούνται με τη διδασκαλία στην ιδιωτική εκπαίδευση (6%). Το 15% των συμμετεχόντων έχει εμπειρία σε εξετάσεις γλωσσομάθειας. Λιγότερο από το 4% των συμμετεχόντων στην έρευνα ασχολείται με άλλα θέματα, όπως είναι η διδασκαλία, η συμβουλευτική καθηγητών και η έρευνα) (γράφημα 1).
Γράφημα 1. Προφίλ των συμμετεχόντων στην έρευνα για το ΚΕΠΑ
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5. Αποτελέσματα της έρευνας
Όσον αφορά τα αποτελέσματα της έρευνας, αρχικά προκύπτουν συμπεράσματα για το βαθμό εξοικείωσης με το ΚΕΠΑ των συμμετεχόντων στην έρευνα. Οι συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα παρουσιάζουν μέτρια γνώση του ΚΕΠΑ (ποσοστό 38%). Ένα μεγάλο μέρος των συμμετεχόντων (33%) γνωρίζει πολύ το ΚΕΠΑ, ενώ ένας στους τέσσερις το γνωρίζει σε μικρό βαθμό. Τα αποτελέσματα αυτά είναι ιδιαίτερα ικανοποιητικά, καθώς δεν εντοπίστηκε καθολική άγνοια του ΚΕΠΑ σε καμία περίπτωση, ενώ σε γενικές γραμμές δηλώνεται από τους συμμετέχοντες μέτριο προς καλό και πολύ καλό επίπεδο γνώσης του (γράφημα 2).
Γράφημα 2. Βαθμός εξοικείωσης με το ΚΕΠΑ
Στο ερώτημα σχετικά με τη γλώσσα στην οποία χρησιμοποιούν οι συμμετέχοντες το ΚΕΠΑ επιβεβαιώθηκε η αρχική υπόθεση, καθώς οι περισσότεροι χρησιμοποιούν την αγγλική έκδοσή του. Ακολουθούν η ισπανική, η γερμανική και η ιταλική έκδοση (γράφημα 3). Οι συμμετέχοντες χρησιμοποιούν τις ξενόγλωσσες εκδόσεις, παρόλο που γνωρίζουν την ύπαρξη της ελληνικής έκδοσης. Στη σχετική ερώτηση που αφορά τη γνώση της ελληνικής έκδοσης του ΚΕΠΑ (γράφημα 4) μόνο 21% των συμμετεχόντων δήλωσε ότι δεν τη γνωρίζει καθόλου. Οι υπόλοιπες απαντήσεις των συμμετεχόντων στην έρευνα κυμαίνονται μεταξύ μικρού (21%), μέτριου (12%) και μεγάλου (42%) βαθμού γνώσης της. Διαπιστώνεται στο σημείο αυτό ότι συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα γνωρίζουν την ελληνική έκδοση του ΚΕΠΑ, αλλά δεν τη χρησιμοποιούν. Μία πιθανή αιτία είναι το γεγονός ότι οι ξενόγλωσσες εκδόσεις προηγήθηκαν της ελληνικής10 κι επιπλέον διατίθενται δωρεάν στο διαδίκτυο σε σελίδες που κάθε χρήστης έχει ελεύθερη πρόσβαση.
10 Σύμφωνα με τα δεδομένα της έρευνας, εντοπίζεται η τάση οι χρήστες να χρησιμοποιούν το ΚΕΠΑ στη γλώσσα που τους ενδιαφέρει να διδάξουν ή στην αγγλική γλώσσα, στην οποία έγινε και η πρωτότυπη έκδοσή του. Έπειτα, όμως, από την έντυπη έκδοση του ΚΕΠΑ στην ελληνική γλώσσα, κρίνεται σκόπιμο να γίνουν περαιτέρω προσπάθειες για την αξιοποίηση της ελληνικής έκδοσης, τουλάχιστον από τους διδάσκοντες την ελληνική γλώσσα ως δεύτερη/ξένη.
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Γράφημα 3. Γλώσσες χρήσης του ΚΕΠΑ
Γράφημα 4. Βαθμός γνώσης ελληνικής έκδοσης του ΚΕΠΑ
Το επόμενο ερώτημα αφορά τη χρήση του πλέον διαδεδομένου στοιχείου του ΚΕΠΑ, των κοινών επιπέδων αναφοράς για τις γλώσσες11. Τρεις στους τέσσερις συμμετέχοντες απάντησαν ότι τα γνωρίζουν (γράφημα 5). Το ποσοστό αυτό είναι ικανοποιητικό αλλά κρίνεται χρήσιμη η περαιτέρω διάδοση του ΚΕΠΑ για να γνωρίσει το σύνολο των διδασκόντων τα επίπεδα γλωσσομάθειας, καθώς αποτελούν αναμφισβήτητα τη σημαντικότερη συμβολή του. Το παραπάνω συμπέρασμα επιβεβαιώνεται και από την ερώτηση σχετικά με τους λόγους χρήσης του ΚΕΠΑ (γράφημα 6). Ειδικότερα ζητήθηκε από τους συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα να διευκρινίσουν για ποιο λόγο χρησιμοποιούν το ΚΕΠΑ. Στο ερώτημα αυτό κυριαρχούν οι απαντήσεις που σχετίζονται με τα επίπεδα γλωσσομάθειας. Οι ερωτηθέντες ανατρέχουν στο ΚΕΠΑ για γενικές πληροφορίες σχετικά με την εξάβαθμη
11 Σε αυτά συμπεριλαμβάνονται οι κλίμακες και οι ειδικοί περιγραφητές για κάθε δεξιότητα.
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Γράφημα 5. Γνώση Κοινών Επιπέδων Αναφοράς για τις γλώσσες
κλίμακα γλωσσομάθειας (ποσοστό 21%), για ειδικές πληροφορίες σχετικά με τις δεξιότητες ανά επίπεδο (17%) και για τις περιγραφικές κλίμακες των επιπέδων (14%). Μια ιδιαίτερα σημαντική και χρήσιμη πληροφορία που προκύπτει από τις απαντήσεις στο ερώτημα 6 είναι ότι οι συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα χρησιμοποιούν το ΚΕΠΑ για τη διδασκαλία των γλωσσών (ποσοστό 14%) αλλά και για το σχεδιασμό και την οργάνωση του μαθήματός τους (ποσοστό 17%)12. Λιγότεροι συμμετέχοντες το χρησιμοποιούν για τη διαμόρφωση αναλυτικών προγραμμάτων και για την οργάνωση συστήματος πιστοποίησης, γεγονός που ερμηνεύεται εύκολα, καθώς δεν είναι τόσο μεγάλος ο αριθμός των ατόμων που ασχολούνται με το σχεδιασμό εκπαιδευτικής πολιτικής και οργανώνουν εξετάσεις γλωσσομάθειας. Ακολούθως, ζητήσαμε από τους ερωτηθέντες να μας εκφράσουν την άποψή τους για δύο πολύ σημαντικά ζητήματα και ειδικότερα για το ποια είναι τόσο τα οφέλη (ερώτημα 11) όσο και τα προβλήματα (ερώτημα 12) από τη χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ. Στα ερωτήματα αυτά υπήρχε δυνατότητα ελεύθερης συμπλήρωσης. Ακολούθησε ομαδοποίηση των απαντήσεων και προέκυψαν τα δεδομένα των γραφημάτων 7 και 8. Οι απαντήσεις των συμμετεχόντων στην έρευνα, όπως έχουν καταγραφεί στο γράφημα 6, αναδεικνύουν ένα γεγονός εν πολλοίς αναμενόμενο. Οι χρήστες του ΚΕΠΑ, δηλαδή, ενδιαφέρονται κυρίως για τους περιγραφητές των επιπέδων για καθεμιά από τις τέσσερις γλωσσικές δεξιότητες, τις κλίμακες και τις παραμέτρους χρήσης της γλώσσας (κεφάλαια 3 και 4 του έργου). Σημαντική είναι, επίσης, και η δήλωση από τους συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα για τη χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ για το σχεδιασμό γλωσσικών μαθημάτων. Αξίζει τον κόπο να σημειωθεί, τέλος, πως στο συγκεκριμένο ερώτημα είχαν τη δυνατότητα οι
12 Τα αποτελέσματα αυτά αποδεικνύουν ότι η διδακτική πρόταση που ακολουθεί στο β΄ μέρος της παρουσίασης και ο πίνακας 10 που παρουσιάζει τα κεφάλαια του ΚΕΠΑ που αξιοποιούνται στις διάφορες φάσεις της διδασκαλίας είναι στοιχεία πολύτιμα για το διδάσκοντα.
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Γράφημα 6. Λόγοι χρήσης του ΚΕΠΑ
Γράφημα 7. Οφέλη από τη χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ
συμμετέχοντες να δώσουν περισσότερες από μια απαντήσεις, γεγονός που επηρέασε την ποσοστιαία ανάλυση των δεδομένων της έρευνας. Σε σχέση με τα οφέλη από τη χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ οι ερωτηθέντες έδωσαν μία ποικιλία απαντήσεων, αναμενόμενων και μη. Το μεγαλύτερο ποσοστό των απαντήσεων και πάλι αφορά τα επίπεδα γλωσσομάθειας, από το Α1 ως το Γ2, σε καθεμιά από τις τέσσερις δεξιότητες, καθώς οι ερωτηθέντες αξιοποιούν το ΚΕΠΑ για να διευκρινίζουν, να
1 7 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Άννα Κοκκινίδου, Βασιλική Μάρκου, Θωμαή Ρουσουλιώτη και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου
ελέγχουν και να πιστοποιούν τις απαιτούμενες γνώσεις και δεξιότητες ανά γλωσσικό επίπεδο. Έπεται γενικά η αξιολόγηση, ενώ ισότιμη ποσόστωση σημειώνεται στα υπόλοιπα οφέλη που καταγράφονται στο γράφημα 7. Αξιοσημείωτη είναι η αναφορά που γίνεται στην αυτοαξιολόγηση -καθώς, σύμφωνα με τον Little (2006: 2), μέσω του ΚΕΠΑ αυξάνεται η αυτονομία των διδασκόντων και κυρίως των διδασκομένων κατά τη διαδικασία διδασκαλίας και γενικότερα εκμάθησης της γλώσσας- και στην επιλογή μεθόδων διδασκαλίας, που δεν είχαν προβλεθεί στο ερωτηματολόγιό μας στο ερώτημα 5 σχετικά με τις χρήσεις του ΚΕΠΑ. Τέλος, αναδείχθηκε και το όφελος χρήσης του ΚΕΠΑ ως μέτρου συγκριτικής παρουσίασης διαφορετικών γλωσσών, αν και η παρατήρηση αυτή επιδέχεται περαιτέρω διερεύνηση. Ωστόσο, τα οφέλη από τη χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ συνυπάρχουν με αρκετά προβλήματα από τη χρήση του (γράφημα 8). Ένας στους τέσσερις συμμετέχοντες δηλώνει ότι το ΚΕΠΑ του φαίνεται λεπτομερές και περίπλοκο. Ακολουθεί ως πρόβλημα ο μεγάλος όγκος των πληροφοριών που παρέχει. Συνεχίζοντας, μετά τα προβλήματα που αφορούν κυρίως τη δομή του ΚΕΠΑ, ακολουθεί η απάντηση σχετικά με την ασάφεια του περιεχομένου του (ποσοστό 13%). Το ΚΕΠΑ, τονίζεται για μια ακόμη φορά ότι είναι συνολικά ένα «δαιδαλώδες» έργο που καλύπτει ένα ευρύτατο φάσμα δραστηριοτήτων, προβλέψεων και προδιαγραφών σε σχέση με τη γλώσσα, γεγονός που δικαιολογεί και την παραπάνω απάντηση. Τα δύο αυτά στοιχεία, ο πολυσύνθετος χαρακτήρας του και η ροή ενός μεγάλου όγκου πληροφοριών, καθιστούν το ΚΕΠΑ αρκετά «δύσχρηστο» σύμφωνα με τα δεδομένα της παρούσας έρευνας. Ένα ακόμα πρόβλημα που αναφέρθηκε είναι η άγνοια του ΚΕΠΑ από το ευρύ κοινό, το γεγονός δηλαδή ότι σημαντικός αριθμός ανθρώπων που εμπλέκεται στην εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία δεν γνωρίζει την ύπαρξή του και άρα δυσχαιρένεται η χρήση του. Το στοιχείο αυτό συνάδει με την ασυμβατότητα που υφίσταται ανάμεσα στα Αναλυτικά Προγράμματα και στο ΚΕΠΑ. Τα ελληνικά αναλυτικά προγράμματα που αφορούν τα γλωσσικά μαθήματα που διδάσκονται στο ελληνικό εκπαιδευτικό σύστημα δεν έχουν
Γράφημα 8. Κύρια προβλήματα από τη χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ
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προσαρμοστεί στις αρχές του ΚΕΠΑ και επομένως ο διδάσκων έχει περιορισμένες δυνατότητες αξιοποίησής του στη δημόσια εκπαίδευση13. Μία επιπλέον δυσκολία που σχετίζεται με τα επίπεδα γλωσσομάθειας είναι η οριοθέτησή τους αλλά και η οριοθέτηση των δεξιοτήτων ανά επίπεδο. Για το λόγο αυτό δημιουργήθηκαν περαιτέρω κλίμακες (π.χ. Β1+), ενώ ορισμένοι εξεταστικοί φορείς δημιουργούν εξεταστικές δοκιμασίες διαβαθμισμένης δυσκολίας μεταξύ 2 επιπέδων (π.χ. κοινή δοκιμασία για τα επίπεδα Α1 και Α2). Βέβαια, το πρόβλημα διαβάθμισης των επιπέδων χρειάζεται περαιτέρω έρευνα, για να επιλυθεί (χρήση corpora, λογισμικά αναγνωσιμότητας κειμένων, εμπειρικές έρευνες). Το τελευταίο μειονέκτημα που εντοπίστηκε όσον αφορά τη χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ είναι το ζήτημα της πιθανής ομογενοποίησης από τη μαζική χρήση μίας κοινής μεθοδολογίας από όλους τους εμπλεκομένους με τη γλωσσική πολιτική. Το ΚΕΠΑ, σύμφωνα με απαντήσεις των ερωτηθέντων, υπάρχει κίνδυνος να περιορίσει τη δημιουργικότητα. Όμως, σύμφωνα με τα λεγόμενα των συγγραφέων του ίδιου του ΚΕΠΑ, θεωρείται ένα πολύ ευέλικτο έργο που δίνει τη δυνατότητα στους χρήστες να εφαρμόσουν οποιαδήποτε διδακτική μέθοδο, αρκεί να έχουν τα επιθυμητά αποτελέσματα όπως αυτά ορίζονται στο ΚΕΠΑ για την αποτελεσματική χρήση της γλώσσας (ΚΕΠΑ 2008: 11, Council of Europe 2001: 1). Ένα από τα σημαντικότερα σημεία της έρευνας ήταν η ερώτηση ανοιχτού τύπου σχετικά με τις προτάσεις των ερωτηθέντων για τη χρήση ή εφαρμογή του ΚΕΠΑ στους τομείς των ενδιαφερόντων τους. Στο γράφημα 9 παρουσιάζονται ομαδοποιημένες οι απαντήσεις των ερωτηθέντων. Η κύρια πρόταση που διατυπώνουν οι ερωτηθέντες αφορά τη χρήση του ΚΕΠΑ για την ανάπτυξη/οργάνωση αναλυτικών προγραμμάτων σε γλωσσικά προγράμματα.
Γράφημα 9. Προτάσεις για περαιτέρω χρήση ή εφαρμογή του ΚΕΠΑ
13 Περαιτέρω έρευνα σε σχέση με τις δυνατότητες εναρμόνισης των αναλυτικών προγραμμάτων με το ΚΕΠΑ προτείνεται από την παρούσα εργασία.
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Βέβαια το ΚΕΠΑ ήδη αποτελεί το βασικό σημείο αναφοράς για τη σύνταξη αναλυτικών προγραμμάτων, αλλά ενδείκνυται, και ως γενικό πλαίσιο, για το σχεδιασμό προγραμμάτων γλωσσικών μαθημάτων. Ειδικά για τη διδασκαλία της ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας σε σχολεία στην πρωτοβάθμια και δευτεροβάθμια εκπαίδευση προτείνεται να δημιουργηθεί αναλυτικό πρόγραμμα διδασκαλίας στηριγμένο στο ΚΕΠΑ. Επιπλέον, προτείνεται, με ίσο αριθμό απαντήσεων, η απλούστευση του ΚΕΠΑ, η πιλοτική του εφαρμογή στις τάξεις γλωσσικής διδασκαλίας, η παροχή περαιτέρω εξειδίκευμένων πληροφοριών και η υιοθέτησή του και από όλους τους φορείς που εμπλέκονται στην εκπαιδευτική διαδικασία. Αναμφίβολα, η υιοθέτηση του ΚΕΠΑ από διάφορους φορείς γλωσσικής πολιτικής θα διευκολύνει το έργο των διδασκόντων. H ενέργεια αυτή αποτελεί σημαντικό βήμα για τη γλωσσική διδασκαλία. Την παραπάνω άποψη πιθανότατα υιοθετούν και οι διδάσκοντες την ελληνική γλώσσα ως ξένη στην Αμερική. Για αυτό, στο πλαίσιο της έρευνας, προτείνουν να υπάρξει προβολή και διάδοσή του ΚΕΠΑ στη συγκεκριμένη ήπειρο. Άλλωστε, η πραγματοποίηση επιμορφωτικών σεμιναρίων σε σχέση με το ΚΕΠΑ, που προτείνονται από τους συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα, είναι δυνατό να βοηθήσει τόσο στη διάδοσή του όσο και στη βελτίωση της ποιότητας του εκάστοτε γλωσσικού μαθήματος. Οι συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα, επίσης, ζητούν να γίνονται αναλυτικότερες αναφορές στη διδασκαλία σε παιδιά. Η πρόταση αυτή θα πρέπει να ληφθεί σοβαρά υπόψη, καθώς οι διαφορετικές ηλικιακές ομάδες έχουν διαφορετικές ανάγκες διδασκαλίας και αξιολόγησης οι οποίες απαιτείται να καλυφθούν. Έτσι, για παράδειγμα, στο επίπεδο Α1 ενηλίκων, μπορεί αντικείμενο εξέτασης να αποτελεί η συμπλήρωση μιας αίτησης για δάνειο, ενώ στο ίδιο επίπεδο για παιδιά, η εξεταστική δοκιμασία θεματικά θα πρέπει να πηγάζει από την καθημερινότητα των παιδιών (γράψε μία πρόσκληση σε πάρτι, φτιάξε μία αφίσα για τα ζώα κτλ.). Τέλος, η πρόταση που διατυπώθηκε σχετικά με τη δημιουργία περισσότερων υποεπιπέδων σε σχέση με τα επίπεδα γλωσσομάθειας που ορίζει το ΚΕΠΑ χρειάζεται περαιτέρω διερεύνηση, διότι ήδη έχουν προταθεί στο ΚΕΠΑ (2008: 67-72), υποεπίπεδα γλωσσομάθειας. Με αυτό το σκεπτικό προτείνεται η προώθηση, μέσω του ΚΕΠΑ, της σταδιακής διδασκαλίας και αφομοίωσης της ύλης εντός του ίδιου επιπέδου, προκειμένου ένας μαθητής να οδηγηθεί από το ένα επίπεδο γλωσσομάθειας στο επόμενο. Κάτι τέτοιο, όμως, απαιτείται να γίνει με προσοχή, ώστε να μην γίνει το έργο ακόμα πιο περίπλοκο, αφού όπως φαίνεται και από τις απαντήσεις των ερωτηθέντων, είναι έντονο το αίτημα για απλούστευση του ΚΕΠΑ.
6. Συμπεράσματα από την ανάλυση των απαντήσεων των συμμετεχόντων
Τα αποτελέσματα της παρούσας έρευνας περιγράφουν και αναδεικνύουν την κατάσταση σε σχέση με το ΚΕΠΑ και τους συμπεριλαμβανόμενους στη λίστα διδασκόντων του
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 7 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
τμήματος Στήριξης και Προβολής του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Όσον αφορά τους σχεδιαστές γλωσσικής πολιτικής γίνεται σαφές ότι προέχει να το εφαρμόσουν τόσο στα αναλυτικά προγράμματα όσο και στις μεθοδολογικές προδιαγραφές που προτείνουν προς υιοθέτηση, να το διαδώσουν στους διδάσκοντες και να επιμορφώσουν τους ενδιαφερομένους σχετικά με τις εφαρμογές του. Για τους ερευνητές του ΚΕΠΑ γίνεται ξεκάθαρο ότι από τη μια μεριά χρειάζεται αποσαφήνιση και απλούστευση των δυσνόητων και πολύπλοκων εννοιών, ενώ από την άλλη υπάρχει η ανάγκη παροχής εξειδικευμένων πληροφοριών από το ΚΕΠΑ σε πεδία όπως η διδασκαλία σε παιδιά, η δημιουργία υποεπιπέδων, η διερεύνηση των ορίων μεταξύ των επιπέδων αλλά και μεταξύ διαφορετικών γλωσσών. Σε σχέση με την ελληνική έκδοση του ΚΕΠΑ ένα βασικό συμπέρασμα είναι η ανάγκη παροχής του κειμένου προς τους διδάσκοντες, ερευνητές και άλλους ενδιαφερομένους. Όπως διαπιστώθηκε και προαναφέρθηκε, οι συμμετέχοντες χρησιμοποιούν το ΚΕΠΑ, αλλά όχι στην ελληνική του έκδοση. Κρίνεται σκόπιμο το ΚΕΠΑ να γίνει γνωστό σε όλες τις πληθυσμιακές ομάδες που αφορά για τον πρόσθετο λόγο ότι η επιμελημένη μετάφρασή του θα παρέχει μία κοινή ορολογία και θα αποτελεί γλωσσικά κοινό σημείο αναφοράς των φιλολόγων και γλωσσολόγων που διδάσκουν και μελετούν την ελληνική γλώσσα. Ακολουθεί πρόταση αξιοποίησης του ΚΕΠΑ κατά τη γλωσσική διδασκαλία.
7. Παράδειγμα αξιοποίησης του ΚΕΠΑ κατά τη γλωσσική διδασκαλία
Σε αυτό το σημείο καταγράφεται, μέσω ενός παραδείγματος, ο ρόλος του ΚΕΠΑ κατά τη γλωσσική διδασκαλία. Γενικά, οι χρήστες του ΚΕΠΑ, όπως διαπιστώθηκε και από την εμπειρική έρευνα, εστιάζουν το ενδιαφέρον τους στα επίπεδα γλωσσομάθειας, στους περιγραφητές και στη χρήση της γλώσσας. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, ιδιαίτερη προσοχή δίνεται στα κεφάλαια 3, 4 και 5 που αφορούν τα Κοινά Επίπεδα Αναφοράς, τη χρήση της γλώσσας και τις ικανότητες του μαθητή/χρήστη. Παρ’ όλα αυτά, πέραν των εισαγωγικών κεφαλαίων 1 και 2, και τα κεφάλαια 6 ως 9 είναι εξίσου σημαντικά, καθώς καλύπτουν με γενικές οδηγίες και κατευθυντήριες γραμμές όλες τις φάσεις διδασκαλίας της γλώσσας. Για τις ανάγκες της παρούσας εισήγησης θα εξεταστεί η διαδικασία της διδασκαλίαςτης γλώσσας στα τρία κύρια στάδια που τη διέπουν: α. στο σχεδιασμό του γλωσσικού μαθήματος, β. στην υλοποίηση του γλωσσικού μαθήματος και γ. στην αξιολόγηση. Στον ακόλουθο πίνακα συνοπτικά αναφέρεται ποια κεφάλαια και ποιες επιμέρους ενότητες συγκεκριμένων κεφαλαίων του ΚΕΠΑ μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν στις τρεις παραπάνω φάσεις διδασκαλίαςτης γλώσσας. Ωστόσο, είναι αναγκαίο να σημειωθεί ότι ο πίνακας που ακολουθεί είναι γενικός και οπωσδήποτε ενδεικτικός κάποιων πολύ χρήσιμων στοιχείων του ΚΕΠΑ σε σχέση με τη διδακτική διαδικασία.
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Πίνακας 1. Εφαρμογή του ΚΕΠΑ στη διδασκαλία: Φάσεις διδασκαλίας και σχετικά κεφάλαια ΚΕΠΑ
Γλωσσικό μάθημα ΣΤΑΔΙΑ ΔΙΔΑΣΚΑΛΙΑΣ ΑΝΑΦΟΡΑ ΣΤΟ ΚΕΠΑ
ΔΙΔΑΣΚΑΛΙΑ Κεφάλαιο 6 του ΚΕΠΑ: 6.3: Οι διάφοροι χρήστες του ΚΕΠΑ και ο ρόλος τους στη γλωσσική διδασκαλία ΣΤΑΔΙΟ 1: Σχεδιασμός: 6.4: Αναφορά μεθοδολογικών επιλογών για τη διδασκαλία της Ποιος διδάσκει; δεύτερης/ξένης γλώσσας: γενικές προσεγγίσεις, μέσα, κείμενα, Τι θα διδάξει; απαιτήσεις και προσδοκίες από τους μαθητές, ανάπτυξη γλωσσικών Σε ποιο κοινό; ικανοτήτων και Με ποιον τρόπο; 6.5: Γλωσσικά λάθη και σφάλματα ΑΝΑΛΥΤΙΚΟ ΠΡΟΓΡΑΜΜΑ Κεφάλαιο 8 του ΚΕΠΑ: Σχεδιασμός Α.Π. με βάση την πολλαπλογλωσσική/ πολλαπλοπολιτισμική ικανότητα 8.2: Γενικό πρόγραμμα και επιλογές και 8.3: Σενάρια Α.Π.
ΧΡΗΣΗ ΤΗΣ ΓΛΩΣΣΑΣ: Κεφάλαιο 3: ΕΠΙΠΕΔΑ ΓΛΩΣΣΟΜΑΘΕΙΑΣ, ΚΟΙΝΑ ΕΠΙΠΕΔΑ ΑΝΑΦΟΡΑΣ 3.4:Ενδεικτικοί περιγραφητές και πίνακες: Πίνακας 1: Σφαιρική κλίμακα Κοινών Επιπέδων Αναφοράς Πίνακας 2: Πλέγμα αυτοαξιολόγησης Πίνακας 3: Ποιοτικές πτυχές της χρήσης προφορικού λόγου Κεφάλαιο 4: ΣΤΑΔΙΟ 2: Υλοποίηση του Γενικό περικείμενο, πεδία, περιστάσεις γλωσσικού μαθήματος 4.1.3: Πίνακας 5- ΤΑ ΠΕΔΙΑ και τα χαρακτηριστικά τους Διδασκαλία 4.3-4.5: ΕΠΙΚΟΙΝΩΝΙΑΚΗ ΔΙΔΑΣΚΑΛΙΑ: Καθήκοντα, Ανάπτυξη ικανοτήτων δραστηριότητες και στρατηγικές Χρήση της γλώσσας 4.6: Κείμενα Εκτέλεση καθηκόντων ΑΝΑΠΤΥΞΗ ΙΚΑΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ: Αφομοίωση Κεφάλαιο 5: Ικανότητες: Γενικές, επικοινωνιακές, κοινωνιογλωσσικές, πραγματολογικές- Διδασκαλία λεξικών και γραμματικών στοιχείων για την ανάπτυξη μιας ικανότητας, κλίμακες ακρίβειας (π.χ. λεξιλογικής και γραμματικής) ανά επίπεδο ΕΚΤΕΛΕΣΗ ΚΑΘΗΚΟΝΤΩΝ-ΑΦΟΜΟΙΩΣΗ Κεφάλαιο 7: Καθήκοντα, εκτέλεση, ικανότητες, συνθήκες και περιορισμοί, στρατηγικές και δυσκολίες
Κεφάλαιο 3: Πίνακες στο 3.4 (όπως στο Στάδιο 1) ΣΤΑΔΙΟ 3: ΑΞΙΟΛΟΓΗΣΗ 4.1: πεδία, συνθήκες και περιορισμοί, ΤΟΥ ΓΛΩΣΣΙΚΟΥ 4.6: κείμενα ΜΑΘΗΜΑΤΟΣ 5.2: επικοινωνιακές ικανότητες Τι είδους αξιολόγηση; 7 : για τα καθήκοντα Σε ποιο στάδιο της διαδικασίας; Κεφάλαιο 9: Με ποιον τρόπο; Το ΚΕΠΑ ως πλαίσιο αξιολόγησης, κατασκευή δοκιμασιών, Ποια η ανατροφοδότηση για το κατάλογοι ελέγχου, είδη αξιολόγησης (τύποι) και περιγραφές γλωσσικό μάθημα; Παραρτήματα Α, Β, Γ και Δ: Τεχνικές λεπτομέρειες για την ανάπτυξη των περιγραφητών, άλλες κλίμακες, Δηλώσεις «CanDo» της ΑLTE
Έπεται παράδειγμα χρήσης του ΚΕΠΑ -στηριγμένο στην καθημερινή μας εμπειρία- για την ανάπτυξη ερωτημάτων κατά τη διαδικασία της πιστοποίησης επάρκειας της ελληνομάθειας.
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8. Παράδειγμα ανάπτυξης εξεταστικών ερωτημάτων σύμφωνα με το ΚΕΠΑ
Όπως φάνηκε στην παρούσα εισήγηση, το ΚΕΠΑ έχει πληθώρα εφαρμογών στη διδασκαλία και την αξιολόγηση. Στο σημείο αυτό θα παρουσιαστεί ένα παράδειγμα συνδυαστικής χρήσης στοιχείων του ΚΕΠΑ, με τη μορφή ενός μικρού μοντέλου για την κατασκευή εξεταστικού ερωτήματος πιστοποίησης επάρκειας της ελληνομάθειας και ειδικότερα για την παραγωγή προφορικού λόγου στο επίπεδο Β214. Στον πίνακα 1, κεφάλαιο 3.4 του ΚΕΠΑ βρίσκουμε αναλυτική περιγραφή του τι μπορεί να κάνει ο υποψήφιος σε αυτό το επίπεδο:
Μπορεί να κατανοήσει τις κύριες ιδέες ενός σύνθετου κειμένου, τόσο για συγκεκριμένα, όσο και για αφηρημένα θέματα, συμπεριλαμβανομένων συζητήσεων πάνω σε τεχνικά ζητήματα της ειδικότητάς του. Μπορεί να συνδιαλλαγεί με κάποια άνεση και αυθορμητισμό που καθιστούν δυνατή τη συνήθη επικοινωνία με φυσικούς ομιλητές της γλώσσας χωρίς επιβάρυνση για κανένα από τα δύο μέρη. Μπορεί να παραγάγει σαφές, λεπτομερές κείμενο για ένα ευρύ φάσμα θεμάτων και να εξηγήσει μια άποψη πάνω σε ένα κεντρικό ζήτημα, δίνοντας τα πλεονεκτήματα και τα μειονεκτήματα των διαφόρων επιλογών.
Επίσης, υπάρχει περιγραφητής της συγκεκριμένης δεξιότητας για αυτό το επίπεδο με τη μορφή αυτοαξιολόγησης (πίνακας 2, κεφάλαιο 3.4 του ΚΕΠΑ):
Μπορώ να συνδιαλέγομαι με κάποιο βαθμό άνεσης και αυθορμητισμού που επιτρέπει την ομαλή συνδιαλλαγή με φυσικούς ομιλητές. Μπορώ να λάβω ενεργά μέρος σε μια συζήτηση σε γνωστά περιβάλλοντα, εξηγώντας και υποστηρίζοντας τις απόψεις μου.
Στο κεφάλαιο 4.4.3.1 πληροφορούμαστε τι είδους καταστάσεις μπορεί να αντιμετωπίσει ο υποψήφιος:
Μπορεί να αντεπεξέλθει γλωσσικά κατά τη διαπραγμάτευση μιας λύσης σε μια διαφορά, όπως μια άδικη κλήση της τροχαίας, η οικονομική υποχρέωση για τη φθορά σε ένα διαμέρισμα, η ευθύνη σχετικά με ένα ατύχημα. Μπορεί να στοιχειοθετήσει μια υπόθεση αποζημίωσης, χρησιμοποιώντας πειστική γλώσσα για να απαιτήσει ικανοποίηση καθώς και να δηλώσει με σαφήνεια τα όρια των παραχωρήσεων που είναι διατεθειμένος να κάνει.
14 Σχετικά με τις εξεταστικές δοκιμασίες επιπέδου Β2 βλέπε: http://www.greeklanguage.gr/ certification/node/101
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Αξιοποιώντας τώρα τις πληροφορίες που σχετίζονται με το πεδίο (πίνακας 5, κεφάλαιο 4.1.3), μπορούμε να συγκεκριμενοποιήσουμε το εξεταστικό ερώτημα • Πεδίο: Δημόσιο • Θεσμός: Υπηρεσίες • Πρόσωπα: Πολίτης- Υπάλληλος • Αντικείμενο: Αγαθά-Υπηρεσίες • Εκδηλώσεις: Καταγγελίες • Διεργασία: Εξασφάλιση δημόσιων υπηρεσιών • Κείμενο: Καταγγελία σε αρχή
και να οδηγηθούμε στη δημιουργία ενός θέματος για συζήτηση-συνδιαλλαγή μεταξύ δύο υποψηφίων βασισμένη στα στοιχεία που προαναφέρθηκαν:
ΣΥΝΟΜΙΛΗΤΗΣ/ΣΥΝΟΜΙΛΗΤΡΙΑ Α:
Είστε υπάλληλος στο Δήμο και έχετε την ευθύνη της τηλεφωνικής γραμμής για τις καταγγελίες των δημοτών. Σας τηλεφωνεί ένας κύριος/μια κυρία σε έξαλλη κατάσταση, γιατί κάτω από το σπίτι του/ της δεν έχουν μαζέψει τα σκουπίδια εδώ και τρεις βδομάδες. Ζητάτε τα στοιχεία του/της, προσπαθείτε να τον/την καθησυχάσετε και τον/τη διαβεβαιώνετε πως οι αρμόδιοι υπάλληλοι θα μαζέψουν τα σκουπίδια μέσα σε δύο μέρες.
ΣΥΝΟΜΙΛΗΤΗΣ/ΣΥΝΟΜΙΛΗΤΡΙΑ Β:
Εδώ και τρεις βδομάδες δεν έχουν μαζέψει τα σκουπίδια από τη γειτονιά σας, η κατάσταση είναι αφόρητη και δεν μπορείτε να παρκάρετε το αυτοκίνητό σας, ενώ η πόρτα της πολυκατοικίας είναι γεμάτη σκουπίδια. Είστε έξαλλος/η για την κατάσταση και τηλεφωνείτε στην αρμόδια υπηρεσία του δήμου για να καταγγείλετε το γεγονός. Δίνετε τα στοιχεία σας και απαιτείτε ο Δήμος να μαζέψει άμεσα τα σκουπίδια.
9. Συζήτηση
Όσα αναφέρθηκαν στην παρούσα εργασία είναι ενδεικτικά για τη συμβολή του ΚΕΠΑ τόσο στη γλωσσική διδασκαλία όσο και στην αξιολόγηση. Aπό την έρευνα φάνηκε ότι το ΚΕΠΑ αποτελεί έργο επίκαιρο και ζωντανό, με ποικίλες εφαρμογές και προεκτάσεις. Αναδείχθηκαν ακόμη οι δυνατότητες περαιτέρω αξιοποίησής του, διάδοσης και βελτίωσής του. Το γεγονός αυτό σηματοδοτεί και την ουσία του: είναι έργο αναφοράς, όπως λέει και ο τίτλος του. Άρα, η παρούσα εργασία κλείνει με την υπενθύμηση ότι
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 7 9 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
η προσφορά του ΚΕΠΑ δεν έχει εξαντληθεί και πως μπορεί να αποτελέσει βάση για πολλά μελλοντικά ερευνητικά θέματα. Εξάλλου, η ανάγκη του σύγχρονου ανθρώπου για επικοινωνία και προσέγγιση μέσα σε πολύγλωσσα περιβάλλοντα είναι αυτή που γέννησε και τροφοδοτεί το ΚΕΠΑ, ένα δηλαδή κοινό πλαίσιο αναφοράς για την Ευρώπη και για κάθε συνάντηση πολιτισμών.
1 8 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Άννα Κοκκινίδου, Βασιλική Μάρκου, Θωμαή Ρουσουλιώτη και Νιόβη Αντωνοπούλου
Βιβλιογραφία
Council of Europe. 2001a. A Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 20 March 2011 from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf
Council of Europe. 2001b. A Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment – A General Guide for Users. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Fulcher, G. 2004a. Deluded by artifices? The Common European Framework and harmonization. Language Assessment Quarterly 1 (4), 253-266.
Fulcher, G. 2004b. Are Europe’s Tests being built on an unsafe framework? In Guardian Education. Retrieved 15 March 2010 from www.guardian.co.uk.
Kοινό Ευρωπαϊκό Πλαίσιο Αναφοράς για τις γλώσσες: Eκμάθηση, διδασκαλία, αξιολόγηση (ελληνική μετάφραση). 2008. Θεσσαλονίκη: Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας.
Keddle, J.S. 2004. The CEF and the secondary school syllabus. In Insights from the Common European Framework. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 43-54.
Little, D. 2006. Learner autonomy: drawing together the threads of self-assessment, goal-setting and reflection. Retrieved 13 December 2010 from http://archive.ecml.at/ mtp2/Elp_tt/Results/ DM_layout/00_10/06/06%20Supplementary%20text.pdf
van Ek, J.A. 1976. The Threshold level in a European Unit/credit System for Modern Language Learning by Adults. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
van Ek, J.A. & Trim, J.L.M. 2001a. Waystage. Cambridge: CUP.
van Ek, J.A. & Trim, J.L.M. 2001b. Threshold 1990. Cambridge: CUP.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 8 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
van Ek, J.A. &Trim, J.L.M. 2001c. Vantage. Cambridge: CUP.
Weir, C. 2005. Limitations of the Common European Framework for developing comparable examinations and tests. Language Testing 22(3), 281-300.
1 8 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Analysing the Lexical Demands of Subject Textbooks Used in Irish Post-Primary Education to Facilitate Immigrant Students’ Curriculum Access
Stergiani Kostopoulou
University of Dublin, Trinity College [email protected]
Abstract
This research uses a corpus-based methodology to analyse the lexical features of textbooks used in six curriculum subjects of Irish post-primary education (namely, English, History, Civic, Social and Political Education, Mathematics, and Science) to inform the English language support that is provided to immigrant students. The empirical analysis illuminates the commonest words, collocations and 4-word clusters in subject-specific registers, demonstrating the lexical variation that is manifested across subjects. From a pedagogical perspective, the discussion describes important features of students’ target linguistic repertoire. Although the results are context-specific, the research methodology becomes relevant to any other context with similar pedagogical needs.
1. Introduction
The principal goal of English language support provided to immigrant students in Irish post-primary (secondary) education is to help them master the language of school subjects for curriculum access and integration into the mainstream classroom. Gaining control of the lexical resources required in the different content areas is fundamental to this end, considering the instrumental role that vocabulary (i.e. single words) and lexis (i.e. linguistic units that tend to co-occur) play in successful second language learning (e.g. Nattinger and DeCarrico 1992; Lewis 1993). The specialised vocabulary (and particularly lexical words) of school subjects has a gate-keeping function for students because it provides access to entire knowledge categories (Corson 1985). Collocations, i.e. ‘combination[s] of two words [or, more precisely,
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 8 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
of word types] that exhibit a tendency to occur near each other in natural language’ (Evert 2008: 1214), and word clusters, i.e. recurrent strings of two or more words that appear more frequently than expected by chance in a particular linguistic register, are equally important. Both are pervasive in natural language and they have been found to contribute to the fluency and naturalness of linguistic production by native and non-native speakers of a language (e.g. Pawley and Syder 1983; Howarth 1998; Hyland 2008). They further function as fundamental building blocks of academic discourse (Biber et al. 1999; Biber et al. 2004; Biber 2006) and shape context-specific meanings (Hyland 2008). Despite their importance, however, it appears that subject-specific vocabulary and lexis, but also more broadly curriculum language, fail to receive their due attention in the language support class. Research into current practices (Lyons and Little 2009; Smyth et al. 2009) reveals that English language instruction is inappropriately or insufficiently linked to the specialized language demands of the post-primary curriculum, failing, as a result, to effectively address immigrant students’ needs. This failure can be attributed to the lack of a clear understanding of the language students encounter in the subject classroom, as there has been no empirical research into this area. To bridge this knowledge gap, the present research aims to provide an empirical description of the lexical features of six post-primary curriculum subjects - namely English, Geography, History, Civic, Social and Political Education (CSPE), Mathematics, and Science - as these are manifested in commonly-used textbooks of Junior Cycle education (i.e. the first three years of post-primary education). The methodology used to address this aim is described in the following section.
2. Research Methodology
To make curriculum language more visible, this research conducts a frequency analysis of six corpora that were designed to represent the language of commonly used textbooks used in six Irish post-primary curriculum subjects: English, Geography, History, CSPE, Mathematics and Science. Each subject- specific corpus comprises the full contents of four widely used textbooks. The 24 textbooks were scanned and converted into electronic files which were edited (graphic and visual elements were removed) and stored as text files. As can be seen in Table 1 below, their size may not be very large, compared to the corpora of billion words that can be built today. It is, nevertheless, appropriate for the aims and purposes of this research as this examines specialised language registers rather than general English language (cf. for example O’Keeffe et al. 2007: 198; Bowker and Pearson 2002: 48).
1 8 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Stergiani Kostopoulou
Table 1. Composition of the six corpora built on Junior Cycle subject textbooks1
Subject corpus # of textbooks # of tokens
English 4 451,784
Geography 4 330,257
History 4 367,708
CSPE 4 213,340
Mathematics 4 336,738
Science 4 328,426
The corpora in question are also multi-author, i.e. comprising textbooks written by different authors, in order to neutralise idiosyncratic language useby individual writers. The frequency analysis of the six corpora focused on content words, significant collocations and 4-word clusters and it was facilitated by the WordList of WordSmith tools (Scott 2004). Frequency information can be used as an important criterion in prioritising what language should be taught the assumption being that, the more times students encounter a word, the more easily and faster they will understand it in their textbooks and might learn how to use it productively (see Milton 2009: 25-43 for a frequency model of vocabulary learning). To single out content words from the frequency wordlists computed by WordSmith, Nation’s (2001: 430-431) function word list was used as a stop-list filter. Statistically significant collocations limited to occurrences within a five-word span were computed based on the log- likelihood ratio (G²; Dunning 1993). This is a statistical measure of calculating the significance of word co-occurrence to filter out idiosyncratic collocations, i.e. frequently-used word pairs formed by chance. For reasons of practical manageability, a relatively high cut-off point of frequency of occurrence was set (a minimum frequency of 40 times per million words) for the analysis of lexical features. In addition to minimal frequency requirements, range (i.e. consistency of use across texts in a corpus) was also used as a criterion for selecting the words and clusters to be closely examined, setting an occurrence in at least 75% of the texts that comprise a single corpus (i.e. in at least three out of four textbooks) as a minimum. This was essential to ensure that the idiosyncratic language use of individual textbook authors does not influence the results. Finally, abbreviations, numbers and symbols were excluded from the study. To facilitate a qualitative treatment of corpus data, numerical information
1 The hash symbol (#) refers to number.
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on frequency and range does not form part of this discussion. Due to space restrictions, the three types of high frequency lexical features in all six corpora are presented and discussed together in the next section.
3. Presentation and Discussion of Findings
From a close examination of the commonest content words, collocations and 4-word clusters in the six subject-specific corpora, displayed in Tables 2, 3 and 4, two major conclusions can be drawn. What can be immediately observed is the topic-specificity of the commonest lexical features in the six corpora. Regardless of the unit of analysis, i.e. word, collocation, 4-word cluster, the lexical choices of individual corpora seem to be largely influenced by the thematic content and communicative needs of the corresponding curriculum subjects. Therefore, the commonest features in the English corpus mainly highlight the literary dimension of the subject (e.g. story, write, poem, words, read) and the emphasis that is placed on answering questions and justifying personal opinions (e.g. answer questions, give reasons, what do you think, etc.). In the Geography and History corpora, the most frequent words and collocations directly reflect the focus of study on people and the environment (e.g. countries, city, map, water, population density, acid rain) and on past issues, events, and historical figures (e.g.Irish, world war, De Valera, Fianna Fáil, international relations) respectively. The notion of time is also prominently featured by history-specific lexical words and collocations (e.g. time, middle ages, twentieth century). Clusters in the Geography corpus are mainly associated with references to visual aids (e.g. a sketch map of, the ordnance survey map, shown on the map) while clusters in the History corpus describe issues and time periods of historical significance (e.g. the War of Independence, agricultural and industrial revolutions, in the twentieth century, during the middle ages).
Table 2. The 20 most frequent content words in the six textbooks-based corpora (cut-off frequency point - 40 per million words, range - 100%).
story, like, write, said, think, answer, poem, words, people, time, make, read, good, English give, see, writing, just, use, new, well people, map, population, areas, water, area, countries, city, river, land, following, Geography figure, South, world, sea, large, photograph, new, high, explain people, war, Irish, government, century, British, new, world, became, used, made, History called, year, land, army, great, church, time, following, work people, action, community, rights, local, world, work, school, government, project, CSPE European, make, Irish, class, children, council, day, group, groups, think find, centimetres, number, calculate, line, area, value, equation, point, example, Mathematics given, following, solution, angle, sides, length, graph, diagram, solve, sine water, energy, used, light, air, food, test, heat, experiment, called, plants, oxygen, Science tube, gas, place, method, carbon, plant, acid, current
1 8 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Stergiani Kostopoulou
Table 3. The top 20 most significant collocations in the six subject textbooks corpora ranked by descending order of significance based on G² scores (frequency threshold F≥ 10, minimum range 75%).
Textbooks corpus Collocations at the, do you, from the, what is, do think, your answer, what do, give reasons, English what you, will be, have been, answer questions, write a, out of, would be, look at, had been, if you, going to, questions follow such as, ordnance survey, per cent, have been, grid reference, more than, your Geography answer, can be, what is, case study, may be, inner city, has been, acid rain, number of, they are, between and, these are, population density, sketch map twentieth century, such as, set up, world war, De Valera, Northern Ireland, during the, Home Rule, international relations, Fianna Fáil, more than, junior History history, middle ages, prime minister, did not, relations century, how did, between and, political in, what was action project, human rights, United Nations, young people, find out, by the, CSPE has been, set up, there are, European Union, number of, answer questions, will be, do think, can be, right to, do you, more than, this is, asylum seekers calculate the, value of, on the, how many, area of, both sides, write down, number Mathematics of, each following, calculate of, correct to, standard rate, surface area, image under, under symmetry, at the, image of, Venn diagram, average speed, tax paid carbon dioxide, test tube, can be, Bunsen burner, experiment to, as shown, Science such as, set up, higher level, this is, what is, apparatus used, number of, used to, retort stand, living things, at the, result conclusion, centre gravity, through the
Several words and patterns that refer to people, individuals and organizations can be found in the CSPE corpus (e.g. children, young people, asylum seekers, government United Nations, European Union). The concept of rights, which is fundamental to the discourse of CSPE, also occurs among the top lexical features of CSPE textbooks (e.g. human rights, rights of the child, has the right to). As regards the commonest items in the corpora of the two more technical subjects of Mathematics and Science, these reveal major concepts and issues of mathematical and scientific study (e.g. number, value, equation, surface area and energy, current, carbon dioxide respectively). They further express instructions and tasks in which students engage in the classroom; these concern the practices of counting and measurement in mathematics (e.g. find the value/image/equation of, divide both sides by) and conducting experimental work in science (e.g. set up the apparatus, experiment to show that). Overall, the lexical variation that exists across the subject-specific corpora of Irish post-primary textbooks adds further evidence to the existing research evidence about the linguistic variation that exists across disciplines (e.g. Biber et al. 1999; Hyland 2008, etc.). Another tendency that can be discerned based on the frequency results of the lexical analysis of the six subject-specific corpora is the recycling of the commonest features within the commonest word patterns. Examples of frequent content words and collocations which are embedded within some of the commonest 4-word clusters in the six corpora include the following: English: think, give-reasons, answer-questions, do-think, questions-follow Geography: map, grid-reference, ordnance-survey, sketch-map
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 1 8 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics Science shown in the diagram as shown in the set up the apparatus as shown the apparatus is made up of be used to can by what is meant the bottom of the centre of gravity a form of energy for the presence of amount of a small is a form of experiment to show that the mass of and carbon dioxide water the boiling point of the density of a the top of find the mass of Mathematics each of the following each of find the value x the values of x for values of of the the area x the value of the equation of find the image of at the end of find the equation of which x for of divide both sides by correct to the nearest cut off rate standard the line equation of the length of of the the radius axial symmetry in the the end of the volume of CSPE has the right to the questions and answer the work of do you think why of the action project the questions that answer the questions that follow social and political education as part of the a member of the civic social and political Union the European of human of declaration rights what do you think the rights of set up in the was do you think the of court the European of declaration universal human rights of the child History in the twentieth century in the twentieth international relations in the in Ireland the of write an account the end of the following each of the following answer questions of Versailles the treaty revolutions of the age at the end of of independence the war and the agricultural industrial of nations the league and industrial agricultural revolutions of the twentieth century during the middle ages the of per cent party the Home Rule the Irish free state in the middle ages each of the following each of map a sketch draw the west of Ireland map of a sketch the ordnance survey map map of the sketch shown on the area answer to support your shown on the area shown on the map with the aid of the of per cent study the ordnance survey in the west of box tick the correct map of the area the the population of shown of the area the is one of of in the form Geography give reasons for your give reasons for your answer reasons the questions that follow the questions that answer the and then answer questions of the following what do you think the end of the following of two do you think the at the end of in the gaps fill one of the following the rest of of the following each at the beginning of in the middle of the questions and answer for give a reason this is a very English 1 N 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Table 4. Table =rank N 75%, - range minimum words, million per 40 - frequency (minimum order frequency descending a in corpora six the in clusters 4-word frequent most 20 The italics = cluster in all 4 textbooks) order,
1 8 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Stergiani Kostopoulou
History: century, international-relations, twentieth-century, industrial- revolution, home-rule, middle-ages CSPE: rights, action-project, European-Union, human-rights, universal-declaration Mathematics: value, standard-rate Science: energy, carbon-dioxide, experiment-show, centre-gravity
Interestingly, even when these high-frequency words and collocations are not embedded within 4-word clusters, concordance lines show that they are manifested as their complementation items, i.e. the words that follow or precede them. The following are some illustrative examples from the six corpora (content words are underlined and enclosed in parentheses and collocations are simply enclosed in parentheses; intervening words are placed within square brackets):
English: end/rest of the (story) this is a very good (answer) do you think the (poet) give a reason for (your answer) one of the following (words [or] phrases) Geography: per cent of the (population) with the aid of (a diagram/reference grid) the population of the (West [of] Ireland) History write an account of [the] (people) the end of the (war) per cent of the (land) at the end of the/international relations in the (twentieth century) CSPE the rights of the (child) (as part) of the action project a member of the (European Union/Parliament, Defence Forces) Mathematics the equation of the (line) (calculate) the area of the (triangle) find the image of[the/each] (point) (length of) the radius of the Science is made up of (water) the density of a (liquid) the bottom of the (tube) (test) for the presence of (starch/food/carbon dioxide)
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The above patterns attest to Sinclair’s argument that: ‘by far the majority of text is made of the occurrence of common words in common patterns or in slight variants of these patterns’ (1991: 108). This observation about the lexical patterning of texts challenges the compositional view of language and supports the idiom principle according to which ‘the language user has available to him a large number of preconstructed or semi-constructed phrases that constitute single choices, even though they appear to be analysable into segments’ (ibid.: 110). The two conclusions that emerge from the analysis of the six subject- specific corpora carry direct pedagogical implications for the provision of English language support to immigrant students in Irish post-primary schools. The subject-specific nature of lexical features clearly demonstrates that curriculum language is not a single uniform register but a constellation of diverse language varieties that correspond to the different subjects. This conclusion calls for an English for Specific Purposes approach in the language support class and, more specifically, for language teaching and learning which are firmly embedded within the mainstream curriculum. Therefore, at a practical level, the descriptions of the lexical preferences of the six subjects provided here can be profitably used to facilitate thematically-based vocabulary teaching and learning and help teachers and students appreciate the lexical ‘uniqueness’ of subject-specific texts, that is, ‘what makes [one subject-specific] text different from all other texts’ (Nation 2001: 205). The repeated use of high frequency lexical words in the most frequent collocations and the recycling of the commonest words and collocations within or adjacent to several highly frequent 4-word clusters highlight, on the one hand, the ‘power’ and ‘utility’ of the commonest words (Willis 1990) and the pre-patterned nature of subject-specific language, on the other. From a pedagogical perspective, this suggests that it is worthwhile teaching and learning the most frequent subject-specific words identified by this research due to their increased usefulness (the more often students encounter these words, the greater their need is to understand and use them). In addition, the lexical patterning that underpins subject-specific texts points to the need for a lexical approach (Lewis 1993) to language teaching and learning which takes lexis as its starting point viewing language as a phraseological system (Sinclair 1991). To this end, the repeated patterns of word co- occurrence described in the present discussion can be used to facilitate students’ training in ‘pedagogical chunking’, that is ‘breaking continuous text into useful component ‘‘bits’’ ’ (Lewis 1993: 120) within the meaningful communicative context of authentic subject-specific texts.
1 9 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Stergiani Kostopoulou
4. Conclusion
This discussion described the commonest lexical words, collocations and 4-word clusters manifested in commonly used textbooks of six curriculum subjects of Irish Junior Cycle education. Although it was possible to present only a limited sample of findings2, the discussion has drawn two pedagogically useful conclusions about the nature of the lexical features that repeatedly occur in subject-specific texts. The first conclusion is that subject-specific texts value distinct sets of interrelated lexical words and phrases, and that these lexical preferences are highly determined by the information content of particular texts. The second conclusion is that subject-specific texts are underpinned by lexical patterning which is built upon the most frequent content words favoured by individual subjects. Taken together, corpus-based data and descriptive insights into the nature of curriculum language can have multiple applications in the English language support classroom. The present empirical findings can, first of all, inform the content of a principled and explicit teaching agenda for language support teachers and facilitate decisions about the vocabulary component (selection, sequence, gradation, etc.). The corpus-based lexical inventories for the six subjects can also be directly exploited in the development of context-specific materials and language tests so that these can accurately reflect students’ authentic language learning needs. In short, if learning, teaching and assessment are underpinned by the same corpus-based language specifications, then a coherent and effective language pedagogy can be promoted and multiple links can be established between English language support and the mainstream subject classroom. Overall, this research addresses the lack of empirical information on the language of the Irish post-primary curriculum and the demands this imposes on immigrant students. At a more general level, the research responds to the calls for more applied corpus linguistics studies which are motivated by an interest in second language education specifically in the context of secondary education (e.g. Coxhead 2010: 466; Flowerdew 2009: 345). Moving beyond the Irish context, and considering that the linguistic integration of immigrant students is, and will remain, a common challenge for all educational systems, the design and methodology of this research has the potential to be adapted for use in other migrant education settings with similar pedagogical needs.
2 See Kostopoulou 2012 for a detailed discussion of the language of Irish post-primary subject textbooks and examination papers.
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Kelly, P. 2004. New Frontiers in second and third year English. Dublin: Folens.
Kieran, M. 2004. Exam start: Higher level Junior Certificate English. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan.
Lucey, D. 2002. The past today: Complete Junior Certificate History. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan.
Mullally, S. 2007. Science revision for Junior Certificate (4th edition). Dublin: Gill and Macmillan.
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O’Dywer, P. 2002. The human planet: Geography for Junior Certificate. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan.
O’Leary, D. 2007. History revision for Junior Certificate (3rd edition). Dublin: Gill and Macmillan.
Quinn, R. 1998. Taking action: Civil, social and political education for Junior Certificate. Dublin: C.J. Fallon.
Quinn, R. and O’Leary, D. 2002. Junior Certificate History: Door to the past. Dublin: Folens.
Rocks, F. 2004. Exam start: Ordinary level Junior Certificate English. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan.
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1 9 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Teacher Observation and Greek State Teachers of English: Current Practices and Suggestions for Improvement
Maria Kotsiomyti
Hellenic Open University [email protected]
Abstract
This paper presents the use of teacher observation to bring about change in Greek state teachers of English and to suggest specific guidelines for the improvement of the current observation practices used with teachers. For this reason, after critically presenting the current condition of teacher observation in the Greek context, it addresses observation within Transformative Learning Theory and it presents the views of Greek state teachers of English concerning observation as these were recorded in a research project that was conducted a few years ago. Finally, there are specific recommendations drawn from the research when combined with theory of teaching.
1. Introduction
An investigation of teacher observation has not been dictated merely by a strong personal interest in it and its potential effects on teachers and the quality of education,. What has also triggered this wish to research observation is the fact that there has been little research conducted on it in the context of Greek state schools. It appears that observation has been treated as if it were an issue to avoid talking about. There is a rather broad “fear of the inspector” as a remnant of past practices when the state’s official came into the classroom to observe the lesson and prepare an evaluative report for the particular teacher. Is teacher observation “bad”? Could observation help teachers observe (i.e. self-evaluate) their development? How could observation be framed in order to be accepted by Greek teachers? These are the questions this paper wishes to address.
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2. Teacher Observation in Greek State Teacher Education Projects
In the context of Greek state education, teacher observation is present in: i) the initial programs offered by the Greek Peripheral Education Centres (PECs) and ii) as a practice employed by the advisors responsible for the counselling of state teachers of English in their area of authority.
2.1. Teacher Observation in the Teacher Education Programs Offered by the Greek Peripheral Education Centres (PECs)
The Greek Peripheral Education Centres are responsible for the training that is delivered to the newly-appointed teachers to the Greek state schools every year. The initial training involves three phases and is realised in every region, every year (Vergidis et al, 2010)1. The first phase of the training addresses all the newly appointed teachers as well as the teachers that have been appointed on a one-year contract to teach in Greek state schools (anaplirotes – supply teachers). This phase of training involves 60 hours (or 30 hours for “anaplirotes”) of training on teaching methodology, classroom management, lesson planning, new technologies or evaluation delivered to classes of 20 to 30 teachers (or 5 to 10 teachers for more remote areas of Greece). In this phase of teacher training in PECs, teacher observation is conducted through the context of microteaching or when teachers study videotaped lessons in order to critically analyze certain teaching practices. However, whether these practices are used or not depends on the tutor and the methodology s/he is to employ in her/his sessions. The second phase of the training addresses teachers with teaching experience of less than 8 months and focuses on observations; teachers observe their advisors, headmasters or more experienced teachers delivering lessons. The particular phase of training begins with a 2-hour preparatory session on issues relevant to teaching practice as well as on observation. There follow 14 hours of observation of teaching and 14 hours of debriefing sessions after observations (total: 30 hours). Actually, the whole phase takes up a week every day of which participants
1 The data mentioned in this paper refer to the reality of state teacher education till the school year 2010-2011 (Vergidis et al, 2010).
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observe teachers for three hours and then, meet to discuss the observed lessons. For this purpose, teachers form groups of 15 (or 5-10 for more remote areas). These groups may involve teachers of different subjects if the necessary number of participants is not covered with teachers of the same subject. The final phase of teacher training is realised towards the end of the school year and involves ten hours. Here, the 20-30 participant teachers meet and discuss issues that have concerned them, problems they have faced or good practices they have used over the school year.
2.2. Evaluation of the Use of Observation in the Initial Training Offered by PECs
In surveys conducted by PECs themselves for purposes of internal evaluation (OEPEK, 2008; Kapsalis and Rampidis, 2006), a large number (32% - 62%) of teachers, headmasters and the people working in education management have claimed that they are quite satisfied with the training offered. The major reason for teachers’ dissatisfaction is that the methodology used embraces the transmission-based approach as it focuses mainly on theory rather than practice. Teachers’ need for actual teaching is usually neglected and the use of teacher observation is limited. It is a fact that the majority of teachers are excluded from the second phase where experiential methods (observations) are employed since most teachers when appointed have already taught as “anaplirotes” in previous school years. More importantly, when observation is realised, it seems to be problematic for various reasons. First of all, it is not clear who sets the focus and the parameters of the observations of the second phase so that teachers’ needs and expectations are taken into account; or it is not even clear if any specific parameters are set to guide the observation process. Furthermore, on every day of observations of the second phase, three hours of observation are granted the same general debriefing session; that is, there is a single session for the three lessons observed. It could be argued that this hinders the proper reflection, analysis and evaluation of each lesson so that an extensive discussion of the necessary changes is not possible and the next lesson cannot be carefully planned. Moreover, the participant teachers observe an advisor, a headmaster or an experienced teacher, rather than observe each other. Given the way observations are designed and realised, teaching is considered to be a matter of knowledge on how to teach or a skill which can be conveyed to teachers quite naturally and it is taken for granted that they will perform as such once this knowledge or skill is demonstrated (Wallace, 1991). In such a model of observation, there are
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considerably limited opportunities for juxtaposition of views among teachers on real problems in their context and cooperation in the context of peer- observation and self-observation are not involved in the teacher education program. Teachers are denied the invaluable experience of observing each other, exchanging views and cooperating in order to achieve improved teaching behaviour and, therefore, a better teaching outcome. Finally, the program that teacher observation serves appears to fail to bring about a conceptual change or a change in teachers’ actual classroom practices. Actually, only a few teachers of those who have participated in PECs’ education programs openly reported a radical restructuring of their current belief systems (OEPEK, 2008). For, even when teachers are asked about their personal beliefs, they are not required to make any associations between their beliefs and their classroom practices.
2.3. Observations Organised by Regional Advisors for Teachers of English
Another case where teacher observation is used in order to help Greek state teachers of English in their everyday condition is the observation of a lesson delivered by an advisor or another teacher. Unfortunately, observation in this case is seldom systematic as most of the times it is a one-off process and may not be realised by all the advisors in all the regions of Greece. Nevertheless, when observation happens, it is unlikely that it is properly designed or well-structured. For instance, teachers of different working experience or needs who have never met before participate in the project. Usually, the pre-observation stage is omitted or the focus and the parameters of the observation are pre-determined without the contribution of the participant teachers. Furthermore, the post-stage may fail to feature the necessary elements. Actually, in the debriefing session, teachers usually avoid making any comments to the teacher observed – they appear to consider this to be threatening to the particular teacher; thus, they fall back on making rather general comments. In this way, observation of this kind ends up treating teaching as an art- a craft to be watched and imitated (Wallace, 1991).
2.4. Observation Practices in the Context of the Didactics Course Offered by the University
Apart from the observation practices mentioned so far, a Greek state teacher of English may have been involved in observation practices in the context of
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the University: namely, in the context of the Didactics course offered by the departments of English Studies at the Universities of Athens and Thessaloniki. The Didactics course addresses students in the final academic year. The trainees observe teachers at various schools using observation tasks designed and developed by the University so as to reflect on the teachers’ decisions. Finally, student teachers take on teaching responsibilities and teach as well. These observation practices could be characterised as “developmental”, since student teachers have the opportunity to become familiar with classroom culture, its agenda of customs, rituals, expectations, patterns and mores before actually trying on any active aspects of teacher’s role (Wajnryb, 2002). According to the evaluation of this program of observations by its designers (Karavas and Drossou, 2009; Sougari, 2011), student teachers are helped in all the main dimensions of teaching. Also, their confidence and self-efficacy beliefs are enhanced and they are better prepared to take on “real action”. They are familiarised with the practice of observation and can, therefore, use it to improve themselves in the future by observing themselves or colleagues. An interesting conclusion that the designers draw is that student teachers’ beliefs appear not to be influenced by this course in didactics. They argue that any teacher education-preparation program needs to compete with, replace or otherwise modify the theories that already guide student teachers. Teachers’ beliefs should be the focus of attention if we wish to attain a powerful and long-lasting change in teachers’ self-awareness, knowledge, skills in teaching the English language and in their attitudes so as to eventually achieve their development. The theory that brings teachers’ beliefs to the forefront is Transformative Learning Theory. And this is will be handled in what follows.
3. Transformative Learning Theory
Transformative Learning Theory was developed by Jack Mezirow in the 1970s. It is a theory which assigns great importance to a person’s belief system as the origin of her/his actions and stresses that any attempt to bring about change in someone should involve these beliefs. Change is successful, or transformation occurs, when the transformative process addresses and finally manages to affect one’s beliefs and eventually, helps the person better interpret the real world and react to it more effectively. The main concepts of this theory are the meaning schemes and the meaning perspectives. These are the particular structures-personal beliefs that function as filters through which the phenomena in the world are interpreted. Onthe basis of this interpretation, the individuals’ action is defined. The individual acts in a situation in accordance with the way s/he understands the situation; s/he
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re-acts to the particular understanding of the situation in question (Mezirow, 1990; 1991; 2000). It is noteworthy that these schemes and perspectives may have been sub- consciously adopted by the person over the process of personal growth in a specific social context. In our case (i.e. the case of teaching), meaning schemes and perspectives may stem from: 1) a person’s experience with formal knowledge (i.e. her/his studies) and/ or from 2) her/his experience of schooling and instruction: her/his personal experience as learners and as teachers (Richardson, 1996). As a result, this person may be acting without necessarily having realized the origins of her/his actions. Usually, in such cases the person’s beliefs appear to be extremely powerful and resistant to any changes. For, the person considers such beliefs as the only version of the truth about the world which s/he must respect and guard at all costs, even if in a specific situation this “truth” fails to bring about the desired outcome. The desired transformation takes place through an intentional and conscious process (Bowers Sipe & Rosewarne, 2005; Brookfield, 1995; King, 2009; Mezirow, 1991; Taylor, 2003). This process starts from a dilemma; a problematic situation in which the individual realises the dysfunction or insufficiency of the schemes and perspectives used for the interpretation of reality (Cranton, 1994; Mezirow, 1991). The problematic schemes and perspectives are to be reformed so that they may provide an image of the real world that is more accurate and more effective in terms of the respective reaction. The process of transformation starts from a conflict between the individual’s confidence in the efficiency of her/his belief system and the perceived failure of this system to address the problematic situation s/he faces. And according to the ancient Greek philosopher, Heraclitus, «Πόλεμος πάντων μὲν πατήρ ἐστι»; “war is the father of everything”. And as with any war it involves resistance that must be beaten if someone aims to succeed. Once the failure of the existing belief system is perceived, the person experiences feelings of insecurity, unease, or even anger towards the realised need for reconstruction of her/his belief systems. This is a crucial stage as such feelings may create resistance to change: the individual either steps back to his existing beliefs and practices or decides to move forward to a new, transformed reality. As soon as the individual overcomes the negative feelings and decides to transform the assumptions guiding her/his actions so far, s/he is involved in self- reflection and a critical analysis of the assumptions behind her/his actions. More efficient alternative interpretations (i.e. assumptions) are sought and, onthe grounds of the newly formed assumptions, more effective alternative reactions are designed to better meet the needs of the problematic situation s/he finds herself/himself in. On such a basis, a new course of action is planned and pilot- implemented. This involves feeding back on the new beliefs and the new ways of acting.
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It could be argued that transformation is “a long often painful voyage…it may feel more like a mutiny rather than a merely exhilarating expedition to discover new lands” (Kegan in Mezirow, 2000). It appears to be an “Ithaca”2 of some type…a “sweet” yet strenuous, exploratory travel towards one’s goal- in our case teacher transformation.
4. Observation in Transformative Learning Theory
Observation seems to have the potential to support the existence of a perspective transformation. Actually, observation constitutes one of the main steps one is to take in order to transform one’s belief system. Observation feeds reflection that defines future action. The individual is to observe herself/himself, critically address her/his actions and the assumptions on the basis of which these actions were shaped and after evaluating their efficiency decide on the changes that should be realised. Transformation is realised through a series of recursive cycles where the person:
1. Observes her/his actions, 2. Realises the inefficiency of the already used system of assumptions; a problem raised when one’s beliefs prove to be not efficient enough for the individual to handle a difficulty in the real world 3. Develops a plan of action, 4. Acts accordingly, 5. Observes this “new” action, 6. Critically reflects on this action and its outcome, and then, 7. Develops a new plan of action according to the conclusions drawn from the reflection. (Mezirow, 1991)
In the case we discuss (i.e. Greek state teachers of English), observation could prove beneficial not only in the strictly defined context of teacher education but also in the context a teacher finds herself/ himself in (self-directed and on- going learning). Observation in teacher education and training would involve teachers in deep intellectual processes (in self-awareness, (self-) reflection,
2 The term I am using is adopted from the famous metaphor the Greek writer Constantine Kavafis (1911) used.
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critical analysis, experimentation). In this way, the teacher education programs would not be based on ‘‘someone else’s firm ideological views for what should be a successful practice’’ (Karavas and Drossou, 2009) and may, thus, enhance their effectiveness. For, there have been lots of research and studies showing that mere demonstration or practice without directly addressing one’s beliefs may prove fruitless. Most importantly, extensive observation practices in an education program could enable teachers successfully realise observation in their daily life in order to develop their teaching practices and themselves, in general. If observation were to be introduced more systematically in the Greek context so as to help teachers develop, it would be important to record what Greek state teachers of English believe, need, expect and wish regarding teacher observation. This is what the research described below did.
5. The Greek Context
5.1. The Research
Research conducted in 2007 addressed Greek state teachers’ beliefs, needs and attitudes towards teacher observation and its introduction in the Greek state education condition. Also, it investigated their previous experiences of teacher observation. The aim was to examine the ground on which observation would be required to operate if it were to be introduced in Greek state schools more systematically (compared to its current use as described in section 2). For the needs of the specific research, questionnaires along with interviews were used (in an attempt to combine a quantitative kind of research with a more qualitative one). The questionnaires were delivered to all the state teachers of English of the prefecture of Argolida and to students of the postgraduate program of the Hellenic Open University for teachers of English (132 subjects). After the teachers’ answers to the questionnaire were analysed, there followed interviews of four Greek state teachers. The interviews aimed to cover issues that could not be addressed through a questionnaire or issues that needed a fuller and more in-depth coverage. In the interviews, the teachers who participated had successfully completed the Hellenic Open University’s module on teacher education and -as a result- they could function as “qualified consultants” (Tudor, 1996) for my research as they had a background knowledge which was really invaluable for more to-the-point comments.
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5.2. The Findings of the Research
As the research has shown (figure 1), the vast majority of Greek state teachers of English have never been observed. This fact could prove a considerable hindrance against the introduction of observation in Greek state schools as it is likely for someone to be hesitant or even an opponent to any innovation because of the “expectable” fear for the unknown. And this was stated by teachers themselves. The lack of similar experiences along with the pressure felt by teachers were acknowledged to be the greatest difficulties against the introduction of observation in Greek state schools (Figure 2). Further down in the ranking of factors hindering the introduction of teacher observation stood teachers’ unfamiliarity with the observer and the lack of confidentiality. Also, observation was claimed to be hindered by the lack of the time needed for a complete
25%
75%
Observed before Not observed before
Figure 1. Previous observation experiences
pressure felt by Ts; 96
lack of previous sim ilar expeririences; 86
unfamiliarity with the observer; 52
lack of confidentiality; 44
lack of time; 36
lack of understanding; 26
other; 16
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Figure 2. Difficulties against the introduction of teacher observation
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observation process to take place as well as the lack of understanding on the observer’s part. Other parameters claimed to make the introduction of observation difficult related to the relationship created between the observee and the observer, objectivity issues and the lack of clear observation criteria.
feedback; 112
develop Ts' self- evaluation skills; 96
help Ts reflect; 94
increase quality of education; 86 bring about change; 84 help Ts achieve their goals; 80 discussion&dissemin ation of good practice; 80 help Ts as educators; 72 disseminate innovations; 70 demonstrate skills; 48 monitor Ts' achievement; 28 implement state policy; 16
assess; 14
teach; 12
intervene; 8
narrow gap between the state and Ts; 6 increase influence on Ts; 2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Figure 3. Observation Purposes
When asked about the ideal purposes of observation, teachers opted for and ranked highly aims that are inherently developmental. Feedback was claimed to be the highest aim of observation. Then, high in the list are reflection, self-evaluation and self-improvement. However, teachers not only
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acknowledged observation’s contribution to self-improvement, but also to the dissemination of innovations and good practice; that is to the change and the improvement of education, in general. All the aforementioned goals were ranked higher than others with a more judgmental orientation or with an orientation towards the convergence of state teachers of English with the national policy.
120 106 104 100
80 70
60 54
40 24 20 8 4 0 Novice- Ts-peer Ts Experienced- Ts- panel P anel- Ts Pricipal Ts O ther experienced novice
Figure 4. Observation Patterns
The next question addressed the issue of ideal patterns of observation, that is who observes whom. Here, teachers spoke loudly in favour of peer-observation and assigned superiority to novice teachers observing experienced ones over experienced teachers observing novice ones. A large number of teachers also favored a teacher observing a panel of teachers (i.e. various teachers) while the least preferable options were that of a panel of teachers observing a teacher (like the current practices of observations are) or a principal observing a teacher. Among the other options teachers suggested were teachers observing advisors, advisors observing teachers or a trainer observing teachers (both novice and experienced ones). When asked about the relationship between observee and observer, teachers said that an observer could not treat the observee as a friend nor is s/he there to protect the observed teacher. What is certain is that teachers appeared to prefer an observer who is supportive and available when needed so as to provide the teacher with the necessary advice and guidance. The observer is to focus on teacher development, be a good listener and try to motivate the observed teacher to pursue self-development. As for the frequency and the timing of observation (see figures 6 and 7 respectively), teachers suggested that observation should be regular. Over 70% of the teachers opted for regular observations of more than twice or three times,
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120 106 100 100 88 82 80 68 60 60 52
38 40 26 24 20
0
G uid e Frien d A dvisor S uppo rter A vailab le M otivator P rotecto r Good listener
Observer's development T's personal development
Figure 5. Observer’s Attitudes
15% 24%
30%
31%
once/twice per year 3-4 times per year more than 4 times per year every month
Figure 6. Observation Frequency
while a 45% claimed that they would like observation to take place over four times a year. Teachers also said that observation should take place throughout a school year in a combination of observations at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of a school year. Teachers seemed to believe that a teacher
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3% 6%
23% beginning m iddle combination continuous 68%
Figure 7. Observation Timing
involved in an observation process should constantly undergo recursive cycles of teaching, observation, reflection, rationalization of the choices made, testing of the alternatives suggested for the confrontation of the problems detected in observation and implementation of the new plan.
6. Implications for Improvement
The questionnaires and the interviews involved in the aforementioned research have recorded Greek teachers’ beliefs, expectations and wishes concerning teacher observation. On the basis of the data, there have emerged certain considerable suggestions for the improvement of the current practices of teacher observation in Greek state schools. These recommendations appear to meet the requirements set by the relevant theory. Greek teachers acknowledged the significance of observation as part of on-going special training courses (rather than a one-off seminar) where they would cooperate with other teachers in order to critically reflect on, analyse, evaluate and re-shape their teaching practices. In this way, they said that they “would develop a framework they could follow in the future to promote their development”. Greek state teachers of English claimed that in any observation project, the teacher should be the focus, dynamically participating in the decision making; s/he should be the main one setting the aim, the focus, the criteria of observation as well as the observation techniques. The teachers should be
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treated as persons with self-agency; with their own needs, wishes, personality and style. Teachers should be the active constructors of their cognition and action. And this is better achieved when they are involved as whole persons. That is when their belief systems, skills, knowledge, attitudes and feelings are directly addressed and elaborated on in order to be transformed as is seen necessary. Therefore, observation should directly involve and dynamically elaborate on teachers’ beliefs and feelings. Both teachers’ used and expressed theories (the theories reflected in their teaching behaviour and the theories the teachers themselves believe they are implementing) should be critically addressed and altered. Only if observation addresses both these sets of theories could it eventually influence teachers and have a more powerful and long-lasting effect on them as persons and as teachers. Furthermore, teachers expressed their preference for regular observations (over 3 times per year). Observation should be realised in cycles; it should be a spiral process. All the interviewees were open to a continuum of observations which would be well-structured and purposefully interrelated to one another. They believe that a series of observations would produce more powerful effects on teachers and their development and avoid the possibility of a “bad day”. Teachers also stressed that there is a need for systematic and well- structured observation schemes. All the teachers highlighted the importance of well-designed pre- and post-observation stages. As for the pre-observation stage, it was found that this stage was absent in teachers’ previous experiences of observation albeit highly important. Teachers went on to ask for such a preparatory stage where the people involved in the observation would become familiar with each other and a cooperative, supportive, friendly relationship would be established which is necessary for the successful realization of observation. Also, teachers said that it is in this stage that all the necessary parameters would be mutually agreed and decided upon (for example, the focus of observation, the criteria or more practical issues such as where the observer would sit and whether s/he might interfere in the lesson). Coming now to the post-observation stage; teachers claimed that this should be realized right after the observed lesson (rather than after a number of observed lessons as the current practices of observation in PECs are). The debriefing session should feature all the necessary elements for the greatest assistance to the teachers. It should involve rationalisation and critical reflection on the teacher’s choices. It is important that the teacher realise the hidden beliefs guiding her/his practice. Apart from realization, there should be an evaluation of her/his teaching. Both the strong and the weak points of her/his teaching should be spotted. These strengths and weaknesses would then show the way her/his teaching is to be modified so that teaching goals
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are more successfully achieved. This would pave the way to her/his future development. Moreover, teachers stated that the observee should be granted the major role at the post-observation stage. The observer’s role is subsidiary rather than judgmental or prescriptive. The observer should serve the teachers’ development; s/he ought to support and motivate them to further pursue their development. S/He should also be a facilitator; s/he is to reveal aspects of the teachers’ teaching that they have failed to notice themselves and make further suggestions for the confrontation of the problems detected without imposing them onto teachers. S/He should be available when needed by the observed teacher, qualified and well-trained on both teaching issues as well as on observation and s/he should firstly strive to pursue the observed teacher’s development. At this point, we should stress that teachers acknowledged the contribution of a preliminary, introductory training course to a successful observation scheme. They considered it to be an effective way in which teachers could be assisted to improve their reflection skills so as to successfully employ them in the observations to follow. Another point is that teachers asked observations to take place in their own context. There should be a link to actual teaching behaviour in their own classrooms; only then will the experience be utterly meaningful to them. Also, they will be helped to better realise their context, better interpret its multiple aspects and better (re-)act to it. As we have seen, teachers especially valued peer observation and asked for a network of teachers who would take various roles (observees and observers) and reflect upon their and others’ teaching practices. Collaborative observation would lead to cooperative transformation. And it is a fact that both the observer and the observee may benefit from this process. It is not only the observed teacher that is assisted and may transform her/his belief system and action; it is also the observer who can benefit from the observation process. The observer becomes more self-aware as s/he realises her/his difference from the observed teacher; also, s/he experiences the testing of alternatives and may well adopt different techniques performed by the observee. A final comment made by the teachers who participated in the research which is worth mentioning is that they would be open to evaluation within the context of a developmental observation scheme. The latter is extremely interesting as teachers appear to be willing to overcome the initial fear- hesitation towards the introduction of any attempt for teachers’ evaluation. They seem to be willing to be evaluated for their self-development and the improvement of their teaching practice on condition that this is realized in a strictly development-oriented context.
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7. Conclusion
Taking all this into consideration, it could be concluded that observation could and should be a well-designed and meticulously used tool for the development of every single Greek state teacher of English in their everyday situation. We need to help teachers do what is needed for their on-going growth: i.e. we need to help them develop their self-reflection, their self-analysis and their self-evaluation skills. Observation (be it peer-observation or self-observation) appears to have the potential to assist state teachers to do this; it can help teachers transform and improve their teaching of English. It is important, therefore, that the researchers’ attention is set on how observation could best help teachers towards this direction. For, as a Chinese proverb says:
“To give a man a fish will feed him for a day, while teaching him how to fish will allow him to feed himself for a lifetime.” Chinese proverb, 5th century B.C.
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ΟΕΠΕΚ 2008. Μελέτη: Ανίχνευση επιμορφωτικών αναγκών στη Δευτεροβάθμια εκπαίδευση. Retrieved on 15/11/2011 from http://www.oepek.gr/portal/index. php?option=com_content&view =article&id=118&Itemid=108
2 1 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education To CLIL or not to CLIL? The Case of the 3rd Experimental Primary School in Evosmos
Marina Mattheoudakis1, Thomaï Alexiou1 and Chryssa Laskaridou2
1Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 23rd Model Experimental School of Evosmos [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
This paper aims to present the implementation of CLIL method in Greece as a pilot project in the 3rd Primary School in Evosmos - Experimental School of the School of English in the academic year 2011-2012. This is Greece’s first official attempt to introduce CLIL in state primary education. The subject taught through the CLIL method was Geography and for the purpose of this study we examined the effect of CLIL instruction on (a) learners’ language competence in English, and (b) their content (subject) knowledge. 51 sixth-grade students (11- 12 years old) took part in the study; the control group (non-CLIL) consisted of 25 learners while the remaining 26 learners formed the experimental group (CLIL). The results of our study indicated both language and content gains for the CLIL learners involved and thus seem to support the continuation and extension of the project to other Greek primary schools.
1. Introduction
Content and Language Integrated Learning (henceforth CLIL) has recently emerged in Europe as a popular method of teaching which is expected to improve foreign language competence and motivation of learners across all educational sectors. According to Eurydice (2012: 39), Greece is still one of the very few European countries which have not adopted CLIL as a mainstream form of teaching and learning:
‘In nearly all European countries, certain schools offer a form of education provision, according to which, non-language subjects are taught either through two different languages, or through a single language which is ‘foreign’ according to the curriculum.
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This is known as content and language integrated learning. Only Denmark, Greece, Iceland and Turkey do not make this kind of provision’ (Eurydice 2012: 39).
This article aims to present and discuss the application of CLIL method in Greece as a pilot project in a state primary school in the northern region of the country. This is, in fact, Greece’s first official attempt to introduce CLIL in state primary education.
2. CLIL: Rationale and Objectives
According to Coyle, Hood and Marsh (2010: 1), ‘CLIL is a dual-focused educational approach in which an additional language is used for the learning and teaching of both content and language’. This means that in the teaching and learning process, the emphasis is not exclusively on the language – as it would be in a language class – nor exclusively on the content – as it would be in the case of a subject class. Although the focus may shift from language to content and vice versa according to students’ needs, both are expected to receive equal emphasis and both are interwoven with each other (ibid). CLIL provides students with the opportunity to learn a subject through a foreign language and to learn a foreign language by studying a subject. In this respect, CLIL is a form of bilingual education which aims to provide a bilingual experience for the pupil, even if only for a limited part of the school curriculum. At the European level, interest has been rapidly growing in CLIL, which, according to experts, carries with it many benefits for pupils and teachers. This interest is related to Europe’s efforts to promote multiligualism and improve foreign language learning among its citizens. To this aim, most European governments decided (a) to lower the starting age of learning a foreign language, and (b) to implement CLIL programmes (Lasagabaster 2011). Their implementation has been further supported by researchers who claimed that even if the traditional foreign language programmes are of very high quality, the goals achieved cannot be expected to be impressive, as the time allocated to L2 instruction within the school curriculum is usually quite limited (Muñoz 2008: 590). CLIL provides exposure to the target language through the instruction of subject matter that is already present in the curriculum. Thus, exposure to L2 is increased without overburdening the school curriculum with extra language classes. Apart from that, the amount and quality of language input in a CLIL programme varies considerably from that in a traditional EFL context and this is expected to impact positively on learners’ proficiency (ibid). The objectives of the CLIL provision are mainly (a) socioeconomic, that is, to increase European citizens’ employability in a more internationalized society;
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(b) sociocultural, aiming to boost pupils’ tolerance and respect towards other cultures; (c) linguistic, that is, to develop learners’ language skills for effective communication in a variety of contexts, and (d) educational: to help learners develop subject-related knowledge and study skills (Eurydice 2006: 22). Thus, underlying EU initiatives in the field of CLIL is the belief that young people should be more effectively prepared for the (multi)lingual and cultural requirements of a Europe in which mobility is expanding (Eurydice, 2006: 55).
2.1. Main Characteristics
CLIL is an umbrella term, as it embraces a wide range of bilingual education programmes and a variety of regional, heritage, minority, immigrant and/or foreign languages (Lorenzo, Casal and Moore 2009: 419). As such, it has many common characteristics to share with bilingual education, Content Based Instruction and immersion approaches, but it also possesses some unique characteristics: (a) CLIL is adopted mainly for the teaching and learning of foreign – not second – languages or lingua francas (e.g., English). It is thus implemented in countries where learners generally share the same L1 and do not have the opportunity to be exposed to the target language outside the classroom (Dalton-Puffer 2011). In Europe, in particular, CLIL is used mainly for the teaching and learning of foreign languages. (b) It is an integrated approach, where both language and content are integrated in a balanced way. (c) Subject matter is the driving force behind regular CLIL programs. ‘CLIL lessons are usually timetabled as content lessons (e.g., biology, music, geography, mechanical engineering), while the target language normally continues as a subject in its own right in the shape of foreign language lessons taught by language specialists’ (Dalton-Puffer 2011: 184). In other words, CLIL is a content-driven approach. (d) CLIL is a cross-curricular or interdisciplinary approach to learning and aims to enable learners to use their critical thinking in order to integrate, use and transfer newly acquired knowledge (Darn cited in Pistorio 2010: 3). To this aim, close cooperation between content and language teachers is necessary for CLIL to be effective, as both language and content objectives have to be specified and decided upon. Thus, the CLIL curriculum will include both linguistic and content-area goals and a specific topic or theme can be approached from different perspectives, that is, through different subjects in the school curriculum. (e) The integration of content and language with cognition and culture is at the core of CLIL pedagogy. Apart from language and content-related
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skills, CLIL also promotes thinking skills, as well as cultural awareness and intercultural communication skills. (f) Finally, as far as learners are concerned, CLIL promotes cooperative learning (Jacobs and McCafferty 2006, Pistorio 2010) and learners are expected to learn better when working in pairs or groups.
All the above characteristics have been taken into account in the design and implementation of CLIL instruction in the context of our study.
2.2. Theoretical Perspectives
Second language theories which support the implementation of CLIL programmes include Krashen’s Comprehensible Input Hypothesis (1985), Swain’s Output Hypothesis (1985), Long’s Interaction theory (1996), and Cummins’ (1980, 1984, 1992) theory of BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) and CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency). Krashen contends that exposure to comprehensible language input is a necessary and sufficient condition for foreign language learning (1985) and that learners will be able to produce the language spontaneously as a result of this exposure. His position was later criticized as research indicated that there is a need for a much greater focus on form (see Doughty and Williams 1998). Even in the immersion education context, researchers, such as Lyster (1998), have underlined the importance of formal instruction for learners’ L2 development. CLIL learners are obviously exposed to rich L2 input in a meaningful context, but as CLIL is a method which integrates content and language, there is inevitably a need for a parallel focus on the language forms learners produce. Other hypotheses which are useful in the context of CLIL include Swain’s Output Hypothesis (1985), which underlines the necessity for maximized opportunities for language practice and production-both oral and written. Swain’s hypothesis emphasizes the importance of accuracy in learners’ production and she, therefore, stresses the importance of paying attention to formal elements of the language. With respect to the CLIL teaching context, learners are required to focus on both content and language and are ‘pushed’ to use appropriate and accurate language using their available linguistic resources in order to express subject-related concepts. In this way, both content and language learning can take place in a balanced way effectively. Long (1996), among others, argued that conversational interaction is an important, if not sufficient, condition for second language acquisition. Interaction involves modification of interlocutors’ speech which helps them understand each other; in other words, Long emphasized the importance of modified interaction which renders input comprehensible. In CLIL classes, interaction and
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negotiation of meaning among learners and between learners and teachers are basic components of every lesson as they enable learners to comprehend the information presented by participating in conversations and modifying their speech through simplifications, elaborations, explanations, etc. Finally, Cummins’ conceptualization of language proficiency has been particularly important for bilingual education programmes. Cummins (1980, 1992) proposed that language proficiency consists of two distinct components: BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) and CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency). The development of these components involves different language and cognitive processes. BICS refers to conversational proficiency that is necessary for everyday face-to-face communication, and develops within approximately two years of L2 instruction; CALP, on the other hand, refers to deeper-level language proficiency that is necessary for dealing with more abstract, academic situations, it involves the development of literacy skills, and can develop within five to seven years or even more of L2 instruction (Cummins 1992). So, learners first learn to communicate effectively in real-life oral communication, and then they become competent readers and writers in the target language (L1 or L2). L2 instruction needs, therefore, to promote not only the surface-level language proficiency, but also the deeper-level cognitive/ academic proficiency, which puts emphasis on how language is actually used in concrete situations for particular communicative purposes. CLIL approaches have been shown to promote the development of CALP, since they focus on the development of critical or deeper-level thinking and meaningful language use (cf Grabe and Stoller 1997). This happens because CLIL learners participate in tasks that engage them cognitively and require the use of L2 for the expression of abstract and academic concepts in a meaningful context. Thus, they learn to use their thinking skills to acquire new content and language. Apart from SLA theories underpinning the CLIL method, there are other general learning theories that provide a robust theoretical support to this method. These are mainly cognitive and constructivist theories. In particular, the Cognitive Learning theory supports the use of cognitively engaging tasks in order for learners to develop their problem-solving skills and critical thinking while constructing new knowledge (Anderson 1993). The Cognitive Constructivist theory (Piaget 1963, Bruner 1990) claims that new learning needs to be connected to prior learning within a meaningful context in order to be acquired successfully, while the Social Constructivist theory ‘emphasizes the collaborative nature of learning’ (Pistorio 2010: 3). The influence of those theories can clearly be seen in the implementation of CLIL method which promotes the gradual progression of meaningful but also linguistically-appropriate communicative tasks from less to more cognitively- demanding ones, always working with student’s existing knowledge (Bennett and Dunne 1994). Collaboration and social interaction are essential components for successful learning in all CLIL contexts.
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2.3. Benefits and Concerns
As a form of bilingual education, CLIL programmes are expected to carry some at least of the advantages of bilingual education as these have been suggested and analysed by Cummins (1984). CLIL teaching has been claimed to benefit linguistic, cognitive and metalinguistic skills. Gains in learners’ language development and improved language fluency in CLIL teaching contexts seem to result (a) from their systematic exposure to increased L2 aural and written input – both quantitatively and qualitatively, and (b) from opportunities for increased intake and output. Learners need to use the L2 for both communication as well as for didactic purposes in class, and thus, they practice; they learn the language while they try to understand, process and exchange new information that deals with a particular content (Dalton-Puffer 2007). At the same time, language is used meaningfully and purposefully; it is not learned for the sake of learning it but for the sake of using it (Dalton-Puffer and Smit 2007, Coyle et al. 2010). In this respect, CLIL provides a context for naturalistic language learning. It is similar to native language acquisition, as most learning seems to take place informally and incidentally, and not through explicit language instruction. When interviewed, CLIL teachers themselves reported that CLIL teaching improves learners’ L2 skills and especially their interactive skills, as they are able to participate in conversations and respond appropriately (Morgan 2006). With respect to their cognitive skills, Greene, Pearson and Schoenfeld suggest that a range of functional strategic skills seem to develop in the CLIL context and, more particularly, a ‘move from an automatic to a deliberate level of analysis and action’ (1999: 145). In particular, learners seem to seek connections between ideas, take responsibility for learning and take multiple perspectives (Morgan 2006). Finally, Cook (1992), Dörnyei (1995), Johnson and Swain (1997), Baker (2001) and Bialystok (2002) have suggested that students’ exposure to CLIL instructional context results in improved metalinguistic skills, greater mental flexibility, better fluency and interactive skills, increased use of strategies and a broader range of vocabulary. CLIL method is not without its critics. A number of concerns have been voiced in several European countries with respect to the introduction and implementation of CLIL programmes. These are related mainly to the lack of appropriate teaching materials and to the shortage of teachers trained in CLIL instruction. As Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols (2008: 21) point out, this is a typical case of an educational innovation which outpaces teacher education provision. The question of whether it is the subject teacher who will be teaching their subject in another language or the language teacher who will be teaching a subject unrelated to his/her expertise in the foreign language is a related issue of concern. A tentative solution is that proposed by EU which aims to improve
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the quality of training for language teachers by ‘encouraging the exchange with Member States of higher education students working as language assistants in schools, endeavouring to give priority to prospective language teachers or those called upon to teach their subject in a language other than their own’. (Eurydice, 2006: 8). Mehisto, Marsh and Frigols (2008) propose similar solutions and claim that networking and cooperation among teachers, universities and teacher organizations is essential. Finally, parents have voiced their own concerns about CLIL programmes. Their major concerns regard their children’s native-language skills and their performance in CLIL classes. In particular, they seem to believe that increased exposure to L2 input as well as acquisition of subject-related terminology in L2 will have a negative impact on the development of learners’ mother tongue. They are also concerned that non-CLIL learners will outperform their children since the former study all subjects in their native language. As a matter of fact, research aiming to compare CLIL and non-CLIL learners’ content acquisition does not support such concerns. On the contrary, far from interfering with content acquisition, CLIL can actually facilitate it and students in CLIL programmes often outperform their peers in regular programmes on first- language reading, writing and listening tests. To some of these studies we will now turn.
3. Research in CLIL
Research in CLIL has focused on a variety of issues related to the implementation of the method. A large number of those studies have been interested in investigating the impact of CLIL practice on learners’ L2 development and content knowledge. Other studies looked into the influence of CLIL on learners’ cognitive skills and motivation. We are going to briefly present the results of those studies which aimed to investigate the gains CLIL learners may have when compared to their peers who follow traditional mainstream school programmes with regard to (a) their target language performance and (b) their content knowledge, as these are the two main foci of our paper. With respect to the target language development, studies have indicated that CLIL practice has a positive impact on foreign language learning in both primary and secondary educational contexts (e.g., Serra 2007, Van de Craen, Mondt, Allain and Gao 2007, Lasagabaster 2008, Lucietto 2008, Ruiz de Zarobe 2008, Kjellén Simes 2009, Lorenzo, Casal and Moore 2009). Van de Craen et al. (2007) have stressed that the positive impact of CLIL on L2 development is more consistently found in primary education than in secondary education. In an interesting paper, Dalton-Puffer (2008) reviewed the language-learning outcomes from CLIL practice in German-speaking countries as follows:
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Table 1. Language competencies favorably affected or unaffected by CLIL
Favorably affected Unaffected or indefinite
Receptive skills Syntax
Vocabulary Writing
Morphology Informal/non-technical language
Creativity, risk-taking, fluency, quantity Pronunciation
Emotive/affective outcomes Pragmatics
(Dalton-Puffer 2008: 5)
With respect to the language learning skills, the receptive skills (i.e. reading and listening) are the ones most positively influenced from CLIL, as shown by studies in various European countries (e.g., Lasagabaster 2008); this may be the result of learners’ extensive exposure to the written and spoken language in CLIL contexts. As far as the productive skills are concerned, studies have yielded inconsistent results. Dalton-Puffer (2008) suggests that writing skills, in particular, do not seem to be positively influenced by CLIL (see Table 1); other studies, however, with upper-secondary learners in Sweden (Kjellén Simes 2009), in the Basque country (Lasagabaster 2008) and in Vienna (Ackerl 2007) have indicated a positive influence of CLIL practice on the development of adolescent learners’ writing skills. Oral skills, on the other hand, seem to be clearly benefited as studies by Serra (2007), Ruiz de Zarobe (2008), and Dalton-Puffer (2008, 2011) prove. In particular, CLIL learners, as compared to their non-CLIL peers, tend to be more fluent in the L2 in various educational and cultural settings. Their use of L2 is creative, they are willing to take risks and experiment with the language in meaningful and challenging ways. With respect to vocabulary and grammar, vocabulary development – both receptive and productive – seems to be clearly benefited in CLIL contexts (Dalton-Puffer 2008, Xanthou 2010) and CLIL learners have better mastery of some morphological elements of the language (Villarreal Olaizola and Garcia Mayo 2009). Research in the impact of CLIL on grammar, and especially syntax, on the other hand, has yielded mixed results and further research is needed in this area. Finally, it is interesting to point out that CLIL practice seems to have a positive impact mostly on average L2-level learners since, according to various studies (e.g., Kjellén Simes 2009, Dalton-Puffer 2011), these students are consistently found to be the most benefited from the CLIL approach.
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With respect to the benefits of CLIL on content knowledge, these have not been as systematically investigated as language learning benefits ( Dalton- Puffer 2011). Results vary across various European contexts, especially when it comes to CLIL practice in secondary school contexts (Van de Craen et al. 2007). In Finland, CLIL has been found to be beneficial for Maths and Science learning (Jäppinen 2005), and similarly, CLIL in Swiss primary education has benefited the learning of Maths (Serra 2007). Xanthou (2011) examined the effects of CLIL on the learning of Science by primary Cypriot learners, and found that Science learning was positively affected by the CLIL approach.
4. CLIL in Greece
As already stated, Greece is one of the very few countries in Europe where CLIL has not been implemented yet. CLIL was introduced as a pilot project into the 3rd Model Experimental Primary School of Thessaloniki, Greece in 2010. The particular school is supervised by the School of English, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, and it is the only primary school in Greece which provides intensive English language instruction from grade 1. In particular, grades 1 and 2 are taught English for five hours a week and grades 3-6 are exposed to English language classes for eight hours weekly. In addition to that, CLIL is systematically implemented as a method of teaching. The first year of its implementation (2010-2011), CLIL was introduced to Grade 6 for the teaching of Geography for two hours a week. According to the national primary school curriculum, Geography is taught for two hours in Grade 6 and this means that the particular subject was instructed exclusively in English. The following year (2011-2012), CLIL was extended to Grades 4 and 5 with the instruction of four more subjects in English. In particular, Environmental Studies and Arts in Grade 4, Geography and Religious Education in Grade 5 and Geography and History in Grade 6. All subjects were taught for 2 hours per week each. This school year (2012-2013), the programme has extended to Grade 3, where CLIL is used for the teaching of History. All subjects are taught exclusively in English by qualified English language specialists. We are aware that this is not usually the case in other European CLIL programmes, where content teachers are those who teach those subjects in the target language. As far as the teaching materials are concerned, CLIL instructors design their own materials on the basis of the syllabus they are required to cover in the respective subjects. Although English is exclusively used in those classes, the materials could not be the same as those used to teach the respective subjects in an English-speaking country, as CLIL requires a pedagogical adaptation, especially at those initial stages (cf. Lasagabaster and Sierra 2009). The
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materials used includes texts, audiovisual material, powerpoint presentations, worksheets, projects, etc. Those projects usually require close cooperation between content and language teachers and some of them lead to or combine with extra-curricular activities, thus providing learners with the opportunity to transfer knowledge acquired at school to other contexts.
5. Our study
5.1. Participants
The study took place in the 3rd Experimental School of the School of English in Thessaloniki in the academic year 2011-2012. The CLIL subject was Geography, which means that learners were taught Geography through the medium of English. 51 sixth-grade students (11-12 years old) took part in the study. The control group (non-CLIL) consisted of 25 learners while the remaining 26 learners formed the experimental group (CLIL). The length of instruction was one school year (9 months). Both the experimental and the control groups included learners of various L2 proficiency levels. These learners attended English language classes at school and they were streamed according to proficiency: Level 1 were the advanced learners, level 2 the intermediate learners and level 3 the low level ones.
5.2. Aim, Hypotheses and Research Questions
The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of CLIL instruction on learners’ (a) language competence in English, and (b) content (subject) knowledge. According to recent research, the hypotheses are as follows: (1) CLIL students’ content knowledge will not be negatively affected due to the use of L2 as a medium of instruction; (2) CLIL learners’ performance in content tests is related to their L2 proficiency level; (3) Students instructed through CLIL will have more gains in L2 than the non- CLIL group.
The study also aims at answering the following research questions: • Will the two groups (CLIL / non-CLIL) achieve similar scores in Geography tests taken during the school year? • Will CLIL learners achieve higher scores in English language tests than non-CLIL learners at the end of the school year?
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5.3. Research Materials
The research tools of the study were 3 Geography tests (henceforth, content test 1, content test 2, content test 3), which aimed to examine learners’ content knowledge. In particular, content test 1 tested learners on the solar system, the second one tested them on directions and orientation and the third one on the atmosphere. Both CLIL and non-CLIL groups were tested on the same content every time, but in different languages: the CLIL group was tested in English, while the non-CLIL group in Greek. A language test was also designed by the English language teachers of the school aiming to test CLIL and non CLIL learners’ reading and listening skills in English. The test was distributed twice, the first time at the beginning of the school year and the second time in May, after CLIL instruction had been completed. Only receptive skills were tested as these usually develop first and any language development in productive skills occurs after longer exposure.
6. Results
6.1. Content Tests
Regarding our research question, whether the two groups of learners (CLIL / non- CLIL) will achieve similar scores in Geography, as can be seen in the table below, both groups performed very similarly in all content tests. These results come in line with previous research which indicates comparable results between CLIL and non- CLIL groups in subject knowledge. In fact, previous studies have shown that there are gains, both cognitive and with respect to academic concepts when learners are instructed in CLIL contexts (Lamsfuss-Schenk 2002). Additionally, Vollmer et al. (2006 cited in Dalton-Puffer 2011: 188) found that CLIL instruction results in ‘deeper semantic processing and better understanding of curricular concepts’ and have thus claimed that ‘rather than being a hindrance, L2 processing actually has a strong potential for the learning of subject-specific concepts’ (ibid.) Our first hypothesis was that CLIL students’ content knowledge will not be negatively affected by the use of English as a medium of instruction. When comparing scores in the three content tests between the CLIL and non-CLIL groups (see Table 2), it becomes obvious that CLIL learners scored higher in two out of the three tests; in content test 2 this difference reached statistical significance (t=4,254, p<0.000). As far as the content gains are concerned, our hypothesis is confirmed, as it becomes obvious that content knowledge is clearly not negatively affected by the use of English as a medium of instruction; in fact, CLIL learners did better in two out of the three Geography tests.
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Table 2. CLIL and non-CLIL groups’ mean scores and standard deviations in content tests
Content test 1 Content test 2 Content test 3 mean stand. mean stand. mean stand. score deviation score deviation score deviation CLIL 7.92 1.61 9.14 1.17 6.02 2.29
Non-CLIL 7.33 2.28 6.98 2.06 7.30 2.05
Our second hypothesis was that there is a relationship between learners’ L2 proficiency level and their performance in content tests. Indeed, some statistically significant differences were found. Learners of level 1 outperformed those of the other two levels, while learners of level 2 outperformed those of level 3. Tukey analysis also confirmed this relationship, viz. the higher the level, the higher the mean score. So, it becomes obvious that learners of higher L2 proficiency achieved higher scores in the content tests as well, and, conversely, learners of lower L2 proficiency had a lower performance in the content tests; therefore, our hypothesis is confirmed. However, our findings contradict studies by Dalton-Puffer (2011) and Kjellén Simes (2009), which indicated that average L2-level learners were those who benefited the most from the CLIL approach; in our case, it was the advanced learners who excelled in all tests. In fact, statistically significant results emerged from both content test 2 and content test 3, where advanced learners (level 1) outperformed low level ones (level 3) (t=5,832, p<0.001, t=4.529, p<0.001) (Table 3).
Table 3. CLIL groups’ mean scores and standard deviations in content tests and levels
Content test 2 Content test 3 mean score stand. deviation Mean score stand. deviation Level 1 9.58 0.37 8.16 2.20
Level 3 6.72 1.14 4.05 1.33
Additionally, in content test 3, learners of level 2 outperformed those of level 3 and this difference reached statistical significance (Level 2: mean score- 6.50 / stand. deviation-1.61; level 3: mean score- 4.05 / stand. deviation-1.33, t=3,571, p=0.002). Such results clearly confirm findings of previous research into the benefits of CLIL on content knowledge, such as those in Finland (Jäppinen 2005), Switzerland (Serra 2007) and Cyprus (Xanthou 2011). Finally, when correlating the scores between content and language tests in the CLIL group, statistically significant correlations emerge (Table 4). This means
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that learners who scored high in content tests also scored high in language tests, especially in language test 2.
Table 4. Correlations between content and language scores in the CLIL group
Content tests Listening 1 Reading 1 Language Listening 2 Reading 2 Language test 1 total test 2 total
Content test 1 0.405* 0.447* 0.462* 0.472* 0.556**
Content test 2 0.488*
Content test 3 0.405* 0.632** 0.618**
6.2. Language Tests
With respect to the effect of CLIL on learners’ language performance, our hypothesis was that CLIL instruction will have a positive effect on the language development of CLIL learners when these are compared with the non-CLIL group. In order to investigate their language performance, the same English language test was administered twice – once before and once after CLIL instruction (language test 1 and language test 2, respectively) – to both CLIL and non-CLIL learners. The results of these tests indicate an improvement in reading and listening skills in both groups. We remind the reader that both groups are instructed English for eight hours a week and that the CLIL group is further instructed Geography and History in English for two hours, respectively, per week. The results in Table 5 indicate the scores of both groups in language tests 1 and 2.
Table 5. Mean scores and standard deviations in language tests for CLIL and non-CLIL groups
Language test 1 Language test 2 Listening test: 18.00/ 5.93 Listening test: 23.88/5.44 CLIL Reading test: 13.00/3.81 Reading test: 14.20/5.53 Language total 31.00/7.32 38.08/9.21 Listening test: 19.76/5.71 Listening test: 23.40/5.93 Non CLIL Reading test: 14.70/5.72 Reading test: 16.60/6.72 Language total 34.47/9.43 40.00/11.18
Concerning the linguistic gains, both groups’ language performance improved in language test 2 but no significant differences were found between scores in
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language test 1 and language test 2 for either group. The difference in scores between the two groups in language test 2 (38 vs 40) (Table 5) does not necessarily indicate a better language development in the non-CLIL group. In specific, it should be noted that the non-CLIL group started off with higher language performance in both listening and reading tests in language test 1 (language total: 31 for CLIL vs. 34 for non CLIL learners). At the same time, it is evident that the difference between language test 1 and language test 2 in the CLIL group is higher (31 vs 38) than the respective one in the non-CLIL group (34 vs 40); this finding indicates higher language gains for the CLIL group. When running t-tests though, the differences in scores between the two groups in language tests 1 and 2 are not statistically significant. Yet again, the time of exposure was limited so it might not have been possible for language gains to emerge in such a short time. Our preliminary findings agree with those of previous studies which have shown that CLIL practice has a positive impact on foreign language learning in primary educational contexts (cf. Cenoz and Perales 2001, Serra 2007, among others).
7. Conclusion
This paper presented the first official attempt in Greece to implement CLIL instruction in the context of primary education. As English is taught as a foreign language in Greece for only a limited number of hours in the school curriculum, CLIL instruction may be seen as an attempt to increase Greek learners’ exposure to English language input, without, however, extending the school timetable. Triggered by findings of similar previous studies within the European educational context, we aimed to investigate whether CLIL instruction has a positive impact on Greek learners’ L2 development and whether the use of English as a medium of instruction affects their subject knowledge in any way. The results of our preliminary study have indicated both language and content gains for the CLIL learners involved and thus seem to support the continuation and extension of the project to other Greek primary schools. We believe that two points need to be further investigated in future research. The first one is related to the positive impact CLIL instruction has on learners’ content knowledge. This perhaps should be examined in relation to the strategies CLIL learners use in order to comprehend the concepts presented in the foreign language. The second point concerns CLIL learners’ L2 development. As the effect of CLIL instruction on learners’ productive skills takes more time to be evidenced, it will be necessary to study those learners’ language gains after at least four years of CLIL implementation. As CLIL instruction helps learners develop literacy in two languages, it might be interesting to see whether this biliteracy provides them with language and cognitive advantages comparable to those of early bilinguals (Bialystok 2011).
2 2 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Marina Mattheoudakis, Thomaï Alexiou and Chryssa Laskaridou
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2 3 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education An Exploration of the Reliability and Validity of Peer Assessment of Writing in Secondary Education
Elena Meletiadou and Dina Tsagari
University of Cyprus [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
The current study investigates the reliability and validity of peer assessment (PA) of writing in secondary education in Cyprus since recent research provides few and mixed findings in this area (Sung, Chang, Chang & Yu 2010). Forty EFL students were involved in the PA of writing after receiving training. The results showed that the correlation between teacher and student marks was very high and that: (a) clear student-generated criteria, (b) adaptation of the instruments to meet the specific students’ needs, (c) careful training, (d) guidance and continuous support can enhance the reliability and validity of PA of writing in the state school sector.
1. Introduction
Peer assessment (PA) is an educational arrangement where students judge a peer’s performance quantitatively, e.g. by providing a peer with scores or grades, and/or qualitatively, e.g. by providing a peer with written or oral feedback (Topping 1998). Strong justification for the use of PA is found in four theoretical stances: process writing, collaborative learning, Vygotskian learning theory and interactionist theories of L2 acquisition (Hansen & Liu 2005). Moreover, numerous studies underscore the role and value of PA in TESOL writing instruction, in terms of developing the learners’ writing ability, writing performance and autonomy in learning (McIsasc & Sepe 1996; Plutsky & Wilson 2004). Generally speaking, PA is said to maximize success by providing a number of benefits to learners such as: • improvements in the effectiveness and quality of learning, at least as good as gains from teacher assessment, especially in relation to writing (Topping, Smith, Swanson & Elliot 2000);
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• development of self-reliant and self-directed learners (Oldfield & Macalpine 1995); • social, cognitive, affective and methodological benefits (Villamil &De Guerrero 1996), and • creation of a strong link between instruction and assessment by forming part of a feedback loop that enables teachers to monitor and modify instruction according to results of student assessment (Tsagari 2004).
In summary, PA as a means of classroom assessment is student-centred. It allows learners to participate in the process of evaluation and provides them with rich opportunities for observation and modeling (Cho, Schunn & Wilson 2006).
2. Peer Assessment, Reliability and Validity
While PA is highly recommended by researchers (Shepard 2000; Topping 1998), the issue of the reliability and validity of PA needs clarification. A number of researchers have reported high correlations between student- and teacher- assessments (e.g. Rudy, Feijfar, Griffith & Wilson 2001; Pope 2005). For instance, Haaga (1993) and Cho et al. (2006) also reported relatively high reliability. Marcoulides and Simkin (1995) found that peer reviewers were consistent evaluators while Falchikov and Goldfinch (2000) after reviewing 48 studies concluded that peer ratings were highly correlated with teacher ratings. However, there appear to be mixed findings related to the reliability and validity of PA. Some studies have shown low correlations between teacher and peer ratings (Cheng & Warren 1999; Swanson, Case & Van der Vleuten 1997). The question whether PA can be used as part of formal classroom assessment has also been a point of contention (Goldfinch & Raeside 1990). Moreover, judging dimensions such as appropriacy, fluency and clarity are subjective and are likely to affect the validity of assessments provided (Orsmond, Merry & Reiling 1997). A number of biases associated with marking and PA such as friendship 1997). A number of biases associated with marking and PA such as friendship bias, e.g. students tend to provide extra marks to their friends (Fletcher & Baldry 1999) might also operate. The diverse validity and reliability results raise doubts in both teachers and learners who are often reluctant to use PA (Sluijsmans, Moerkerke, & van Merrienboer 2001; Orsmond et al. 1997). However, teacher marking has also been found to be problematic e.g. unreliable, incosistent and/or biased (Falchikov & Magin 1997). What one needs to keep in mind when employing PA minimize these biases and psychological resistance through various administrative strategies such as setting clear criteria, understanding goals and limits, and developing familiarity with the instruments (i.e. analytic rating scale) used in PA (Chapelle & Brindley 2002). Research has shown that, when assessment criteria are firmly set, the
2 3 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Elena Meletiadou and Dina Tsagari
reliability and validity of PA is enhanced since it enables students to judge the performance of their peers in a manner comparable to those of the teachers (Falchikov 2005).
3. Peer Assessment and Young Learners
A second concern of the present study is to determine the best type of participant in PA. Very little research has been conducted in the area of PA performed by adolescent learners (Tsivitanidou, Zacharia & Hovardas 2011). Although some studies consider PA as suitable for young learners (Shepard 2000), some researchers claim that PA is more suitable for older learners (Falchikov & Boud 1989; Jones & Fletcher 2002) and in-service staff (Jones & Fletcher 2002; Saavedra & Kwun 1993). Brown and Dove (1990) claim that it is a rather demanding method of assessment. Finally, significant differences between characteristics of adolescents and adults suggest that studies should specifically investigate whether PA is suitable for younger learners (Sung et al. 2010). However, Oskay, Schallies and Morgil (2008) confirmed the suitability of PA for different settings in terms of educational levels and fields of study. Previous research in the Cypriot context has also indicated that secondary school students have ‘the beginnings of PA skills and an understanding of what needs to be included in feedback’ (Tsivitanidou et al. 2011: 517). Nevertheless, to implement PA effectively, students need explicit training in PA skills and techniques (Boud 1990; Hanrahan & Isaacs 2001; Sluijsmans 2002; Van Steendam, Rijlaarsdam, Sercu, & Van den Bergh 2010). As a result, additional research needs to be conducted to investigate whether PA is suitable for adolescent learners. This study will expand on previous studies by investigating the reliability and validity of PA of writing with adolescent EFL learners.
4. The Educational and Assessment Context of the Current Study
Other than state schools, many Cypriot adolescent students learn English as a foreign language in State Institutes. These are situated in selected Cypriot high schools and run by the Cypriot Ministry of Education. The curriculum of the State Institutes (Ministry of Education 2010: 4-6) promotes communicative and learner-centred language teaching and stresses the importance of informal assessment. Teachers are also advised to consider various types of alternative assessment such as self-assessment and portfolios (ibid: 16-18). However, despite the benefits of PA discussed in the literature (see Section 1), there is no reference to PA as such in the curriculum.
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Moreover, according to local inspectors, teachers and headteachers of State Institutes, the assessment of EFL writing in such institutes is generally problematic. Apart from the fact that it is teacher-centered, no further guidelines, special seminars or training are provided. Adolescent learners continue to make the same mistakes, become more and more reliant on the teacher, and their writing does not necessarily improve as a result of teacher feedback. Consequently, the majority of these learners have poor writing skills, a negative attitude towards writing and the assessment of writing and face considerable problems in formal tests. Therefore, the Cypriot Ministry of Education needs to find new ways to improve the teaching and learning and in particular the assessment of EFL writing skills. To respond to the relevant gaps in the literature (Sections 2 & 3), the problems regarding the assessment of writing skills in the Cypriot educational context and the lack of any research into PA of EFL writing in the particular context, at least to the knowledge of the authors of this paper, the present study set out to investigate PA of EFL writing of adolescent students. Two research questions guided this study: • Is peer assessment of writing a reliable and valid assessment method? • Can peer assessment of writing be employed successfully with adolescent learners?
5. The Design and Methodology of the Study
In January 2010, a study was conducted in order to explore the issue of reliability of PA and its suitability for adolescent learners. It extended over a period of four months. The time schedule of the study is seen in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Time Schedule
Week 2: Training of groups and the external assessor. January Week 3: Piloting of instruments. 2010 Week 4: Writing Task 1 - Writing the first draft of a narrative essay. Week 1: Feedback and remedial teaching. Week 2: Writing the second draft. February Week 3: Writing Task 2 - Feedback. Whole-class discussion. 2010 Writing the first draft of a descriptive essay. Week 4: Feedback and remedial teaching. Week 1: Writing the second draft. Week 2: Writing Task 3 - Feedback. Whole-class discussion. March Writing the first draft of an informal letter. 2010 Week 3: Feedback and remedial teaching. Week 4: Easter holiday. Week 1: Easter holiday. April Week 2: Writing the second draft. 2010 Week 3: Feedback. Whole-class discussion.
2 3 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Elena Meletiadou and Dina Tsagari
The participants were forty 13-14 year old students. They had been attending EFL classes at a State Language Institute in Nicosia, the capital of the country, for the past five years. They were all native Greek-Cypriots and shared similar cultural and socio-economic background. Their teacher and an external assessor also took part in the study. They were both qualified EFL teachers with several years of experience and postgraduate degrees in TEFL. The teacher, who was also one of the researchers of this study, taught and trained the students and the external assessor in PA methods. The learners were divided into two groups of twenty students (Table 2) and wrote three types of essays (a narrative essay, a descriptive essay and an informal letter), as part of the demands of their writing curriculum (Ministry of Education 2010: 27). The essays were submitted twice. Teacher and peer feedback were provided to students with a view to improving successive drafts and prompting more revision of the written essays.
Table 2. Grouping of learners
Group B Received teacher and peer feedback from group C (Experimental group 1-Student/assessees) Group C Received teacher feedback and provided peer (Experimental group 2-Student/assessors) feedback to group B
The aim was to introduce PA and examine its reliability by comparing teacher marks with student/assessors’ marks. Anonymity of student/assessors ensured the reliability of the assessment process and assisted in avoiding conflicts and bitterness among the learners (Miller & Ng 1994). The only thing that varied was the type of feedback provided to students. Overall, learners were provided with: • teacher feedback (grade and comments) for each draft • teacher corrections only to second drafts so as not to interfere with the revision process, and • one PA form (filled in by student/assessors - Group C - and given to student/ assessees – Group B) for all drafts (Appendix I). The external assessor also provided marks only for the second drafts of all essays to check the reliability of the teacher’s marks.
6. The Training of the Learners and the External Assessor
Supporting learners in using peer-assessment is of paramount importance because PA is an activity for which learners need guidance and time to grow into. In other words, learners needed to build up a shared understanding of the nature,
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the purposes and the requirements of the PA method (Stewart & Cheung 1989). According to previous research (Sluijsmans 2002; Van Steendam et al. 2010), substantial training and practice is required to develop competence in PA. With this background in mind, a PA training session which lasted three teaching hours was offered to the students in January 2010 (Table 1). During the session, student/assessors designed a PA form (Appendix I) with the help of the teacher. The form was used by the teacher, external assessor and students to provide feedback for all drafts of all essays. The researchers decided to involve learners in the creation of the assessment criteria because, according to previous research (Falchikov & Goldfinch, 2000), this ensures students’ active engagement in the PA procedure. Moreover, the research literature (Pond, Ul-haqa, & Wadea 1995; Stefani 1994) has shown that the reliability of PA which is supported by assessment rubric tables, checklists (cf. the present PA form in Appendix I), exemplification, teacher assistance and monitoring tends to be high. Overall, the main purpose of the training session was to offer an introduction in PA methods. Student/assessees were taught how to revise their work using the PA form since they had never been asked to re-draft their work before. Student/ assessors were also trained by rating and commenting on sample essays. Finally, the external assessor also received training (40 min) in relation to the assessment criteria employed before using them due to lack of any previous experience in PA. During the training, the external assessor also rated students’ drafts using the PA form. The aim was to deepen understanding of the assessment criteria included in the form through exemplification and increase the reliability of the marks provided by the external assessor.
7. Findings
To answer the research questions, the researchers correlated teacher and student marks for each draft of all compositions in order to check the reliability of student-generated scores. A two-sided Pearson correlation test was conducted which produced the results presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Reliability indices of student-generated scores
2-sided Pearson correlation test T f p-value Cor P
Teacher & student/assessors’ marks 5.30 8 2.2e-16 0.89 <0.001 for the first draft of all essays Teacher & student/assessors’ marks 8.837e- .71 8 0.78 <0.001 for the second draft of all essays 14
2 4 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Elena Meletiadou and Dina Tsagari
The correlation between teacher and student/assessors’ marks for the first draft of all essays was very high (0.89, p<0.001). The same kind of test was conducted with the marks of the second draft and the correlation was almost as high as the previous one (0.78, p<0.001). Moreover, in order to further explore the reliability of PA, the researchers compared teacher marks with those of the external assessor. The Pearson correlation test conducted (Table 4) indicated a very high correlation (0.93, p<0.001) between teacher and external assessor’s marks for the second drafts of all students’ compositions. This confirmed that the teacher was not biased towards any of the groups.
Table 4. Comparison of teacher and external assessor marks
Pearson correlation test T Df p-value Cor P
Teacher and external assessor marks 34.35 178 < 2.2e-16 0.93 <0.001
8. Summary and Discussion of Results
The present study has shown high correlations between teacher, who is always considered as the expert (Falchikov 1995), and student marks (Table 3). This is evidence that PA can be a reliable and, valid assessment method. More specifically the use of negotiated joint construction of the assessment criteria used for PA combined with the training of the learners and the external assessor, the use of checklists and exemplification during the training sessions deepened understanding of the assessment procedure, gave a greater sense of ownership to students, and increased the reliability of the PA method (also argued in MacArthur, Schwartz & Graham 1991). The above mentioned measures enabled the adolescents involved in the current study to provide reliable marks, that is marks close to the teacher marks (Table 3). These results also confirm previous research that has been conducted with adolescent learners (Sadler & Good 2006; Saito & Fujita 2004; Cho & MacArthur 2010) and older learners (Patri 2002; Rudy & Fejfar et al. 2001; Falchikov & Goldfinch 2000). Careful training of the external assessor also increased rater consistency (Table 4). This implies that well-trained and experienced teachers can produce consistent marks. This might be extremely helpful to future researchers who attempt to use PA with larger populations and more teachers. Only when teachers provide consistent marks, can researchers test the reliability and validity of PA (by comparing teachers’ and students’ marks) effectively.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 4 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Additionally, the present study suggested the use of PA as a complementary practice to teacher assessment. This has also been supported by previous researchers (i.e. Tsui & Ng 2000). Substituting teacher assessment with PA would be daunting since the teacher is always the expert in the learners’ eyes (Berg, 1999). The researchers also avoided to place excessive emphasis providing lengthy and strict training to either students or external assessor as this might have outshone the advantages of mutual learning embedded in PA (Gibbs, 2006). The results proved that the evaluation process was not hindered in any way. The current study also confirmed that the use of only one assessor per assessee can have a positive effect on the reliability and, in a way, the validity of PA as was indicated by previous research (Stefani 1994). Consequently, using multiple raters could be avoided since that increases the demand of time and effort which might compromise the efficiency of the execution (Sung et al. 2010). In summary, careful training of the learners and the external assessor increased the reliability and validity of PA (Tables 3 & 4) in the current study and ensured the successful implementation of PA with adolescent learners.
9. Implications, Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
The findings of this study have significant implications for both teachers and researchers. First of all, as several researchers (Pond et al. 1995; Ryan, Marshall, Porter & Jia 2007) claim, students’ involvement in the formulation of the grading criteria improves the overall reliability and validity of PA because it allows them to better understand the scoring process. Teachers should keep in mind that students have to be given time, training and help to adapt to PA, in order to perform to the best of their ability and exploit its full potential (also in Berg 1999). Secondly, unlike previous researchers (e.g. Cho & MacArthur 2010), this study encourages teachers to use only one peer rater when they employ PA as part of their classroom-based assessment (Table 3 and Section 7). Teachers are also encouraged to use rubrics with unambiguous scales and employ a small number of categories (five or fewer) since these are related with increased reliability (also in Sadler & Good 2006). This study showed that using a carefully designed analytic rating scale (Appendix I) increases the inter-rater reliability considerably (Table 4). Moreover, future teachers/researchers should consider using specific guidelines, and blind review among peers because this increases student– teacher agreement on grades (reliability of PA) and presumably any resultant student learning outcome from this process (also in Sadler & Good 2006).
2 4 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Elena Meletiadou and Dina Tsagari
Furthermore, if the implementation of PA involves several teachers, these should receive sufficient and relevant in-service training (also in Brindley 1997) which will enable them to implement PA methods in their classrooms and support learners throughout this process. Finally, teachers and researchers should try to control the workload produced as a result of engaging in PA on students because this may reduce their willingness and grading accuracy (ibid). At this point, it would be useful to refer to some limitations and concerns of this study. Firstly, PA has to become an integral part of the teaching programme throughout the school year on a national level in order to become effective and be accepted as part of teachers’ assessment practices. (also in Black & William 1998). Moreover, this study was carried out with a small sample. Therefore, we must be cautious in generalizing more broadly. Other schools, teachers, and groups of students might behave differently and yield different results. Furthermore, based on the findings of this research, future researchers should consider: (a) conducting a similar research with a larger sample of participants in order to increase the validity/reliability of the present research; (b) integrating peer-assessment into the EFL classroom by employing PA the beginning to the end of the school year in order to investigate its potential as a learning tool, and (d) extending peer-assessment implementation to lower grades or other educational levels, i.e. primary school.
10. Conclusion
The use of PA is an innovative way of classroom-based assessment. This study, making only a small contribution to the field of alternative assessment, has shown the potential of PA as a powerful alternative and learner-centred tool. It has shown that high levels of reliability (agreement between teacher and student marks) and validity are possible when students grade their peers’ essays. Finally, it has indicated that all kinds of learners even the younger ones (e.g. adolescents), can get actively involved in PA and reliably assess the language proficiency of their peers as well as their own language skills and thus improve their writing performance.
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Appendix
The peer assessment form Title of the essay: ………………………………………… Group: …… No. of Comp. :………
Excellent- Good- Criteria/Weighting Fair-Poor Very Poor Very Good Average Content 1. Are the main ideas clear and well- supported with helpful details? 2. Are the ideas relevant to the topic? 3. Is the text easy for the reader? 4. Does the composition fulfill the task fully? Organization 5. Is there thorough development through introduction, body and conclusion? 6. Is there logical sequence of ideas and effective use of transition? 7. Is there cohesion and are there unified paragraphs? 8. Does the writer achieve coherence by using simple linking devices? C. Vocabulary and Language Usage 9. Is the vocabulary sophisticated and varied? 10. Is there effective word choice and usage? Is the meaning clear? 11. Does the writer use simple/ complex constructions effectively? 12. Are there errors of tense and/or subject/verb agreement? 13. Are there errors of number (singular /plural) and word order? 14. Are there errors of articles, pronouns and prepositions? D. Mechanics 15. Are there problems with spelling and handwriting? 16. Are there errors of punctuation and capitalization?
Analytic score: Content: /5, Organization: /4, Vocabulary and Language use: /6, Mechanics: /5, Total score: /20.
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2 5 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Raising Pragmatic Awareness through Teacher Illocutionary Acts
Evangelia Michail
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [email protected]
Abstract
This case study is a pedagogical intervention in the teaching of pragmatics in the Greek EFL classroom, aiming to redefine the classroom as a curricular space (Graves 2008), exploring it as a source of input in order to raise students’ pragmatic awareness. The theoretical assumption is that explicit pragmatic awareness on the part of students will enhance the overall learning process. In this study, particular emphasis is placed on the illocutionary force of teacher questions. Adopting the framework of Exploratory Practice, it takes the notion of research as a supportive rather than as a parasitic activity (Allwright 2005), thus carrying out research via normal classroom activities, engaging 22 upper- intermediate students as co-researchers. Data collection was carried out by monitoring lessons (video-recording and reflective lesson plans), reflecting on students’ choices, and reflecting on students’ reflections. The findings of this study are positive, even if preliminary, corroborating our working hypothesis that we can raise learners’ pragmatic awareness on condition that we adhere to Austin’s suggested moral to “engage in elucidating the total speech act in the total speech situation” (1962: 147).
1. Introduction
Raising learners’ pragmatic awareness has become one of the main goals in the EFL classroom, and many researchers have been concerned with the ‘teachability’ of different pragmatic aspects (Kasper 1997). Bardovi-Harlig (1996) argues that researchers and teachers should work towards making the connection between pragmatics research in language teaching and the role such research should play in the language classroom. Moreover, recent curriculum innovation and revised textbooks comprise strong pragmatic components, thus bringing new demands to teachers, students, and schools. It was against this context that the present study was conceived.
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This case study is the first of a series of small-scale pedagogical interventions in the teaching of pragmatics in the Greek EFL classroom, aiming to redefine the classroom as a curricular space (Graves 2008), exploring it as a source of input in order to raise students’ pragmatic awareness. Teacher talk is approached from a pragmatic viewpoint and interpreted as carrier of pragmatic meaning potential. Particular emphasis is placed on the illocutionary force of teacher questions that do not require the giving of information as a response.
1.1. Teaching Context
The context for my work as an English language teacher is a state High School in the prefecture of Karditsa. The communicative turn in language teaching has resulted in the Council of Europe’s Common Framework of Reference for Languages, which emphasises the importance of communicative competence (defined as consisting of sociolinguistic, linguistic and pragmatic components) as a major element in any language learning and teaching (Council of Europe 2001). Within this framework, teaching foreign languages aims to facilitate the development of language skills that will enable pupils to communicate effectively in different linguistic and cultural contexts. However, students are restricted to using the English language only in the English language classroom, since English is not an official language in Greece. It becomes clear, therefore, that, in the Greek EFL setting, the responsibility for teaching the pragmatic aspects of language use falls squarely on teachers. To accomplish this, teachers have to assume the role of “custodians of the English language and culture” in the classroom, thus bearing the responsibility for using the few weekly hours “to teach the norms of native-speakers’ English and expose learners to contextualized examples of the target language that are linguistically flawless, if communicatively efficient” (Sifakis 2009: 235).A detailed review of the relevant literature and research in the following section will reveal current demands on a pedagogic intervention, not so much with the purpose of providing learners with new information but rather to make them aware of what they know already and encourage them to use their pragmatic knowledge presumed as transferable in L2 contexts (Kasper 1997).
2. Literature Review
In the existing literature on teaching pragmatics in the classroom/learning context, researchers generally point out the positive impact of instruction aimed at raising learners’ pragmatic awareness (Alcon 2005; Cohen & Ishihara
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2009; Erton 2007; Guerra & Martinez-Flor 2006; Kasper 1997; Martinez-Flor & Fukuya 2005; Murray 2009; Rose & Kasper 2001; Takimoto 2006; Takimoto 2009). However, a fundamental controversial question is which instructional approaches are most effective for teaching pragmatic competence in L2. Most studies comparing the effectiveness of different teaching approaches select explicit awareness-oriented instruction. Rose and Kasper (2001) argue that some form of awareness-oriented instruction is necessary because pragmalinguistic forms and sociopragmatic rules are often not salient enough for learners and that mere exposure to these rules in action does not help learners notice them. Takimoto (2009) argues that, to teach pragmatics, instruction must promote learners’ conscious noticing of both the relationship between forms and meanings of target structures and the relationship between strategies for realising speech intentions, linguistic forms used to express these intentions, and social conditions governing language use. Interventional research also often includes a treatment in a teacher-fronted format, with the instructor explaining metapragmatic information about the form-function relationship between the targeted pragmatic features and highlighting the pragmatic functions of grammatical information depending on the social context (Félix-Brasdefer 2008). For the purposes of this study, pragmatics is approached from an interpretation perspective. Wilson & Sperber (1990) define pragmatics as the study of the general cognitive principles and abilities involved in utterance interpretation, thus aiming at describing the factors other than knowledge of sentence meaning that affect the interpretation of utterances. Leech (1983) adds that pragmatics analyses only the meaning that is publicly available for interpretation while Silverstein (2010) points out that by emphasising the pragmatic aspect of language, we tend to conceive of it as a resource for actualising event- and context-framed utterance acts. Giving the context-dependent nature of such phenomena more centrality, Levinson (1983) views pragmatics as the study of the relations between language and context that are basic to an account of language understanding, thus being of direct practical importance in applied linguistics. The study adopts Schiffrin’s (1994) view of discourse as constituted of (or consisting in) ‘utterances’, where utterances are considered to be inherently contextualized units of language production. Furthermore, teaching is approached as a paradigm example of Levinson’s (1979) notion of language usage as activity types, according to which an activity type is a category or genre consisting of goal-defined, socially constituted, and bounded focal members. Events occurring within this category impose certain constraints on participants, setting and, above all, on the kinds of allowable contributions.
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3. Main Aspects of Pragmatics
3.1. Speech Act Theory
Speech Act theory (Austin 1962; Searle 1979; Bach and Harnish [1979]1984, amongst many others) captures the view of language as social action. Fundamental to this approach is the concept that language use involves the simultaneous performance of multiple acts. At one level, a speaker is performing a locutionary act, or producing a sentence with a particular sense and reference. Simultaneously, a speaker is performing an illocutionary act, or an act in saying. The term illocutionary act refers to the specific illocutionary force or language function associated with the uttering of particular words in a particular context. At the same time, a speaker is performing a perlocutionary act, i.e. “the bringing about of effects on the audience” (Levinson 1983: 236).
3.2. Gricean Pragmatics
As Schiffrin (1994), among many others, calls it, Gricean pragmatics isa contemporary version of pragmatics that focuses on meaning in context. Two concepts are central in Gricean pragmatics. The first concept is speaker meaning, suggesting a particular view of human communication that focuses on intentions. Grice (1957) separates non-natural meaning from natural meaning (natural meaning is devoid of intentionality while non-natural meaning or meaning-nn is roughly equivalent to intentional communication), thus arguing that linguistic communication occurs only when a speaker intends in using language to convey certain attitudes to his hearer and the hearer recognises what these attitudes are, based upon what has been said. This joint accomplishment between speaker and hearer in making meaning is what Thomas (1995: 208) calls “meaning in interaction”, and what has been broadly meant by the term “meaning negotiation”. A main/crucial concept in Gricean pragmatics is context, viewed as a cognitive contribution to utterance interpretation. According to Schiffrin (1994), speech act theory and Gricean pragmatics view context as primarily ‘knowledge’, i.e. what speakers and hearers are assumed to know and how this knowledge can guide the use of language and utterance interpretation. Although a key part of such knowledge is ‘knowledge of situation’, both approaches fail to analyse situation, i.e. the set of social circumstances in which utterances ca be produced and interpreted as realisations of
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their underlying constitutive rules (ibid). In the same line of thought, Mey (2009a) argues that the situation creates the affordances by which the hearer is guided toward a correct interpretation of what s/he is hearing, and indeed of what s/he her/himself is saying. The emphasis is placed not on describing individual speech acts but on figuring out how a particular act of language came to be used in this particular situation, in a meeting of human interactants who have a common background and try to realise a common goal (Mey, 2009b).
3.3. Indirect Speech Acts
Of particular importance in this study are indirect speech acts (ISA), defined by Searle (1979) as utterances in which one speech act is performed indirectly by performing another. Indirect speech acts derive their force not from their lexicosemantic buildup but from the situation in which they are appropriately uttered.
3.4. Pragmatic Awareness
Pragmatic awareness in part consists of illocutionary competence, that is, knowledge of acting in language, of speech acts and speech functions, and sociolinguistic competence. Fraser (1990) defines sociolinguistic competence as the ability to use language appropriately according to context while Leech (1983), integrating socio-awareness with pragmatic competence, describes sociopragmatics as the sociological interface of pragmatics, referring to the social perceptions underlying participants’ interpretation and performance of communicative action.
3.5. The Focus on Teacher Questions
Focus on Teacher talk was based on the fact that this is the type of language use students have been exposed to and familiar with for years now. Teacher questions, in particular, can provide very illuminating examples of indirect speech acts, their illocutionary force and intentional communication. As Athanasiadou ([1991]2010) points out, questions can be classified in terms of the information which is present in the speaker’s mind.
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4. Aims
The broader aims of the study, of which this paper is a part, are to make students aware of: - the “reciprocal participation of speaker and hearer in the illocutionary act” (Leech 1983: 35). - the dynamic process of making meaning (Thomas 1995). - the pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic resources that determine meaning construction.
However, this paper has the limited focus of an initial exploration into the classroom context of EFL in the particular local situation described above, as will become evident in the next section.
5. Methodology
Research in teaching pragmatics has also proposed various frameworks and guiding principles to provide support for teachers as they strive to determine the methods and materials that are most appropriate for their individual contexts. Following this line of inquiry, the present study was carried out in the form of a case study, which, as Nunan (1992) highlights, is suitable for practitioners investigating and enhancing their understanding of their own workplaces. The study focused on the classroom as a context where opportunities for raising pragmatic awareness can take place, since language classrooms are especially well suited to provide both input and interpretation, addressing problems of salience and of making language available to learners for observation (Bardovi-Harlig & Mahan-Taylor 2003). Kasper (1997) adds that classrooms afford second language learners the opportunity to reflect on their communicative encounters and to experiment with different pragmatic options. Kasper and Rose (2002) favour focusing on institutional discourse to help demonstrate the interrelation between text and context, for example, how communicative action influences and reproduces institutional structures. Institutional talk also has the advantage of being more highly structured, routinised, and recurrent than interpersonal conversation. From a methodological perspective, the advantage lies in giving studies of institutional discourse the benefit of including an in-built control group. As this research is primarily directed towards exploring the landscape of foreign language teaching in the context of state education, adopting the framework of Exploratory Practice seems to be most appropriate for my purposes. Allwright (2005) defines Exploratory Practice (EP) as a form of practitioner research that involves teachers and learners working together, during language lessons, to explore and develop their own understandings of their classroom lives. The
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fundamental aim of EP is to try to understand the quality of life in a given teaching/ learning situation (ibid). Zeichner and Nofke (2001) point out that practitioner research places emphasis on developing and deepening the understanding of educational practice. Exploratory Practice takes the notion of research as a supportive rather than as a parasitic activity (Allwright 2005), thus carrying out research via normal classroom activities, involving students as co-researchers.
5.1. Participants
This case study involved 22 students of the third grade of High School, aged 14- 15, taught by the researcher for 3 years so far. They have been studying English as a compulsory subject in primary and secondary education for six years and their knowledge of English is at upper-intermediate level. Upon graduation from high school, they will have completed compulsory Greek education. At the same time, they are required to reach level B2 of language proficiency in English (Council of Europe 2001). All students use the same textbook (Think Teen, published by the Pedagogical Institute, available online at http://www.pi- schools.sch.gr/gymnasio/aggl_c/math.pdf ). Since explicit information regarding pragmatics is not included in this textbook but is included as a learning objective of the curriculum (Pedagogical Institute 2003), it was deemed necessary that the researcher complement the textbook with a pragmatics component.
5.2. Task Design and Implementation
This group of students has two 40-minute English teaching sessions twice a week. For the purposes of this study, 4 lessons were videotaped and thoroughly assessed by the researcher. From these lessons, seven pieces were isolated to be utilised in the study. The pieces contained pragmatic acts involving teacher questions that do not require the giving of information as a response. The teacher questions selected fell into two categories: Indirect Requests and Rhetorical Questions. Selection was based on Athanasiadou’s ([1991]2010) argument that all questions of indirect requests leave the initiative with the respondents, placing them at an advantage and emphasising the respondents’ power to choose. So, the dominant role is transferred to the respondents, thus rendering the teacher less authoritative and creating a relaxed and more productive classroom atmosphere. Selection of rhetorical questions was made in terms of their multiple functions: in a rhetorical question a constituent is given emphatic prominence and gets a universally valid touch; in asking a rhetorical question, a speaker anticipates consensus on the part of the hearer.
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Instruction was in English, but tasks were translated into Greek when students had some trouble with task performance. The study was completed in two weeks (four lessons). The instructional treatment was as follows. First, the class was provided with explicit instruction on Indirect Speech Acts. Several examples were used, starting with Searle’s widely used example “Can you pass me the salt?” to demonstrate the different illocutionary forces an interrogative linguistic form can have in real life. Upon completion of the tutorial, the students were involved in two awareness-raising tasks to draw their conscious attention to and deepen their understanding of how pragmatic considerations can influence language use. Task design was based on input enhancement defined by Sharwood Smith (1993) as any pedagogical intervention used to make specific target features of the input more salient as an effort to draw learners’ attention to these features. Takimoto (2006) argues that the target pragmatic features can be best learned when taught explicitly together with some sort of input enhancement activities. Defined by Ellis (2008) as ‘knowledge about the L2’, explicit knowledge consists of analysed knowledge and metalanguage. The former refers to that knowledge about L2 items and structures of which the learner is aware but not necessarily conscious. The latter is ‘the language used to analyze or describe a language’ (Richards, Platt and Weber 1985 as cited in Ellis 2008) must be learnt through instruction or observation. DeKeyser (1995) adds that explicit learning occurs with concurrent awareness of what is being learned. In more detail, students were asked to watch one videotaped pragmatic act at a time. Immediately after watching it, they were provided with a scripted version of the situations (see Table 1 below) and a list of illocutionary forces to match with it (see Table 2 below): They were then required to fill in their verbal reports considering the several pragma-linguistic and socio-pragmatic resources (see Table 3 below) that had affected their interpretation of each situated utterance. During the task, the teacher provided explicit feedback in the form of metalinguistic information on these resources.
5.3. Data Collection
Data collection was carried out by monitoring lessons (reflective lesson plans), reflecting on students’ choices, and reflecting on students’ reflections noted down retrospectively on their verbal reports. Verbal reports were used to obtain data that described the learning event near the moment it occurred. According to Cohen (1996), verbal reports can provide data that reflect some retrospective self-observation: the inspection of specific language behaviour in actual instances of language use.
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Table 1. Scripted version of the situations
Task 1 (part 1) Situation 1: The teacher has delivered a photocopy in which students identify a typing mistake. S (Initiator): Miss, you’ve made a mistake here. T (Second party response): Did I ever say I was perfect? Situation 2: There has been a class discussion about a European project they are involved in and the teacher wants to start with the lesson. T (Initiator): Shall we now move on to p. 120 of your SB? Situation 3: Students are writing an email to invite students form another country to join their project. The teacher sees some students writing and correcting their paper all the time. T to Ss (Initiator): Don’t you think you had better write a draft first? Situation 4: A student is getting ready to hand in her paper. S (Initiator): Miss, I have finished. T (Second party response): Are you sure you have double checked it? Situation 5: A student has just come up with a brilliant idea on a spider gram. S (Initiator): Can I make a spider gram? T (Second party response): Why don’t you come to the board and show us? Situation 6: The class has been discussing the things they usually do with their best friend. After several answers, one student mentions “chatting”. S (Initiator): Chatting! T (Second party response): What else could it be? Situation 7: The students have been assigned to work in pairs in order to prepare the questions for an interview they would take from another pair of students. The teacher had asked them not to use Greek while performing the task. T (Feedback): Would you mind not using Greek? Based on Sequences of predictable IRF (initiation-response-feedback) discourse chains (Sinclair and Coulthard 1975, as cited in Cullen 1998)
Table 2. Illocutionary forces
Task 1 (part 2) Illocutionary Force Suggestion Invitation Advice Apology Request Suggestion Agreement
Table 3. Pragmalinguistic and Sociopragmatic resources
Task 2 Pragmalinguistic and Sociopragmatic resources Cooperation (Grice 1975) Politeness (Leech 1983) Relevance (Wilson & Sperber 1990) Shared situational knowledge (Mey 2009a). Shared knowledge of the scene around them (Clark 2009). Common Ground (Stalnaker 2002) Intonation (Austin 1962) Nonverbal means such as gestures and body movements (Mey 2009b). Facial expressions, voice quality (Haviland 2009).
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5.4. Findings
The data yielded by verbal reports are presented and critically analysed below: Students faced no difficulty in identifying the matching illocutionary force to each situated utterance. The factors they identified as assisting them in meaning construction were as follows:
Table 4. Results
Results
Cooperation 95% Politeness 95% Relevance 95% Shared situational knowledge 100% Shared knowledge of the scene around them 100% Common Ground 100% Intonation 53% Nonverbal means such as gestures and body movements 69% Facial expressions, voice quality 69%
6. Discussion
Shared situational knowledge, shared knowledge of the scene around them, and common ground (100%) were identified as the most important factors determining pragmatic interpretation. In their verbal reports students mentioned facts such as the teacher’s regular use of certain expressions and her familiar teaching attitude. Politeness, cooperation, and relevance were considered highly important by an overwhelming majority of students (95%). Their verbal reports emphasised the use of the expressions “Why don’t you..?”, “Shall we..?” and “Would you mind..?” and they also mentioned that they were attentive and cooperative. A considerable percentage (69%) of the students stated that nonverbal means such as gestures, body movements, facial expressions and voice quality helped them in recognising speaker intention. They attributed it to the fact that they had not been exposed to analysing such features before. Only half of the students (53%) stated that interpretation was facilitated by intonation. They explained that lack of awareness of the significance of intonation was the reason for this. This entails that the class should be allowed opportunities to practice on intonation and its functions.
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7. Conclusions
This study was designed to address the issue of raising pragmatic awareness through teacher illocutionary acts. The results of the study, consistent with previous research, indicate that explicit instruction was effectively combined with awareness-raising tasks where an emphasis was placed on -raising awareness of speaker intention -raising awareness of the pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic resources determining meaning construction. An initial but important conclusion to be drawn, however, is that we can raise learners’ pragmatic awareness on condition that we adhere to Austin’s suggested moral to “engage in elucidating the total speech act in the total speech situation” (1962: 147).
8. Implications for Future Research
Although the study yielded important findings, it is clear that no generalisations can be drawn based on eight lessons and on this restricted group of 22 students. Since, however, these students have gained from explicit instruction combined with awareness-raising tasks, an interesting future implication would stress the necessity of complementing Greek state EFL coursebooks with a pragmatics component. A second important implication would emphasise Greek EFL teachers’ potential to assume the role of “custodians of the English language and culture” in the classroom (Sifakis 2009: 235). Last but not least, another recommendation for future practice would focus on involving students as co- researchers in practitioner research to enhance motivation and classroom interaction.
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2 6 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Καθάρισε αμέσως την κουζίνα παρακαλώ!: Αιτήματα μαθητών της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας
Σπυριδούλα Μπέλλα
Πανεπιστήμιο Αθηνών [email protected]
Abstract
This paper investigates the development and production of requests in the interlanguage of foreign language (FL) learners of Greek. To this end, it compares the performance of native speakers and two FL learners’ groups of different proficiency levels (intermediate and advanced) in one status-equal and one status-unequal situation. The analysis focuses on the head acts and internal modification devices employed by the participants. The results show that not all aspects of request performance develop equally in correlation to proficiency level and that situational variation is an important factor influencing the learners’ performance.
1. Εισαγωγή
Η ικανότητα των μαθητών μιας δεύτερης/ξένης γλώσσας να χρησιμοποιούν κατάλληλες στρατηγικές για την παραγωγή ποικίλων γλωσσικών πράξεων και ιδιαίτερα αιτημάτων βρίσκεται στο επίκεντρο του ενδιαφέροντος του χώρου της πραγματολογίας της διαγλώσσας που αποσκοπεί «στην περιγραφή και ερμηνεία της ανάπτυξης και χρήσης της πραγματολογικής γνώσης των μη φυσικών ομιλητών» (Kasper 1989: 42). Τα αιτήματα αποτελούν μία από τις πιο ενδιαφέρουσες γλωσσικές πράξεις, εφόσον ως απειλητικές για το πρόσωπο του συνομιλητή πράξεις (Brown & Levinson 1987) απαιτούν υψηλά επίπεδα κοινωνιοπραγματολογικής ικανότητας. Η σχετική έρευνα έχει επικεντρωθεί στις στρατηγικές τις οποίες χρησιμοποιούν οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές προκειμένου να μετριάσουν την απειλή που ενέχεται στα αιτήματα και στα σημεία όπου η παραγωγή τους διαφέρει από την αντίστοιχη των φυσικών ομιλητών (βλ. π.χ. Blum- Kulka et al. 1989, Trosborg 1995, Barron 2002). Στο πλαίσιο αυτό έχει, μεταξύ άλλων, φανεί ότι ακόμα και οι προχωρημένου επιπέδου μαθητές αντιμετωπίζουν σημαντικές δυσκολίες ως προς την έκφραση των
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 6 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
αιτημάτων τους με τρόπο κατάλληλο και συμβατό προς τις κοινωνιοπραγματολογικές παραμέτρους της εκάστοτε επικοινωνιακής κατάστασης (Hendriks 2002; House and Kasper 1987; Trosborg 1995). Επιπλέον, έχει επανειλημμένως επισημανθεί ότι η κατάκτηση των πραγματολογικών στοιχείων γενικά παρουσιάζει ιδιαίτερη δυσκολία για τους μαθητές μια γλώσσας ως ξένης1 δεδομένου ότι η πρόσβασή τους σε αυθεντικό πραγματολογικό γλωσσικό εισαγόμενο περιορίζεται στη γλωσσική τάξη (Bardovi-Harlig & Dörnyei 1999, Martínez-Flor & Usó-Juan 2006, Hendriks 2010). Το πρότυπο ανάλυσης της δομής των αιτημάτων που κατεξοχήν χρησιμοποιείται στη συναφή έρευνα και υιοθετείται εδώ είναι των Blum-Kulka et al. (1989). Στο πρότυπο αυτό τα αιτήματα αναλύονται σε κύριες πράξεις (head acts), βασικές δηλαδή στρατηγικές που χρησιμοποιούνται για να εκφράσουν το αίτημα και υποστηρικτικές κινήσεις (supportive moves), περιφερειακά στοιχεία που προηγούνται ή έπονται των κυρίων πράξεων. Οι κύριες πράξεις διακρίνονται σε τρία επίπεδα αμεσότητας: άμεσες, συμβατικά έμμεσες και μη συμβατικά έμμεσες. Οι υποστηρικτικές κινήσεις λειτουργούν ως εξωτερική τροποποίηση (external modification) των κύριων πράξεων και περιλαμβάνουν αιτιολογήσεις και εξηγήσεις για το αίτημα, απόπειρες δέσμευσης του συνομιλητή, υποσχέσεις, αιτήματα συγγνώμης κ.λπ. Η τροποποίηση των αιτημάτων γίνεται και εσωτερικά (internal modification) μέσω συντακτικών ή λεξικών/φραστικών στοιχείων. Στους συντακτικούς τροποποιητές ανήκουν η μη συνοπτική ρηματική άποψη και η μη υποχρεωτική χρήση παρελθοντικού χρόνου (π.χ. θα μπορούσες έναντι του μπορείς), αρνητικές δομές, ερωτηματικές δομές (π.χ. δεν καθαρίζεις λίγο την κουζίνα;) και υποθετικοί λόγοι (π.χ. Καθάρισε την κουζίνα, αν μπορείς). Τα λεξικά/φραστικά στοιχεία διακρίνονται σε επιτατικά (upgraders) και μετριαστικά (downgraders). Τα επιτατικά στοιχεία αποσκοπούν στην ενίσχυση της προσλεκτικής ισχύος του αιτήματος εντείνοντας συχνά την απειλητικότητά του και είναι κυρίως επιρρηματικά (π.χ. Πρέπει οπωσδήποτε να καθαρίσεις την κουζίνα). Τα μετριαστικά στοιχεία, αντίθετα, αποσκοπούν στη μείωση της απειλής και περιλαμβάνουν το δείκτη παρακαλώ, δείκτες υποβάθμισης (λίγο, κάπως κ.λπ.), δείκτες υποκειμενικότητας (νομίζω, φαντάζομαι κ.λπ.), δείκτες περιορισμού (ίσως, μήπως κ.λπ.), δείκτες εμπλοκής (καταλαβαίνεις, ξέρεις κ.λπ.), δείκτες επίκλησης (εντάξει; ε; κ.λπ.) καθώς και δείκτες οικειότητας (όνομα +κτητικό, υποκοριστικά, ρε, μωρέ κλπ.).2 Όλα τα παραπάνω στοιχεία είναι ιδιαίτερης κοινωνιοπραγματολογικής σημασίας, αφού αποτελούν επί της ουσίας και «τα μέσα που έχουν στη διάθεσή τους οι ομιλητές για να εκφράζουν ευγένεια μέσω των γλωσσικών τους πράξεων»
1 Σε σύγκριση με τους μαθητές μια γλώσσας ως δεύτερης. 2 Οι δείκτες οικειότητας ποικίλουν ανά γλώσσα. Εδώ παρουσιάζονται αυτοί που κυρίως απαντούν στα ελληνικά δεδομένα.
2 6 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Σπυριδούλα Μπέλλα
(Blum-Kulka 2005: 266). Συνεπώς, οι μαθητές των οποίων η διαγλώσσα αποκλίνει σημαντικά από τους φυσικούς ομιλητές ως προς τη χρήση των στοιχείων αυτών κινδυνεύουν να φανούν απότομοι, μη συνεργάσιμοι ή ακόμα και αγενείς (Bardovi- Harlig et al. 1991: 4). Η παρούσα έρευνα έχει προκαταρκτικό χαρακτήρα με την έννοια ότι εντάσσεται σε ευρύτερη έρευνα σχετικά με τα αιτήματα στη διαγλώσσα και επικεντρώνεται σε δύο ζητήματα: α) στις διαφορές που εμφανίζονται ανάμεσα στα αιτήματα των μαθητών της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας και των φυσικών ομιλητών, και β) στο βαθμό στον οποίο η αύξηση του επιπέδου γενικότερης γλωσσικής ικανότητας εξασφαλίζει ανάπτυξη της πραγματολογικής ικανότητας. Σε αυτή τη βάση συγκρίνονται οι στρατηγικές διατύπωσης αιτημάτων από φυσικούς ομιλητές και μαθητές της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας δύο διαφορετικών επιπέδων, με στόχο να παρασχεθούν περαιτέρω στοιχεία σχετικά με τα αιτήματα στη διαγλώσσα, και να σκιαγραφηθεί μια πρώτη εικόνα σχετικά με την ανάπτυξη της συγκεκριμένης γλωσσικής πράξης στο διαγλωσσικό σύστημα των μαθητών της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας. Τα βασικά ερευνητικά ερωτήματα είναι τα ακόλουθα: 1. Ποιες διαφορές υπάρχουν μεταξύ φυσικών ομιλητών και μαθητών της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας ως προς τη διατύπωση αιτημάτων; 2. Σε ποιο βαθμό η πραγματολογική ικανότητα των μαθητών αυξάνεται παράλληλα με το επίπεδο της γενικότερης γλωσσικής τους ικανότητας και ποιες είναι οι συνυποδηλώσεις των αποτελεσμάτων της έρευνας για τη διδασκαλία της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας;
Στην ενότητα 2 αναλύεται η μεθοδολογία της έρευνας. Οι ενότητες 3 και 4 παρουσιάζουν και σχολιάζουν τα αποτελέσματα της ποσοτικής και ποιοτικής ανάλυσης των δεδομένων. Τέλος, στην ενότητα 6 παρατίθενται τα συμπεράσματα και οι συνυποδηλώσεις της έρευνας για τη διδασκαλία της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας.
2. Μεθοδολογία
Στην έρευνα συμμετείχαν 100 μαθητές της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας, 50 μέσου (στο εξής ΜΜ) και 50 προχωρημένου επιπέδου (στο εξής ΠΜ) ηλικίας 19-29 ετών με 14 διαφορετικές μητρικές γλώσσες, καθώς και μια ομάδα ελέγχου 50 φυσικών ομιλητών της Ελληνικής (στο εξής ΦΟ) ηλικίας 19-28 ετών. Οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές βρίσκονταν στην Ελλάδα την εποχή που πραγματοποιήθηκε η έρευνα, προκειμένου να παρακολουθήσουν τα μαθήματα γλώσσας του Προγράμματος Θερινών Υποτροφιών του Πανεπιστημίου Αθηνών (ΘΥΕΣΠΑ). Όλοι τους ήταν φοιτητές ή απόφοιτοι ανώτατων ιδρυμάτων και οι σπουδές τους σχετίζονταν άμεσα ή έμμεσα με την ελληνική γλώσσα και λογοτεχνία. Οι φυσικοί ομιλητές ήταν επίσης φοιτητές ή απόφοιτοι ανώτατης εκπαίδευσης.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 6 9 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Τα δεδομένα συλλέχθηκαν με τη μέθοδο της συμπλήρωσης συνομιλίας (discourse completion test). Προκειμένου να εκμαιευθούν αιτήματα, δόθηκε στα υποκείμενα σύντομη περιγραφή 14 επικοινωνιακών καταστάσεων, στις οποίες προσδιορίζονταν οι σχέσεις (οικειότητας, απόστασης, κοινωνικής ισχύος) μεταξύ των συμμετεχόντων και τους ζητήθηκε να συμπληρώσουν τον διάλογο, υιοθετώντας τον ρόλο του συμμετέχοντος που θα διατύπωνε το αίτημα. Η συγκεκριμένη μέθοδος, ευρύτατα διαδεδομένη σε αυτού του είδους τις έρευνες, έχει επανειλημμένως γίνει αντικείμενο κριτικής, κυρίως όσον αφορά το πόσο αντιπροσωπευτικές για την αυθόρμητη συνομιλία είναι οι γραπτές απαντήσεις (Rose 1994, Félix-Brasdefer 2010). Συνιστά, ωστόσο, τον μοναδικό τρόπο ταχείας συλλογής σημαντικού αριθμού δεδομένων σχετικά με συγκεκριμένες γλωσσικές πράξεις (Marti 2006: 1843) και «με προσεκτικό σχεδιασμό είναι δυνατόν να δώσει στον ερευνητή σημαντικές πληροφορίες για την κοινωνιοπραγματολογική γνώση [των ομιλητών] σχετικά με τους περικειμενικούς παράγοντες που προσδιορίζουν το ποιες στρατηγικές και γλωσσικές επιλογές είναι κατάλληλες» (Kasper 2000: 329). Η ανάλυση των δεδομένων είναι κυρίως ποσοτική, αλλά και ποιοτική και αφορά τη γλωσσική συμπεριφορά των συμμετεχόντων σε δύο μόνο από τις επικοινωνιακές καταστάσεις του ερωτηματολογίου. Στην πρώτη (στο εξής Κ1) τα υποκείμενα συγκατοικούν με μια φίλη/ έναν φίλο τους, ο οποίος/ η οποία έκανε πάρτυ το προηγούμενο βράδυ και άφησε μεγάλη ακαταστασία στην κουζίνα· πρέπει λοιπόν να του/της ζητήσουν να την καθαρίσει. Στη δεύτερη (στο εξής Κ2) τα υποκείμενα πρέπει να παίξουν τον ρόλο ενός φοιτητή/μιας φοιτήτριας που πηγαίνει στο γραφείο της καθηγήτριάς του/της για να ζητήσει παράταση για μια εργασία. Ενώ, λοιπόν, η πρώτη κατάσταση είναι συμμετρική ως προς τη σχέση των συμμετεχόντων και χαρακτηρίζεται από οικειότητα, η δεύτερη είναι μη συμμετρική με την έννοια ότι χαρακτηρίζεται από απόσταση και ιεραρχική σχέση ανάμεσα στους συμμετέχοντες (βλ. Scollon & Scollon 2001). Η ανάλυση επικεντρώνεται στις κύριες πράξεις με τις οποίες πραγματώνεται το αίτημα σε κάθε κατάσταση, καθώς και στην εσωτερική τροποποίηση του αιτήματος (συντακτική και λεξική/φραστική).
3. Αποτελέσματα
3.1. Κύριες πράξεις
Ο Πίνακας 1 παρουσιάζει τις επιλογές των τριών ομάδων ως προς την κύρια στρατηγική διατύπωσης του αιτήματος στις δύο καταστάσεις. Η ταξινόμηση των κύριων πράξεων βασίζεται στα πρότυπα των Blum-Kulka et al. (1989) και Trosborg (1995). Όπως φαίνεται στον Πίνακα, η διατύπωση του αιτήματος με συμβατικά έμμεσες στρατηγικές παρουσιάζει την υψηλότερη συχνότητα στους ΦΟ στην Κ1. Η πράξη που συγκεντρώνει το μεγαλύτερο ποσοστό (32%) είναι η αμφισβήτηση της προπαρασκευαστικής συνθήκης του αιτήματος, ενώ εξαιρετικά ενδιαφέρουσα είναι η υψηλή προτίμηση που
2 7 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Σπυριδούλα Μπέλλα
Πίνακας 1. Κατανομή κυρίων πράξεων διατύπωσης αιτημάτων στις τρεις ομάδες
ΚΑΤΑΣΤΑΣΗ 1 ΚΑΤΑΣΤΑΣΗ 2 (Κουζίνα) (Παράταση) ΦΟ ΜΜ ΠΜ ΦΟ ΜΜ ΠΜ ΚΥΡΙΕΣ ΠΡΑΞΕΙΣ (%) Άμεσες Προστακτική 16 68 43 0 12 0
Δήλωση υποχρέωσης (πρέπει να...) 5 5 6 0 9 0
Μη μετριασμένο επιτελεστικό (σου ζητάω να...) 0 0 0 0 21 0 Μετριασμένο επιτελεστικό (θέλω/ θα ήθελα να 0 0 0 11 33 14 σου ζητήσω...) Σύνολο άμεσων στρατηγικών 21 73 49 11 75 14
Συμβατικά έμμεσες
Έκφραση επιθυμίας/ ευχής (θέλω/ χρειάζομαι) 3 4 0 40 6 47 Πρόταση/ παρότρυνση (δεν +οριστική 28 0 0 0 0 0 ενεστώτα.[π.χ Δεν καθαρίζεις την κουζίνα;]) Οριστική ενεστώτα [π.χ. καθαρίζεις λίγο...] 12 0 10 0 0 0
Άδεια (μπορώ να...;) 0 0 0 33 14 20 Αμφισβήτηση προπαρασκευαστικής συνθήκης 32 23 39 13 4 15 (μπορείς να.. ;.) Σύνολο συμβατικά έμμεσων στρατηγικών 75 27 49 86 24 83
Έμμεσες
Υπαινιγμός [π.χ. Η κουζίνα είναι χάλια] 4 0 2 3 1 4
Σύνολο έμμεσων στρατηγικών 4 0 2 3 1 4
δείχνουν οι ΦΟ για διατύπωση του αιτήματος εν είδει πρότασης παρότρυνσης. Αντίθετα, το ποσοστό άμεσων στρατηγικών στα δεδομένα τους είναι σαφώς μικρότερο (21%). Οι ΜΜ από την άλλη πλευρά παρουσιάζουν την αντίστροφη εικόνα. Επιλέγουν κυρίως άμεσες πράξεις (73%), με τη χρήση της προστακτικής να κατέχει την πρώτη θέση στις προτιμήσεις τους (68%) σε αυτή την κατάσταση. Παράλληλα, εμφανίζουν πολύ μικρότερη ποικιλία ως προς τις στρατηγικές διατύπωσης του αιτήματος σε σχέση με τους ΦΟ. Από την παραγωγή τους απουσιάζουν εντελώς η προσφιλής στους ΦΟ πρόταση/ παρότρυνση, καθώς και η διατύπωση του αιτήματος με χρήση οριστικής ενεστώτα. Οι ΠΜ τέλος, επίσης καταφεύγουν στην προστακτική σε αρκετά μεγάλο βαθμό στην Κ1, αν και όχι τόσο όσο οι ΜΜ, ενώ χρησιμοποιούν την αμφισβήτηση της προπαρασκευαστικής συνθήκης του αιτήματος σε ποσοστό ανάλογο με των ΦΟ. Ωστόσο, η παρότρυνση/ προτροπή απουσιάζει εντελώς και από τη δική τους παραγωγή, ενώ η οριστική ενεστώτα εμφανίζεται σε ποσοστό 10%, το οποίο πλησιάζει αρκετά το αντίστοιχο των ΦΟ (12%). Στην Κ2 οι ΦΟ διατυπώνουν το αίτημα με τη μορφή επιθυμίας/ ευχής κατά πρώτο λόγο (40%) ή ζητούν την άδεια της καθηγήτριας να καθυστερήσουν την εργασία κατά δεύτερο (33%). Γενικά και σε αυτή την κατάσταση προτιμούν συμβατικά έμμεσες
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 7 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
στρατηγικές (86%), ενώ το δείγμα τους εμφανίζει μόνο ένα 11% άμεσων στρατηγικών. Για μια ακόμα φορά οι ΜΜ εμφανίζουν την αντίστροφη εικόνα καταφεύγοντας σε άμεσες πράξεις (75%) και ιδιαίτερα σε μετριασμένα ή μη επιτελεστικά. Οι στρατηγικές που προτιμώνται από τους ΦΟ ομιλητές σε αυτή την κατάσταση εμφανίζονται με πολύ μικρότερη συχνότητα στα δεδομένα των ΜΜ (6% για έκφραση επιθυμίας/ευχής και 14% για άδεια). Η παραγωγή των ΠΜ, αντίθετα, εμφανίζει μεγάλες ομοιότητες με των ΦΟ σε αυτή την κατάσταση. Η συνολική τους προτίμηση είναι η συμβατική εμμεσότητα (83%), ενώ η έκφραση επιθυμίας/ευχής και η άδεια εμφανίζουν τις υψηλότερες συχνότητες (47% και 20%) αντίστοιχα, όπως ακριβώς και στους ΦΟ. 3.2. Συντακτική τροποποίηση
Το Σχήμα 1 παρουσιάζει τις συχνότητες χρήσης στοιχείων συντακτικής τροποποίησης από τις τρεις ομάδες στις δύο καταστάσεις.3 Όπως φαίνεται στο σχήμα, οι ΦΟ μετριάζουν το αίτημά τους συντακτικά σε σαφώς μεγαλύτερο βαθμό και από τις δύο ομάδες μαθητών στην Κ1. Η στατιστική ανάλυση έδειξε ότι η διαφορά αυτή είναι στατιστικά σημαντική. Επίσης στατιστικά σημαντική προέκυψε και η διαφορά μεταξύ ΜΜ και ΠΜ, με τους ΠΜ να χρησιμοποιούν περισσότερη συντακτική τροποποίηση από τους ΜΜ (F(2.147)=171.9, p< 0.05). Στην Κ2 αντίθετα, οι ΦΟ και οι ΠΜ φάνηκε να χρησιμοποιούν συντακτική τροποποίηση στον ίδιο περίπου βαθμό διαφέροντας με στατιστικά σημαντικό τρόπο από τους ΜΜ, οι οποίοι χρησιμοποιούν σαφώς λιγότερες στρατηγικές συντακτικού μετριασμού (F(2.147)=82.56, p< 0.05).
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Σχήμα 1. Κατανομή στρατηγικών συντακτικής τροποποίησης στις δύο καταστάσεις
3 Οι μέσοι όροι και οι τυπικές αποκλίσεις ανάμεσα στις τρεις ομάδες στη χρήση μηχανισμών συντακτικής και λεξικής τροποποίησης παρουσιάζονται στο παράρτημα.
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3.3. Λεξική/φραστική τροποποίηση
Ως προς τη λεξική τροποποίηση τέλος, η στατιστική ανάλυση ανέδειξε στατιστικά σημαντικές διαφορές μεταξύ ΦΟ και των δύο ομάδων μαθητών και στις δύο καταστάσεις με τους ΦΟ να επιστρατεύουν σημαντικά περισσότερα μετριαστικά στοιχεία [K1: (F(2.147)=230.24, p< 0.05), K2: (F(2.147)=171.9, p< 0.05)]. Στην Κ1, ωστόσο, οι ΠΜ χρησιμοποίησαν περισσότερα στοιχεία λεξικής/φραστικής τροποποίησης, διαφέροντας με στατιστικά σημαντικό τρόπο από τους ΜΜ. Ένα στοιχείο που χρήζει επισήμανσης είναι η χρήση επιτατικών από τους μαθητές της Ελληνικής. Και στις δύο καταστάσεις οι μαθητές χρησιμοποιούν περισσότερα επιτατικά από τους ΦΟ, ενώ πολύ χαρακτηριστικά στην Κ2 τα επιτατικά απουσιάζουν τελείως από την παραγωγή των ΦΟ.
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Κ ατάσταση 1 (κ ουζίνα) Κ ατάσταση 2 (π αράταση)
Σχήμα 2. Κατανομή στρατηγικών λεξικής/φραστικής τροποποίησης στις δύο καταστάσεις
4. Σχολιασμός
4.1. Κύριες πράξεις και συντακτική τροποποίηση
Η άμεση συνάφεια των κύριων πράξεων με τον συντακτικό μετριασμό του αιτήματος συχνά αποσιωπάται στη βιβλιογραφία. Η ταξινόμηση μιας κύριας πράξης, ωστόσο, συχνά εξαρτάται από τη συντακτική δομή της, ενώ αντίστροφα ο αριθμός στοιχείων συντακτικού μετριασμού προσδιορίζεται σε μεγάλο βαθμό από τη συντακτική δομή των κύριων πράξεων. Για παράδειγμα, η χρήση αμφισβήτησης προπαρασκευαστικής συνθήκης καθώς και η αρνητική ερωτηματική δομή που πραγματώνει προτάσεις/ παροτρύνσεις αυξάνουν σημαντικά τις ερωτηματικές (και αρνητικές) δομές και
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αντίστροφα. Γι’ αυτό το λόγο η πραγμάτευση των δύο αυτών παραμέτρων διατύπωσης του αιτήματος γίνεται εδώ παράλληλα. Ως προς τις κύριες πράξεις στην Κ1, ένα από τα πιο ενδιαφέροντα αποτελέσματα αφορά, όπως ήδη αναφέρθηκε, τη διαφορά προτίμησης μεταξύ ΦΟ και μαθητών (ιδιαίτερα των ΜΜ) ως προς την αμεσότητα/εμμεσότητα. Φάνηκε ότι ενώ οι ΦΟ επιλέγουν κατά κύριο λόγο συμβατικά έμμεσες στρατηγικές, οι ΜΜ δείχνουν σαφή προτίμηση προς τις άμεσες και δη στη χρήση της προστακτικής σε αυτή την κατάσταση. Η προτίμηση αυτή μπορεί να σχετίζεται από τη μία πλευρά με μία υπεργενικευμένη αντίληψη ταύτισης της αμεσότητας με την οικειότητα (που δεν είναι άσχετη και με τους διαδεδομένους μύθους περί ελληνικής αγένειας) και από την άλλη με το ότι οι μαθητές αυτοί δεν διαθέτουν άλλα εκφραστικά μέσα για τη διατύπωση του αιτήματος σε αυτή την κατάσταση.4 Η τελευταία αυτή ερμηνεία μπορεί να στηριχθεί περαιτέρω και από τη μικρή ποικιλία κύριων πράξεων που χρησιμοποιούν οι ΜΜ στην Κ1. Συνεπακόλουθα, τα αιτήματά τους προκύπτουν συχνά αυταρχικά και «απότομα», κάτι που επιτείνεται και από το χαμηλό ποσοστό λεξικού/φραστικού μετριασμού που εμφανίζουν. Τα παραδείγματα (1) και (2) είναι ενδεικτικά:
(1) Γιάννη, η κουζίνα είναι πολύ βρώμικη, καθάρισέ την! (2) Την κουζίνα άφησες χάλια χτες με το πάρτυ. Καθάρισε γρήγορα παρακαλώ.
Αντίθετα, οι ΦΟ σπάνια επιλέγουν τέτοιου είδους στρατηγικές στην κατάσταση αυτή. Πρώτη προτίμησή τους αποτελεί η αμφισβήτηση της προπαρασκευαστικής συνθήκης του αιτήματος, κάτι που συνάδει με τα ευρήματα της διεθνούς βιβλιογραφίας σε ανάλογες καταστάσεις (βλ. Hendriks 2010: 223). Εξαιρετικά ενδιαφέρουσα στα δεδομένα τους είναι η εκτεταμένη χρήση της πρότασης/παρότρυνσης (suggestion) μέσω αρνητικής- ερωτηματικής δομής. Σύμφωνα με τις Trosborg (1995) και Kallia (2005), η διατύπωση του αιτήματος εν είδει πρότασης καθιστά την πράξη λιγότερο απειλητική, εφόσον «υποβαθμίζει τον ρόλο του ομιλητή ως ευεργετούμενου από την πράξη» (Trosborg 1995: 201). Στα δεδομένα της Kallia (2005) το ένα τρίτο των αιτημάτων που διατυπώθηκαν από Έλληνες ομιλητές σε καταστάσεις οικειότητας, εμφανίστηκαν με τη μορφή πρότασης, κάτι που, σε συνδυασμό με τα ευρήματα της παρούσας έρευνας, αναδεικνύει τη σημασία της συγκεκριμένης στρατηγικής στην ελληνική κοινότητα. Αξίζει επιπλέον να τονιστεί, ότι εξαιρετικά σύνηθες φαινόμενο στην παραγωγή των ΦΟ της παρούσας έρευνας είναι η χρήση προοπτικής που περιλαμβάνει έμμεσα ή άμεσα τόσο τον ακροατή όσο και τον ομιλητή. Τα παραδείγματα (3) και (4) είναι ενδεικτικά:
4 Όπως τονίζει η Koike (1989: 286), «εφόσον η γραμματική ικανότητα δεν μπορεί να αναπτυχθεί με την ταχύτητα που απαιτούν οι ήδη υπάρχουσες πραγματολογικές έννοιες, οι τελευταίες εκφράζονται με τρόπους προσαρμοσμένους στο τρέχον επίπεδο γραμματικής ικανότητας».
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(3) Δεν βάζεις ένα χεράκι να καθαρίσουμε την κουζίνα; Δεν θα έχουμε πού να φάμε το βράδυ. (4) Ωραία την έκανες την κουζίνα! Δεν με βοηθάς λίγο να την καθαρίσουμε;
Η επιλογή τέτοιας προοπτικής μειώνει περαιτέρω την απειλητική φύση του αιτήματος, δίνοντας στον ακροατή μια αίσθηση «συνανήκειν» σε μια ομάδα και είναι απολύτως συμβατή με τον διαπιστωμένο θετικό προσανατολισμό της ευγένειας στα Ελληνικά (βλ. π.χ. Sifianou 1992, Pavlidou 1994, Antonopoulou 2001, Bella 2011). Προκύπτει ότι η παντελής απουσία της συγκεκριμένης στρατηγικής από τα δεδομένα των μαθητών της έρευνας τούς αποστερεί από ένα σημαντικό και απολύτως ενταγμένο στις ελληνικές κοινωνιοπραγματολογικές νόρμες εκφραστικό μέσο διατύπωσης των αιτημάτων. Κάτι ανάλογο ισχύει, τουλάχιστον για τους ΜΜ, και για την απουσία της οριστικής ενεστώτα από την παραγωγή τους, δεδομένου ότι η δομή αυτή συνιστά έναν ιδιαίτερα συνηθισμένο και χαρακτηριστικό για τα ελληνικά τρόπο διατύπωσης αιτημάτων στο πλαίσιο οικείων σχέσεων (Sifianou 1992: 137-140). Είναι πιθανό οι μαθητές αυτού του επιπέδου να μην έχουν ενσωματώσει επαρκώς στο γλωσσικό τους σύστημα ούτε τις συντακτικές ιδιαιτερότητες ούτε την πραγματολογική λειτουργία των δύο αυτών δομών, ώστε να είναι σε θέση να τις χρησιμοποιήσουν σε κατάλληλες επικοινωνιακές συνθήκες. Αυτό ενισχύεται και από την εμφάνιση της έκφρασης του αιτήματος με οριστική ενεστώτα στα δεδομένα των ΠΜ και μάλιστα σε ποσοστό ανάλογο με αυτό των ΦΟ. Γενικά, οι ΠΜ κινούνται σε ενδιάμεσο επίπεδο τόσο ως προς την επιλογή κύριων πράξεων, όσο και ως προς τα επίπεδα συντακτικής τροποποίησης. Παρόλο που, όπως και οι ΜΜ, χρησιμοποιούν μεγάλο ποσοστό άμεσων στρατηγικών και δη προστακτικής στη διατύπωση του αιτήματος, τα δεδομένα τους εμφανίζουν ίση συχνότητα συμβατικά έμμεσων στρατηγικών. Σε συνδυασμό με την εμφάνιση στρατηγικών όπως η οριστική ενεστώτα στην παραγωγή τους, η εικόνα που παρουσιάζουν ενδέχεται να σηματοδοτεί την αρχή μιας μετάβασης από την αμεσότητα στη συμβατική εμμεσότητα5 που είναι και ο συνηθέστερος τρόπος διατύπωσης αιτημάτων στις γλώσσες του κόσμου (Hendriks 2010). Παρόλο που η συχνότητα συντακτικών μετριαστικών στην παραγωγή τους στην Κ1 εμφανίζεται αυξημένη σε σχέση με των ΜΜ, η στατιστική τους διαφορά από τους ΦΟ αναδεικνύει ότι ναι μεν παρουσιάζουν μια σχετική ανάπτυξη, αλλά απέχουν ακόμα σημαντικά από τη νόρμα των ΦΟ, τουλάχιστον στο πλαίσιο της συγκεκριμένης κατάστασης. Η χρήση κύριων πράξεων και στοιχείων συντακτικής τροποποίησης στην Κ2 διαφέρει σε αρκετά σημεία από την Κ1. Ενώ και σε αυτή την κατάσταση οι ΜΜ επιστρατεύουν πολύ μεγαλύτερο ποσοστό άμεσων στρατηγικών για τη διατύπωση του αιτήματος
5 Οι σχετικές έρευνες έχουν δείξει ότι η μετάβαση από την αμεσότητα στην εμμεσότητα αποτελεί ένα από τα χαρακτηριστικά αναπτυξιακά στάδια στην κατάκτηση των αιτημάτων (Trosborg 1995, Hassal 2003, Cohen & Shively 2007).
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(75%), τόσο οι ΦΟ όσο και οι ΠΜ επιλέγουν σαφώς περισσότερες συμβατικά έμμεσες στρατηγικές και μάλιστα σε ανάλογα ποσοστά (86% και 83% αντίστοιχα). Επιπλέον, οι δύο τελευταίες ομάδες δείχνουν, όπως φαίνεται στον Πίνακα 1, παρόμοιες προτιμήσεις τόσο ως προς τον τύπο συμβατικά έμμεσων πράξεων όσο και ως προς τη συχνότητα χρήσης κάθε τύπου. Τα παραδείγματα (5) και (6) που προέρχονται από την παραγωγή των ΦΟ και των ΠΜ αντίστοιχα και το (7) από την παραγωγή των ΜΜ αναδεικνύουν τις διαφορές στο κοινωνιοπραγματολογικό αποτέλεσμα των παραγωγών τους σε αυτή την κατάσταση.
(5) [...] Θα ήθελα, αν είναι δυνατόν, να πάρω μια παράταση λίγων ημερών, για να μπορέσω να ολοκληρώσω την εργασία. (6) [...] Θα μπορούσα να έχω λίγο χρόνο παραπάνω για να προλαβαίνω να τελειώσω; (7) [...] Γι’ αυτό ζητάω από εσάς παράταση παρακαλώ.
Χαρακτηριστικό σε αυτή την κατάσταση είναι το αυξημένο ποσοστό στοιχείων συντακτικής τροποποίησης που εμφανίζουν τα δεδομένα των ΠΜ και που προσεγγίζει σε μεγάλο βαθμό το αντίστοιχο των ΦΟ. Φαίνεται ότι η αύξηση της γενικότερης γλωσσικής ικανότητας έχει συντελέσει σημαντικά στην ανάπτυξη των συντακτικών μετριαστικών στη διαγλώσσα αυτών των μαθητών, τουλάχιστον στις καταστάσεις που χαρακτηρίζονται από απόσταση και ιεραρχία. Το γεγονός ότι οι επίσημες καταστάσεις θεωρούνται πιο απαιτητικές ως προς τις συντακτικές δομές που απαιτούνται για το μετριασμό τους (βλ. Economidou-Kogetsidis 2009: 81) και συνδέονται πιο στενά με την έννοια της ‘ευγένειας’ στην αντίληψη των ίδιων των ομιλητών, είναι πιθανόν να βοήθησε τους μαθητές να εντοπίσουν τις δομές αυτές και να τις προσαρμόσουν ανάλογα στις περικειμενικές παραμέτρους της Κ2. Επιπλέον, έχει επανειλημμένως επισημανθεί η έμφαση που δίνεται από τα εγχειρίδια στις δομές ευγένειας που αφορούν κατά κύριο λόγο καταστάσεις που χαρακτηρίζονται από απόσταση και τυπικότητα (βλ. Vellenga 2004, Bella 2009). Ο παράγοντας αυτός έχει ενδεχομένως συμβάλει περαιτέρω στην πραγματολογική ανάπτυξη των μαθητών όσον αφορά καταστάσεις σαν την Κ2.
4.2. Λεξική/φραστική τροποποίηση
Η λεξική/φραστική τροποποίηση αποτελεί την παράμετρο ως προς την οποία οι διαφορές μεταξύ των ομάδων των συμμετεχόντων γίνονται ιδιαίτερα αισθητές. Στην Κ1 οι ΦΟ χρησιμοποιούν στατιστικά σημαντικά περισσότερα λεξικά/ φραστικά μετριαστικά και από τις δύο ομάδες μαθητών. Παράλληλα, ενώ στους ΦΟ η συντριπτική πλειονότητα των μετριαστών αυτών συνίσταται σε δείκτες οικειότητας, καθώς και στη χρήση του λίγο, τόσο οι ΜΜ όσο και οι ΠΜ εμφανίζουν ιδιαίτερα υψηλή συχνότητα χρήσης του δείκτη ευγένειας παρακαλώ, ο οποίος παρουσιάζει χαμηλή συχνότητα στην παραγωγή των ΦΟ. Ως προς τη χρήση του δείκτη παρακαλώ τα αποτελέσματα της παρούσας έρευνας επιβεβαιώνουν πορίσματα ανάλογων ερευνών
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σύμφωνα με τα οποία οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές τείνουν να κάνουν κατάχρηση του συγκεκριμένου δείκτη ανεξάρτητα από τις κοινωνιοπραγματολογικές παραμέτρους της εκάστοτε επικοινωνιακής κατάστασης, κάτι που αποδίδεται στην διαφανή σχέση του δείκτη με τη γλωσσική ευγένεια (Faerch and Kasper 1989, Barron 2002). Για τους φυσικούς ομιλητές της Ελληνικής, ωστόσο, ο δείκτης αυτός φαίνεται να γίνεται αντιληπτός κυρίως ως ένδειξη τυπικότητας και αποστασιοποίησης (Sifianou 1992: 91, Economidou-Kogetsidis 2008: 126). Η «αυταρχικότητα» που συχνά διαφαίνεται στα αιτήματα των μαθητών στην Κ1 προκύπτει σε μεγάλο βαθμό από τον συνδυασμό του (σε) παρακαλώ με την προστακτική (πρβλ. Faerch & Kasper 1989) και την παράλληλη απουσία άλλων μετριαστικών που απαντούν με υψηλή συχνότητα στην παραγωγή των ΦΟ. Επιπλέον, χαρακτηριστική και στις δύο ομάδες ΜΦΟ, αλλά ιδιαίτερα στους ΜΜ σε αυτήν την κατάσταση είναι η χρήση ‘ιδιόμορφων’ συνδυασμών των μετριαστικών στοιχείων καθώς και τελείως ασυνήθιστων στα δεδομένα των ΦΟ δεικτών οικειότητας (φίλη μου, καλέ μου φίλε κλπ.). Αξιοσημείωτη, τέλος, είναι η χρήση επιτατικών από τους μαθητές, που παρόλο που παρουσιάζει σαφώς μεγαλύτερη συχνότητα από ό,τι στην παραγωγή των ΦΟ. Τα επιτατικά αυτά συνίστανται κυρίως σε τροπικά επιρρήματα (γρήγορα, αμέσως κλπ.) που προσδίδουν ακόμα μεγαλύτερη αυταρχικότητα στα αιτήματά των μαθητών. Τα παραδείγματα (8) και (9) και (10) προερχόμενα από τους ΜΜ καθώς και το (11) από τους ΠΜ είναι αντιπροσωπευτικά των παραπάνω παρατηρήσεων.
(8) Παρακαλώ Μαρία καθάρισε αμέσως την κουζίνα γιατί την άφησες βρώμικη! (9) Συμεών καθάρισε την κουζίνα ρε παρακαλώ! (10) Βρε καλέ Κωνσταντίνα πρέπει να καθαρίσεις την κουζίνα![...] (11) Καλέ μου φίλε Γιάννη, μπορείς να καθαρίζεις την κουζίνα; [...]
Ο συνδυασμός του παρακαλώ με προστακτική, χωρίς περαιτέρω λεξική τροποποίηση, με εξαίρεση το επιτατικό αμέσως, που εμφανίζεται στο (8) δεν απαντά στα δεδομένα των ΦΟ, ενώ οι συνδυασμοί μετριαστικών όπως αυτοί στα (9) και (10) (ρε παρακαλώ και βρε καλέ αντίστοιχα), όχι μόνο είναι αδόκιμοι στα Ελληνικά, αλλά επιφέρουν ένα μάλλον κωμικό κοινωνιοπραγματολογικό αποτέλεσμα. Είναι εμφανές ότι οι μαθητές αυτοί έχουν επίγνωση της ανάγκης λεξικού μετριασμού στην κατάσταση αυτή, και σε ένα βαθμό και των στοιχείων που τον επιτυγχάνουν στα Ελληνικά, ωστόσο, δεν είναι σε θέση να τα χρησιμοποιήσουν με κατάλληλο τρόπο.6 Τέλος, έχει φανεί ότι δείκτες οικειότητας,
6 Είναι πολύ χαρακτηριστικό, ότι, παρόλο που ο λεξικός μετριασμός αποτελεί την πραγματολογική παράμετρο στην οποία κατεξοχήν υστερούν και οι μαθητές της Ελληνικής ως δεύτερης γλώσσας (βλ. Bella 2011), τα δικά τους δεδομένα δεν εμφανίζουν τέτοιους ακατάλληλους συνδυασμούς των μετριαστικών. Προφανώς η ευχερέστερη πρόσβαση σε αυθεντικό γλωσσικό εισαγόμενο δίνει σε αυτούς τους μαθητές ένα πλεονέκτημα που δεν έχουν οι μαθητές της Ελληνικής ως ξένης
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 7 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
όπως αυτός που εμφανίζεται στο (11), αποτελούν κοινό τόπο στους ΜΦΟ της Ελληνικής (Bella 2011), αλλά και στους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές γενικότερα. Σύμφωνα με την Kasper (1997: 351), η χρήση τέτοιων ρητών εκφράσεων των αισθημάτων λειτουργεί για τους ΜΦΟ ως αντισταθμιστική στρατηγική που τους επιτρέπει να δημιουργήσουν κοινό έδαφος, το οποίο δεν είναι σε θέση να διασφαλίσουν με μέσα ανάλογα με των ΦΟ. Τα παραδείγματα (12) και (13) προερχόμενα από τα δεδομένα των ΦΟ αναδεικνύουν τις διαφορές που επισημάνθηκαν παραπάνω.
(12) Βρε Νίκη μου, καθάρισε λίγο την κουζίνα, αν μπορείς [...] (13) Μήπως να καθαρίζαμε λιγάκι εδώ μέσα; [...]
Κατά τον ίδιο τρόπο στη Κ2 οι ΜΦΟ υστερούν ως προς τη χρήση λεξικού μετριασμού σε σχέση με τους ΦΟ. Ενώ οι ΦΟ χρησιμοποιούν ποικιλία μετριαστικών, οι ΜΜ περιορίζονται σχεδόν αποκλειστικά στη χρήση του παρακαλώ και σε αυτή την κατάσταση. Αντίθετα, στους ΠΜ η χρήση του παρακαλώ υποχωρεί και η ποικιλία αυξάνεται, χωρίς, ωστόσο, να προσεγγίζει τη νόρμα των ΦΟ είτε από στατιστική είτε από ποιοτική άποψη. Επιπλέον, και στην Κ2 οι μαθητές εμφανίζουν επιτατικά που απουσιάζουν παντελώς από την παραγωγή των ΦΟ, οι οποίοι προφανώς κρίνουν τη χρήση τέτοιων στοιχείων ως ακατάλληλη σε ανάλογες καταστάσεις. Τα παραδείγματα (14) και (15) από τους ΜΜ και ΠΜ αντίστοιχα και (16) από τους ΦΟ αναδεικνύουν τις διαφορές και σε αυτή την κατάσταση.
(14) [...] Πρέπει να πάρω οπωσδήποτε παράταση σας παρακαλώ! (15) [...] Θα μπορούσατε να μου δώσετε παράταση μήπως; (16) [...] Μήπως θα μπορούσα να πάρω μια, έστω μικρή, παράταση;
Οι χαμηλές συχνότητες στοιχείων εσωτερικής τροποποίησης και δη λεξικού/ φραστικού μετριασμού στην παραγωγή των ΜΦΟ έχουν επανειλημμένως επισημανθεί στη βιβλιογραφία. Σύμφωνα με την Trosborg (1995: 429), η «προαιρετική» φύση των στοιχείων αυτών καθιστά δυσκολότερη την κατάκτησή τους, ενώ η Barron (2002: 234) επισημαίνει ότι κατά την παραγωγή γλωσσικών πράξεων οι μαθητές, ιδίως μέσου επιπέδου, τείνουν να επικεντρώνονται στην κύρια πράξη, παραμελώντας στρατηγικές, όπως οι λεξικοί/ φραστικοί μετριαστές. Επιπλέον, παρόλο που από πολύ νωρίς έχει επισημανθεί η ανάγκη εισαγωγής αυτών των στοιχείων στις παιδαγωγικές γραμματικές (Faerch & Kasper 1989: 234), τα αναλυτικά προγράμματα και τα εγχειρίδια διδασκαλίας της Ελληνικής τους αφιερώνουν ελάχιστη προσοχή (Bella 2009, 2011). Συνεπακόλουθα, η παραγωγή αιτημάτων από τους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές γενικά και τους μαθητές της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας των οποίων η παραγωγή μελετήθηκε εδώ ειδικότερα, στερείται στοιχείων που, όπως αναδεικνύεται από τα δεδομένα των ΦΟ, είναι πολύτιμα για την επιτυχή κοινωνιοπραγματολογικά παραγωγή της συγκεκριμένης γλωσσικής πράξης.
2 7 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Σπυριδούλα Μπέλλα
5. Συμπεράσματα
Στόχος της έρευνας που παρουσιάστηκε εδώ ήταν να εντοπίσει διαφορές στη διατύπωση αιτημάτων μεταξύ ΦΟ και μαθητών της Ελληνικής ως ξένης γλώσσας σε δύο διαφορετικές επικοινωνικές καταστάσεις και να εξετάσει το βαθμό στον οποίο το επίπεδο γενικότερης γλωσσικής ικανότητας διασφαλίζει ανάλογη ανάπτυξη της πραγματολογικής ικανότητας. Η ανάλυση των αποτελεσμάτων ανέδειξε σημαντικές διαφορές μεταξύ ΦΟ και μαθητών και στις δύο καταστάσεις ως προς την επιλογή κύριων πράξεων διατύπωσης του αιτήματος και εσωτερικής τροποποίησής του. Εξαίρεση φάνηκε να αποτελεί η παραγωγή των ΠΜ στην κατάσταση απόστασης/ιεραρχικής σχέσης, αφού προέκυψε ότι οι μαθητές αυτοί παρουσιάζουν σημαντική ανάπτυξη σε σχέση με τους ΜΜ ως προς τις παραμέτρους των κύριων στρατηγικών και του συντακτικού μετριασμού και αξιοσημείωτη σύγκλιση με τη ‘νόρμα’ των ΦΟ ως προς τα σημεία αυτά. Υποστηρίχθηκε ότι το φαινόμενο αυτό μπορεί να ερμηνευθεί, αν ληφθεί υπόψη η επικέντρωση της προσοχής των ίδιων των μαθητών σε αυτού του είδους τις καταστάσεις, καθώς και η έμφαση που δίνεται στις δομές ‘τυπικής’ ευγένειας από τις διδακτικές πρακτικές και από τα εγχειρίδια. Διαπιστώθηκε πάντως ότι οι ΜΦΟ και των δύο επιπέδων παρουσιάζουν σημαντικές αποκλίσεις από τους ΦΟ τόσο ως προς τη συχνότητα χρήσης όσο και ως προς την καταλληλότητα των λεξικών/φραστικών μετριαστών, ενώ παράλληλα δε διαπιστώθηκε αξιοσημείωτη ανάπτυξη των προχωρημένων σε σχέση με τους μέσους ως προς αυτή την παράμετρο. Παρόλο που όλα τα παραπάνω αποτελούν προκαταρκτικές παρατηρήσεις και δεν μπορούν σε καμία περίπτωση να γενικευτούν για όλες τις καταστάσεις οικειότητας ή απόστασης, η ανάγκη διδακτικής καθοδήγησης ως προς τα κατάλληλα για τη διατύπωση αιτημάτων κοινωνιοπραγματολογικά στοιχεία, αποτελεί μια σαφή συνυποδήλωση των αποτελεσμάτων της παρούσας έρευνας. Ιδιαίτερα για τους μαθητές της Ελληνικής γλώσσας ως ξένης, καθίσταται απολύτως επιτακτική η ενσωμάτωση ενός ισχυρού και, κατά το δυνατόν, αυθεντικού πραγματολογικού συστατικού στα αναλυτικά προγράμματα και στα εγχειρίδια διδασκαλίας.
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Βιβλιογραφία
Antonopoulou, E. 2001. Brief service encounters: Gender and politeness. In A. Bayraktaroğlu and M. Sifianou (eds.),Linguistic Politeness across Boundaries: The Case of Greek and Turkish. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 241-269.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. 1999. Exploring the interlanguage of interlanguage pragmatics: a research agenda for acquisitional pragmatics. Language Learning 49: 677-713.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. and Z. Dörnyei. 1998. Do language learners recognize pragmatic violations? Pragmatic versus grammatical awareness in instructed L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly 32: 233-262.
Barron, A. 2002. Acquisition in Interlanguage Pragmatics. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Bella, S. 2009. Invitations and politeness in Greek: The age variable. Journal of Politeness Research 5: 243-271.
Bella, S. 2011. Mitigation and politeness in Greek invitation refusals: Effects of length of residence in the target community and intensity of interaction on non-native speakers’ performance. Journal of Pragmatics 43: 1718-1740.
Blum-Kulka, S., J. House and G. Kasper. 1989. Investigating cross-cultural pragmatics: An introductory overview. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House and G. Kasper (eds.), Cross- Cultural Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies. New Jersey: Ablex, 1-34.
Brown, P. and S. Levinson. 1987. Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cohen, A. and R. Shively. 2007. Acquisition of requests and apologies in Spanish and French: Impact of study abroad and strategy-building intervention. The Modern Language Journal 91: 189-212.
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Economidou-Kogetsidis, M. 2008. Internal and external mitigation in interlanguage requests production: The case of Greek learners of English. Journal of Politeness Research 4: 111-138.
Faerch, C. and G. Kasper. 1989. Internal and external modification in interlanguage request realization. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House and G. Kasper (eds.), Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies. New Jersey: Ablex, 221-247.
Hassall, T. 2003. Requests by Australian learners of Indonesian. Journal of Pragmatics 35: 1903-1928.
Hendriks, B. 2002. More on Dutch English…please? A Study of Request Performance by Dutch Native Speakers, English Native Speakers and Dutch Learners of English. Nijmegen: Nijmegen University Press.
Hendriks, B. 2010. An experimental study of native speaker perceptions of non-native request modification in e-mails in English.Intercultural Pragmatics 7: 221-255.
House, J. and G. Kasper. 1987. Interlanguage pragmatics: Requesting in a foreign language. In W. Lörscher and R. Schulze (eds.), Perspectives on Language in Performance. Tübingen: Narr, 1250-1288.
Kallia, A. 2005. Directness as a source of misunderstanding: The case of requests and suggestions. In R. Lakoff and S. Ide (eds.), Broadening the Horizon of Linguistic Politeness. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 217-234.
Kasper, G. 1989. Variation in interlanguage speech act realization. In S. Gass, C. Madden, D. Preston and L. Selinker (eds.), Variation in Second Language Acquisition. Clevendon: Multilingual Matters, 37-58.
Kasper, G. 1997. Can pragmatic competence be taught? http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/ networks/NW06.
Kasper, G. 2000. Data collection in pragmatics research. In H. Spencer-Oatey (ed.), Culturally Speaking. London: Continuum, 316-341.
Koike, D.-A. 1989. Pragmatic competence and adult L2 acquisition: Speech acts in interlanguage. The Modern Language Journal 73: 279-289.
Kasper, G. and K. Rose. 2002. Pragmatic Development in a Second Language. University of Michigan: Blackwell.
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Martínez-Flor, A. and E. Usó-Juan. 2006. Learners’ use of request modifiers across two University ESP disciplines. Ibérica 12: 23-41.
Pavlidou, T. 1994. Contrasting German and Greek politeness and the consequences. Journal of Pragmatics 21 (5): 487-511.
Scollon, R. and S. Scollon. 2001. Intercultural communication. Oxford: Blackwell.
Sifianou, M. 1992. Politeness phenomena in England and Greece: A Cross-cultural Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Trosborg, A. 1995. Interlanguage Pragmatics: Requests, Complaints and Apologies. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
2 8 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Σπυριδούλα Μπέλλα
Παράρτημα
Μέσοι όροι και τυπικές αποκλίσεις στη χρήση συντακτικής και λεξικής τροποποίησης στις δύο καταστάσεις.
Κ1 Κ2
ΣΤ ΛΤ ΣΤ ΛΤ
M SD M SD M SD M SD
ΦΟ 2,76 0,41 5,62 0,69 3,04 0,28 2,81 0,43
ΜΜ 0,94 0,37 1,76 1,2 1,44 1,16 0,94 0,37
ΠΜ 1,28 0,7 3,48 0,7 2,98 0,24 1,3 0,7
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 8 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
2 8 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Δείκτες εισαγωγής συμπληρωματικών προτάσεων στη Νέα Ελληνική ως Γ2: πειραματική προσέγγιση με ρωσόφωνους μαθητές
Ελισσάβετ Νουχουτίδου
Πανεπιστήμιο Αθηνών [email protected]
Abstract
The main aim of this study is to investigate the L2 acquisition of complementizer choice in Greek. Sentences introduced with oti/pos, pu and na, used as complements to matrix verbs that are compatible with more than one complementizer, are studied through an experiment with Russian native speakers learning Greek at the elementary, intermediate and advanced level. It is argued that Russian L1 learners of Greek have problems with the oti/pos vs. pu distinction, and with the use of na when complementizer selection involves propositional operators. Moreover, elementary level students face difficulties with na-complements.
1. Εισαγωγή
Ένα από τα ζητήματα που έχει αναδείξει η εξέταση των προτασιακών συμπληρωμάτων στη Νέα Ελληνική (ΝΕ) είναι η σχέση του στοιχείου που εισάγει τη συμπληρωματική πρόταση (συμπληρωματικός δείκτης) με το ρήμα το οποίο αυτή συμπληρώνει (ρήμα εξάρτησης, βλ., μεταξύ πολλών άλλων, Ingria 1981, Χριστίδης 1982, 1984, 1985, Βελούδης & Φιλιππάκη- Warburton 1984, Φιλιππάκη-Warburton & Βελούδης 1985, Varlokosta 1994α, 1994β, Roussou 1994, 2006, 2009, 2010). Ένας συμπληρωματικός δείκτης μπορεί να εισάγει το προτασιακό συμπλήρωμα ενός ρήματος εάν τα χαρακτηριστικά που αυτός φέρει είναι συμβατά με τις λεξικές ιδιότητες του ρήματος εξάρτησης (μεταξύ άλλων, Χριστίδης 1982, 1984, 1985, Θεοφανοπούλου-Κοντού κ.ά. 1998, Roussou 2010). Υπάρχουν ρήματα που μπορούν να συνδυαστούν με έναν μόνο συμπληρωματικό δείκτη (π.χ. θέλω, παραδέχομαι, απογοητεύομαι) ενώ άλλα συνδυάζονται με περισσότερους δείκτες (π.χ. λέω, ξέρω, θυμάμαι, βλέπω). Επιπλέον, παράγοντες όπως ο χρόνος (π.χ. πιστεύω/*πίστεψα να), το πρόσωπο (π.χ. πιστεύω/*πιστεύουν να) ή η ύπαρξη τελεστών στην πρόταση εξάρτησης (π.χ. *(δεν) νομίζω να) επηρεάζουν τη συμβατότητα ρήματος εξάρτησης και συμπληρωματικού δείκτη.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 8 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Για τις συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις στη ΝΕ ως Γ2, οι Βαρλοκώστα & Τριανταφυλλίδου (2003: 171-187) έχουν διαπιστώσει ότι συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις εμφανίζονται ήδη στον αυθόρμητο προφορικό λόγο αρχάριων μη φυσικών ομιλητών. Στα δεδομένα που παραθέτουν υπάρχουν προτάσεις με ότι ως συμπληρώματα λεκτικών ρημάτων και ρημάτων αισθήσεως στο λόγο αρχαρίων, ενώ οι μέσοι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές χρησιμοποιούν προτάσεις με ότι ως συμπληρώματα σε γνωστικά και δοξαστικά ρήματα. Ακόμη, στο λόγο προχωρημένων μαθητών συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις με να και ότι εμφανίζονται σε δομές πλαγίου λόγου. Η επιλογή του συμπληρωματικού δείκτη ανάλογα με το ρήμα εξάρτησης έχει, επίσης, εξεταστεί στις μελέτες των Θεοφανοπούλου-Κοντού κ.ά. (1998) και Ρούσσου (2006) που εστιάζουν στη διδασκαλία της ΝΕ ως Γ2 και, με βάση συγκεκριμένες θεωρητικές προσεγγίσεις, διατυπώνουν διδακτικές προτάσεις για τις συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις με έμφαση στην επιλογή του συμπληρωματικού δείκτη.1 Η παρούσα μελέτη αναφέρεται στα ότι/πως, που και να ως στοιχεία που εισάγουν συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις στη ΝΕ2 και στη σχέση τους με τα ρήματα εξάρτησης. Λαμβάνοντας υπόψη τις ταξινομήσεις των ρημάτων εξάρτησης σε γραμματικές περιγραφές της ΝΕ (βλ. Τζάρτζανος [1946/1963] 1996, Mackridge 1990, Holton κ.ά. 1999, Kλαίρης & Μπαμπινιώτης 2005) και σχετικές μελέτες, καθώς και την κατηγοριοποίηση των Θεοφανοπούλου-Κοντού κ.ά. (1998), υιοθετείται μία ταξινόμηση που βασίζεται στη Ρούσσου (2006, 2010). Ως κριτήριο για την ταξινόμηση χρησιμοποιούνται οι επιλογές συμπληρωματικού δείκτη ρημάτων με σημασιολογική εγγύτητα.3 Στόχος της έρευνας είναι να εξεταστεί αν υπάρχουν δυσκολίες, για τους ενηλίκους που μαθαίνουν τη ΝΕ ως Γ2, στην επιλογή του συμπληρωματικού δείκτη με ρήματα εξάρτησης που είναι συμβατά με περισσότερους από έναν δείκτες και ποιες είναι αυτές.
2. Η παρούσα έρευνα: συμμετέχοντες και δοκιμασίες
Στην έρευνα πήραν μέρος 24 μαθητές της ΝΕ ως Γ2 με Γ1 τη Ρωσική που φοιτούσαν στο Διδασκαλείο της Νέας Ελληνικής του Πανεπιστημίου Αθηνών σε τμήματα Αρχαρίων
1 Η διδακτική πρόταση των Θεοφανοπούλου-Κοντού κ.ά. (1998) απευθύνεται σε όσους διδάσκουν τη ΝΕ ως Γ2 σε ενηλίκους κατατάσσοντας τις προτεινόμενες ασκήσεις σε επίπεδα γνώσης της ΝΕ. Η Ρούσσου (2006), από την άλλη, αναφέρεται στη διδασκαλία και στις ασκήσεις ανά επίπεδο για παιδιά με Γ1 την Τουρκική που μαθαίνουν τη ΝΕ ως Γ2 στην Ελλάδα. 2 Ο όρος ‘συμπληρωματικός δείκτης’ χρησιμοποιείται λόγω της λειτουργίας αυτών των στοιχείων ως δεικτών εισαγωγής συμπληρωματικών προτάσεων. Δεν σχολιάζονται οι σημαντικές διαφορές του να από τα υπόλοιπα, καθώς η σχετική συζήτηση που ξεκινά από την κατηγοριακή ταυτότητα του να (βλ., μεταξύ άλλων, Βελούδης & Φιλιππάκη-Warburton 1984, Φιλιππάκη-Warburton & Βελούδης 1985, Agouraki 1991, Φιλιππάκη-Warburton 1992, Tsoulas 1993, Roussou 1994, 2000, 2009, Holton κ.ά. 1999, Τσαγγαλίδης 2001, Roussou & Tsangalidis 2010) δεν απασχολεί την παρούσα μελέτη. 3 Οι ρηματικές κατηγορίες συνήθως δεν είναι ομοιογενείς, καθώς υπάρχουν ρήματα τα οποία συμμετέχουν σε κάθε δομή που χαρακτηρίζει μία συγκεκριμένη κατηγορία και άλλα που συμμετέχουν σε μερικές δομές μόνο (βλ. Χριστίδης 1985, Ρούσσου 2006).
2 8 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Ελισσάβετ Νουχουτίδου
(επίπεδο Α2), Μέσων (επίπεδα Β1 και Β2) και Προχωρημένων (επίπεδα Γ1 και Γ2), οι οποίοι αποτέλεσαν τις τρεις πειραματικές ομάδες (8 συμμετέχοντες σε κάθε ομάδα), και 8 φυσικοί ομιλητές της Κοινής ΝΕ (ομάδα ελέγχου). Τόσο οι φυσικοί όσο και οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές της ΝΕ ήταν απόφοιτοι τουλάχιστον δευτεροβάθμιας εκπαίδευσης. Όλοι οι συμμετέχοντες απάντησαν γραπτώς σε μία άσκηση ελέγχου αποδεκτότητας (acceptability judgment task) και μία άσκηση συμπλήρωσης κενών (cloze task). Στην άσκηση ελέγχου αποδεκτότητας (ΑΕΑ) υπήρχαν 50 πειραματικές προτάσεις (σε σύνολο 85 προτάσεων). Κάθε πειραματική πρόταση περιλάμβανε ένα από τα ρήματα λέω, συμφωνώ, ξέρω, μαθαίνω, πιστεύω, νομίζω, ελπίζω, βλέπω, ακούω, χαίρομαι και λυπάμαι ως ρήμα εξάρτησης και ένα προτασιακό συμπλήρωμα με δείκτη εισαγωγής το ότι, 4 το που ή το να.5 Π.χ.
(1α) Η Αγγελική ξέρει ότι οι τράπεζες είναι κλειστές σήμερα.6 (1β) *Ο Διαμαντής ξέρει που θα φύγω νωρίς το Σάββατο. (1γ) Ο Βασίλης ξέρει να παίζει πιάνο και βιολί.
Για κάθε ρήμα υπήρχαν τρεις πειραματικές προτάσεις, μία για κάθε τύπο προτασιακού συμπληρώματος. Χαρακτηριστικό των ρημάτων εξάρτησης που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν είναι η συμβατότητά τους με τους δύο ή και με τους τρεις συμπληρωματικούς δείκτες. Επιπλέον, στην άσκηση υπήρχαν πειραματικές προτάσεις οι οποίες στόχευαν στην εξέταση του προσώπου του ρήματος και της άρνησης στην πρόταση εξάρτησης ως παραγόντων που επηρεάζουν την επιλογή του συμπληρωματικού δείκτη. Στην άσκηση συμπλήρωσης κενών (ΑΣΚ) χρησιμοποιήθηκαν 15 πειραματικές και 11 παραπλανητικές προτάσεις. Σε καθεμιά υπήρχε μία κύρια και μία συμπληρωματική πρόταση με κενό στη θέση του συμπληρωματικού δείκτη, το οποίο έπρεπε να συμπληρωθεί με μία λέξη, χωρίς κανένα προσδιορισμό ως προς τη γραμματική της κατηγορία. Δινόταν, επίσης, το σχετικό περικείμενο για να περιοριστεί το εύρος των πιθανών απαντήσεων.
(2) Η Γιάννα στέλνει ένα μήνυμα στο κινητό του Στράτου:
Το Σάββατο θα μαγειρέψω μουσακά και θα καλέσω όλους τους φίλους μου. Σε περιμένω και εσένα. Πιστεύω ………… τρως μουσακά.
4 Στην ΑΕΑ δεν χρησιμοποιήθηκε το πως, αν και στα περισσότερα περιβάλλοντα ότι και πως εναλλάσσονται ελεύθερα (Τριανταφυλλίδης [1941] 1996: 396-397, Χριστίδης 1982: 165, Mackridge 1990: 377). 5 Τα ρήματα εξάρτησης, οι δείκτες εισαγωγής και το υπόλοιπο λεξιλόγιο των ασκήσεων είναι γνωστά στους μαθητές όλων των επιπέδων. Η παρούσα μελέτη δεν εξετάζει το βαθμό στον οποίο διδάσκεται ρητά η συμβατότητα των δεικτών εισαγωγής με τα ρήματα εξάρτησης (για τις συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις στα εγχειρίδια διδασκαλίας της ΝΕ ως Γ2, βλ. Νουχουτίδου 2010). 6 Τα παραδείγματα (1) και (2) προέρχονται από το ερωτηματολόγιο της έρευνας.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 8 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
3. Αποτελέσματα
Οι απαντήσεις των συμμετεχόντων στην έρευνα αναλύθηκαν με βάση το επίπεδο γνώσης της ΝΕ και τις κατηγορίες/ομάδες των ρημάτων εξάρτησης.7 Τα αποτελέσματα και των δύο ασκήσεων παρουσιάζονται μαζί ανά ρηματική κατηγορία, καθώς οι ασκήσεις λειτουργούν συμπληρωματικά στην εξαγωγή των συμπερασμάτων. Έμφαση δίνεται στην επιλογή του συμπληρωματικού δείκτη με ρήματα εξάρτησης ως προς τα οποία οι απαντήσεις των ομιλητών διαφέρουν και υποδηλώνουν πιθανά προβλήματα των μη φυσικών ομιλητών της ΝΕ. Στα λεκτικά ρήματα που εξετάζονται υπάρχει διαφoρά στις απαντήσεις των ομιλητών στην πλάγια προστακτική, η οποία δηλώνεται με προτασιακό συμπλήρωμα που εισάγεται με να (Τζάρτζανος [1946/1963] 1996, Mackridge 1990, Holton κ.ά. 1999, Roussou 2006, 2010), π.χ.
(3) Η Μαρία λέει να αγοράζεις μόνο βιολογικά προϊόντα.
Στην ΑΕΑ οι απαντήσεις των αρχάριων μη φυσικών ομιλητών, όταν το ρήμα λέω έχει προτασιακό συμπλήρωμα που εισάγεται με να, διαφέρουν από αυτές των ομιλητών των άλλων ομάδων, αλλά η διαφορά αυτή είναι στατιστικά μη σημαντική (Η(3)=6,47, p=0,086).
Πίνακας 1. Aποτελέσματα ΑΕΑ (λεκτικά ρήματα)8
Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Φυσικοί μ.φ.ο.8 μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. ομιλητές ΝΕ Μ SD M SD M SD M SD
λέω να 4,13 2,53 6,38 0,92 6,13 1,13 6,63 0,52
λέω *που 2,88 2,1 3,88 2,3 4,38 2,56 1,63 0,92
συμφωνώ *που 4,13 2,17 4 2,07 4,88 2,03 2,5 1,77
Στην ΑΣΚ, όμως, στις προτάσεις αντίστοιχου τύπου η διαφορά μεταξύ των ομάδων είναι στατιστικά σημαντική (χ2(3)=13,09, p=0,011): οι αρχάριοι και οι μέσοι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές συμπληρώνουν με να σε ποσοστό μόλις 37,5%, σε αντίθεση με τους ομιλητές των δύο άλλων ομάδων (από τους οποίους σχεδόν όλοι χρησιμοποιούν να).
7 Για τη στατιστική ανάλυση, στην ΑΕΑ χρησιμοποιήθηκε το κριτήριο Kruskal-Wallis και στην ΑΣΚ το κριτήριο χ2. 8 μ.φ.ο. = μη φυσικοί ομιλητές της ΝΕ
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Για το γνωστικό ρήμα ξέρω υπάρχουν, επίσης, μεγάλες αποκλίσεις στις προτάσεις με να, με τη χρήση του οποίου το ρήμα αποκτά δυναμική τροπικότητα (παράδειγμα 4α, βλ. Holton κ.ά. 1999, Κλαίρης & Μπαμπινιώτης 2005, Roussou 2006, 2010). Αντίθετα, η χρήση του προτασιακού συμπληρώματος με ότι, το οποίο δεν επιφέρει αλλαγές στη σημασία του ρήματος εξάρτησης (παράδειγμα 4β), δημιουργεί λιγότερα προβλήματα στην ομάδα των αρχάριων μη φυσικών ομιλητών.9
(4α) Ξέρει να παίζει βιολί. (4β) Ξέρει ότι μου αρέσουν οι γαλλικές ταινίες.
Στην ΑΕΑ υπάρχει σημαντική διαφορά μεταξύ των ομάδων των ομιλητών (ξέρω να: Η(3)=8,29, p=0,031, βλ. επίσης μαθαίνω να: Η(3)=7,38, p=0,54, οριακά στατιστικά μη σημαντικό), που οφείλεται στις απαντήσεις των αρχάριων μη φυσικών ομιλητών.
Πίνακας 2. Aποτελέσματα ΑΕΑ (γνωστικά ρήματα)
Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Φυσικοί μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. ομιλητές ΝΕ Μ SD M SD M SD M SD
ξέρω να 5,38 1,69 6,5 0,76 7 0 6,63 0,74
μαθαίνω ότι 4,17 1,47 5,75 1,83 4,63 1,85 6,5 0,76
ξέρω *που 3,63 1,85 3,75 2,44 4,13 2,17 2,75 2,44 μαθαίνω *που 4,38 1,92 3,63 2,26 2,88 1,81 2,13 1,36
Παρόμοιο αποτέλεσμα για τα γνωστικά ρήματα με συμπλήρωμα που εισάγεται με να υπάρχει στην ΑΣΚ, όπου μόλις το 25% των αρχάριων μη φυσικών ομιλητών χρησιμοποιεί το να σε αντίθεση με τις άλλες τρεις ομάδες στις οποίες το ποσοστό είναι μεταξύ 75-100% (και αυξάνει ανάλογα με το επίπεδο). Και σε αυτή την περίπτωση υπάρχει στατιστικά σημαντική διαφορά μεταξύ των ομάδων (χ2(3)=12,44, p=0,011). Από τα παραπάνω διαφαίνεται η περιορισμένη (σε σύγκριση με το ότι) εξοικείωση των αρχάριων μη φυσικών ομιλητών με τη χρήση του να ως συμπληρωματικού δείκτη με λεκτικά και γνωστικά ρήματα. Όσον αφορά το που, μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί με περιορισμένο αριθμό λεκτικών και γνωστικών ρημάτων αλλά μόνο αν υπάρχει έμφαση στο ρήμα εξάρτησης.10
9 Θα πρέπει να σημειωθεί ότι για το μαθαίνω με συμπλήρωμα ότι υπάρχει σημαντική διαφορά στην ΑΕΑ (Η(3)=10,37, p=0,01), αλλά δεν υπάρχει διαφορά στην ΑΣΚ στην οποία όλοι σχεδόν οι ομιλητές (87,5% των αρχαρίων, 100% των άλλων ομάδων) χρησιμοποιούν ότι/πως. 10 Το οποίο πρέπει, επίσης, να βρίσκεται σε παρελθοντικό χρόνο, βλ. Ingria 1981, Roussou 2006, 2010.
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(5α) Σου ΕΙΠΑ που έχω πάρει γάλα για αύριο! Γιατί αγόρασες κι εσύ; (5β) Σου λέω *που/ότι έχω πάρει γάλα για αύριο.
Στην ΑΕΑ περιλαμβάνονται αντιγραμματικές προτάσεις με το συμπληρωματικό δείκτη που (με το ρήμα εξάρτησης σε ενεστώτα, χωρίς έμφαση στο ρήμα, βλ. 5β). Αυτές αντιμετωπίζονται με διαφορετικό τρόπο από τους φυσικούς και τους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές, καθώς οι τελευταίοι δεν φαίνονται σίγουροι για την (αντι)γραμματικότητα των προτάσεων (βλ. πίνακες 1 και 2). Εντούτοις, η διαφορά των ομάδων των ομιλητών δεν είναι στατιστικά σημαντική. Τα ρήματα αντίληψης θυμάμαι και ξεχνάω, λόγω της λεξικής σημασίας τους, ως ρήματα εξάρτησης μπορούν να έχουν προτασιακό συμπλήρωμα που εισάγεται με ότι ή που και δηλώνει γεγονός. Όταν χρησιμοποιείται το ότι τονίζεται η γνωστική σημασία του ρήματος εξάρτησης ενώ όταν χρησιμοποιείται το που η συναισθηματική σημασία (Χριστίδης 1982, Roussou 1992, Θεοφανοπούλου-Κοντού κ.ά. 1998).
(6α) Η Μαρία ξεχνάει ότι/που είχαμε συναντηθεί στο προηγούμενο συνέδριο. (6β) Θυμάμαι ότι/που ερχόταν στο σπίτι μου κάθε μέρα.
Στην ΑΕΑ, και με τα δύο αυτά ρήματα υπάρχουν διαφορές μεταξύ των ομάδων των συμμετεχόντων όταν το προτασιακό τους συμπλήρωμα εισάγεται με ότι, αλλά μόνο για το ξεχνάω η διαφορά είναι στατιστικά σημαντική (ξεχνάω ότι: Η(3)=8,89, p=0,024∙ θυμάμαι ότι: Η(3)=6,53, p=0,082). Στην περίπτωση του ξεχνάω η διαφορά εντοπίζεται στους αρχάριους και τους μέσους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές σε σύγκριση με τους προχωρημένους και τους φυσικούς ομιλητές ενώ για το θυμάμαι μόνο οι απαντήσεις των αρχαρίων διαφέρουν. Στην ΑΣΚ, στη συμπλήρωση του ρήματος θυμάμαι σε περικείμενο το οποίο απαιτεί τη χρήση ότι/πως, οι ομιλητές όλων των ομάδων συμπληρώνουν με παρόμοιο τρόπο: όλοι οι φυσικοί ομιλητές και το 87,5% των υπόλοιπων συμμετεχόντων (7 από κάθε ομάδα) χρησιμοποιούν ότι.
Πίνακας 3. Aποτελέσματα ΑΕΑ (ρήματα αντίληψης)
Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Φυσικοί μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. ομιλητές ΝΕ Μ SD M SD M SD M SD
ξεχνάω ότι 3,43 2,51 3,88 2,17 5,25 2,19 6,38 0,52
θυμάμαι ότι 4,25 2,66 6,5 0,76 6,5 1,41 6,63 0,74
ξεχνάω που 4 1,77 2,75 1,39 3,88 1,89 3,88 2,42
θυμάμαι που 4,38 2,33 4,5 1,77 5 2,14 5,13 1,81
ξεχνάω να 5,38 1,51 5 1,93 4 2,78 7 0
θυμάμαι να 5,38 1,77 5,38 1,85 6 1,07 5,13 1,96
2 9 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Ελισσάβετ Νουχουτίδου
Από την άλλη πλευρά, για τα ίδια ρήματα στην ΑΕΑ τα αποτελέσματα είναι διαφορετικά όταν η συμπληρωματική πρόταση εισάγεται με που. Αν και οι προτάσεις είναι γραμματικές, η αποδοχή των προτάσεων είναι περιορισμένη και παρατηρείται αρκετή ομοιότητα στις απαντήσεις των φυσικών και των μη φυσικών ομιλητών. Επιπλέον, υπάρχει μεγάλη τυπική απόκλιση στις απαντήσεις των φυσικών ομιλητών που υποδεικνύει διαφορές στον τρόπο με τον οποίο κρίνουν τις προτάσεις. Μία πιθανή ερμηνεία είναι ότι ο ενεστώτας που χρησιμοποιείται στα ρήματα εξάρτησης στην ΑΕΑ δεν ευνοεί τη γεγονοτική ερμηνεία με έμφαση στη συναισθηματική σημασία του ρήματος και αυτό επηρεάζει τις απαντήσεις των φυσικών ομιλητών περιορίζοντας την αποδεκτότητα (Χριστίδης 1982). Διαφορετικά είναι τα αποτελέσματα στην ΑΣΚ σε περιβάλλοντα όπως αυτό του παραδείγματος (6β), όπου υπάρχει διαφοροποίηση μεταξύ φυσικών και μη φυσικών ομιλητών. Οι φυσικοί ομιλητές συμπληρώνουν με που (75% έναντι 12,5% των αρχάριων και μέσων και 37,5% των προχωρημένων μη φυσικών ομιλητών) ενώ οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές με ότι/πως. Οι τελευταίοι αυξάνουν την προτίμησή τους για το ότι/πως όσο αυξάνεται το επίπεδο γνώσης της ΝΕ ενώ, παράλληλα, χρησιμοποιούν λιγότερο το (αντιγραμματικό για τη συγκεκριμένη πρόταση) να. Όμως, η διαφορά μεταξύ των ομάδων δεν είναι στατιστικά σημαντική. Η χρήση του να ως δείκτη εισαγωγής συμπληρωματικής πρότασης με τα ρήματα αντίληψης μάλλον αποτελεί πρόβλημα για τους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές, όπως φαίνεται από τη διαφορά στις απαντήσεις των φυσικών ομιλητών σε σύγκριση με όλους τους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές για το ρήμα ξεχνάω να (6γ) στην ΑΕΑ (Η(3)=12,53, p=0,003).
(6γ) Η Μαρία ξεχνάει να πληρώσει τα κοινόχρηστα.
Οι φυσικοί ομιλητές αποδέχονται απόλυτα την πρόταση αλλά οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές έχουν σαφώς χαμηλότερα ποσοστά αποδεκτότητας.11 Όσον αφορά τα επιστημικά/δοξαστικά ρήματα ελπίζω, πιστεύω και νομίζω, οι ομιλητές όλων των ομάδων αποδέχονται εξίσου (στην ΑΕΑ) και συμπληρώνουν με παρόμοιο τρόπο (στην ΑΣΚ) τις προτάσεις με συμπλήρωμα ότι. Αυτά τα ρήματα δεν μπορούν να έχουν που ως συμπλήρωμα και, όπως αναμενόταν, οι αντίστοιχες προτάσεις απορρίπτονται από τους φυσικούς ομιλητές.
(7) Ελπίζει ότι/*που έγραψε καλά στο διαγώνισμα.
Αντίθετα, οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές όλων των επιπέδων δίνουν απαντήσεις που βρίσκονται στη μέση της κλίμακας αποδεκτότητας και διαφέρουν σημαντικά από αυτές των φυσικών
11 Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση είναι πιθανόν οι απαντήσεις να επηρεάζονται από το χρόνο του ρήματος εξάρτησης, καθώς στη συγκεκριμένη δομή ο ενεστώτας έχει γενικευτική ερμηνεία (Χριστίδης 1982, Ρούσσου 2006).
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 9 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
ομιλητών (ελπίζω *που: Η(3)=11,19, p=0,006∙ πιστεύω *που: Η(3)=7,62, p=0,048∙ αλλά στατιστικά μη σημαντικό αποτέλεσμα για το νομίζω *που: Η(3)=6,56, p=0,082).
Πίνακας 4. Aποτελέσματα ΑΕΑ (δοξαστικά ρήματα)
Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Φυσικοί μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. ομιλητές ΝΕ Μ SD M SD M SD M SD
ελπίζω *που 4,29 1,89 4,38 2 4,38 2,07 1,5 0,76
πιστεύω *που 4,63 2,62 4,75 2,12 4,38 2,2 1,88 2,1
νομίζω *που 4,25 1,75 4,5 1,85 4,38 1,92 2,13 1,89
Με τα ρήματα ψυχικού πάθους, το που εισάγει συμπλήρωμα που δηλώνει την αιτία του συναισθήματος ενώ όταν χρησιμοποιείται το να εκφράζεται η κατάσταση που μπορεί να προκαλέσει το συναίσθημα και λανθάνει η σημασία της επανάληψης (Χριστίδης 1985, Θεοφανοπούλου-Κοντού κ.ά. 1998, Ρούσσου 2006).
(8α) Λυπάμαι που/*ότι τελειώνουν οι διακοπές. (8β) Χαίρομαι να μαγειρεύω για τους φίλους μου.
Πίνακας 5. Aποτελέσματα ΑΕΑ (ρήματα ψυχικού πάθους)
Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Φυσικοί μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. ομιλητές ΝΕ
Μ SD M SD M SD M SD
χαίρομαι που 4,13 1,73 5,5 2,27 6,13 1,46 6,5 0,93
λυπάμαι που 5,67 0,82 4,63 2,26 5,75 1,58 6,63 0,52
χαίρομαι *ότι 4,14 2,27 5,25 2,05 4,75 2,05 3,75 2,38
λυπάμαι *ότι 4 2,24 4,63 1,92 5,88 1,36 2 1,07
χαίρομαι να 3,25 1,98 4,38 2,5 4,88 2,59 6,63 0,74
λυπάμαι να 3,88 1,81 6 1,2 5 2,07 6,25 0,89
Στην ΑΕΑ, οι διαφορές που παρατηρούνται αφορούν το ρήμα χαίρομαι όταν έχει συμπλήρωμα που (χαίρομαι που: Η(3)=8,41, p=0,032∙ λυπάμαι που: Η(3)=5,54, p=0,134) και τα προτασιακά συμπληρώματα που εισάγονται με να με τα ρήματα χαίρομαι και λυπάμαι (χαίρομαι να: Η(3)=8,86, p=0,025∙ λυπάμαι να: Η(3)=9,26, p=0,02). Αυτές τις
2 9 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Ελισσάβετ Νουχουτίδου
προτάσεις οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές τις θεωρούν όλο και περισσότερο αποδεκτές όσο αυξάνεται το επίπεδο γνώσης της ΝΕ. Από την ΑΣΚ, μπορεί να παρατηρήσει κανείς ότι σε περιβάλλον στο οποίο χρειάζεται ο συμπληρωματικός δείκτης που οι φυσικοί ομιλητές χρησιμοποιούν αποκλειστικά που, ενώ οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές επιλέγουν διαφορετικούς τρόπους συμπλήρωσης και η διαφορά μεταξύ των ομάδων των ομιλητών είναι στατιστικά σημαντική (χ2(3)=27,96, p=0,001). Διακρίνεται, βεβαίως, μεγαλύτερη ομοιότητα με τους φυσικούς ομιλητές όσο αυξάνεται το επίπεδο γνώσης της ΝΕ, καθώς η χρήση του που από 25% στους αρχάριους και 12,5% στους μέσους αυξάνει σε 62,5% στους προχωρημένους. Παράλληλα περιορίζεται η χρήση του ότι (12,5% στους αρχάριους, 62,5% στους μέσους αλλά 25% στους προχωρημένους) και η χρήση άλλων λέξεων12 (50% στους αρχάριους, 25% στους μέσους, 12,5% στους προχωρημένους). Σε περιβάλλον που απαιτείται η χρήση του να, οι φυσικοί ομιλητές της ΝΕ προτιμούν το να (62,5%) έναντι του που (12,5%) σε αντίθεση, κυρίως, με τους αρχάριους και μέσους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές (να: 25%), αλλά η διαφορά μεταξύ των ομάδων δεν είναι στατιστικά σημαντική.13 Στην ΑΕΑ, ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον παρουσιάζουν οι απαντήσεις των συμμετεχόντων για τα ρήματα ψυχικού πάθους με προτασιακά συμπληρώματα που εισάγονται με ότι. Οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές της ΝΕ σε αυτές τις προτάσεις διαφέρουν από τους φυσικούς ομιλητές μόνο στην περίπτωση του ρήματος λυπάμαι (Η(3)=12,94, p=0,002), αλλά όχι στην περίπτωση του ρήματος χαίρομαι (Η(3)=2,12, p=0,564), για το οποίο οι φυσικοί ομιλητές εκφράζουν αρκετά μεγάλη αποδοχή συγκριτικά με την αντιγραμματικότητα της δομής. Αυτή η διαφορά μπορεί να ερμηνευθεί αν ληφθεί υπόψη ότι, αν και η χρήση του ότι είναι αντίθετη με το γλωσσικό αίσθημα πολλών φυσικών ομιλητών της ΝΕ, έχει υποστηριχθεί ότι μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί με ρήματα ψυχικού πάθους –αντίστοιχα παραδείγματα αναφέρονται σε γραμματικές και μελέτες, βλ. Τζάρτζανος [1946/1963] 1996, Ingria 1981. Κατά μία άποψη (Χριστίδης 1982), όταν το ρήμα εξάρτησης βρίσκεται σε ενεστώτα, μπορεί η πρόταση με ότι να δηλώνει μια μονιμότερη συναισθηματική στάση (πβ. Nicholas 1998 και Νικηφορίδου 1999 για άλλες ερμηνείες). Σχετικά με τα ρήματα που εκφράζουν φυσική αίσθηση (ρήματα αισθήσεως), στην ΑΕΑ, φαίνεται να υπάρχουν διαφορές όταν το συμπλήρωμα του ρήματος εισάγεται με να (παράδειγμα 9α, στην περίπτωση αυτή το να δεν φέρει υποκειμενικότητα, βλ. Θεοφανοπούλου-Κοντού κ.ά. 1998, Ιακώβου 1999). Οι διαφορές αφορούν τους αρχάριους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές σε σύγκριση με τους υπόλοιπους, όπως δείχνει το στατιστικά σημαντικό αποτέλεσμα για το ρήμα ακούω (Η(3)=15,3, p<0,001) –για το βλέπω το αποτέλεσμα δεν είναι το ίδιο (Η(3)=6,94, p=0,068).
12 Οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές χρησιμοποιούν συχνά το γιατί/επειδή αντί για το που. 13 Οι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές τείνουν να χρησιμοποιούν το όταν στη θέση του να.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 9 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
(9α) Βλέπω να μαγειρεύει η Μαρία. (9β) Βλέπω που μαγειρεύει η Μαρία.
Πίνακας 6. Aποτελέσματα ΑΕΑ (ρήματα αισθήσεως)
Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Φυσικοί ομιλητές μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. ΝΕ
Μ SD M SD M SD M SD
βλέπω να 4,13 2,59 5,38 2,07 5,63 1,77 6,88 0,35
ακούω να 3,63 1,3 5,75 1,17 5,75 1,98 6,75 0,46
Στην ΑΣΚ, δεν υπάρχει σημαντική διαφορά στον τρόπο που εισάγουν τη συμπληρωματική πρόταση οι ομιλητές των διαφορετικών ομάδων όταν το ρήμα εξάρτησης δηλώνει άμεση αίσθηση (όπως φαίνεται από το περικείμενο) και θα μπορούσε να χρησιμοποιηθεί να ή που (Χριστίδης 1982, 1985, Μοσχονάς 1989, Varlokosta 1994α, Θεοφανοπούλου-Κοντού κ.ά. 1998, Ρούσσου 2006). Παρατηρείται ότι οι φυσικοί ομιλητές και οι προχωρημένοι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές προτιμούν τους συμπληρωματικούς δείκτες (62,5%) σε σχέση με το όταν, ενώ οι μέσοι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές χρησιμοποιούν συμπληρωματικούς δείκτες και όταν εξίσου. Οι αρχάριοι χρησιμοποιούν κατά 25% όταν και ενώ, μόλις 12,5% να, 12,5% πως και κατά 50% δίνουν άλλες απαντήσεις. Στις περιπτώσεις που η συμβατότητα του ρήματος εξάρτησης με το συμπληρωματικό δείκτη εξαρτάται από παράγοντες όπως το πρόσωπο του ρήματος ή η παρουσία τελεστών στην πρόταση εξάρτησης (όπως συμβαίνει με τα ρήματα πιστεύω, νομίζω και θυμάμαι όταν δέχονται προτασιακό συμπλήρωμα που εισάγεται με να), οι μεγαλύτερες διαφορές μεταξύ των ομάδων παρατηρούνται στην ΑΣΚ. Ειδικότερα, το ρήμα πιστεύω είναι συμβατό με συμπληρωματική πρόταση με να μόνο όταν βρίσκεται σε ενεστώτα και, κυρίως, σε πρώτο πρόσωπο.
(10) Πιστεύω/*Πιστεύει να έχεις χρόνο για έναν καφέ.
Πίνακας 7. Aποτελέσματα ΑΕΑ (πρόσωπο)
Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Φυσικοί μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. ομιλητές ΝΕ Μ SD M SD M SD M SD
πιστεύω να (1) 5,38 1,92 6,25 1,39 6,38 0,92 6,38 0,92
πιστεύω να (2) 3,25 2,25 5,88 2,03 6,13 1,25 6,38 1,19
2 9 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Ελισσάβετ Νουχουτίδου
Στην ΑΕΑ14 οι φυσικοί ομιλητές δεν διαφέρουν από τους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές στο βαθμό αποδοχής/απόρριψης των αντιγραμματικών προτάσεων, αλλά διαφέρουν σε μία από τις γραμματικές προτάσεις15 (πιστεύω να (πρόταση 1): Η(3)=1,97, p=0,596∙ πιστεύω να (πρόταση 2): Η(3)=9,89, p=0,014). Επιπλέον, η διαφορά μεταξύ φυσικών και μη φυσικών ομιλητών είναι σημαντική στην ΑΣΚ (χ2(3)=22,07, p=0,001): οι φυσικοί ομιλητές προτιμούν το να (87,5%) παρά τα ότι/πως (12,5%), σε αντίθεση με τους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές. Οι προχωρημένοι και οι μέσοι προτιμούν τα ότι/πως (75% και 62,5% αντίστοιχα) έναντι του να (25%), ενώ οι αρχάριοι δεν συμπληρώνουν καθόλου με να (ότι/πως: 37,5%, το υπόλοιπο 62,5% δεν χρησιμοποιεί συμπληρωματικούς δείκτες). Το ρήμα νομίζω είναι συμβατό με προτασιακό συμπλήρωμα με να μόνο εφόσον βρίσκεται σε πρώτο πρόσωπο και υπάρχει στην πρόταση άρνηση ή ερώτηση (στο ερωτηματολόγιο χρησιμοποιήθηκε άρνηση).
(11α) *(Δεν) νομίζω να ξέρει την αλήθεια. (11β) *Δεν νομίζεις να ξέρει την αλήθεια.
Πίνακας 8. Aποτελέσματα ΑΕΑ (άρνηση και πρόσωπο)
Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Φυσικοί μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. ομιλητές ΝΕ Μ SD M SD M SD M SD
νομίζω *να (1) 5,75 1,67 4,88 1,89 4,13 2,42 1,88 1,36
νομίζω *να (2) 2,88 2,1 1,63 0,92 2,38 1,6 2,63 1,51
δε νομίζω να (1) 2,75 1,17 4 1,73 3,5 2,33 6 1,2
δε νομίζω να (2) 5,63 1,77 6,75 0,46 6,63 0,74 6,63 0,74
Οι απαντήσεις των φυσικών και των μη φυσικών ομιλητών στις δύο ασκήσεις δείχνουν ότι μάλλον υπάρχει διαφορά μεταξύ τους. Στην ΑΕΑ, φυσικοί και μη φυσικοί ομιλητές της ΝΕ διαφέρουν στις μισές προτάσεις (δε νομίζω να (πρόταση 1): Η(3)=11,26, p=0,006∙ δε νομίζω να (πρόταση 2): Η(3)=4,1, p=0,255∙ νομίζω *να (πρόταση 1): Η(3)=11,65, p=0,005∙ νομίζω *να (πρόταση 2): Η(3)=2,37, p=0,514). Παρόμοιο αποτέλεσμα δίνει η ΑΣΚ. Εδώ η διαφορά μεταξύ φυσικών και μη φυσικών ομιλητών είναι οριακά στατιστικά μη σημαντική (χ2(3)=12,96, p=0,051). Οι φυσικοί ομιλητές προτιμούν να συμπληρώνουν με να μετά το δε νομίζω (75% να, μόνο 25% συμπληρώνει με ότι/πως) ενώ οι μη φυσικοί
14 Σημειώνεται ότι στην ΑΕΑ τα ρήματα εξάρτησης βρίσκονται σε ενεστώτα και σε πρώτο ή τρίτο πρόσωπο με σκοπό να ελεγχθεί εάν η επιλογή του προσώπου του ρήματος εξάρτησης επηρεάζει την αποδεκτότητα του να. 15 Η ΑΕΑ περιλάμβανε δύο προτάσεις με το πιστεύω σε πρώτο πρόσωπο (γραμματικές προτάσεις) και δύο προτάσεις με το ίδιο ρήμα σε τρίτο πρόσωπο (αντιγραμματικές προτάσεις).
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 2 9 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
ομιλητές κάνουν το αντίστροφο (αρχάριοι-μέσοι: το 75% συμπληρώνει με ότι/πως και το 12,5% με να, προχωρημένοι: 87,5% ότι/πως και 12,5% να). Ακόμη, η άρνηση επηρεάζει την επιλογή του συμπληρώματος σε ρήματα όπως το θυμάμαι που μπορούν να αποκτήσουν επιστημική σημασία όταν δέχονται το να ως δείκτη εισαγωγής του συμπληρώματός τους (παράδειγμα 12). Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, είναι δυνατόν το ρήμα της συμπληρωματικής να βρίσκεται σε [+παρελθοντικό, +συνοπτικό] τύπο ενώ το ρήμα της πρότασης εξάρτησης είναι σε ενεστώτα (Βελούδης 1985, Roussou 1994, 2006, Varlokosta 1994β). Τυχόν απουσία της άρνησης καθιστά τη δομή αντιγραμματική.
(12) *(Δεν) θυμάμαι να χτύπησε το τηλέφωνο
Πίνακας 9. Aποτελέσματα ΑΕΑ (άρνηση)
Αρχάριοι Μέσοι Προχωρημένοι Φυσικοί μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. μ.φ.ο. ομιλητές ΝΕ Μ SD M SD M SD M SD
θυμάμαι *να (1) 3,5 1,69 3,88 2,17 2,38 1,77 3,63 1,51
θυμάμαι *να (2) 4,25 2,66 3,25 1,98 1,25 0,46 3,88 2,42
δε θυμάμαι να (1) 4,25 2,25 4,38 2,33 1,63 1,41 6,25 1,17
δε θυμάμαι να (2) 2,5 1,41 2,38 1,69 3,13 2,17 6,38 0,74
Οι συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα, στην ΑΕΑ, διαφέρουν στις απαντήσεις τους για τις γραμματικές προτάσεις, οι οποίες δεν γίνονται αποδεκτές από τους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές.16 Η αιτία αυτής της διαφοράς μπορεί να βρίσκεται στο ρηματικό τύπο ([+παρελθοντικός, +συνοπτικός]) της συμπληρωματικής (δε θυμάμαι να (πρόταση 1): Η(3)=14,04, p=0,001∙ δε θυμάμαι να (πρόταση 2): Η(3)=16,3, p<0,001). Η διαφορά αυτή αφορά όλες τις ομάδες των μη φυσικών ομιλητών και δείχνει ότι ο ρόλος της άρνησης ως προτασιακού τελεστή (ο οποίος επηρεάζει την επιλογή του συμπληρωματικού δείκτη) μάλλον δεν έχει γίνει αντιληπτός από τους μη φυσικούς ομιλητές, ακόμη και του προχωρημένου επιπέδου. Στην ΑΣΚ υπάρχει, επίσης, σημαντική διαφορά στις απαντήσεις των ομιλητών που ανήκουν σε διαφορετικές ομάδες (χ2(3)=24,39, p=0,012). Οι φυσικοί ομιλητές χρησιμοποιούν αποκλειστικά το να, το οποίο προτιμά μόνο το 25% των μέσων και προχωρημένων μη φυσικών ομιλητών.
16 Η στατιστική επεξεργασία έδειξε σημαντική διαφορά και για μία αντιγραμματική πρόταση με το ρήμα θυμάμαι (θυμάμαι *να (2): Η(3)=8,42, p=0,032), η οποία οφείλεται στη σύγκριση των προχωρημένων μη φυσικών ομιλητών με τις υπόλοιπες ομάδες. Η αιτία για αυτή τη διαφορά δεν έχει διερευνηθεί αλλά είναι πιθανόν η απόρριψη των προχωρημένων μη φυσικών ομιλητών να οφείλεται στο χρόνο του ρήματος της συμπληρωματικής πρότασης.
2 9 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Ελισσάβετ Νουχουτίδου
4. Συμπεράσματα
Σύμφωνα με τα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα, οι αρχάριοι μη φυσικοί ομιλητές διαφέρουν από τους υπόλοιπους συμμετέχοντες στην έρευνα στις απαντήσεις τους για το συμπληρωματικό δείκτη με ρήματα εξάρτησης που ανήκουν σε ορισμένες κατηγορίες. Αντιμετωπίζουν ιδιαίτερες δυσκολίες με τα λεκτικά και τα γνωστικά ρήματα όταν αυτά δέχονται συμπλήρωμα που εισάγεται με να το οποίο προσδίδει τροπικότητα, και με τα ρήματα που δηλώνουν αίσθηση με να-συμπλήρωμα (με το οποίο δεν υπάρχει τροπική ερμηνεία). Σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις δεν υπάρχει αντίστοιχη δυσκολία όταν το ρήμα συμπληρώνεται με ότι/πως. Επιπλέον, υπάρχουν διαφορές μεταξύ των φυσικών και των μη φυσικών ομιλητών που αφορούν τη διάκριση μεταξύ που και ότι/πως και το ρόλο των προτασιακών τελεστών στην επιλογή του προτασιακού συμπληρώματος. Ειδικότερα, το που δεν αναγνωρίζεται ως αντιγραμματικό συμπλήρωμα με τα δοξαστικά ρήματα. Είναι, επίσης, πιθανόν η διαφορά αυτή να αφορά και άλλες κατηγορίες ρημάτων εξάρτησης (λεκτικά και γνωστικά) και ίσως οφείλεται σε διαγλωσσική παρεμβολή ή στα ιδιαίτερα χαρακτηριστικά που φέρουν τα ότι και που. Όσον αφορά τους προτασιακούς τελεστές, ο παράγοντας της άρνησης φαίνεται ότι προκαλεί προβλήματα που μπορεί να περιορίζονται σταδιακά αλλά δεν εξαλείφονται ακόμη και στο μέσο και το προχωρημένο επίπεδο εκμάθησης της ΝΕ. Ακόμη, υπάρχουν συγκεκριμένες ρηματικές κατηγορίες με τις οποίες τα προβλήματα των μη φυσικών ομιλητών της ΝΕ αφορούν όλους τους τύπους προτασιακού συμπληρώματος, όπως συμβαίνει με τα ρήματα ψυχικού πάθους, και χρειάζεται να εξεταστεί εάν αυτό οφείλεται σε παρεμβολή της συγκεκριμένης Γ1. Τέλος, πρέπει να ληφθεί υπόψη ότι στην έρευνα συμμετείχε ένας μικρός αριθμός ατόμων για κάθε επίπεδο γνώσης της ΝΕ ως Γ2. Γι’ αυτό το λόγο, τα αποτελέσματα υποδεικνύουν τάσεις που υπάρχουν στα δεδομένα αλλά δεν επαρκούν για τη γενίκευση των συμπερασμάτων. Επιπλέον, σε ορισμένες δομές, όπως είναι τα ρήματα αντίληψης (με διάφορα συμπληρώματα) και τα λεκτικά και γνωστικά ρήματα με συμπληρωματικό δείκτη που, είναι απαραίτητο να ελεγχθεί κατά πόσον άλλοι παράγοντες, όπως είναι ο χρόνος του ρήματος εξάρτησης, επηρεάζουν τις κρίσεις αποδεκτότητας και τον τρόπο συμπλήρωσης των προτάσεων. Με δεδομένο ότι από την έρευνα έχουν εξαχθεί μερικά αρχικά συμπεράσματα για την επιλογή του συμπληρωματικού δείκτη, θεωρείται χρήσιμο να εξεταστούν μεγαλύτερες ομάδες ομιλητών, καθώς και ομιλητές με διαφορετικές Γ1, μεγαλύτερος αριθμός ρημάτων από κάθε κατηγορία και περισσότεροι συμπληρωματικοί δείκτες.
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Κλαίρης, Χ. και Γ. Μπαμπινιώτης (σε συνεργασία με τους Α. Μόζερ, Α. Μπακάκου- Ορφανού και Σ. Σκοπετέα). 2005. Γραμματική της Νέας Ελληνικής. Δομολειτουργική – Επικοινωνιακή. Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
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Mοσχονάς, Σ. 1989. Συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις και ρήματα “αισθήσεως σημαντικά”. Μελέτες για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα 9: 315-336.
Nicholas, N. 1998. The Story of Pu. The Grammaticalisation in Space and Time of a Modern Greek Complementiser. Διδακτορική διατριβή, University of Melbourne.
Nικηφορίδου, Κ. 1999. Η υποκειμενικότητα της υπόταξης: ο δείκτης που. Μελέτες για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα 20: 360-371.
Νουχουτίδου, Ε. 2010. Ότι-, πως-, που-συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις στα εγχειρίδια της Ελληνικής ως Γ2 για ενηλίκους. Πρακτικά του 14ου Διεθνούς Συνεδρίου της Ελληνικής Εταιρίας Εφαρμοσμένης Γλωσσολογίας, Θεσσαλονίκη, 14-16/12/07 (CD-Rom).
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Roussou, A. 2000. On the left periphery: modal particles and complementisers. Journal of Greek Linguistics 1: 65-94.
Ρούσσου, Ά. 2006. Συμπληρωματικοί δείκτες. Αθήνα: Πατάκης.
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Tζάρτζανος, Α. [1946/1963] 1996. Νεοελληνική σύνταξις (της κοινής δημοτικής). Θεσσαλονίκη: Κυριακίδης.
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Tριανταφυλλίδης, Μ. [1941] 1996. Νεοελληνική Γραμματική (της δημοτικής). Ανατύπωση της έκδοσης του Ο.Ε.Σ.Β. (1941) με διορθώσεις. Θεσσαλονίκη: Α.Π.Θ. – Ι.Ν.Σ.
Τσαγγαλίδης, Α. 2001. Για τις ‘συντακτικές εγκλίσεις’ στα Νέα Ελληνικά. Πρακτικά του 4ου Διεθνούς Συνεδρίου Ελληνικής Γλωσσολογίας, Λευκωσία, Σεπτέμβριος 1999. Θεσσαλονίκη: University Studio Press, 300-307.
Tsoulas, G. 1993. Remarks on the structure and interpretation of na-clauses. Μελέτες για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα 14: 191-206.
Φιλιππάκη-Warburton, Ε. 1992. Η συντακτική ταυτότητα του να. Μελέτες για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα 13: 255-274.
Φιλιππάκη-Warburton, Ε. και Γ. Βελούδης. 1985. Η υποτακτική στις συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις. Μελέτες για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα 5: 149-167.
Xριστίδης, Α-Φ. 1982. Ότι/πως - που. Επιλογή δεικτών συμπληρωμάτων στα Νέα Ελληνικά. Μελέτες για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα 2: 113-177.
Xριστίδης, Α-Φ. 1984. Παρατηρήσεις στη σύνταξη των «αισθήσεως σημαντικών» στα Νέα Ελληνικά. Μελέτες για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα 4: 115-125.
Xριστίδης, Α-Φ. 1985. Πρόσθετες παρατηρήσεις στις συμπληρωματικές προτάσεις της Νέας Ελληνικής. Μελέτες για την ελληνική γλώσσα 3: 47-72.
3 0 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education The Effects of Working on Multi-Word Expressions on the Development of Lexical Competence: A Case of 25 Students Enrolled in One Course
Liliana Piasecka
Opole University [email protected]
Abstract
Lexical competence, comprising knowledge of individual words, their relations, combinations and fixed expressions in which they appear, is crucial for effective communication. This paper presents the effects that participation in a course which focused on English multi-word expressions had on the EFL student participants’ lexical development. The discussion is based on questionnaire responses concerning student involvement in the course, and the results of three tests measuring vocabulary gains. Involving students in cooperative learning through group assignments and micro-teaching of self-chosen multi- word expressions had positive effects on their lexical development, team-work skills, information research skills and presentation skills.
1. Introduction
Communicative competence – the major objective of foreign/second language learning and teaching since the focus on Communicative Language Teaching which occurred towards the end of the 1970s and during the 1980s – has been described as consisting of linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences (Richards & Rodgers 2001). Linguistic competence comprises a knowledge of the grammatical system of the language along with a knowledge of its vocabulary (Bachman 1990). It is the latter that I would like to focus on in this paper since what has come to be known as ‘lexical competence’ is of utmost importance for effective communication across the various levels of proficiency, in a variety of contexts. Vocabulary is that component of linguistic knowledge that develops throughout a lifetime and, due to the disappearance of some items and the
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appearance of the new ones in the lexicon, the foreign language learner has to be alert and responsive to these changes. Word knowledge develops over time on linguistic, psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic levels (Richards 1976) and constitutes a combination of the pronunciation, spelling, meaning(s), syntactic properties, grammatical category, derivations, morphosyntactic behaviour, discourse and pragmatic properties, and associations, together with the relations the lexical item enters into with other words. Moreover, lexical competence is not limited to the knowledge of individual words and of the relationships among them, but also includes the ability to recognize and use fixed expressions and idioms that are tantamount to fluent language use and comprehension (Carter 1987). A lexically competent L2 user, then, is able to recognise and use the words in the language, depending on the situation in which they appear, which also includes any pragmatic constraints on their use. Such a user understands different relationships among families of words and the common collocations of words and recognises and uses fixed expressions and idioms to communicate successfully in various contexts. Recent research on formulaic sequences shows that they are processed more quickly both by native and non-native language users (Conklin & Schmitt 2008), though for non-native users the frequency of these phrases affects processing more than their length and mutual relationship (Ellis et al. 2008).
2. Multi-word Expressions
In this paper, the term ‘multi-word expressions’ (henceforth referred to as MWEs), is synonymous with such terms as ‘phrasal lexeme’, ‘phraseological unit’ or ‘multi-word lexical item’ and is used in the sense proposed by Moon (1998). She defines multi-word items as “holistic units of two or more words” (p.2) and calls them “fixed expressions”. Fixed expressions include • Frozen collocations (addled eggs, the door stood ajar). • Grammatically ill-formed collocations (at all). • Proverbs (Every cloud has a silver lining). • Routine formulae (I’m sorry to say). • Sayings (Home, James, and don’t spare the horses). • Similes (as good as gold). • Idioms (spill the beans).
Compound nouns, adjectives and verbs, phrasal verbs, foreign phrases and multi-word inflectional forms of verbs, adjectives and adverbs are excluded from this category of fixed expressions (Moon 1998). Thus, in this paper, the term MWEs is synonymous with the term ‘fixed expressions and idioms’ (FEIs).
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Since language comprehension and use are based on chunks rather than single words following one another, MWEs perform a wide range of important functions both in spoken and written discourse. They allow language users to maintain the conversation (eg., I’m sorry about...), talk about common topics (eg., My name is ...), and to organise discourse coherently (e.g., as far as I know...) (Nattinger & DeCarrico 1992). When the conversation is concerned with problem-solving, these expressions help the participants to evaluate the situation and to respond to it properly (McCarthy & Carter 1994). Their function may also depend on their role in the structure and context of the text. Informational expressions may be used to state a proposition or convey information (eg., for sale), evaluative expressions convey the speaker’s attitude and evaluation (eg., a different kettle of fish), situational phrases relate to extralinguistic context in response to a situation (eg., Excuse me!), modalising phrases convey truth values, advice or requests (eg., You know what I mean) while organisational expressions organise the text by signalling discourse structure (eg., by the way) (Moon 1998). These expressions are particularly useful from the language learners’ point of view because they support both language comprehension and its production. As far as comprehension is concerned, they allow the learner to decode the message encoded orally or in writing not in a word-by-word manner but using chunks that the learners have stored in their memory and can identify in the text. Actually, syntactic parsing – one of the basic comprehension processes – involves fragmenting the text into smaller units in order to build the microstructure of the text (Grabe & Stoller 2002; Kintsch & Rawson 2005). When language learners are able to identify MWEs in the text and ascribe appropriate meanings to them, the speed and accuracy of decoding is enhanced. With respect to language production, MWEs help the learners to structure and organise the discourse they are engaged in. Interpersonal communication requires of the participants that they respond immediately to the interlocutor’s utterance and when comprehension problems appear, the learners can use fixed phrases to recall the necessary language forms, they can divert the interlocutor’s attention from the problematic issue or they can ask for clarification, as is required by the situation. Considering the above, it seems justified to include the teaching of MWEs in any foreign language teaching program, even more so since such a way of acquiring a foreign language is close to naturalistic L1 acquisition. The question that arises with respect to this issue is whether it is necessary to focus on these expressions or whether they are acquired naturally, even in the foreign language context, by sheer exposure to the foreign language in multiple modes and forms. From the researcher’s observations it emerged that exposure is not enough. What matters is the type of focus on these expressions that allows the learners to analyse their form, meaning and functions as well as the opportunity to practise their recognition and use in various contexts through a variety of activities offering such involvement.
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To assist university students of English as a foreign language in their lexical development, a course on fixed expressions and idioms was offered. The aim of the empirical part of this paper is to discuss the effects that the participation in the course had on the students’ lexical development.
3. The Study
The study is based on the researcher’s experiences connected with teaching a course on fixed expressions and phrases that is an optional one-semester course offered to second and third year undergraduate students of English Philology at her university. It covers 30 contact hours and has the following aims: • to sensitize students to MWEs; • to give them the opportunity to learn some of them; • to develop their lexical competence, and thus • to enhance their communicative competence and their proficient use of English as a foreign language (EFL).
The course is learner-centered to promote the participants’ creativity and autonomy. It also follows the principles of cooperative learning since the students worked in groups of four in which they prepared presentations of MWEs. At the beginning of the course, the teacher suggested working on the expressions based on colour terms to have the students experience both the advantages and the possible pitfalls of team work. After that, the groups were formed on the basis of shared interests and hobbies and the students selected expressions, phrases and idioms that reflected their interests. In groups, they had to negotiate which expressions to choose and how to prepare interesting, involving and effective presentations to teach these forms to their classmates. In class, the students taught selected MWEs, practising their language and teaching skills.
3.1. Objectives
The study aimed to examine whether participation in the course had any effects on the students’ lexical development. In other words, it sought to answer the following questions: • Were the aims of the course achieved? • Were the students successful? • What were the gains in terms of lexical development? • What factors are related to lexical growth in the context of formal instruction?
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3.2. Participants
25 2nd and 3rd year undergraduate students of English Philology, at Opole University, took part in the study. Participation in the course was voluntary and an indication of their interest in the subject-matter. The mean age of the students was 20.48 yrs (SD .58) and they had been learning English for 12.8 yrs (SD 1.96, min. 10, max. 16 yrs). There were 15 female (60%) and 10 male (40%) participants.
3.3. Instruments
In order to collect the necessary data required to find the answers to the research questions, three tests and one questionnaire were used. Test 1, a traditional achievement test, consisted of 76 items, which were MWEs covered during the winter term 2010 - 2011. They were checked by means of such techniques as definition, substitution and multiple choice. Passing the test was one ofthe conditions in order to get the necessary credit for the course. Test 2 contained 20 items checked by means of partial translation, that is, a sentence in L1 was presented, followed by its partial translation into English with a slot to elicit the required expression. Test 3 was a recall test in which the students were requested to write at least 10 MWEs that they had learned during the course. They could write more than 10. In terms of content selection, the tests ranged from teacher-dependent (Tests 1 and 2) to learner-dependent (Test 3). The questionnaire contained 20 statements referring to the students’ confidence about their use of English, their opinions about the course, their participation and effects of the course on their sensitivity to and their use of MWEs. They presented their opinions using a 4-point Likert scale where 1 meant strongly disagree and 4 stood for strongly agree.
3.4. Variables
Since lexical growth associated with participation in the course was in focus, it is the dependent variable in the study. Lexical development is operationalised by the scores on the three tests. Each test had a different form and purpose, thus checking different aspects of lexical acquisition. Several factors that could explain the effects of participation in the course on the students’ lexical development were also distinguished. They are the independent variables that refer to the students’ investment in the course, their sensitivity to MWEs, their confidence in using them, their motivation in choosing the course and their satisfaction with the course. Analysis showed that gender is also an important characteristic, therefore it has been included in the group of independent variables.
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As regards the students’ investment in the course, it was operationalised by the Investment Scale (INVS), based on six statements from the questionnaire: 1. I worked hard during the course. 2. I was well prepared for every class. 3. I liked the presentations I prepared. 4. I enjoyed preparing presentations in groups. 5. I contributed a lot to our classes. 6. I studied hard for the test.
INVS is reliable as shown by Cronbach’s α calculated for the scale (α =.71). The participants’ sensitivity to MWEs is shown by the following statements: 7. I have become more sensitive to MWEs in English. 8. I have become more sensitive to MWEs in Polish. 9. Their confidence in using English is reflected in 3 statements: 10. I feel confident when I speak English. 11. I feel confident when I read in English. 12. I feel confident when I write in English.
With respect to their motivation to participate in the course, the following statements were used: 13. I joined the course because I wanted to expand my English vocabulary. 14. I joined the course because I thought I wouldn’t have to work hard.
The use of new MWEs in language comprehension and production also contributes to language growth and it was reflected in the statements 14-16: 15. I use the expressions we were studying in speech. 16. I use the expressions we were studying in writing 17. I use the expressions we were studying whenever I can.
Finally, the statement (17) I’m satisfied with the course refers to their degree of satisfaction with the course. The data collected by means of tests and the questionnaire were analysed quantitatively. First, means and standard deviations were calculated. The means were compared by t-tests for independent samples while correlational statistics was used to find out the relations between the dependent and independent variables. The results appear in the section which follows.
3.5. Results
Firstly, the data measuring the dependent variable are shown. Then, the numerical values calculated for independent variables are presented. These values were
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necessary in order to investigate the possible relations between the variables. Test scores measuring the participants’ lexical development are shown in Table 1 which includes the means and standard deviations for each test and the total score for all the tests. Apart from the scores for the whole group, the scores of female and male participants are also included for the reason that gender-based differences were observed in the data.
Table 1. Test results – means and standard deviations (in brackets).
Whole group (WG) Females (F) Males (M) (N=25) (N=15) (N=10)
Test 1 (max. score 76) 51.30 (12.01) 58.80 (8.44) 40.00 (6.60)
Test 2 (max. score 20) 14.48 (2.81) 15.50 (3.01) 12.89 (1.54)
Test 3 (max. score 20) 18.00 (3.33) 18.73 (2.68) 16.90 (4.01)
Total (max. score 116) 84.11 (14.86) 92.50 (12.04) 71.05 (6.47)
All the participants passed Test 1, as was required in order to get the necessary credit for the course. The Whole Group (WG) obtained 67.63% of the correct answers, although females scored higher than males. The average score for Test 2 achieves 70.24% of the correct answers, while on Test 3 as much as 90% of the possible correct answers were provided. All the results show a consistent pattern of females performing at a higher level than males. Also, teacher- designed tests are more demanding than the recall test, as shown by the percentages of correct/possible answers. Table 2 presents questionnaire results for the 6 independent variables.
Table 2. Questionnaire results according to independent variables. The numbers in bold indicate statement numbers. Mean scores are shown in columns, followed by the standard deviation (in brackets).
Whole Group Females Males
INVS (1-6) 2.59 (.44) 2.75 (.41) 2.35 (.41)
Sensitivity (7-8) 2.96 (.48) 3.14 (.46) 2.70 (.42)
Confidence (9-11) 3.09 (.45) 2.93 (.40) 3.33 (.41)
(12) 3.56 (.58) 3.80 (.41) 3.20 (.63) Motivation (13) 2.24 (1.01) 1.73 (.80) 3.00 (.82)
Use of MWEs (14-16) 2.81 (.38) 2.84 (.43) 2.76 (.31)
Satisfaction (17) 3.32 (.48) 3.27 (.46) 3.40 (.52)
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To reiterate, the participants used a 4-point Likert scale to indicate their opinions. The higher the score, the more involved, sensitive, confident, motivated and satisfied the participants were. To present a clear picture of the data, the values for the statements comprising one variable were aggregated and the resulting means and standard deviations are presented in the table. However, for the motivation variable, the means and standard deviations are shown for individual statements. Considering the results of the whole group, the highest means are observed for the participants’ need to expand their vocabulary (Motivation 12), satisfaction with the course, confidence in reading and writing, sensitivity to fixed expressions in the foreign and the native language and the use of new phrases. Investment appears to be less important than motivation for joining the course. A quick glance at the columns containing the data of females and males shows that there are some differences in the opinions presented by both genders. In fact, gender differences seem to be evident in all the data shown so far; therefore it seems justified to check whether the differences in the numbers bear any statistical significance. T-tests for independent samples were conducted in order to compare the means of both groups, that is, females and males. The results of the comparison are given in Table 3, which includes only the variables that show statistically significant gender differences.
Table 3. T-tests results for gender differences in the performance and opinions of female and male participants
Variable Females (mean score) Males (mean score) t-test/p
Test 1 58.80 40.00 t=5.09, p<.01
Test 2 15.50 12.89 t=2.40, p<.05
Total score 92.50 71.05 t=4.76, p<.01
INVS 2.75 2.35 t=2.30, p<.05
Sensitivity 3.14 2.70 t=2.41, p<.05
Confidence 2.93 3.33 t=2.40, p<.05
(12) 3.80 3.20 t=2.88, p<.01 Motivation (13) 1.73 3.00 t=-3.85, p<.01
Female students who participated in the study scored higher than males on all three tests which checked their knowledge of MWEs, and for each test the difference between the performance of females and males is statistically significant, as shown by p values which all fall below .05. Females also show a higher level of investment in the course, they are more sensitive to the expressions both in Polish and in English and they are more motivated to expand
3 0 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Liliana Piasecka
their lexical resources than males. For each of the variables, the differences between females and males are statistically significant. However, when it comes to confidence about language use, males are more confident than females. In addition, when choosing the course, males were more concerned about avoiding hard work than females. To answer the question about the factors that may be related to the participants’ lexical development, as measured by test scores, Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated. The r values that show statistical significance are given in Table 4. The p value was set at .05 level.
Table 4. Statistically significant correlations (r) between the variables. p<.05
Variables Whole group Females Males
T1 x T2 .67 .71
T2 x T3 .73
T3 x Investment .88
Total score x Investment .46
T1 x Sensitivity .54
T2 x Sensitivity .51 .62
T3 x Sensitivity .66 .88
T1 x Motivation 12 .49
Total score x Motivation 12 .46
Motivation 12 x Investment .56
Motivation 13 x T1 -.63
Motivation 13 x T2 -.57
Motivation 13 x Total score -.67
Motivation 13 x Confidence .46
Motivation 13 x Sensitivity -.57
Interesting relations can be observed when the results of the whole group are analysed. Such factors as investment, sensitivity, motivation and confidence enter into statistically significant relations with test results although the strength of these relations varies. Positive moderate relations exist between the scores on Test 1 and Test 2, but not between Test 1 and Test 3 or Test 2 and Test 3. The total score on the three tests, however, is positively though moderately related to investment, and so is Test 3. Sensitivity to MWEs in Polish and English is positively and moderately related to Test 1 and Test 2 scores but the relationship is stronger for the free recall test (Test 3). The participants’ need to develop their
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lexical competence (Motivation 12) is positively and moderately correlated with their achievement on Test 1, the overall achievement on the tests, as well as with investment. On the other hand, expecting that hard work would not be necessary to complete the course (Motivation 13) is negatively related to Test 1 and Test 2 scores as well as to the overall test scores and to sensitivity. Nonetheless, it is positively related to confidence about language use. From the gender differences perspective it appears that for females the relations between test results are positive and strong which means that females are more consistent in their performance. In addition, their sensitivity to MWEs is positively related to their performance on the translation task (Test 2). For males, however, very strong positive relations relate to their performance on Test 3 (free recall) and investment and sensitivity.
3.6. Discussion
As the aim of the study was to investigate the effects of participation in the course on MWEs and on the participants’ lexical development, it can be said that the aims of the course were achieved. Test results show that the participants managed to develop their lexical competence with respect to MWEs. They all passed Test 1, though much variation is observed as evidenced by standard deviation values. The results of Test 2 show that the participants became sensitive to the presence of MWEs in their two languages and that they were able to provide accurate translations of the phrases from L1 to L2. If they could not provide accurate MWEs, they used paraphrase or expressions that conveyed the intended meaning. The results of Test 3 suggest that they were able to recall many MWEs meaningful to them at the end of the course. The results also reveal that teacher-devised tests are more demanding than the recall test. In the former, the teacher selected items to be checked, while in the latter, the students produced the phrases they remembered best. The students were successful because they had learned a range of expressions which, according to their opinion, they use in spoken and written discourse. In addition, their satisfaction with the course is high, which suggests that the contents of the course matched their needs, at least to some extent. Considering factors related to lexical growth in the context of formal instruction, the results imply that investment understood as involvement in class activities, preparation of tasks and working on them with other students during presentations is an important factor related to the recall test scores and the total test score. The more the students invest in the learning process, the more they gain in terms of the overall development of lexical competence Sensitivity is another factor that shows a relation with the results of all the tests. By focusing on MWEs during classes, the students learned to recognise
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their roles and functions in language use and comprehension regardless of the language they speak. They became aware of their presence in oral and written discourse and realised that using them contributes to more successful language production, by giving it fluency and flair. Correlations show that motivation is the variable that cannot be ignored in the context of language learning as it is positively and significantly related both to test results and investment. However, when the students declare that they decided to join the course to avoid too much work (Motivation 13), the correlations become negative and statistically significant. Lexical development which includes enhanced sensitivity to verbal expressions requires the learners to process the lexical material in such a way that it becomes meaningful and memorable to them. The activities that they were engaged in during the course were prepared by the teacher, by other students and by themselves, which accounts for a large variety of approaches to MWEs and tasks used to introduce, practise and use MWEs. Some of the activities prepared by the students were very original, for example, they prepared picture puzzles to introduce the form of selected MWEs or prepared other puzzles or riddles to make the activities attractive. The preparation and presentation of these activities are likely to evoke deep processing and, consequently, more effective remembering and recall of the phrases. There is one puzzling thing about motivation 13, though. It is positively and significantly related to confidence. This might suggest that confidence about one’s reading, speaking and writing skills may not depend so much on hard work but on other factors such as the students’ self-image, successful communication, positive feedback from the environment, and personality and other individual factors. With respect to gender differences the data reveal that females’ scores on teacher-designed tests were significantly higher than males’, which is consistent with other research findings that suggest that females outperform males on tests based on the material covered during instructional sessions, they do better at school, are more active learners in general and societies expect them to be good language learners (eg., Halpern 2004; Kimura 1999; Sunderland 1998). Indeed, the adult females participating in this study appear to be more conscientious and diligent while males are more easy-going. They also show a higher level of investment and motivation but males are more confident about using English and expect a lower level of engagement on the course. Moreover, a very significant relationship between the performance on the teacher-devised tests is observed in the female sample while an even stronger relationship between the scores on free recall, investment and sensitivity is found in the male sample. This suggests that females and males approach different language tasks differently, which may result from their cognitive abilities, as well as from social expectations, regarding gender roles.
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Apart from developing their lexical competence, the students were also given an opportunity to work on social and teaching skills, for example, working in groups, collaboratively, they were likely to develop their team-work skills that are so important for the job market nowadays. Since they were to select items for presentation themselves, they practised autonomy and, in a way, worked to satisfy their own lexical needs. Preparing various activities they showed their resourcefulness and creativity, which was highly appreciated by some students. Moreover, trying to meet their classmates’ and friends’ expectations, they developed sensitivity to their needs, which is an important aspect of the teaching profession (some of the students will become teachers of English). They also tried out their presentation skills. As one of the participants wrote: In my opinion it was easier to learn various expressions because of the activities we had taken part in during classes. Another one added: I did not like preparing and watching presentations although I must admit that the phrases presented in them are easily recalled from my memory now.
4. Conclusions
The course was designed to develop the participants’ lexical competence and motivated them to work on their foreign language lexical resources because of a wide range of activities that activated their cognitive processes and a creative approach to the tasks. Eventually, even the reluctant students appreciated this way of learning and were satisfied with the course. Apart from gains in their lexical repertoire, they practised and developed other skills that are useful both inside and outside the formal academic setting, such as team work, needs analysis and presentation skills. They became more sensitive to the role and functions of fixed expressions in verbal communication. The positive impact of the course on the participants’ lexical competence may be attributed to the fact that the students - advanced foreign language learners - were strongly motivated to probe the language more deeply because as students of English Philology, they read, write, speak and communicate in English. Access to memory reserves that hold a range of MWEs makes language comprehension and use more effective. Indeed, the academic discourse that they take part in is characterised by many formulaic sequences that could also be incorporated into the teaching program. Simpson-Vlach & Ellis (2010) provide a useful list of such formulae derived from corpora of academic discourse. This could open a number of research options, as future empirical studies may aim at finding out whether teaching these formulae contributes to more effective comprehension and use of academic discourse. At this point the question about possible ways of teaching these formulae arises. Further research might also seek to focus on the role of MWEs in language comprehension and production across age groups and proficiency levels.
3 1 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Liliana Piasecka
References
Bachman, L.F. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. New York: Oxford University Press.
Carter, R. 1987. Vocabulary. London: Unwin Hyman.
Conklin, K. and N. Schmitt. 2008. Formulaic sequences: Are they processed more quickly than nonformulaic language by native and non-native speakers? Applied Linguistics 29(1): 72-89.
Ellis, N., R. Simpson-Vlach and C. Maynard. 2008. Formulaic language in native and second language speakers: Psycholinguistics, corpus linguistics, and TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 42(3): 375-396.
Grabe, W. and F. Stoller. 2002. Teaching and Researching Reading. Harlow: Pearson Education.
Halpern, D.F. 2004. A cognitive-process taxonomy for sex differences in cognitive abilities. American Psychological Society 13(4): 135-139.
Kimura, D. 1999. Sex and Cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kintsch, W. and K.A. Rawson. 2005. Comprehension. In M.J. Snowling and C. Hulme (eds.), The Science of Reading: A Handbook. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 209-226.
McCarthy, M. and R. Carter. 1994. Language as Discourse: Perspectives for Language Teaching. Longman: London and New York.
Moon, R. 1998. Fixed Expressions in English: A Corpus-based Approach. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
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Nattinger, J. and J. DeCarrico. 1992. Lexical Phrases and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Richards, J. 1976. The role of vocabulary teaching. TESOL Quarterly 10(1): 77-89.
Richards, J. and T. Rodgers. 2001. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Simpson-Vlach, R. and N.C. Ellis. 2010. An academic formulas list: New methods in Phraseology research. Applied Linguistics 31(4): 487-512.
Sunderland, J. 1998. Girls being quiet: A problem for foreign language classrooms? Language Teaching Research 2(1): 48-82.
3 1 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Proximal Predictors of L2 Willingness to Communicate in Polish Adolescents
Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel
Opole University [email protected]
Abstract
In order to overcome differences between languages and cultures, interlocutors need a strong communicative target: willingness to communicate in a foreign language. It is connected with higher perceived competence and lower anxiety levels. The paper describes results of an empirical research devoted to corroborating this relationship in the context of Polish secondary grammar school. The results demonstrate that L2 perceived competence is a stronger predictor of L2 WTC levels, when compared to language anxiety. It can be explained by the fact that the participants can mostly demonstrate their desire to speak in the foreign language within the constraints of the classroom, being not fully proficient.
1. Introduction
Success in second language acquisition (SLA) has always been one of the main scopes of research in the field. Recently, a topic that has received a lot of interest is willingness to communicate (WTC). In order to communicate in the foreign language (FL), the student must display psychological readiness to engage in interaction, i.e., willingness to communicate in L2, which helps overcome differences between languages and cultures (MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei & Noels 1998). The aim of this paper is to empirically evaluate the L2 WTC model proposed by MacIntyre (1994), according to which greater WTC is based on a combination of greater perceived communicative competence and a lower level of communication apprehension. For this purpose, first the WTC construct is discussed, followed by an outline of empirical research carried out on Polish secondary grammar school students. The results are discussed in the context of recommendations for the EFL classroom.
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2. Willingness to Communicate
The origins of WTC studies can be traced back to monolingual communication research focusing on the main tendencies of the individual’s use of language, activated by their predilections towards talking. One of the main concepts that has turned out to be decisive in explaining one’s communicative behaviour is willingness to communicate, seen as an individual’s general attitude toward initiating communication with other people (McCroskey & Richmond 1987) or the probability that an individual will choose to initiate communication when free to do so (McCroskey 1992). WTC is seen as a personality characteristic, denoting a stable “predisposition toward approaching or avoiding the initiation of communication” (McCroskey 1992: 16). Aside from its personality-oriented character, WTC is also situation dependent. This means that it is also shaped by diverse situational variables, such as one’s previous experiences with communication or current mood, among others. It has been stressed that willingness to communicate is an issue extremely important to the individual’s functioning. People who have higher levels of WTC are generally evaluated better in different contexts, such as school or other social environments, unlike those with low WTC, whose social and emotional happiness is greatly reduced (Richmond & McCroskey 1989). Willing to initiate communication is also viewed as crucial in developing positive relationships (McCroskey, Richmond, Sallinen, Fayer & Barraclough 1995). In SLA research the role of the language used for communication (foreign or second) has to be recognized, due to the unique nature of the foreign language learning process. The change of language imposes a ‘dramatic’ transformation of the communication setting (MacIntyre et al. 1998: 546). First of all, foreign language learning requires studying the subject matter (e.g., L2 systems and subsystems) like in any other school subject, but also skills (speaking, writing, listening, and reading). Moreover, aspects of another culture have to be acquired, which makes language learning “a socially oriented process… linked with the wider cultural and cognitive processes” (Foley & Thompson 2003: 62). The interplay of these complex factors generates a substantial threat to the learner’s “self-perception of genuineness in presenting themselves to others” (Horwitz 1999: xii), inducing a range of negative emotions that accompany the prolonged process of the formation of a new, flexible self-concept. It can therefore be stipulated that the individual’s (L2 learner’s) decision to initiate communication in a foreign language cannot be primarily influenced by their personal predilections towards talking, but also by situational variables shaping the communicative event. For this reason WTC is defined as “a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using a L2” (MacIntyre et al. 1998: 547). It is viewed as a state of readiness, influenced by state anxiety, a perception of L2 competence, and a
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desire to communicate with another person (MacIntyre 2004). It enables the student to commence a task in a foreign language, to focus on it, and to follow it through to completion (MacIntyre & Doucette 2010). Hence, L2 learners that wilfully initiate communication need to be sure that they are equipped with the skills to send an understandable message to which they will later be capable of responding.
3. Proximal Predictors of WTC
The L2 learner’s willingness to communicate is shaped by two basic groups of influences. The first is the situational (changeable or variable), while the second consists of the more constant (stable) factors that influence voluntary communication initiation (MacIntyre et al. 1998) incorporated into a heuristic (pyramid) model of L2 WTC. Social and individual context is placed at the bottom of the pyramid (Layer VI). It incorporates the most remote factors, such as intergroup climate and personality, showing the interplay of the relative socioeconomic power of a society and personal communication networks, moderated by individual differences. Layer V hosts the affective-cognitive context, with more individually- based variables like intergroup attitudes, social situation, and communicative competence. The opposing forces of integrativeness and fear of assimilation interact with motivation to learn L2. Motivational propensities, including interpersonal motivation, intergroup motivation, and L2 self-confidence are placed in Layer IV. At this level the social and affective facets of the motivation to communicate interact with L2 self-confidence defined by judgments of proficiency and language anxiety experience. Situated antecedents are located in Layer III, accommodating the most proximal determinants of WTC: the desire to communicate with a specific person, and state communicative self-confidence. Affiliation and control motives foster a desire to communicate, together with high perceived competence and a lack of anxiety. Layer II incorporates behavioural intention, i.e., willingness to communicate. This is the most proximal factor representing the final psychological step in preparing for L2 communication. It shows that in order to communicate the individual must have control over their actions, and behave in a purposeful manner in order to reach their goals. Finally, there is communication behaviour, i.e., the direct L2 use (Layer I). This is the apex of interaction among complex variables at the lower layers of the pyramid, cumulating in the initiation or avoidance of L2 communication. The pyramid model shows that the most proximal predictors of L2 WTC can be traced within Layer III. More specifically, communication competence and communication apprehension, the two key antecedents of WTC, can be found there. Their unquestionable value is already reflected in the early model
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of L2 WTC (MacIntyre 1994), which proposed that greater WTC is based on a combination of greater perceived communicative competence and a lower level of communication apprehension. Perceived competence can be defined as a person’s evaluation of their ability to demonstrate the belief that they can communicate effectively in a given situation (Donovan & MacIntyre 2005). Anxiety, on the other hand, is understood as apprehension associated with real or anticipated communication. Accordingly, the models postulated that greater WTC would result in more frequent communication in L2. It may then lead to the observation that perceived communicative competence and communication apprehension are the two closest antecedents of willingness to communicate. The close relation between anxiety and perceived competence is attributed to the fact that that anxiety can bias perceptions of competence, because anxious speakers underestimate their competence, while relaxed speakers overestimate it (MacIntyre, Noels, & Clément 1997). As competence has an impact on frequency of communication, positive experiences while communicating in the foreign language are connected with lower language anxiety levels and higher WTC (Baker & MacIntyre 2000). Moreover, new situations are likely to result in lower WTC, while familiar situations increase WTC because there is less anxiety, accompanied by higher perceived competence (MacDonald, Clément & MacIntyre 2003). This model was empirically tested by MacIntyre and Charos (1996), who found that self-perceived competence had the strongest influence on L2 communication frequency, because the participants had low perceived levels of FL proficiency. This may mean that one’s perception of ability to communicate, more than actual proficiency, can affect the frequency of L2. Finally, the authors postulated that WTC was shaped by “a combination of the student’s perception of his or her second language proficiency, the opportunity to use the language, and a lack of apprehension about speaking” (ibid: 17). Other studies have also confirmed the above findings. A lower level of anxiety and a higher level of perception of L2 communication competence have been found to lead to a higher level of WTC. L2 anxiety exerts a strong and direct negative influence on perceived competence in native speakers of different languages, such as Japanese (Hashimoto 2002; Simic & Tanaka 2008; Yashima 2002). The value of communication anxiety and perceived communication competence in predicting WTC levels was also confirmed in studies on English (e.g., Baker & Maclntyre 2000; Clément, Baker & MacIntyre 2003; MacIntyre, Baker, Clément & Conrod 2001; MacIntyre & Doucette 2010) or Turkish native speakers (Cetinkaya 2005). The main focus of this paper is on the influence of the situated antecedents described above on the WTC levels of Polish secondary grammar school students. The empirical research carried out so far has established that in more experienced (immersion) learners, anxiety is a better predictor of L2 WTC, while
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for less experienced students (non-immersion) perceived competence is a better predictor of L2 WTC (MacIntyre, Clément, & Donovan 2002). For the purpose of this study it is hypothesized that self-assessment of FL skills is a better predictor of L2 WTC than language anxiety, due to the fact that the opportunity to use a foreign language outside the school context in Poland is not very common. For this reason students can mostly demonstrate their desire to speak in the foreign language within the constraints of the classroom, and are not genuinely conscious of real L2 communication perils. That is why the participants’ WTC is expected to be more dependent on perceived competence (operationalized as self-perceived levels of FL skills) than language anxiety.
4. Method
4.1. Participants
The cohort participating in the study comprised 621 students from 23 classes of the six secondary grammar schools in Opole, south-western Poland (396 girls and 225 boys) whose mean age was 16.5. The sample mostly included urban students (N=408; with 286 participants from the city of Opole and 122 from neighbouring towns), with 213 from rural regions. They were first-grade students taking three to six hours a week of English instruction. Their level of proficiency in English was at the elementary to intermediate level. Their other compulsory language was French or German (two lessons a week).
4.2. Materials
The basic instrument used in the study was a questionnaire. It explored demographic variables such as age, gender (1 – male, 2 – female) and place of residence (1 – village: up to 2,500 inhabitants, 2 – town: more than 2,500 inhabitants). The Willingness to communicate in the classroom scale (MacIntyre et al. 2001) adopted for the use of English (WTCI) was also used. The inventory included 27 items, assessing students’ willingness to initiate communication during class time within the four skill areas. There were eight items measuring WTC in speaking, six in reading, eight in writing, and five in comprehension (listening). Sample items in the scale were: A stranger enters the room you are in, how willing would you be to have a conversation if he talked to you first? and How often are you willing to read personal letters or notes written to you in which the writer has deliberately used simple words and constructions? The participants indicated the
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frequency they chose to use English on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost never willing) to 5 (almost always willing). The minimum score was 27, the maximum: 135. The scale’s reliability was measured in terms of Cronbach’s alpha, showing very good reliability (α=.94). The next scale was Willingness to communicate outside the classroom (MacIntyre et al. 2001), assessing the participants’ willingness to communicate outside the classroom in the four skill areas (WTCO). It was composed of the same items as the previous scale, adapted to the out-of-school context. Its reliability was α=.96. The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope 1986) was used in order to estimate the degree to which students feel anxious during language classes. Sample items on the scale were as follows: I can feel my heart pounding when I’m going to be called on in language class and I keep thinking that the other students are better at languages than I am. Again, a Likert scale was used (from 1 – I totally disagree to 5 – I totally agree). The minimum number of points was 33, the maximum: 165. The scale’s reliability was α=.94 . The last measurement used in the study was a scale estimating self-perceived levels of FL skills (speaking, listening, writing and reading), comprising an aggregated value of separate self-assessments of the FL skills on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (unsatisfactory) to 6 (excellent).
4.3. Procedure
The data collection procedure took place over the months of March and April 2010. In each class, the students were asked to respond to the questionnaire. The time designated for the activity was 15 to 45 minutes. The participants were asked to give true answers without taking too much time to consider. A new set of items in each part of the questionnaire was preceded with a short statement introducing it in an inconspicuous manner. The design of the study was non-experimental, based on a regression analysis – it quantified the relationship between the main variable (the aggregated value of WTCI and WTCO, called WTC) and other variables introduced in the first part of the paper (i.e., language anxiety). There are three kinds of variables identified in the study. The dependent variable was the aggregated value of the WTC measurements in and out of the classroom (WTCI and WTCO). The independent variables were constituted by language anxiety and self-perceived levels of the four skills, while the control variables were gender and place of residence. All the variables were operationally defined as questionnaire items. The data were computed by means of the statistical program STATISTICA, with the main operations being descriptive statistics; i.e., means, standard deviations (SD), and correlation, represented by the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient r. Additionally, there was another procedure, called step-wise
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hierarchical regression, used to predict WTC levels on the basis of the scores on several other variables (gender, place of residence, and, mostly, language anxiety levels). The indicator of significance of variables inserted in consecutive blocks was the range of the explained variance R2 (the unique contribution of new predictors), as well as the value and significance of the β weights (they show how strongly each predictor variable influences the criterion variable, i.e., WTC). Nevertheless, as R2 has a tendency to overestimate the appropriateness of the model when applied to the real world, an Adjusted R2 value taking into account the number of variables in the model and the number of observations (participants) was calculated and treated as the most useful measure of the success of the model.
5. Results
First means and SD were calculated for all the variables included in the study. The summary of the results can be found in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Means and SD of the variables
Variable Mean SD
Gender 1.64 .48
Place of residence 2.31 .95
WTC (WTCI+WTCO) 159.42 45.46
Language anxiety 83.95 23.87
Self-perceived FL skills 15.75 3.51
Subsequently, all the variables measured on interval scales were correlated with one another. The results showed that WTC was positively correlated in the strongest manner with self-perceived FL skills (r=.46, p=.00), while its correlation with language anxiety was slightly weaker, though negative (r=-.37, p=.00). The summary of the correlation procedures is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Correlation matrices for L2 WTC
r p
Language anxiety -.37 .00
Self-perceived FL skills .46 .00
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Then, in order to compute the predictive value of the variables for assessing WTC levels, step-wise multiple regression was performed. In the first step the items chosen for predicting the WTC level were gender and place of residence. It can be seen that both variables show the weak, though statistically significant predictability of the WTC results. In the case of gender the results were β=.11, p=.00, while in reference to the participants’ place of residence: β=.09, p=.03. Together, these two variables were responsible for about 2% of the WTC variability with F(2, 618)=5.89, p=.00. In the next step language anxiety was introduced into the equation. The results were: β=-.41, p=.00. The variable turned out to be responsible for 17% of the WTC variability with F(3, 617)=43.40, p=.00. Finally, in the last step the most potent variable (according to the research) was entered: self-perceived levels of FL skills. In this case β=.36, p=.00, while the variable appeared to be responsible for 25% of the WTC variability. In this way a significant model of L2 WTC emerged withF (4, 616)=53.45, p=.00. A summary of the multiple regression procedure can be found in Table 3.
Table 3. Summary of multiple regression results
Variable Adjusted R2 change B p Step 1* Gender .11 .00 Place of residence .09 .00 Step 2 Language anxiety .17 -.41 .00 Step 3 Self-perceived FL .36 .00 .25 skills * Adjusted R2=.01
6. Discussion
The basic aim of this research was to verify the predictive power of the two most influential variables in the context of Polish secondary grammar school. The study results fully corroborated the hypothesis adopted for the purpose of this study, according to which self-assessment of FL skills is a stronger predictor of L2 WTC than language anxiety. This finding is consistent with the previous research establishing that FL users who are convinced they have good communication skills tend to be more confident when interacting with others, and thus are more willing to communicate cross-culturally (MacIntyre 1994). The variables of gender and place of residence play a minor role, so they will be excluded from the interpretation of the results.
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It is assumed that self-assessment of FL skills plays the role of a self-report measure of FL competence on an a priori basis, being a subjective evaluation of the students FL skills levels, and not the measurement of actual competence. Consequently, the self-evaluation of the ability to communicate appropriately in a given situation in a foreign language is revealed in the student’s belief about the level of their FL skills, forming the basis of their decision whether to communicate in the foreign language or not. It is expected that when a person becomes more confident about their FL skills, their self-assuredness in ability levels allows them to gain more chances of initiating communication in the foreign language with native-language speakers or speakers of other languages. The crucial role of self-assessment of FL skills in predicting the students L2 WTC levels is attributed to the volitional control learners have in choosing to use the foreign language. As Clément, Baker and MacIntyre propose (2003: 205-206): “in situations where one lacks volitional control over the language of communication, L2 confidence appears to have a direct influence on L2 use”. It follows that in the situation of formal language instruction, such as the one depicted in the study, students greatly rely on their self-perception of FL ability, revealed in their self-assessment of the four FL skills. Their subjective assessment of skills allows them to predict outcomes of their L2 volitional verbal behaviour (volunteering answers in class, or seeking out an L2 conversation partner). This means that their subjective ability to begin a task, to focus on it, and to follow the task through to completion (MacIntyre & Doucette 2010) is an indicator of their potential communication success. If judged highly, the L2 student is more inclined to initiate foreign language interaction because they are then confident about their linguistic abilities, allowing them to venture an utterance, phrase it in an understandable manner, and receive adequate feedback. On the other hand, when a student is uncertain of their foreign language skills, the risk of failing to communicate in a language they do not know well outweighs their communication desire, and in effect deprives them of chances for language development. Second-language speakers are generally found to perceive themselves to be less communicatively competent than native language speakers (Burroughs et al. 2003). This is also why it can be expected that self-assessment of skills in the foreign language is undoubtedly lower than in the mother tongue, leading to lower WTC levels in L2 than in L1. Accordingly, the FL learning situation is perceived as dangerous because the students feel that they have not mastered the foreign language yet, making their FL competence a strong indicator of their L2 WTC. Moreover, the participants are in the first grade of secondary grammar school, which means that the FL learning context may still be unfamiliar to them, in spite of their longer exposure to the foreign language gained before entering the new type of school. More importantly, they are surrounded by
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their L1, stimulated by L2 only within the language classroom, thus enjoying scarce contact with L2 users. Nonetheless, in order to comprehend the powerful role of self-perceived competence, the complex character of language anxiety must be clarified first. The parsimonious WTC model proposed by MacIntyre (1994) exposed the interplay of these most immediate factors affecting L2 WTC levels, at the same time establishing the dual nature of anxiety, called communication apprehension. Most importantly, anxiety directly affects WTC by lowering its levels, yet simultaneously it also influences communication competence in the same manner, which can be revealed by its high β loadings. On this basis it can be understood that in this study language anxiety also plays a similar role. First of all, anxiety affects communication in general, irrespective of language, whenever specific factors come into play, such as the newness and formality of the situation, subordinate status, or feelings of conspicuousness and excessive attention (Buss 1980). As such, all of these are present in the situation of FL learning in the formal context present in the study. The participants are still novice secondary grammar school students, unaware of their FL teacher’s requirements or the specific demands of the language learning situation within this particular formal environment. Moreover, their status is obviously subordinate, with the teacher in control, which induces feelings of conspicuousness, especially when they are supposed to perform in front of the class. In effect, high levels of anxiety are generated, leading to excessive attention on the part of anxious individuals. The negative experiences of FL learners are further exacerbated by the feelings of anxiety exclusively connected with the experience of FL learning and use, i.e., language anxiety, a ubiquitous emotion permeating each and every contact with the language within the classroom context (Horwitz et al. 1986). On this basis it can be inferred that, first of all, anxiety diminishes the student’s perceptions of competence, because individuals can estimate their degree of confidence on the basis of their emotional state, which allows them to anticipate success or failure. It follows that negative emotions lower self-efficacy perceptions and induce more stress because “people read their tension, anxiety, and depression as signs of personal deficiency” (Bandura 2004: 623). Secondly, anxiety affects WTC levels directly by diminishing the student’s potential desire to perform in the foreign language. The language learning process is then perceived as dangerous, which distorts the student’s cognitive operations, inducing accuracy and performance deficits (Piechurska- Kuciel 2008). This means that practically everyone tends to get a little stressed at the idea of having his or her performance in the SLA field evaluated by other people whose opinions matter to them (such as teachers, peers, or significant others, as is also the case with the Polish participants.
3 2 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Ewa Piechurska-Kuciel
7. Limitations and Recommendations of the Study
Generally speaking, the explanatory power of self-perceived FL skills ranges one-fourth of L2 WTC variability, while anxiety levels explain 17% of its variability – meaning that they are indeed strong predictors of L2 WTC. However, the regression model proposed for the purpose of the study is quite limited, explaining only over 40% of WTC variability – meaning that there are other potent variables whose predictive power should be included in the model. This study fails to include such variables as the opportunity to use the language and personality factors. Apart from that, it must be stated that the idea of generalizing the results of the study is limited to the Polish educational context. Cultural divergence, i.e., the fact that the way an individual communicates is deeply rooted in his or her culture, has undoubtedly influenced the study results. Willingness to communicate is now considered a fundamental goal of second language education (MacIntyre 2003), therefore pursuing ways in which it can be promoted appears extremely important. Basically, it can be induced by increasing perceived competence and reducing language anxiety. First of all, creating a less threatening atmosphere to reduce anxiety is mostly desired. It can be accomplished by applying co-operative learning, which creates opportunities for students to know their peers better. In the educational context the most influential sources of students’ perceived competence is the evaluative and supportive feedback received from teachers, peers, and oneself. Hence, encouraging students to increase perceived competence with a focus on positive feedback and effort instead of ability seems advisable. The role of positive teacher feedback is of crucial importance, because the teacher is the key figure in the language learning process. Moreover, it is also a basis for self-assessment of students’ language performance, which makes teacher comments extremely influential for building student self- confidence. In addition, the teacher may also allow students to exercise control of their own learning. Learners may be advised to choose tasks or strategies they will apply while working on an activity. Furthermore, students should be encouraged to set goals for themselves, immediate and long-term. In this way they can become more willing to communicate in spite of the dangers the active use of the foreign language imposes.
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References
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Bandura, A. 2004. Swimming against the mainstream: The early years from chilly tributary to transformative mainstream. Behaviour, Research, and Therapy 42(6): 613-630.
Burroughs, N.F., V. Marie and J.C. McCroskey. 2003. Relationship of self-perceived communication competence and communication apprehension with willingness to communicate: A comparison with first and second language in Macronesia. Communication Research Reports 20(3): 230-239.
Buss, A.H. 1980. Self-consciousness and social anxiety. San Francisco: Freeman.
Cetinkaya, Y.B. 2005. Turkish college students’ willingness to communicate in English as a foreign language. PhD dissertation. The Ohio State University. Retrieved 2 August 2011 from http://etd.ohiolink.edu/send-pdf.cgi/ Cetinkaya%20Yesim%20Bektas.pdf?acc_num=osu1133287531
Clément, R., S.C. Baker and P.D. MacIntyre. 2003. Willingness to communicate in a second language: The effects of context, norms and vitality. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 22(2): 190-209.
Donovan, L.A. and P.D. MacIntyre. 2005. Age and sex differences in willingness to communicate, communication apprehension and self-perceived competence. Communication Research Reports 21(4): 420-427.
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Hashimoto, Y. 2002. Motivation and willingness to communicate as predictors of reported L2 use: The Japanese ESL context. Second Language Studies 20(2): 29-70.
Horwitz, E.K. 1999. Preface. In D.J. Young (ed.), Affect in foreign language and second language learning. A practical guide to creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere. Boston: McGraw-Hill, xi-xiii.
Horwitz, E.K., M.B. Horwitz, and J. Cope. 1986. Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal 70(2): 125–132.
MacDonald, J.R., R. Clément and P.D. MacIntyre. 2003. Willingness to communicate in a L2 in a bilingual context: A qualitative investigation of Anglophone and Francophone students. Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved 12 January 2008 from http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/ research_pages/other_files/WTC_ qualitative.pdf
MacIntyre, P.D. 1994. Variables underlying willingness to communicate: A causal analysis. Communication Research Reports 11(2): 135-142.
MacIntyre, P.D. 2003. Willingness to communicate in the second language: Proximal and distal influences. Paper presented at the 33rd Annual Conference of the Canadian Association of Applied Linguistics, Halifax, NS, Canada. Retrieved 11 June 2007 from http://faculty.cbu.ca/pmacintyre/research_pages/other_ files/WTC_handout.htm
MacIntyre, P.D. 2004. Volition and personality: Bringing motivational tendencies to life. Paper presented at the 9th International Congress of Language and Social Psychology, State College PA, July 1, 2004. Retrieved 23 April 2007 from http:// faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/research_pages/ presentations.htm
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MacIntyre, P.D., S.C. Baker, R. Clément and L.A. Donovan. 2002. Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and l2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning 52(3): 537-564.
MacIntyre, P.D. and C. Charos. 1996. Personality, attitudes, and affect as predictors of second language communication. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 15(1), 3-26.
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MacIntyre, P.D., K.A. Noels and R. Clément. 1997. Biases in self-ratings of second language proficiency: The role of language anxiety. Language Learning 47(2), 265-287.
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McCroskey, J.C. and V.P. Richmond. 1987. Willingness to communicate. In J.C. McCroskey and J.A. Daly (eds.), Personality and Interpersonal Communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 119-131.
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Piechurska-Kuciel, E. 2008. Language anxiety in secondary grammar school students. Opole: Opole University Press.
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3 2 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Implementing CLIL in a Tertiary Setting: Research on Learners’ Attitudes and Perceptions
Evangelia V. Soulioti
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [email protected]
Abstract
Content Language and Integrated Learning (CLIL) has become major educational policy promoted by the EU in reference to language learning. This paper presents the findings of a research into the attitudes and perceptions of students in a formal tertiary education setting towards CLIL implementation. For the scope of the paper, based on the data of a pilot study, a revised questionnaire was created and distributed to sixty undergraduate students in the Speech and Language Therapy Department of Epirus Institute of Technology in Greece. The participants attended an ESP course mainly based on CLIL strategies, yet all content courses are taught in the first language and there is no integration of contents and foreign language. The purpose of this paper is twofold: first to gain insight into students’ attitudes and perceptions regarding certain CLIL instructional strategies the teacher has already implemented in the ESP course and second to explore their reactions and perceptions regarding possible full CLIL implementation across the curriculum. In this respect this paper discusses ways to implement CLIL in tertiary settings, taking simultaneously into account several factors: the teaching situation, students’ level of English proficiency, materials and aids, formal syllabus and curriculum. Finally it hopes to provide diagnostic feedback that will aid in the improvement of ESP course design, as well as useful data to underpin further development of the existing foreign language syllabi and curricula in higher education.
1. Introduction
CLIL has been developing over a period of years in Europe, but to our knowledge the measurement of students’ attitudes and perceptions has not been widely explored, especially at tertiary settings. Research studies indicate that the more
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positive the students’ attitudes, the higher their L2 achievement (Cenoz 2001 as cited in Lasagabaster & Sierra 2009; Davis & Bremer 2001 as cited in Lasagabaster & Sierra 2009; Donitsa-Schmidt et al. 2004 as cited in Lasagabaster & Sierra 2009). Thus, the importance of analyzing students’ attitudes and perceptions toward CLIL programs when compared to the regular teaching of English as a Foreign Language is beyond any doubt (Lasagabaster & Sierra 2009). This paper reports on a questionnaire-based research carried out at Epirus Institute of Technology in Greece to discover whether students favor CLIL instructional strategies as a means to improve their English proficiency, possible reservations regarding these strategies as well as perceptions and reactions towards full CLIL implementation across the curriculum. The first part of the paper reviews literature and studies related to both CLIL and ESP issues. The focal point of the second part is an attempt to gain insight into the students’ attitudes and perceptions towards: (1a) certain CLIL instructional strategies the teacher has already implemented in the ESP course. (2b) possible full CLIL implementation across the curriculum.
2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Defining CLIL
Content and Language Integrated Learning has become major educational policy promoted by the European Union in reference to language learning (Eurydice 2006). It “refers to situations where subjects or parts of subjects are taught through a foreign language with dual-focused aims, namely the learning of content and the simultaneous learning of a foreign language” (Marsh 2002). CLIL is considered as “the platform for an innovative methodological approach of far broader scope than language teaching” (Eurydice 2006), requiring that teachers should focus not just to language teaching, but to the educational process in general (Eurydice 2006). However, some scientists support that CLIL is not something new, but has been used for years under different labels1 (Mc Beath n.d.; Naves 2009). In the context
1 Content Based Learning (CBL), Task-based Approach or Task-Based Learning and Teaching (TBLT), English for Specific Purposes (ESP), Foreign Languages Across the Curriculum (FLAC) etc.
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of the present study, CLIL is regarded as an umbrella term used to describe a whole spectrum of approaches as well as features of operational practice common to a wide range of variants of bilingual education (Coyle 2007, cited in Wiesemes 2009; Mc Beath n.d; Naves 2009). Many CLIL procedures are a re-enactment of older practices which have been revised in an attempt to achieve a twofold target: to develop students’ proficiency in terms of both content and language. In this respect CLIL is a more integrative approach which encompasses “any activity in which foreign language is used as a tool in the learning of a non-language subject matter in which both subject and language have a joint curricular role” (Marsh 2002:59). Research supports that CLIL carries with it many benefits for students. It may create conditions for naturalistic language learning and provide a real-life context in the classroom (Goris 2009). It could have a positive effect on language learning by emphasizing meaning rather than form and by drastically increasing the amount of exposure to the target language (Dalton-Puffer 2007, cited in Naves 2009; Dalton-Puffer and Smitt 2007, cited in Naves 2009). CLIL is considered to build intercultural knowledge, to develop multilingual attitudes, to provide opportunities to study content through different perspectives, to diversify classroom methodology and increase learner motivation in both language and non-language subject (Marsh 2002). Overall CLIL could “nurture a ‘can do’ attitude towards language learning in general” (Marsh 2000 as cited in Lasagabaster & Sierra 2009), by integrating communicative, subject, knowledge as well as learning skills (Barbero 2009).
2.2. ESP and CLIL
In order to attract international students and enhance employability for home students, CLIL programs have been implemented in tertiary settings (Costa and Coleman 2010), where students have been taught ESP courses so far. Some experts suggest that ESP is a special form of CLIL and that both methods enhance the simultaneous learning of content and language (Jendrych & Wisniewska 2010). However, others suggest that there are significant differences. For instance, ESP focuses on the need to improve language within a certain discipline, whereas CLIL focuses on the learning of language and content simultaneously. Furthermore, ESP courses are considered isolated, aimed to respond mostly to language needs and focus mainly on the language teacher and learner (Ruiz-Garrido & Fortanet-Gomez 2009). CLIL involves a larger number of stakeholders, such as discipline teachers and domain experts, since contextual factors need to be taken into account for the success of the program (Fernandez 2009; Jendrych
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& Wisniewska 2010; Ruiz-Garrido & Fortanet-Gomez 2009). Based on the aforementioned, CLIL could be considered as a continuum of pedagogical approaches which include ESP (Greere and Rasanen 2008, cited in Ruiz- Garrido & Fortanet-Gomez 2009).
3. The Teaching Situation
3.1. ESP and Institutes of Technology in Greece
The present study was conducted in a formal tertiary education setting, the Department of Speech and Language Therapy, Epirus Institute of Technology (TEI) in Greece. Epirus Institute of Technology consists of four Schools and eleven Departments situated in four Epirus cities: Ioannina, Arta, Preveza and Igoumenitsa. Speech and Language Therapy is one of the three Departments of Welfare and Health Professions School located in the city of Ioannina. Currently the curriculum of the department comprises introductory courses (i.e. linguistics), specialized courses (i.e. hearing disorders), clinical courses as well as ESP courses. ESP courses at TEI cater for the needs of individual academic departments and are mostly compulsory. They are integrated as core courses in the curriculum and usually comprise lecture as well as laboratory hours. Most students that attend ESP courses at Epirus Institute of Technology are not first year students and some have already attended other ESP or General English courses. They share the same academic background and possibly certain beliefs towards EFL learning (Sifakis 2003). For instance some students believe that English can only be learned in private institutions, not in state schools. Furthermore ESP course is not a primary subject and since they have a good command in English, they can get the passing mark in the final exam (Hatzigiannoglou-Xenodoxidis 2002). In this typical tertiary setting the medium of instruction and communication is not English, yet students are required to read content-course bibliographies in English (Spector-Cohen et al. 2001). There is a limited amount of ESP textbooks and sometimes even complete lack of instructional materials. In reference to the Department of Speech and Language Therapy there are seven ESP courses, two of them compulsory. Until today the basic ESP course of the department has been English 6. The Course Outline involves three hours lecture and one hour lab. Attendance in lab is compulsory, but not in lecture. Therefore, missing more than certain lab hours means a drop-out of the course.
3 3 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Evangelia V. Soulioti
3.2. CLIL-ing the ESP Course
Under these circumstances and given the many constraints blocking the integration of an institutional CLIL2, a bottom-up way was considered effective (Brady 2009), that is, to implement certain CLIL characteristics and strategies in an individual ESP class on an experimental basis. The teacher attempted to combine language and content objectives, to facilitate exposure to content knowledge at a level just beyond the learner’s current knowledge (De Graaf et al. 2007) and to provide language learning in authentic and unrehearsed, yet ‘scaffolded’ situations (Coyle 2006, cited in Wiesemes 2009). Both meaning- focused and form-focused processing were facilitated through tasks that involve constructing meaning, activities aimed at awareness-raising of language form and corrective feedback techniques such as peer assessment (De Graaf et al. 2007). Furthermore the teacher made an effort to provide a safe learning environment, to promote active and co-operative learning and have learners use, negotiate and reconstruct subject matter meaning (Fernandez 2009). First a pre-course needs analysis was conducted in order to gain insight into the students’ perceived needs, wants and learning strategies. Additionally, information was sought concerning students’ profile and background that would play a vital role in shaping the program. In order to organize the course the English language instructor cooperated with content instructors and studied the curriculum to obtain major publications on the field as well as types of tasks students are expected to perform. Then the instructor selected representative texts from published materials and organized them into thematic units (i.e. Learning disabilities) so as to design her own course syllabus and materials. The specific course involved three hours theory and one hour lab. In the lab students were divided into work groups so as to organize oral presentations on a variety of scientific issues (i.e. Treating Autism). Furthermore lectures were organized with the help of content instructors. Finally students were assessed on the basis of a cooperative project they had to hand out by the end of the semester. Theory section dealt with reading texts of various kinds. Students processed and discussed content area texts relevant to the issues they had already dealt with during the lab. With regard to theory they had to sit in written exams. In this respect the following course procedures/tasks were integrated in the ESP course: organizing oral presentations related to scientific issues, group work to analyze,
2 i.e. lack of availability and stability of the teaching staff, the type of institution and the aim of the program and the fact that language education is considered a marginalized area of less importance, not an integral part of the curriculum (Brady 2009; Costa & Coleman 2010)
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discuss and present issues related to scientific field, peer correction and evaluation of presentations, processing and discussing content area texts, co-operative projects relevant to scientific field, the use of computer to carry out projects (web research), integration of new subject matter and expansion of subject matter students already know as well as the use of L1 just to overcome short term problems.
4. The Instrument and Procedures Used
For the scope of this paper a questionnaire was designed and distributed to sixty undergraduate students at the Department of Speech and Language Therapy during the winter semester of the academic year 2010-2011, after completing the ESP course. The questionnaire is divided into four sections3; that is personal details section, current English language use, attitudes and perceptions towards CLIL instructional strategies implemented in the ESP course, attitudes and perceptions towards possible full CLIL implementation across the curriculum. The questionnaire was designed on the basis that students should not devote more than twenty minutes to fill in it. The respondent is given a set of alternative choices in the form of closed questions, mostly Yes/No and Likert scale type. Researchers suggest that the use of short, teacher-designed, class-specific questionnaire surveys to obtain course evaluation data greatly helps the teaching situation, even though teachers may often rely on intuition when planning a course (Barkhuizen 1998 as cited in Davies 2006; Spratt 1999 as cited in Davies 2006). Data collected from the questionnaire were analyzed using the SPSS Version 17.0 software and are presented as frequencies for categorical values and as median plus interquartile range for continuous variables.
5. The Findings
On the basis of the information gathered from the questionnaire, the students’ profile was revealed. As can be seen from Tables 1 and 2, the overwhelming majority of students were female (96,7%) and most ranged between 21-22 years old. This was expected, since the specific ESP course is taught in the third year of studies. Furthermore students’ self-perception of their current specialist and general English proficiency was explored. The picture emerged from Table 5 conveys that General English language proficiency was ‘good’ or ‘average’ for
3 See Appendices
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most students (86,6%). Most of them also declared average proficiency in English related to their scientific field (68,3%). The data in Tables 3, 4 also reveal that the majority of students were certificate holders (78,8%) and all of them had previously attended other English courses throughout their studies.
Table 1. Age
Age Median 22 Minimum 21 Maximum 32 25 21 Percentiles 50 22 75 22
Table 2. Sex
Sex N % Male 2 3,3 Female 58 96,7 Total 60 100
Table 3. Number of courses
Number of English courses attended N % All available courses 37 61,7 Not all available courses 23 38,3 Total 60 100
Table 4. Certificate
English language certificate N % Yes 41 78,8 No 11 21,2 Total 52 100
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Table 5. Knowledge of English
Knowledge of English
Very good Good Average Poor
N % N % N % N %
General English knowledge 3 5 26 43,3 26 43,3 5 8,3
English language knowledge 0 0 13 21,7 41 68,3 6 10 related to scientific field
Students’ responses were also useful indicators of their attitudes and perceptions regarding certain CLIL characteristics, procedures and tasks the teacher implemented in the ESP course. In Table 6 the students were asked to respond whether nine CLIL procedures and tasks were easy, pleasant, useful for English language and useful for developing content knowledge. As observed from Table 6 and Figure 1, nearly 40% of the respondents’ encountered difficulty processing texts related to their scientific field, whereas almost half of them
Figure 1. CLIL Procedures and Tasks
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Table 6. CLIL Procedures and Tasks
Evaluated Evaluated as useful as useful for Evaluated as Evaluated as Procedures/tasks for English developing easy pleasant language content learning knowledge N % N % N % N % 1. Presentations related to scientific issues 44 78,6 52 96,3 50 92,6 53 96,4 during the lab 2. Group work to analyze and discuss issues 40 76,9 51 91,1 43 81,1 42 82,4 related to your scientific field. 3. Group work to present issues related to your 37 72,5 47 88,7 43 84,3 46 90,2 scientific field. 4.Oral presentations on issues related to your 29 59,2 43 87,8 45 90 42 91,3 scientific field 5.Recording students’ views according to their 38 73,1 41 78,8 45 88,2 45 90 oral presentations 6. Assessing and discussing presentations 37 69,8 40 75,5 46 86,8 45 90 made by other groups. 7. Processing scientific 20 41,7 35 74,5 49 94,2 46 93,9 texts. 8. Projects relevant to 29 54,7 38 71,7 52 96,3 53 96,4 your scientific field. 9. The use of computer to carry out projects 36 65,5 35 64,8 36 69,2 43 84,3 relevant to your scientific field.
encountered difficulty conducting projects. As indicated by the responses the other seven procedures were considered as easy by most students, especially presentations related to scientific issues. All CLIL procedures and tasks pleased students, as Table 6 and Figure 1 reveal. In fact learners’ attitude towards organizing presentations related to scientific issues and group work was overwhelmingly positive. Surprisingly the least favored task was the use of computer to carry out projects related to their scientific field (64,8%). Summarizing the feedback from Table 6 and Figure 1, it is evident that the overwhelming majority also declared that CLIL instructional tasks and procedures were useful for developing language as well as content knowledge. Furthermore, with regard to limited use of mother tongue during the course it was considered useful (81,7%) and easy (85%), for the majority of students (Table 7). It is also evident from Table 8 that students used less English than expected, since less than one third of them declared discussing
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and negotiating with their classmates in English. However, a considerable amount (58,3%) used the target language to clarify any queries or issues raised. Finally, as observed from Table 9, the overwhelming majority stated that the integration of content related to other curriculum subjects helped them develop language as well as content knowledge.
Table 7. Use of mother tongue in class
Limited use of mother tongue…
N %
was useful 49 81,7
was difficult 9 15
pleased me 8 13,3
Table 8. English in the classroom I used English in the classroom to… N % clarify questions/issues 35 58,3 discuss with my classmates on a scientific issue 18 30 negotiate with other group members 15 25 discuss scientific articles and books and the author’s views 5 8,3 make off-task comments 9 15,5
Table 9. Integration of Content
Integration of content Neither agree Agree Disagree nor disagree N % N % N %
Integration of content related to other curriculum subjects is helpful in language 50 83,3 9 15 1 1,7 development
Integration of content related to other curriculum subjects is helpful in 50 83,3 8 13,3 2 3,3 developing knowledge of other content courses
Students’ perceptions and attitudes regarding full CLIL implementation across the curriculum were also explored. The findings from Table 10 suggest that the majority of students preferred to attend ‘some courses’ ‘in some semesters’
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(as opposed to ‘many’ ‘throughout their studies’) held by content teachers in English. Less than one third of students wouldn’t like to attend courses held by content teachers in English. Also few students responded positively to full CLIL implementation across the curriculum. Moreover, as can be seen from Table 11, the great majority of students supported that attending lectures in English is a good way to improve language (93,3%) as well as content knowledge (86,7%) and were greatly interested in collaborative projects with foreign Universities in the context of European programs (80%). Most students also supported that they liked learning about their science using English and that they would like to attend bilingual courses (75% and 66,7% respectively). Finally less than half of the respondents (41,7%) showed interest in processing texts or doing written projects in English in the context of other curriculum subjects.
Table 10. Attendance of Content Courses in English
Attendance of content courses held by content teachers in English It would be interesting to attend Speech and Language Therapy courses held by content teachers in English N %
Yes, many course 4 6,7
Yes, some courses 38 63,3
No 18 30
Throughout my studies 6 10
In some semesters 40 66,7
Not at all 14 23,3
Table 11. Statements regarding full CLIL implementation
Statements regarding full CLIL implementation Yes
N %
I would like to attend bilingual courses in English and Greek 40 66,7
Attending a lecture in English is a good way to improve my English 56 93,3 Attending a lecture in English is a good way to improve knowledge of issues 52 86,7 related to speech therapy It would be interesting to process texts or do written projects in English in the 25 41,7 context of other curriculum subjects I like learning about my science using English 45 75 It would be interesting to participate in projects with other universities in the 48 80 context of European programs
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6. Discussion and Implications
The general overview of the data illustrated that students favored the dual focus of CLIL, that is the integration of content and language. On the whole the respondents strongly felt that integration of content related to other curriculum subjects was beneficial towards developing language as well as content knowledge. In this respect CLIL has a twofold aim at tertiary settings: the academic development of learners and the attainment of academic language proficiency (Naves 2009). Taking also into account that students’ self-reported language proficiency indicated the need to integrate more ESP and even General English courses in the curriculum, CLIL seems appropriate to accommodate for any time, budget, administration and other constraints which hinder the implementation of supplementary English courses. It was also evident that students favored most CLIL strategies and procedures. The overwhelming majority of students appreciated the more interactive nature of learner-centered activities (Ruis-Garrido & Fortanet-Gomez 2009) and felt confident with tasks involving active participation, collaboration and research skills. In line with other studies CLIL strategies and procedures provided learners with various opportunities to share knowledge and ideas through social interaction (Pistorio 2010) and contributed to the development of social, group and in general cooperative learning skills (Wiesemes 2009). Thus by integrating CLIL strategies the apparent difficulties teachers face in a large heterogeneous class could be turned into a positive learning experience. On the basis of this and given the flexibility of the tertiary curricula the ESP designer could use CLIL strategies to adapt syllabus, content and types of activities. Consistent with other studies the results confirmed that CLIL-based programs help to foster positive attitudes towards language learning (Bebenroth & Redfield 2004; Lasagabaster & Sierra 2009) and raise learners’ motivation in both language and non-language subject. The results indicated that students felt comfortable with CLIL tasks and procedures and their confidence in both language and content knowledge was increased (Wiesemes 2009). Also students were highly motivated to learn the target language, possibly due to the fact that language was used in real-life settings (Infante et al. 2009) and students saw a purpose for mastering it (Vlachos 2009). The most important conclusion to be drawn however, is that most students showed preference for medium CLIL exposure, not a fully dual approach or full CLIL implementation across the curriculum. Therefore there is sufficient support among the student body to recommend at first elective courses held in English (Bebenroth & Redfield 2004), taking into account that CLIL programs are considered effective when optional not imposed (Swain & Lapkin 1982, cited in Naves 2009). Given this a bottom-up way of promoting CLIL is considered more effective in this specific teaching context. According to Brady (2009) this means
3 4 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Evangelia V. Soulioti
to develop language and content integration in individual classes, as is the case with this research, where any positive results can be detected and progressively lead to greater adoption of CLIL across the curriculum. In this respect before attempting full CLIL implementation at Epirus Institute of Technology, subject teachers together with language teachers could decide which subjects are more suitable to be taught through English. Also taking into account students’ preference for collaborative work, certain activities, assignments or projects could be coordinated by both language and content teachers (Ruis-Garrido & Fortanet-Gomez 2009), since experts suggest that CLIL programs require joint effort of all members involved (Naves 2009). As Carloni (2010) suggests CLIL requires careful methodological planning and this should be brought to the attention of the content teachers, otherwise the quality of teaching and learning will not meet the expectations. Overall this would help to break down departmental barriers, enhance cooperation among members with regard to pedagogical and methodological issues and contribute to the development of integrated curricula (Wiesemes 2009). Learner’s responses to survey items have led to important conclusions regarding CLIL implementation in tertiary settings. However, there is lack of research on CLIL at tertiary level in Greece and students’ attitudes towards CLIL programs should be examined in a more systematic way if we are to draw safe conclusions. The research also involves only one department of Epirus Institute of Technology, where students attended a course based on certain CLIL strategies and procedures and there hasn’t been a constant exposure to CLIL for a considerable amount of time. In addition the questionnaire used is not an infallible instrument and the potential for teacher bias and subjectivity in item creation definitely exists (Block 1998, cited in Davies 2006). This paper examined different facets of CLIL and the learners’ attitudes towards them in an attempt to discuss effective ways to implement CLIL in tertiary settings. While the findings are directly applicable only to learners with similar characteristics of those in this research, it is hoped that the process described will provide insight to educational designers to investigate efficient ways of implementing CLIL in tertiary settings. A revised survey could also include items looking at students’ interests to enroll in bilingual courses when the exam or part of it is in English (Bebenroth & Redfield 2004). Furthermore it would be crucial to explore the relationship between learners’ attitudes towards CLIL and self-reported “General English knowledge”.
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References
Barbero, T., A. Damascelli and M.-B. Vittoz. 2009. Integrating the Common European Framework for Reference (CEFR) with CLIL. In D. Marsh, P. Mehisto, D. Wolff, R. Aliaga, T. Asikainen, M.J. Frigols-Martin, S. Hughes and G. Lange (eds), CLIL Practice: Perspectives from the field. CCN, University of Syvaskyla: Finland, 102-109.
Bartik, K., C. Maerten, I. Tudor and J. Valcke. 2009. A Discussion Brief of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) at the Faculty of Applied Sciences. http://www.ulb.ac.be/facs/philo/whoswho/16743.html
Bebenroth, R. and M. ‘Rube’ Redfield. 2004. Do OUE Students Want Content- Based Instruction? An Experimental Study. Osaka Keidai Ronshu 55(4): 91-96. http://www.bebenroth.eu/Downloads/ CententBasedInstrucRube55.04DaiKeiD ai.pdf
Brady, A. 2009. An Integrated Approach to Content and Language Study: Citizenship Development and Society Building. In D. Marsh, P. Mehisto, D. Wolff, R. Aliaga, T. Asikainen, M.J. Frigols-Martin, S. Hughes and G. Lange (eds), CLIL Practice: Perspectives from the field. CCN, University of Syvaskyla: Finland, 55-61.
Carloni, G. 2010. Analyzing a CLIL Classroom in a University setting. CCN CLIL Proceedings: Uncovering CLIL Quality by CLIL Practitioners. Rovaniemi: Finland.
Costa, F. and J. Coleman. 2010. Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education in Italy: Ongoing Research. International CLIL Research Journal 1(3): 19-29.
Davies, A. 2006. What do learners really want from an EFL course? ELT Journal 60(1): 3-12.
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De Graaff, R., G.J. Koopman, Y. Anikina and G. Westhoff. 2007. Identifying Effective L2 Pedagogy in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 10(5): 603–624.
Eurydice. 2006. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) at School in Europe. Belgium: European Commission. http://www.eurydice.org
Fernandez, D. 2009. CLIL at the University Level: Relating Language Teaching with and through Content Teaching. Latin American Journal of Content and Language Integrated Learning 2(2):10-26.
Goris, J. 2009. English in Mainstream European Secondary Schools: Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). In D. Marsh, P. Mehisto, D. Wolff, R. Aliaga, T. Asikainen, M.J. Frigols-Martin, S. Hughes and G. Lange (eds), CLIL Practice: Perspectives from the field. CCN, University of Syvaskyla: Finland, 28-33.
Guerrini, M. 2009. CLIL Materials as Scaffolds to Learning? In D. Marsh, P. Mehisto, D. Wolff, R. Aliaga, T. Asikainen, M.J. Frigols-Martin, S. Hughes and G. Lange (eds), CLIL Practice: Perspectives from the field. CCN, University of Syvaskyla: Finland, 74-89.
Hatzigiannoglou-Xenodoxidis, T. 2002. An ESP Curriculum for Greek EFL students of Computing: A New Approach. English for Specific Purposes 1. http://www.esp- world.infocontents.htm
Infante, D., G. Benvenuto and E. Lastrucci. 2009. The Effects of CLIL from the Perspective of Experienced Teachers. In D. Marsh, P. Mehisto, D. Wolff, R. Aliaga, T. Asikainen, M.J. Frigols-Martin, S. Hughes and G. Lange (eds), CLIL Practice: Perspectives from the field. CCN, University of Syvaskyla: Finland, 156-163.
Jendrych, E. and H. Wisniewska. 2010. ESP: How to design challenging tasks for Adult Learners. International Conference “ICT for Language Learning”. Retrieved 2 February 2010 from http://www.pixel-online.net/ ICT4LL2010/ conferenceproceedings.php
Lasagabaster, D. and J.M. Sierra. 2009. Language Attitudes in CLIL and Traditional EFL Classes. International CLIL Research Journal 1(2):4-17.
Marsh, D. 2002. Content and Language Integrated Learning: The European Dimension – Actions, Trends and Foresight Potential. Retrieved 10 February 2010 from http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/pdf/doc491_en.pdf
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Mc Beath, N. n.d. CLIL or Deep Level ESP? Retrieved 12 February 2011 from http://www.developingteachers.com/articles_tchtraining/clil1_neil.htm
Naves, T. 2009. Effective Content and Language Integrated Programmes (CLIL). In Y. Ruiz de Zarobe and R. Jimenez Catalan (eds), Content and Language Integrated Learning: Evidence from Research in Europe. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 22-40.
Pistorio, M.I. (2010). A blend of CLIL and cooperative learning creates a socially constructed learning environment. Latin American Journal of Content & Language Integrated Learning 3(1):1-10.
Ruiz Garrido, M. and I. Fortanet-Gomez. 2009. Needs Analysis in a CLIL Context: A Transfer from ESP. In D. Marsh, P. Mehisto, D. Wolff, R. Aliaga, T. Asikainen, M.J. Frigols-Martin, S. Hughes and G. Lange (eds), CLIL Practice: Perspectives from the field. CCN, University of Syvaskyla: Finland, 179-188.
Sifakis, N. 2003. Applying the Adult Education Framework to ESP Curriculum Development: An Integrative Model. English for Specific Purposes22: 195-211.
Spector-Cohen, E., M. Kirschner and C. Wexler. 2001. Designing EAP Reading Courses at the University Level. English for Specific Purposes 26:367-386. http://www.esp-world.infocontents.htm
Vlachos, K. 2009. The Potential of Information Communication Technologies (ICT) in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): The case of English as a Second/Foreign Language. In D. Marsh, P. Mehisto, D. Wolff, R. Aliaga, T. Asikainen, M.J. Frigols-Martin, S. Hughes and G. Lange (eds), CLIL Practice: Perspectives from the field. CCN, University of Syvaskyla: Finland, 189-198.
Wiesemes, R. 2009. Developing Theories and Practices in CLIL: CLIL as Post- Method Pedagogies? In Y. Ruiz de Zarobe and R. Jimenez Catalan (eds), Content and Language Integrated Learning: Evidence from Research in Europe. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 41-62.
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Appendix
Questionnaire English 6
Dear student, This questionnaire is about the teaching and learning procedure regarding the course English 6. Your answers will help me organize better the course in the future and to explore your views regarding contemporary trends in the field of foreign language teaching. Therefore I would appreciate it if you would take some time to answer the questions. Your answers will be confidential.
Thank you, Dr. Soulioti Evangelia
PERSONAL INFORMATION Age: Sex: Male □ Female □
KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
1. English courses you attended during your studies.
• English for beginners □ • English 1 □ • English 2 □ • English 3 □ • English 4 □ • English 5 □
2. Do you hold any certificate and if yes, which exactly?
3. How would you rate your knowledge in general English?
Very good □ Good □ Average □ Poor □
4. How would you rate your English language knowledge related to your scientific field?
Very good □ Good □ Average □ Poor □
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TEACHING PROCEDURE
5. How would you evaluate the following course procedures/tasks?
Useful for useful for developing English knowledge easy Pleasant language of other learning curriculum subjects Procedures/tasks very quite slightly not at all very quite slightly not at all very quite slightly not at all very quite slightly not at all
1. Presentations related to scientific issues during the lab, ie. Characteristics of dyslexia
2. Group work to analyse and discuss issues related to your scientific field.
3. Group work to present issues related to your scientific field.
4.Oral presentations on issues related to your scientific field
5.Recording students’ views according to their oral presentations
6. Assessing and discussing presentations made by other groups.
7.Processing scientific texts.
8. Projects relevant to your scientific field.
9. The use of computer to carry out projects relevant to your scientific field.
6. The teacher avoided the use of mother tongue. This.. A. was useful B. was difficult C. pleased me.
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7. I used English in the classroom to: A. clarify questions/issues B. discuss with my classmates on a scientific issue. C. negotiate with other group members. D. discuss the author’s views of scientific articles and books.. E. to make off-task comments.
8. The integration and processing of content related to other school courses in the English course helped me learn the language.
Agree □ Neither agree nor disagree □ Disagree □
9. The integration and processing of content related to other school courses in the English course helped me develop knowledge of other content courses.
Agree □ Neither agree nor disagree □ Disagree □
INTEGRATING ENGLISH LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
10. Choose one of the three
A. It would be interesting to attend Speech and Language Therapy courses held by content teachers in English. Yes, many courses □ Yes, some courses□ No. □
B. It would be interesting to attend Speech and Language Therapy courses held by content teachers in English. Throughout my studies □ In some semesters □ Not at all □
11. I would like to attend bilingual courses in English and Greek
Yes □ No □
12. Attending a lecture in English is a good way to improve my English. Y es □ No□
13.Attending a lecture in English is a good way to improve knowledge of issues related to speech therapy.
Yes □ No □
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 3 4 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
14. It would be interesting to process texts or do written projects in English in the context of other curriculum subjects.
Yes □ No □
15. I like learning about my science using English.
Yes □ No □
16. It would be interesting to participate in projects with other universities in the context of European programs.
Yes □ No □
3 4 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education The Linguistic Characteristics of KPG Written Mediation Tasks across Proficiency Levels
Maria Stathopoulou
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens [email protected]
Abstract
Concerned with written mediation performance of Greek speakers of English when they relay information from one language to another, this paper aims at systematically analyzing and describing mediation tasks included in the national exams for foreign language proficiency, known as Kratiko Pistopiitiko Glossomathias (henceforth KPG). The questions it addresses are: what differentiates mediation tasks across proficiency levels and what language is likely to be produced by candidates of different levels. It ultimately presents a set of illustrative descriptors relevant to mediation which define the language to be used at each level.
1. Introduction
This paper presents the results derived from the systematic analysis and description of KPG written mediation tasks which require the simultaneous use of two linguistic systems with the purpose of relaying messages from one language to another in written communication.1 The analysis has been conducted with a view to investigating what linguistic features differentiate KPG written mediation tasks across proficiency levels and what language is likely to be produced by candidates of different levels.2
1 The KPG exams measure candidates’ competence in comprehending and producing oral and written discourse as well as their ability to act as mediators across languages. Find KPG mediation tasks and information about KPG exams at http://rcel.enl.uoa.gr/kpg. 2 This study is part of a large-scale research for the purposes of my PhD thesis which investigated what mediation strategies lead to successful mediation performance.
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Although mediation has been included in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (henceforth CEFR) (Council of Europe 2001) and has been considered as an ability users of a given language should possess so that they can participate in today’s multicultural contexts, it has not received as much attention as the activities of reception, production and interaction. Given that no benchmarked illustrative scales for the mediatory use of language are available therein (cf. Alderson 2007, Little 2007, North 2007), the particular language activity has seldom been included in foreign language curricula until recently3 and its investigation remains at an embryonic level.4 Taking into consideration this gap and in response to the need for further investigation, the present study constitutes a first step towards the development of illustrative descriptors relevant to mediation for each proficiency level drawing data from the KPG examination system, the only examination system in Europe which assesses mediation performance.5 Actually, these ‘can-do’ statements, which have been derived from the systematic examination of the linguistic characteristics of mediation tasks included in the national exams for language proficiency, specify what mediators of different levels are likely to be able to do with the language and ultimately enable us to decide through what types of written tasks mediation competence can be developed and measured at each level. For the purposes of this particular study, the description of the mediation tasks across levels of proficiency has been based upon a specific model which has resulted from a Task Analysis Project being carried out by the Research Centre for Language Teaching, Testing and Assessment (henceforth RCeL), University of Athens. Actually, the aim of this project was to design a model for the linguistic description of the texts for comprehension and the texts to be produced in the exams, so as to tabulate their lexicogrammatical generically defined features and hence create a kind of exam ‘linguistic syllabus’ of each exam level across the KPG languages (English, French, German, Italian).6 Specifically,
3 In Greece, the newly developed National Curriculum for Foreign Languages actually includes illustrative descriptors for the mediatory use of language, which are empirically developed and are partly based on the task-analysis results presented in this paper (see Dendrinos and Stathopoulou 2012). 4 See, for instance, Stathopoulou (2009) who has attempted to investigate the extent to which the source (Greek) text regulates the target text resulting in the production of hybrid or (Greenglish) formations. 5 Mediation performance is measured at B1, B2 and C1 level of proficiency. At lower levels –A1 and A2– KPG exams involve mediation only at the level of comprehension rather than the level of production. 6 Working at the RCeL as a research assistant gave me the opportunity to have access to the KPG Task Analysis Database, which has been constructed for the purposes of the task analysis project. For further information, see http://www.rcel.enl.uoa.gr/research/ language-education-research/the-task-analysis-project.html
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written mediation tasks have been described on the basis of a pre-defined set of task features, namely, the Topic of the text (e.g., environment, technology), its discourse environment (e.g., magazine, newspaper), its text-type (e.g., e-mail, announcement) identified in terms of thecommunicative goal it may achieve (e.g., to inform, to advise,), its generic process (e.g. description, narration, explanation, argumentation, instruction), and the communicative roles or identities of the addressor and addressee. Although each of the aforementioned parameters is discrete and distinct in its own right, they all contribute to the overall meaning of a given text interacting and affecting one another in critical ways. Drawing on Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) (Halliday and Hasan 1985, Halliday and Matthiessen 1999, 2004) and the approach to language study developed by Knapp and Watkins (2005), the basic categories of analysis presented above echo the socially-situated view of language and reflect a view of texts as the “material form of language” (ibid: 18) which are generated in specific social situations and are constructed with specific purposes bythe writer (see Kondyli and Lykou 2009). The model, in other words, echoes the genre based approach to designing and assessing writing tasks,7 the one KPG exams adopt in the testing of language and builds upon an understanding that the production of language largely depends on the context of situation in which it is used.
2. Mediation and Mediation Tasks
According to Dendrinos (2006), mediation is understood as the process whereby a user of a certain language (the mediator) extracts certain messages from a verbal or visual, spoken or written text of any type in one language, code or dialect and relays them in another so as to achieve a certain communicative goal. In this paper, mediation is regarded as social practice which occurs in order to facilitate communication between parties not sharing the same language.8 The mediator acts as an intermediary between cultures and languages giving “a voice to those who have lost it” (Zarate et al. 2004: 57). Actually, the practice of mediation is considered to be an important aspect of human intercultural communication as in our everyday life we may frequently assume the role of mediator in many different domains of activity. Being able to cope with multiple intercultural
7 See what genre-based approaches to teaching and assessment involve in Cope and Kalantzis 1993, Hyland 2004, 2007, Knapp and Watkins 2005. 8 The particular study deals with the interlinguistic mediation (rather than intralinguistic), which involves the relaying of information from one language to another for a given communicative purpose.
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experiences and mediate effectively by explaining messages expressed in one language into the other seems to be a prerequisite for individuals’ successful participation in today’s multilingual societies. Mediation as a term became known in the ELT field when it was introduced in the CEFR in 2001. It is defined therein as a process where “the language user is not concerned to express his/her own meanings, but simply to act as an intermediary between interlocutors who are unable to understand each other directly – normally (but not exclusively) speakers of different languages” (Council of Europe 2001: 87-88).9 Using the CEFR as a basic reference and recognizing the crucial role of mediation in today’s societies which demand cultural and linguistic negotiation, the KPG examination battery assesses candidates’ written and oral mediation performance through mediation tasks which require candidates to select pertinent information from the source text and use it to convey a message in the target language. In the KPG writing test paper, which concerns us presently, B1, B2 and C1 level candidates are required to produce a text in the target language by using only the relevant source information on the basis of the required context of situation (i.e. what the purpose of the text is, who the addressor and addressee are, in what discourse environment the text to be produced is to appear, etc.).10 They are, actually, expected to compose a socially-meaningful text in the target language which may convey the main idea of the Greek text, make a summary of it or relay only some messages contained in the Greek text. More specifically, theB1 level mediation activity requires candidates to compile bits of information from one or from an assortment of Greek texts, such as a thematic page of a popular magazine, a travel leaflet, etc., and to produce one single text of about 80 words in English.11 The Greek text(s) are short and are likely to have factual information. The English text is most often to be of a different type and to have a different communicative purpose than the target text. The amount of information that candidates must relay in English is rather limited.
9 While the CEFR (Council of Europe 2001) regards mediation as a process of mere transferring of meanings, this study sharply distinguishes mediation from translation, as the latter is a highly specialized activity which concerns professionals whose main goal is to transfer as closely as possible meanings included in a text of a given language to another (cf. Federici 2007, Risku 2002). The mediator’s task, on the contrary, is not limited to mere transferring of all s/he hears or reads, but s/he has to select which messages from the original text(s) will be relayed into the target text (on the basis of what might be relevant to the new context of situation). 10 Note that candidates aiming for B1 or B2 sit for an intergraded exam, the writing test of which contains two activities for each level, or four in total. 11 For a detailed presentation of the different requirements of mediation tasks across levels, see Dendrinos and Stathopoulou (2010).
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The B2 level mediation activity requires candidates to select information from a Greek text and to produce one text in English of about 100 words in order to achieve a communicative purpose. The source texts used at this exam level are of a greater variety than at B1 level, and they are slightly more complex. What is more, whereas the B1 level mediation activity offers flexibility as to the amount of information to be relayed, the B2 level mediation activity requires transference of a greater amount of information from the source text. Nevertheless the B2 level candidate can use some avoidance strategies and ultimately select what to say on the basis of what s/he knows how to say in English. The C1 level mediation activity requires more careful reading of the Greek text so that candidates can relay specific information from the source into a target text in English in about 200 words. At this particular level, the mediation task obliges candidates to stick more closely to the source text and relay specific pieces of information rather than select those items they can write about in the target language. Length and sophistication also differentiate B2 and C1 level source texts employed for the mediation activities.
3. Data and Procedure
For the purposes of this study, I analyzed thirty two (32) written mediation tasks designed for fourteen (14) examination periods for the B2 level, seven (7) for the B1 and twelve (11) for the C112 on the basis of a pre-determined set of task features, as already mentioned in the Introduction. In order to draw conclusions, I have adopted a top-down or deductive approach to data-analysis as it has been based on a pre-determined model with specific categories of analysis (e.g., task features) (see Thomas 2006). The analysis of the written mediation tasks was facilitated by means of an electronic database constructed at the RCeL for the investigation of the task requirements of the different exam modules. To briefly refer to the characteristics of the database, the tasks included therein have been stored for each exam period and proficiency level. The database also contains information about the type of task (e.g., multiple choice, gap filling, free writing, etc.) and what each task measures (e.g., comprehension or production) along with information about the texts related to a given task (e.g., texts for comprehension and texts to be produced). Each task and text has been described in terms of specific features
12 I started with the examination period of May 2007 for B1, November 2003 for B2 and April 2005 for C1. The last tasks analyzed are those of the period of November 2010. Not all levels were introduced at the same examination period (e.g., B1 was firstly administered in May 2007) that is why the sampling does not concern the same examination periods.
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(e.g., topic, discourse environment, text-type, text-process, etc). Each task feature may take diff erent values which are specifi ed in pre-defi ned typologies, e.g., the KPG typologies of topics, discourse environments, text-types, text-processes, etc. The meta-data13 collected from the database which was actually related only to the written mediation tasks, was later quantifi ed and presented in tables and charts as shown in the following section. This quantifi cation of the data made comparisons across levels easier and ultimately contributed to a better understanding of what parameters diff erentiate KPG written mediation tasks.
4. Presentation and Discussion of Findings
4.1. What Diff erentiates Mediation Tasks across Profi ciency Levels?
Regarding the linguistic category of topic, task description and analysis reveals that the higher the level, the more sophisticated topics seem to appear requiring the use of more elevated vocabulary.
Chart 1. Topics across levels
Specifi cally, B1 level candidates need to have the language to handle personal and daily life topics (such as eating habits, health) which have relevance to the needs of children or teenagers as this is the predominant age span of
13 The term meta-data is used to refer to the ‘data about data’ and contains information about the content, source, quality and other characteristics of a particular text (source or target in our case), which constitutes the data (see Adolphs 2006 for a comprehensive defi nition).
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the population taking the particular test (see Chart 1). While the topics which feature at B2 level are more of general interest related to the candidates’ everyday life (e.g., exercise and fitness, Internet, education, free time etc), at C1 level candidates are expected to deal with more specialized, abstract and less everyday issues (e.g., medical issues, SOS villages, literature). The step up to C1 seems to involve dealing with lexicogrammatically challenging topics, such as the environment, in a sense that they require the use of more sophisticated vocabulary as opposed to the lexis required at lower levels. In relation to the text types candidates are asked to produce at each level, data analysis has demonstrated that there is a manifest progression from B1 to C1 level, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Text-types across levels
Target text type B1 B2 C1
Count % Count % Count %
email 7 100 3 21,43 0 0
announcement 0 0 1 7,14 1 9,09
report 0 0 2 14,29 2 18,18
article 0 0 1 7,14 0 0,00
postcard 0 0 1 7,14 0 0,00
letter 0 0 0 0,00 3 27,27
website presentation 0 0 1 7,14 0 0,00
book presentation 0 0 2 14,29 1 9,09
film presentation 0 0 1 7,14 0 0,00
text for an informative/promotional leaflet 0 0 1 7,14 2 18,18
text for a university prospectus 0 0 0 0,00 1 9,09
text in a magazine column 0 0 1 7,14 0 0,00
written text to be presented orally 0 0 0 0,00 1 9,09
Sum 7 14 11
Specifically, it is shown that B1 level mediation tasks always require the production of e-mail messages. The most frequent text-type at B2 level mediation tasks is also the e-mail message but at a lower frequency (see Table 1). Interestingly enough, emails do not appear in C1 level mediation tasks. Along with e-mails, B2 mediation tasks frequently require candidates to produce reports, the percentage of which increases in C1 level mediation tasks. Finally,
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as the table above clearly shows, candidates are asked to produce letters only in the C1 level writing test. As regards the generic processes of the texts to be produced, there is no clear distinction across levels (see Table 2). It could be, though, maintained that variety is what discriminates C1 from B1 and B2 level tasks. Irrespectively of the performance level, the most frequent generic process is description. While at B1 level description is frequently combined with explanation, B2 and C1 level candidates are mostly asked to produce texts that only describe. Across levels, narration and explanation are the only two generic processes that only appear in combination with description.
Table 2 Generic processes across levels
B1 B2 C1 Target generic process Count % Count % Count %
describe 0 0,0 6 42,9 4 36,4
instruct 2 28,6 2 14,3 1 9,1
argue 0 0,0 1,0 7,1 0 0,0
describe & explain 2 28,6 2 14,3 3 27,3
describe & instruct 2 28,6 1 7,1 0 0,0
describe & narrate 0 0,0 1 7,1 1 9,1
describe & argue 0 0,0 0 0,0 2 18,2
instruct & explain 0 0,0 1 7,1 0 0,0
explain & argue 1,0 14,3 0 0,0 0 0,0
It is also of great relevance to discuss what text-types are associated with what generic processes at each level, as in our model of analysis text-type and generic process define ‘genre’ and consequently the language to be used (see Table 3).
Table 3. Text types in combination with generic processes at B1 level
B1 Text-type Generic process Count %
email describe & explain 2 28,6
email instruct 2 28,6
email describe & instruct 2 28,6
email explain & argue 1 14,3
Sum 7
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At B2 level, there can be found different types of combinations between text types and generic processes without a single pattern being emerged. Slightly increased is the percentage of those book presentations which describe (see Table 4).
Table 4. Text types in combination with generic processes at B2 level
B2 Text-type Generic process Count %
email argue 1 7,1
email instruct 1 7,1
email describe & instruct 1 7,1
text in a magazine column instruct & explain 1 7,1
text in an informative leaflet instruct 1 7,1
announcement describe 1 7,1
report describe 1 7,1
report describe & explain 1 7,1
book presentation describe 2 14,3
website presentation describe 1 7,1
postcard describe 1 7,1
film presentation describe 1 7,1
article describe & explain 1 7,1
Sum 14
At C1 level, the most frequent combinations are letters which describe and argue and reports which describe and explain (see Table 5). The discourse environments at B2 and C1 levels are increasingly diverse requiring the production of texts with more complex structures and a broader spectrum of lexis. As demonstrated in Chart 2, at B1 level, there is only one discourse environment that appears and this is related to the personal domain (e.g., interaction with his/her family or friends about their everyday activities). At B2 level, candidates are frequently asked to produce language not only in their interpersonal encounters (or personal domain) but also in the linguistic environment of a magazine or a leaflet. The newspaper, as a discourse environment, appears more frequently at C1 level.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 3 5 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Table 5. Text types in combination with generic processes at C1 level
C1 Text-type Generic process Count %
letter describe & narrate 1 9,1
letter describe & argue 2 18,2
text in an informative leafl et instruct 1 9,1
announcement describe 1 9,1
book blurb describe 1 9,1
university prospectus describe 1 9,1
written presentation to be read describe 1 9,1
report describe & explain 2 18,2
text in a promotional leafl et describe & explain 1 9,1
Sum 11
Chart 2. Discourse environments across levels
With reference to task purpose, there is some progression from B1 to C1 as the possibility of having to deal with a greater variety of purposes appears from B2 level upwards (see Chart 3) .
3 5 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Maria Stathopoulou
Chart 3. Communicative purpose across levels
Actually, B1 level tasks which usually give advice, announce, express their opinion and explain (see Chart 3) seem to require the use of simple language. What distinguishes B2 and C1 level tasks does not seem to be the variety in communicative purposes but the types of communicative purposes the tasks of each level require. Put diff erently, communicative goals which require the use of more complex syntactical structures (i.e., sentences), elaborated use of connectives to maintain logical relations and link points, and sophisticated vocabulary mainly appear at C1 level. Expressing doubt, promoting, evaluating are some of these. The fi nal linguistic parameter explored is related to the communicative roles assumed by the participants in the communicative event. It seems that there is a gradual progression through the levels from ‘personally known’14 (friends) to specifi ed audiences (magazine or newspaper readers, editors, customers, tourists etc) (see Table 6). The only role relationship occurring at B1 level is between friends while B2 and C1 level tasks address a broader range of audiences.
14 Describing writing tests and particularly referring to writer-reader relationships, Shaw and Weir (2007: 249) use the expression ’personally known audience’ to refer to the relationship between people familiar to each other (usually friends and family).
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 3 5 9 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Table 6. Communicative roles across levels
C1 Addressor Addressee Count %
friend friend 7 100
C2
friend friend 4 28,57
company member book catalogue reader 1 7,14
writer of a promotional text for a leaflet promotional leaflet reader 1 7,14
writer of a webpage text Internet user/webpage reader 1 7,14
magazine text writer magazine reader 2 14,29
pupil pupil 1 7,14
writer of a report young people 1 7,14
magazine text writer young people 1 7,14
private company owner customer 1 7,14
magazine/newspaper text writer tourists/travellers 1 7,14
C1
radio show presenter audience of a radio programme 1 9,09
writer of a informative text for a leaflet informative leaflet reader 1 9,09
reader of a magazine column magazine reader 1 9,09
publishing company book reader 1 9,09
newspaper text writer newspaper reader 1 9,09
newspaper editor newspaper reader 1 9,09
newspaper editor student 1 9,09
organization member organization member 1 9,09
company customer 1 9,09
organization manager organization member 1 9,09
university student 1 9,09
3 6 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Maria Stathopoulou
4.2. What Mediation Tasks are Appropriate for Each Proficiency Level?
Task description of mediation tasks has led us to understand what differentiates mediation tasks across levels in terms of their linguistic characteristics and ultimately what mediators of different levels are likely to do with the language. The resulting illustrative descriptors below define the language to be used which actually varies according to the conditions under which communication takes place (context of situation) and ultimately help decide which tasks with what requirements are appropriate for each proficiency level. Specifically, the B1 level learner/ candidate is likely to . relay information about topics of everyday life, . produce texts of a familiar text-type fulfilling a limited number of generic processes which require the use of simple and basic language, . produce texts of the personal domain, . perform some basic communicative acts which entail selection of simple lexicogrammnatical structures and . address only ‘personally known’ audiences
In general, the B1 level learner or candidate is expected to be familiar with some basic generic conventions and use simple language and text organization. The style of the target text s/he is expected to be able to produce should be informal and personal. The B2 level learner/ candidate is likely to . relay information about topics of general interest related to their everyday life, . produce texts of various types which may fulfill multiple generic processes which require the use of rather simple language, . produce texts appearing in different discourse environments, . perform a greater variability of communicative acts demanding higher level of language competence and . address different audiences.
Overall, the B2 level learner or candidate should know what structural features differentiate a variety of genres and use simple language. Additionally, s/he is expected to be able to produce both semi-formal and informal texts with personal or less personal tone. The C1 level learner/ candidate is likely to . relay information about more specialized, sophisticated and abstract topics, . produce texts of a wide range of types fulfilling generic processes which require the use of complex lexicosyntactical structures,
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 3 6 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
. produce texts appearing in different discourse environments, . perform a wide range of communicative acts which require the use of complex language (e.g., argue) and . address a wide range of audiences.
Actually, C1 level language users are expected to be able to use complex language in a wide variety of discourse environments producing texts whose style is mainly formal and impersonal. In relation to the topic areas language users of the different levels are to handle, these should be adequately close to their needs and interests so that those of a given performance level have sufficient existing schemata that will enable them to respond to the requirements of the task.
5. Conclusions and Implications for Teaching and Testing
The present paper has constituted an attempt to describe the linguistic features of those KPG tasks which assess language users’ ability to perform as mediators on the basis of a predefined set of parameters which reflect a socially-situated view of language. The outcome of such an analysis, which contributed to conclusions about what differentiates mediation tasks across levels, has been the development of a set of illustrative descriptors which determine the language that is likely to be produced by mediators. To summarize the main findings, the systematic analysis of mediation tasks in terms of their linguistic features has shown that the degree of candidates’ familiarity with the topics and how abstract these are is one of the factors that seem to distinguish mediation tasks across levels. Actually, it can be claimed that the higher the level the higher the degree of abstractness. In addition, it has been indicated that the higher the level, the greater the genre variability. That means that learners or candidates of lower levels are likely to produce a limited range of text-types when mediating while C1 level candidates are expected to be able to produce a wide variety of text-types. Discourse environment variability is also what differentiates tasks. As a matter of fact, those requiring the use of complex language should appear in mediation tasks of higher levels. Moreover, communicative stress rises with the level. C1 candidates, for instance, should be able to achieve communicative goals which demand use of highly complex language. Finally, the relationship between addressor and addressee is what makes a task more or less demanding. Referring to the implications of this study, the illustrative descriptors relevant to mediation provided herein may help test designers and item-writers to decide
3 6 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Maria Stathopoulou
what mediation tasks to design for each level and what aspects of language competence to measure. They can actually be used as templates for developing test tasks and constitute a basis for syllabus sequencing. In the long run, the particular descriptors may assist washback from the test to teaching and test preparation and reverse washback of teaching into the test-craft process (see also Davidson and Lynch 1994). In fact, they may function as a blueprint for the teacher who wishes to prepare his/her students for the particular exams and may constitute a basis for the design of material aiming at the development of learners’ mediation skills.
Acknowledgements
I am deeply grateful to Prof. B. Dendrinos, director of the RCeL, for including me in the RCeL team and for providing me with invaluable guidance and support at every step of the research project. My special thanks also go to Dr Kia Karavas for her valuable comments that helped me improve the content of this paper. I also wish to thank Moira Hill, member of the RCeL staff, who edited an earlier version of this paper.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 3 6 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
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Davidson, F. and B.K. Lynch, 2002. Testcraft: A Teacher’s Guide to Writing and Using Language Test Specifications. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
Dendrinos, B. 2006. Mediation in Communication, Language Teaching and Testing. Journal of Applied Linguistics 22: 9-35.
Dendrinos, B. and M. Stathopoulou. 2010. Mediation activities: Cross-Language Communication Performance. ELT News, KPG Corner, 249: 12. Retrieved 20 August 2011 from: http://rcel.enl.uoa.gr/kpg/kpgcorner_may2010.htm
Dendrinos, B. and M. Stathopoulou. 2012. Η διαμεσολάβηση ως σημαντική επικοινωνιακή δραστηριότητα. Οδηγός του Εκπαιδευτικού για το Ενιαίο Πρόγραμμα Σπουδών των Ξένων Γλωσσών. Αθήνα: Υπουργείο Παιδείας, Δια Βίου Μάθησης και Θρησκευμάτων. 156-184. Retrieved 9 September 2012 from http://rcel.enl.uoa. gr/xenesglosses/docs/ΟΔΗΓΟΣ%20ΕΚΠΑΙΔΕΥΤΙΚΟΥ.pdf
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Halliday, M.A.K. and R. Hasan. 1985. Language, Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a Social-semiotic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Halliday, M.A.K. and C.M.I.M. Matthiessen. 1999. Construing experience through meaning. London, New York: Continuum.
Halliday, M.A.K. and C.M.I.M. Matthiessen. (3rd ed.). 2004. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London & NY: Arnold.
Hyland, K. 2004. Genre and second language writing. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press
Hyland, K. 2007. Genre pedagogy: Language, literacy and L2 writing instruction. Journal of Second Language Writing 16: 148-164.
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Kondyli, M. and C. Lykou. 2009. Γλωσσολογική περιγραφή των θεμάτων του ΚΠΓ: η οπτική του κειμενικού είδους και της λεξικογραμματικής. Research Periodical 1. Research Centre for Language Teaching, Testing and Assessment. Retrieved 20 September 2011 from http://rcel.enl.uoa.gr/periodical/index_en.htm
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Thomas, D.R. 2006. A General Inductive Approach for Analyzing Qualitative Evaluation Data. American Journal of Evaluation 27: 237-246.
Zarate, G., A. Gohard-Radenkovic, D. Lussier, H. Penz. 2004. Cultural mediation in language learning and teaching. Kapfenberg: European Centre for Modern Languages/ Council of Europe Publishing.
3 6 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Δείκτες αναγνωσιμότητας: Ζητήματα εφαρμογής και αξιοπιστίας
Δημήτριος Τζιμώκας1 και Μαρίνα Ματθαιουδάκη2
1Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, 2Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
This paper presents some introductory information about the notion of readability, the development of some widely known readability formulas for both English and Greek and the online readability tool “grval 1.1”, which was developed by researchers at the Centre for the Greek Language. The paper aims to test the consistency of ‘grval 1.1’ and to this aim the readability measures of “grval 1.1” on a sample of reading material were measured. The material was taken from the “Reading comprehension” module which is part of the examinations for attainment in Greek of the Centre for the Greek Language (CGL). The sample included reading material for all four levels of attainment in Greek used in the exam papers between the years 2007 and 2010. The analysis indicated low consistency of the readability tool and proposals for addressing the inconsistencies are made.
1. Εισαγωγή
1.1. Προσδιορισμός της έννοιας της αναγνωσιμότητας
Μεταξύ των διαφόρων ορισμών της έννοιας της αναγνωσιμότητας (readability) που παραθέτει ο DuBay (2004: 3), ο πιο κατανοητός είναι των Edgar Dale και Jeanne Chall (1948). Οι ερευνητές αυτοί υποστηρίζουν ότι η αναγνωσιμότητα συνιστά το συνολικό άθροισμα όλων εκείνων των χαρακτηριστικών (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των μεταξύ τους αλληλεπιδράσεων) ενός συγκεκριμένου δείγματος έντυπου υλικού, τα οποία επηρεάζουν τον βαθμό επιτυχούς ανάγνωσής του από μια ομάδα αναγνωστών. Ο βαθμός επιτυχούς ανάγνωσης ενός κειμένου έγκειται στο βαθμό που οι αναγνώστες το κατανοούν, διατηρούν την προσλαμβανόμενη από αυτό πληροφορία, το διαβάζουν με ικανοποιητική ταχύτητα και το βρίσκουν ενδιαφέρον. Αναμφίβολα, λοιπόν, η αναγνωσιμότητα ή αλλιώς αναγνωστική δυσκολία είναι το αποτέλεσμα της διάδρασης μεταξύ κειμένου και αναγνώστη. Τα χαρακτηριστικά των δύο αυτών κύριων συνιστωσών της αναγνωσιμότητας είναι τα εξής: αφενός το κείμενο συμβάλλει με το περιεχόμενό του, το ύφος του, το
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 3 6 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
σχεδιασμό του (μέσο, φωτογραφίες, γραμματοσειρά, χρώμα κτλ.) και τη δομή του· αφετέρου ο αναγνώστης συμβάλλει με την πρότερη γνώση του, την αναγνωστική του δεξιότητα, το ενδιαφέρον του και το κίνητρό του (βλ. Gray & Leary 1935, Γιάγκου 2009: 152-154). Εάν βάλουμε κατά μέρος τα χαρακτηριστικά του αναγνώστη, τα οποία είναι εξ ορισμού δυσερεύνητα, από τα χαρακτηριστικά του κειμένου που μας απομένουν είναι προφανές ότι μηχανικά μετρήσιμο και επομένως το μόνο ικανό να δώσει μια κατά το δυνατόν αντικειμενική πρόβλεψη για το βαθμό επιτυχούς ανάγνωσης ενός κειμένου είναι το στοιχείο του ύφους. Με τον όρο ‘ύφος’ εννοείται το σύνολο των στοιχείων που σχετίζονται με τη λεξικοποίηση σε ένα κείμενο των εννοιών που αυτό πραγματεύεται και οι μεταξύ τους σχέσεις. Πρόκειται για τα λεγόμενα επιφανειακά χαρακτηριστικά ενός κειμένου, δηλαδή το λεξιλόγιο, τη δομή των προτάσεων και τη μακροδομή του (Γιάγκου 2009: 154-155). Σε αυτά ακριβώς τα στοιχεία εστίασαν ανεξαιρέτως τόσο οι πρόδρομοι των ερευνών της αναγνωσιμότητας Sherman (1893) και Kitson (1921) όσο και οι μεταγενέστεροι εισηγητές των καθιερωμένων σήμερα δεικτών μέτρησής της από τα τέλη του 19ου αιώνα έως σήμερα (βλ. DuBay 2004: 13-18), χωρίς βέβαια να παραγνωρίζουν τη σημασία των υπόλοιπων παραγόντων της αναγνωσιμότητας.
1.2. Απαρχές και εφαρμογές
Οι πρώτες μελέτες που έθεσαν τα θεμέλια των ερευνών και των εφαρμογών αναγνωσιμότητας χρονολογούνται από τη δεκαετία του ’20. Πρώτα ο Thorndike (1921) εστίασε στις πιο συχνόχρηστες λέξεις, καταρτίζοντας σχετικούς καταλόγους για διδακτική χρήση. Παρατήρησε ότι οι πιο συχνές λέξεις είναι συνάμα απλές στη σημασία και βραχείες και ανέδειξε τον καταλυτικό ρόλο που παίζει το λεξιλόγιο στην ανάπτυξη της αναγνωστικής ικανότητας του ατόμου. Συνεχιστής του υπήρξε ο Zipf (1949), ο οποίος διεξήγαγε στατιστικές αναλύσεις κειμένων για να δείξει πώς λειτουργεί η αρχή της ήσσονος προσπάθειας στη χρήση της γλώσσας. Το γενικό συμπέρασμα από τις εργασίες των δύο αυτών μελετητών ήταν ότι όσο πιο μικρές και απλές είναι οι λέξεις τόσο πιο συχνόχρηστες και εύκολες στη μάθηση/κατανόηση αποδεικνύονται. Ο Kitson (1921) προχώρησε λίγο ακόμη οδηγώντας την έρευνα πολύ κοντά στη δημιουργία των πρώτων τύπων υπολογισμού αναγνωσιμότητας (readability formulas, στο εξής ΤΥΑ). Συγκεκριμένα, ήταν ο πρώτος που εντόπισε τη σημασία του μήκους των λέξεων και των προτάσεων ως μεταβλητών αναγνωσιμότητας. Αυτά τα δύο κειμενικά χαρακτηριστικά θα υιοθετηθούν αργότερα από τον Flesch (βλ. § 2.1), τον εισηγητή ενός από τους πιο διαδεδομένους ΤΥΑ. Λίγα χρόνια αργότερα κατά τη δεκαετία του ’30, σε μια περίοδο που η κυβέρνηση των Ηνωμένων Πολιτειών επενδύει στην εκπαίδευση ενηλίκων, ο Bryson θα διατυπώσει τη θέση ότι η κύρια αιτία της αναγνωστικής αποτυχίας είναι η έλλειψη αναγνωστικών δεξιοτήτων ως συνέπεια ελλιπούς εκπαίδευσης. Πίστευε, επίσης, ότι το άμεσο και διαυγές ύφος έρχεται ως αποτέλεσμα «μιας πειθαρχίας και μιας καλλιτεχνίας την οποία λίγοι άνθρωποι που έχουν ιδέες κάνουν τον κόπο να επιτύχουν. Εάν το απλό γράψιμο ήταν εύκολο, πολλά από τα προβλήματά μας θα είχαν επιλυθεί προ
3 6 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Δημήτριος Τζιμώκας και Μαρίνα Ματθαιουδάκη
πολλού» (βλ. Klare & Buck 1954: 58). Το έργο του είχε μεγάλη επίδραση στους μαθητές του Lorge και Flesch. Την ίδια περίπου περίοδο πολύ σημαντικές υπήρξαν οι μελέτες των Gray and Leary (1935), οι οποίοι στο έργο τους “What makes a book readable” εντόπισαν μια μακρά σειρά από στοιχεία τα οποία επηρεάζουν την αναγνωσιμότητα και τα ομαδοποίησαν σε τέσσερις κατηγορίες: α) περιεχόμενο, β) ύφος, γ) σχεδιασμός και δ) δομή. Πολύ σύντομα, ο Lorge (1939, 1944) με τις έρευνές του για τη σημασία του λεξικού σημασιολογικού φορτίου συνέβαλε αποφασιστικά στη μείωση του αριθμού των μεταβλητών που επηρεάζουν την αναγνωσιμότητα, προκρίνοντας τα εξής τρία μόνο χαρακτηριστικά του γραπτού λόγου: α) μέσο μήκος πρότασης σε λέξεις, β) αριθμός ονοματικών/ρηματικών φράσεων ανά 100 λέξεις και γ) αριθμός δύσκολων λέξεων που δεν συμπεριλαμβάνονται στον κατάλογο των 769 εύκολων λέξεων των Dale και Chall (1948). Με την εργασία του ο Lorge έθεσε τα θεμέλια για την εμφάνιση και διάδοση μετά από λίγα χρόνια των ΤΥΑ των Dale and Chall (1948) και Flesch (1948 – 1975). Πριν παρουσιάσουμε τους πιο σημαντικούς ΤΥΑ, στους οποίους βασίζεται και η παρούσα έρευνα, θα αναφερθούμε εν συντομία στις κυριότερες εφαρμογές των μελετών αναγνωσιμότητας που καθιερώθηκαν από τα μέσα του 20ου αιώνα και εξής (βλ. DuBay 2004: 54-55). Κατ’ αρχάς, δόθηκε ιδιαίτερη σημασία στις μετρήσεις αναγνωσιμότητας των δημοσιογραφικών εντύπων με σκοπό την αύξηση του αναγνωστικού κοινού τους. Επίσης, έγιναν μετρήσεις σε δικαστικές αποφάσεις και νομικά κείμενα σε μια προσπάθεια να προστατευθεί το δικαίωμα στη σαφή πληροφόρηση. Ακόμη, οι έρευνες αναγνωσιμότητας συνέβαλαν στη συγγραφή απλούστερου πληροφοριακού υλικού (ασφαλιστικά συμβόλαια, κείμενα με συμβουλές υγείας, οδηγίες χρήσης συσκευών, κ.λπ.) και στην ανάπτυξη διδακτικού υλικού κατάλληλα προσαρμοσμένου στις ανάγκες της εκάστοτε βαθμίδας εκπαίδευσης. Τέλος, υπήρξε μεγάλη η συμβολή των μελετών αναγνωσιμότητας γενικότερα στη γλωσσική έρευνα.
2. Τύποι υπολογισμού αναγνωσιμότητας
2.1. ΤΥΑ Flesch
Ο Flesch, αυστριακός στην καταγωγή και ειδικός στη βιβλιοθηκονομία και την εκπαίδευση ενηλίκων, υπήρξε ο πρώτος που κατάφερε να προβάλει ευρύτερα τη σημασία των ΤΥΑ. Έχοντας διεξαγάγει διάφορες έρευνες κυρίως σε αναγνωστικό υλικό για ενηλίκους, εισηγήθηκε έναν ΤΥΑ (Flesch 1948), ο οποίος περιελάμβανε δύο μέρη: α) Τον δείκτη Reading Ease Score, που χρησιμοποιούσε δύο μεταβλητές, τον αριθμό των συλλαβών και τον αριθμό των προτάσεων ανά 100 λέξεις. Ο δείκτης αυτός προβλέπει την ευκολία της ανάγνωσης σε μια κλίμακα από το 1 έως το 100, όπου το 30 δηλώνει «πολύ δύσκολο» κείμενο και το 70 «εύκολο». β) Πρόβλεψη του ενδιαφέροντος του αναγνώστη μέσω μέτρησης του αριθμού των λέξεων με αναφορά σε πρόσωπα, όπως αντωνυμίες και ονόματα, καθώς και του αριθμού των προτάσεων «υποκειμενικού» χαρακτήρα,
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 3 6 9 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
όπως ο ευθύς λόγος και οι επιφωνηματικές και ελλειπτικές προτάσεις. Ο Reading Ease Score αναλύει ποσοτικά τις παραπάνω μεταβλητές κάθε κειμένου, αποδίδοντάς του έναν δείκτη αναγνωσιμότητας (readability index, στο εξής ΔΑ, βλ. Γιάγκου 2009: 158), ο οποίος αυξάνεται αντιστρόφως ανάλογα με την αναγνωστική δυσκολία του κειμένου, κατατάσσοντάς το σε ένα από τα επτά επίπεδα της εκατοντάβαθμης κλίμακας αναγνωστικής δυσκολίας του Flesch (βλ. πίνακα 1, σελ. 7). Ο ΤΥΑ του Flesch είναι ο εξής (βλ. Γιάγκου 2009: 162):
R = 206,835 – (1,015 x W/T) – (84,6 x S/W)
Όπου: R = βαθμός στην κλίμακα αναγνωστικής δυσκολίας από το 0 (δύσκολο) έως το 100 (εύκολο) W = αριθμός λέξεων T = αριθμός προτάσεων S = αριθμός συλλαβών
Αυτός ο ΤΥΑ γνώρισε πολύ μεγάλη διάδοση λόγω της ικανοποιητικής αξιοπιστίας του1, ασκώντας συνεπακόλουθα μεγάλη επιρροή στο δημοσιογραφικό λόγο. Τα αποτελέσματα μιας δεκάχρονης έρευνας που διεξήγαγε ο Flesch (1949), με μετρήσεις αναγνωσιμότητας στα κείμενα διαφόρων αμερικανικών περιοδικών, έδειξαν ότι, για παράδειγμα, τα κείμενα του Reader’s digest έχουν ΔΑ 65, δηλαδή κατατάσσονται στο «μέσο» επίπεδο, ενώ το περιοδικό American magazine λαμβάνει ΔΑ μεταξύ 50 και 60, με αποτέλεσμα τα κείμενά του να αξιολογούνται ως ελαφρώς πιο δύσκολα από αυτά του προηγούμενου περιοδικού, δηλαδή στο επίπεδο «αρκετά δύσκολο». Το 1975, στο πλαίσιο έρευνας χρηματοδοτούμενης από το αμερικανικό πολεμικό ναυτικό, τροποποιήθηκε ο ΤΥΑ Reading Ease του Flesch, ώστε o ΔΑ που θα προκύπτει να αντιστοιχίζει τα επτά επίπεδα της αξιολογικής κλίμακας του ΤΥΑ Flesch με τις διάφορες βαθμίδες εκπαίδευσης των ΗΠΑ (Kincaid et al. 1975). Ο νέος, λοιπόν, ΤΥΑ γνωστός ως Flesch-Kincaid, ή απλώς Kincaid, είναι ο εξής (βλ. Γιάγκου 2009: 162):
G = 0,39 x W/T + 11,8 x S/W – 15,59
Όπου: G = τάξη (του εκπαιδευτικού συστήματος των ΗΠΑ) για την οποία είναι κατάλληλο το κείμενο W = αριθμός λέξεων T = αριθμός προτάσεων S = αριθμός συλλαβών
1 Ενδεικτικά, η τιμή συσχέτισης του ΤΥΑ Flesch με τα τεστ αναγνωστικής κατανόησης των McCall και Crabbs (1950) είναι .64, η οποία δηλώνει ένα ικανοποιητικό επίπεδο αξιοπιστίας.
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Η αντιστοίχιση μεταξύ της αξιολογικής κλίμακας του Flesch Reading Ease και των εκπαιδευτικών βαθμίδων του ΤΥΑ Kincaid, όπως προσαρμόστηκαν στα ελληνικά από τους Ευσταθιάδη κ.ά. (2002), είναι η εξής (βλ. και DuBay 2004: 22):
Πίνακας 1. Αξιολογική κλίμακα Flesch-Kincaid προσαρμοσμένη στο ελληνικό εκπαιδευτικό σύστημα
Flesch Reading Ease Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level
100 – 90 πολύ εύκολο A΄-Β΄-Γ΄ Δημοτικού
90 – 80 εύκολο Δ΄-Ε΄-ΣΤ΄ Δημοτικού
80 – 70 αρκετά εύκολο A΄-B΄ Γυμνασίου
70 – 60 μέσο Γ΄ Γυμν. A΄ Λυκείου
60 – 50 αρκετά δύσκολο B΄- Γ΄ Λυκείου
50 – 30 δύσκολο AEI – TEI
30 – 0 πολύ δύσκολο AEI – TEI
Ενδεικτικό της ευρείας διάδοσης του συγκεκριμένου ΤΥΑ είναι το γεγονός ότι εφαρμόστηκε και σε άλλες γλώσσες εκτός των αγγλικών, όπως τα γαλλικά, τα γερμανικά, τα ολλανδικά και τα ιταλικά.
2.2. ΤΥΑ Fog
Λίγο μετά τις πρωτοποριακές έρευνες του Flesch, ο Robert Gunning (1952) εισηγήθηκε τον ΤΥΑ Fog, ο οποίος έγινε δημοφιλής χάρη στην πολύ απλή μορφή του. Ο συγκεκριμένος ΤΥΑ χρησιμοποιεί δύο μεταβλητές: α) το μέσο μήκος κάθε πρότασης και β) τον αριθμό των λέξεων άνω των δύο συλλαβών ανά 100 λέξεις και είναι ο εξής (βλ. Γιάγκου 2009: 162):
G = 0,4 + W/T + 100 x P2/W
Όπου: G = τάξη (του εκπαιδευτικού συστήματος των ΗΠΑ) για την οποία είναι κατάλληλο το κείμενο W = αριθμός λέξεων T = αριθμός προτάσεων
P2 = αριθμός λέξεων με δύο ή περισσότερες συλλαβές
Με τις έρευνές του ο Gunning καθιέρωσε τη χρήση δεικτών αναγνωσιμότητας σε πολλές εφημερίδες και περιοδικά των ΗΠΑ με σκοπό την αποφυγή της «περιττής στρυφνότητας», η οποία, σύμφωνα με τους ισχυρισμούς του, αποτελεί την κύρια αιτία της αναγνωστικής αδυναμίας των μαθητών.
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2.3. ΤΥΑ SMOG
Ένας άλλος ειδικός της αναγνωσιμότητας, ο Harry G. McLaughlin (1969), δημοσίευσε τον ΤΥΑ SMOG με την πεποίθηση ότι το μήκος των λέξεων πρέπει να πολλαπλασιάζεται με το μήκος των προτάσεων, παρά να προστίθεται σ’ αυτό. Ως εκ τούτου, βασική μεταβλητή αυτού του ΤΥΑ είναι ο αριθμός των λέξεων με τρεις ή περισσότερες συλλαβές ανά 30 προτάσεις (βλ. DuBay 2004: 47 και Γιάγκου 2009: 162):
G = 3,1291 + 1,043 x √ P3
Όπου: G = τάξη (του εκπαιδευτικού συστήματος των ΗΠΑ) για την οποία είναι κατάλληλο το κείμενο
P3 = αριθμός λέξεων με τρεις ή περισσότερες συλλαβές
Σημειωτέον ότι ο ΔΑ τόσο του ΤΥΑ Fog όσο και του ΤΥΑ SMOG αυξάνει ανάλογα με το επίπεδο αναγνωστικής δυσκολίας ενός κειμένου.
2.4. Ασυμφωνίες των τύπων υπολογισμού αναγνωσιμότητας
Σε αυτό το σημείο είναι χρήσιμο να επισημανθούν οι ασυμφωνίες που παρατηρούνται μεταξύ των διαφόρων ΤΥΑ και τις οποίες κάθε ερευνητής οφείλει να έχει υπόψη του, εάν σκοπεύει να τους αξιοποιήσει ερευνητικά. Κατ’ αρχάς, όπως κατέστη φανερό από την προηγούμενη παρουσίαση των τεσσάρων ΤΥΑ Flesch, Flesch-Kincaid, Fog και SMOG, οι ΤΥΑ χρησιμοποιούν διαφορετικές μεταβλητές μέτρησης και επομένως διαφορετικούς αλγορίθμους για τη μέτρηση της αναγνωσιμότητας. Επίσης, χρησιμοποιούν διαφορετική βαθμολογική βάση (criterion score). Η έννοια της βαθμολογικής βάσης σχετίζεται με τις επικρατέστερες δοκιμές αναγνωστικής κατανόησης των μαθητών που χρησιμοποιούνται για την ανάπτυξη και την επαλήθευση των ΤΥΑ στις Ηνωμένες Πολιτείες. Οι ερευνητές, δηλαδή, προκειμένου να επαληθεύσουν την αξιοπιστία του ΤΥΑ που προτείνουν, χρησιμοποιούν τις αξιολογικές κλίμακες-επίπεδα αυτών των δοκιμών αναγνωστικής κατανόησης ως σημείο αναφοράς για την ακρίβεια των μετρήσεών τους. Μία από τις πιο αναγνωρισμένες δοκιμές αυτού του είδους είναι των McCall και Crabbs (1926, 1950, 1961, 1979) με τον τίτλο Standard Test Lessons in Reading, η οποία περιέχει ασκήσεις κατανόησης γραπτού λόγου με ερωτήσεις πολλαπλής επιλογής σε κείμενα διαβαθμισμένης δυσκολίας. Ακριβώς, όμως, επειδή οι ΤΥΑ που συσχετίζονται με αυτήν την αξιολογική κλίμακα δεν είναι ίδιοι ως προς τα διάφορα χαρακτηριστικά τους, κατά την ανάπτυξή τους δε χρησιμοποιείται πάντοτε η ίδια βαθμολογική βάση για την κατάταξη ενός κειμένου σε κάποιο επίπεδο αναγνωσιμότητας. Για παράδειγμα, ο δείκτης Fog αναπτύχθηκε με βάση κατάταξης το 90% των σωστών απαντήσεων σε δοκιμή αναγνωστικής κατανόησης, ενώ ο δείκτης SMOG με το 100% των σωστών απαντήσεων. Με δεδομένες τις προηγούμενες ασυμφωνίες, το στοιχείο που προσδίδει
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εν τέλει εγκυρότητα σε έναν δείκτη αναγνωσιμότητας είναι ο βαθμός της συνέπειάς του ως προς την πρόβλεψη της δυσκολίας ανάγνωσης μιας σειράς κειμένων διαβαθμισμένης δυσκολίας (DuBay 2004: 56).
2.5. Περιορισμοί των ΤΥΑ
Οι ιδιαιτερότητες των ΤΥΑ που περιγράφηκαν στην προηγούμενη παράγραφο μάς οδηγούν στη διατύπωση των περιορισμών τους. Ουσιαστικά, αυτοί οι ΤΥΑ δεν παρέχουν την τέλεια πρόβλεψη, αλλά μια κατά προσέγγιση εκτίμηση της αναγνωστικής δυσκολίας ενός κειμένου, γεγονός που αποδεικνύεται και από τους διαφορετικούς ΔΑ που δίνουν οι διάφοροι ΤΥΑ για το ίδιο κείμενο (DuBay 2004: 56). Για αυτό το λόγο κατά την αποτίμηση της δυσκολίας ενός κειμένου πρέπει να συνεκτιμώνται και άλλοι ρητορικοί παράγοντες, όπως η δομή, το περιεχόμενο, η συνεκτικότητα και η μορφοποίηση του κάθε κειμένου. Εξάλλου, οι ΤΥΑ έχουν κατά καιρούς δεχθεί αυστηρή κριτική, η οποία εστιάζει αφενός μεν στο γεγονός ότι δεν λαμβάνονται καθόλου υπόψη παράμετροι που αφορούν τον ίδιο τον αναγνώστη και αφετέρου στο γεγονός της αναξιοπιστίας των ίδιων των επιφανειακών χαρακτηριστικών που αξιοποιούν οι ΤΥΑ ως δεικτών ευκολίας ή δυσκολίας ενός κειμένου2.
2.6. Βασικές παραδοχές για τους ΤΥΑ
Έχοντας παρουσιάσει κάποια βασικά χαρακτηριστικά καθώς και τους περιορισμούς των ΤΥΑ, είναι σκόπιμο να σημειωθούν συνοπτικά ορισμένες βασικές παραδοχές για αυτούς, οι οποίες θα φωτίσουν καλύτερα τη φύση τους (βλ. DuBay 2004: 19-20). Όσον αφορά τον αριθμό των μεταβλητών που χρησιμοποιεί ένας ΤΥΑ, το αν είναι μικρός ή μεγάλος δεν έχει ιδιαίτερο αντίκτυπο στην ακρίβεια των προβλέψεων, αλλά σίγουρα όσο περισσότερες μεταβλητές λαμβάνει υπόψη του ένας ΤΥΑ τόσο πιο δύσχρηστος θεωρείται. Συνεπώς, η έως τώρα έρευνα και οι εφαρμογές της αναγνωσιμότητας έχουν δείξει ότι δύο είναι οι μεταβλητές με τη βέλτιστη δυνατότητα πρόβλεψης της αναγνωστικής δυσκολίας: α) η σημασιολογική, η οποία αφορά μετρήσεις δυσκολίας του λεξιλογίου, από τις οποίες η πιο επιτυχημένη είναι η μέτρηση του αριθμού των μορφημάτων ανά 100 λέξεις και β) η συντακτική, όπου έχουμε μέτρηση του μέσου μήκους των προτάσεων. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, έχει αποδειχθεί ότι αφενός ο μέσος αριθμός των συλλαβών ανά 100 λέξεις (Coleman 1971) και αφετέρου ο μέσος αριθμός λέξεων ανά πρόταση (Bormuth 1966), αποτελούν πολύ πιο εύκολους τρόπους πρόβλεψης της δυσκολίας ενός κειμένου και σχεδόν το ίδιο ακριβείς με τη μέτρηση των μορφημάτων.
2 Για εκτενέστερη αναφορά στις κριτικές αυτές βλ. Γιάγκου 2009: 164 κ. εξ.
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2.7. Ο ΤΥΑ Flesch για την ελληνική γλώσσα
Στις αρχές της δεκαετίας του 1980 ο Γαγάτσης ήταν ο πρώτος που ασχολήθηκε με την αναγνωσιμότητα ελληνικών κειμένων, μελετώντας την αναγνωσιμότητα των σχολικών εγχειριδίων των Μαθηματικών και προσάρμοσε τον ΤΥΑ Flesch Reading Ease Score στα ελληνικά (Γαγάτσης 1985). Στηριζόμενος στην παρατήρηση ότι οι ελληνικές λέξεις είναι κατά μέσο όρο μεγαλύτερες από τις αγγλικές ή τις γαλλικές, αντικατέστησε το συντελεστή 84,6 του μέσου αριθμού συλλαβών ανά λέξη με τον 59. Έτσι ο ΤΥΑ Flesch Reading Ease Score προσαρμοσμένος στα ελληνικά αναδιαμορφώνεται ως εξής:
R3 = 206,835 – (1,015 x W/T) – (59 x S/W) 3.Λογισμικό αναγνωσιμότητας ελληνικών κειμένων
Στις αρχές της πρώτης δεκαετίας του 21ου αιώνα δημιουργείται από το Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας (ΚΕΓ) το grval 1.1 (από το Greek evaluation), ένα νέο λογισμικό για την αποτίμηση της αναγνωσιμότητας ελληνικών κειμένων (Ευσταθιάδης κ.ά. 2002), το οποίο στηρίζεται σε προσαρμογές στα Νέα Ελληνικά των ΤΥΑ Flesch Reading Ease (μέσο μήκος προτάσεων, μέσος αριθμός συλλαβών), Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level (επίπεδα εκπαίδευσης), Flesch Fog Index (προθήματα, επιθήματα) και Smog (πολυσύλλαβες λέξεις). Το συγκεκριμένο λογισμικό είναι διαθέσιμο για το κοινό μέσω της ιστοσελίδας της «Πύλης για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα» του ΚΕΓ4. Όπως επισημαίνει ο Ευσταθιάδης κ.ά. (2002), κατά την ανάπτυξή του το λογισμικό δοκιμάστηκε επανειλημμένως στο κειμενικό υλικό των εξεταστικών θεμάτων ελληνομάθειας του ΚΕΓ των ετών 1999, 2000 και 2001, και σε κάθε περίπτωση ανάλογα με τα αποτελέσματα που εξάγονταν επιφέρονταν σταδιακές βελτιώσεις σε αυτό, προκειμένου να επιτευχθεί η καλύτερη δυνατή προσαρμογή του στην ελληνική γλώσσα. Ο βασικός στόχος των σχεδιαστών του λογισμικού ήταν να δίνει μία γενική άποψη της δυσκολίας ανάγνωσης ενός κειμένου με βάση αντικειμενικές ενδείξεις από τις μετρήσεις των διαφόρων επιφανειακών κειμενικών χαρακτηριστικών. Επίσης, ο κύριος σκοπός της δημιουργίας του ήταν να συμβάλλει σε μια πρώτη επιλογή των κειμένων για τις δεξιότητες κατανόησης προφορικού και γραπτού λόγου των εξετάσεων πιστοποίησης επάρκειας της ελληνομάθειας του ΚΕΓ καθώς και στη διαβάθμισή τους τόσο μεταξύ των επιπέδων ελληνομάθειας όσο και εσωτερικά σε κάθε επίπεδο. Στη συνέχεια παρατίθενται ενδεικτικά οι βασικές διεπαφές του λογισμικού αναγνωσιμότητας ελληνικών κειμένων grval 1.1, όπως εμφανίζονται στην ιστοσελίδα της Πύλης για την Ελληνική Γλώσσα:
3 Για επεξηγήσεις των συντομεύσεων του τύπου υπολογισμού της αναγνωσιμότητας βλ. § 2.1. 4 Ο ακριβής σύνδεσμος του λογισμικού είναι: http://www.greek-language.gr/ greekLang/modern_ greek/foreign/tools/readability/index.html.
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Εικόνα 1. Αρχική διεπαφή του grval 1.1 για την εισαγωγή κειμένου
Στην εικόνα 1 διακρίνεται το κενό πεδίο στο οποίο ο χρήστης μπορεί μέσω των εντολών «αντιγραφή» και «επικόλληση» του ηλεκτρονικού υπολογιστή να εισαγάγει το προς αξιολόγηση κείμενο με τον τρόπο που φαίνεται στην εικόνα 2:
Εικόνα 2. Εισαγωγή του προς αξιολόγηση κειμένου στο λογισμικό grval 1.1
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Σε αυτό το σημείο ο χρήστης επιλέγοντας την εντολή «Αποστολή» λαμβάνει τους ΔΑ του κειμένου με την εξής μορφή:
Εικόνα 3. Αποτελέσματα της μέτρησης αναγνωσιμότητας του λογισμικού grval 1.1
Όπως φαίνεται στην εικόνα 3, το λογισμικό grval 1.1 δίνει μετρήσεις για τον αριθμό των προτάσεων (T), των λέξεων (W), των συλλαβών (S), για το μέσο αριθμό των λέξεων ανά πρόταση (W/T) και το μέσο αριθμό συλλαβών ανά λέξη (S/W). Τέλος, εμφανίζονται οι ΔΑ από τους τέσσερεις ΤΥΑ που χρησιμοποιούνται. Ο πρώτος ΔΑ είναι σύμφωνα με τους ΤΥΑ Flesch και Kincaid, ο δεύτερος ΔΑ είναι του SMOG και ο τρίτος είναι του Fog.
4. Στόχοι και υποθέσεις έρευνας
Κύριος στόχος της παρούσας έρευνας είναι η περαιτέρω διερεύνηση της αξιοπιστίας του λογισμικού grval 1.1, βάσει στοιχείων από την εφαρμογή του σε κείμενα πιο πρόσφατων εξεταστικών θεμάτων και συνεπακόλουθα η εξεύρεση τρόπων για την περαιτέρω βελτίωσή του στην περίπτωση που τα εμπειρικά δεδομένα δείξουν μη ικανοποιητικό επίπεδο συνέπειας. Η βασική υπόθεση από την οποία εκκινεί η έρευνα είναι ότι η δυσκολία κατανόησης των κειμένων των εξεταστικών θεμάτων κατανόησης γραπτού λόγου για την πιστοποίηση της ελληνομάθειας αυξάνει βαθμιαία από τα κατώτερα στα ανώτερα επίπεδα ελληνομάθειας, παρουσιάζοντας αισθητή διαφορά από επίπεδο σε επίπεδο (βλ. Ευσταθιάδης κ.ά. 2002). Το κρίσιμο ζήτημα είναι, επομένως, εάν η παραπάνω διαφορά ανιχνεύεται σε ικανοποιητικό βαθμό από το «Λογισμικό Αναγνωσιμότητας Ελληνικών Κειμένων grval 1.1».
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5. Μεθοδολογία
5.1. Γλωσσικό υλικό
Ως υλικό έρευνας χρησιμοποιήθηκαν όλα τα κείμενα από τα εξεταστικά θέματα της πιστοποίησης επάρκειας της ελληνομάθειας (ΠΕΕ) του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας για τη δεξιότητα της κατανόησης γραπτού λόγου σε όλα τα επίπεδα (Α, Β, Γ, Δ) των ετών 2007, 2008, 2009 και 2010. Συγκεκριμένα, από κάθε έτος συγκεντρώθηκαν τα δύο κείμενα 200-250 λέξεων του επιπέδου Α, τα δύο κείμενα 250-300 λέξεων του επιπέδου Β, τα δύο κείμενα 400-500 λέξεων του επιπέδου Γ και τα τρία κείμενα 600-800 λέξεων του επιπέδου Δ.5 Συνολικά, το πλήθος των κειμένων που ερευνήθηκαν ήταν 36.
5.2. Επεξεργασία γλωσσικού υλικού
Η επεξεργασία του γλωσσικού υλικού που συλλέχθηκε διεξήχθηκε στις εξής φάσεις: α) εισαγωγή των κειμένων στο grval 1.1 και εξαγωγή ΔΑ για κάθε ένα από αυτά, β) καταχώριση των ΔΑ σε λογιστικό φύλλο και γ) στατιστική επεξεργασία (t-test) των ΔΑ. Κατά την τελευταία φάση, έγιναν συγκριτικές μετρήσεις ως προς τους διάφορους ΔΑ που έδωσαν οι ΤΥΑ του grval 1.1 μεταξύ: α) όλων των κειμένων κατανόησης γραπτού λόγου και β) των επιπέδων ελληνομάθειας ανά τα εξής τρία ζεύγη: 1) Α – Β, 2) Β – Γ και 3) Γ – Δ.
6. Αποτελέσματα
Στο γράφημα 1 εμφανίζονται οι μέσες τιμές των ΔΑ που έδωσαν οι ΤΥΑ για όλα τα κείμενα από τα εξεταστικά θέματα της κατανόησης γραπτού λόγου και των τεσσάρων ετών του ερευνητικού δείγματος ανά επίπεδο ελληνομάθειας και ανά μέρος δεξιότητας. Στα επίπεδα Α, Β και Γ η δεξιότητα κατανόησης γραπτού λόγου έχει δύο μέρη, ενώ στο επίπεδο Δ τρία μέρη. Στη συνέχεια παρουσιάζονται σε πίνακες οι μέσες τιμές των ΔΑ ανά ΤΥΑ και ανά επίπεδο. Στον πίνακα 2 σημειώνονται τα αποτελέσματα για τους ΤΥΑ Flesch και Kincaid: Μία πρώτη παρατήρηση στα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα είναι ότι ο μέσος όρος των ΔΑ παρουσιάζει στατιστικά σημαντική διαφορά μόνο μεταξύ των επιπέδων Β και Γ (p=0,018). Στον πίνακα 3 εμφανίζονται τα αποτελέσματα για τον ΤΥΑ SMOG:
5 Σημειωτέον ότι οι συγκεκριμένες ονομασίες των επιπέδων έχουν μεταβληθεί από το 2010 ως εξής: Α → Α2, Β → Β1, Γ → Β2, Δ → Γ1.
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Γράφημα 1. Μέσες τιμές των ΔΑ του grval 1.1 για τα κείμενα των ετών 2007 έως 2010
Πίνακας 2. Μέσες τιμές των ΔΑ του ΤΥΑ Flesch ανά επίπεδο ελληνομάθειας
Επίπεδο ελληνομάθειας Μέσος όρος των ΔΑ Βαθμίδα Flesch Βαθμίδα Kincaid
Α 81,07 (SD=7,510) εύκολο Δ-Ε-ΣΤ Δημοτ.
Β 79,30 (SD=8,725) αρκετά εύκολο Α-Β Γυμν.
Γ 65,90 (SD=12,443) μέσο Γ Γυμν. – Α Λυκ.
Δ 59,48 (SD=8,840) αρκετά δύσκολο Β-Γ Λυκ.
Πίνακας 3. Μέσες τιμές των ΔΑ του ΤΥΑ SMOG ανά επίπεδο ελληνομάθειας
Επίπεδο ελληνομάθειας Μέσος όρος των ΔΑ Βαθμίδα SMOG
Α 8,19 (SD=0,94) Α΄ Γυμν.
Β 8,71 (SD=1,57) Α΄ Γυμν.
Γ 10,84 (SD=1,78) Γ΄ Γυμν.
Δ 11,96 (SD=1,95) Α΄ Λυκ.
Εδώ παρατηρείται ότι ο μέσος όρος των ΔΑ των κειμένων είναι σημαντικά διαφορετικός τόσο μεταξύ των επιπέδων Β και Γ (p=0,007) όσο και μεταξύ των επιπέδων Γ και Δ (p=0,017).
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Τέλος, στον πίνακα 4 παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα για τον ΤΥΑ Fog:
Πίνακας 4. Μέσες τιμές των ΔΑ του ΤΥΑ Fog ανά επίπεδο ελληνομάθειας
Επίπεδο ελληνομάθειας Μέσος όρος των ΔΑ Βαθμίδα FOG
Α 10,13 (SD=4,33) πολύ εύκολο
Β 12,01 (SD=7,2) πολύ εύκολο
Γ 18,83 (SD=9,51) εύκολο
Δ 24,87 (SD=7,24) αρκετά εύκολο
Και σ’ αυτή την περίπτωση, δεν υπήρξαν μεγάλες διαφορές μεταξύ των διαδοχικών επιπέδων, καθώς ο μέσος όρος των ΔΑ εμφανίζει στατιστικά σημαντικές διαφορές μόνο μεταξύ των επιπέδων Γ και Δ (p=0,008).
7. Συζήτηση - συμπεράσματα
Με βάση τα αποτελέσματα που παρουσιάστηκαν προηγουμένως, μπορούμε να εξαγάγουμε ορισμένα συμπεράσματα. Κατ’ αρχάς, όλοι οι ΤΥΑ διαβαθμίζουν σε γενικές γραμμές τα κείμενα όλων των επιπέδων ελληνομάθειας με την αναμενόμενη σειρά δυσκολίας. Με αυτό εννοούμε ότι, με εξαίρεση ίσως τα επίπεδα Α και Β των οποίων τα κείμενα δεν παρουσίασαν μεταξύ τους στατιστικά σημαντική διαφορά ως προς τους ΔΑ, δεν παρατηρήθηκε κάποια συστηματική αξιολόγηση από κανέναν από τους τέσσερις ΤΥΑ κειμένων κατώτερων επιπέδων ως πιο δύσκολων από κείμενα των ανώτερων επιπέδων. Αντίθετα, σύμφωνα με τα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα, οι αναμενόμενες διαφορές μεταξύ των ΔΑ που έδωσαν οι ΤΥΑ Flesch-Kincaid και SMOG για τα επίπεδα Β και Γ ήταν στατιστικά σημαντικές. Το ίδιο συνέβη μεταξύ των κειμένων των επιπέδων Γ και Δ όσον αφορά τις αξιολογήσεις των TYA SMOG και Fog. Παράλληλα, όμως, με αυτή τη γενικότερη τάση για αναμενόμενους ΔΑ υπήρξαν και περιπτώσεις κειμένων, λίγων είναι η αλήθεια, τα οποία δεν κατατάχθηκαν από τους δείκτες στις αναμενόμενες βαθμίδες εκπαίδευσης. Το φαινόμενο αυτό παρατηρήθηκε ιδιαίτερα στις αξιολογήσεις των ΤΥΑ SMOG και Fog. Συγκεκριμένα, υπήρξαν αφενός κείμενα από εξεταστικά θέματα για το ίδιο επίπεδο ελληνομάθειας, των οποίων οι ΔΑ είχαν πολύ μεγάλη διαφορά μεταξύ τους και αφετέρου κείμενα από διαφορετικά επίπεδα με πολύ μικρές διαφορές. Για παράδειγμα, υπήρξε κείμενο του επιπέδου Δ που έλαβε από τον Flesch-Kincaid ΔΑ 72,21, ο οποίος το κατέταξε στη βαθμίδα «αρκετά εύκολο» του Flesch, που αντιστοιχεί στην βαθμίδα «Α’-Β’ Γυμνασίου» της κλίμακας Kincaid, η οποία με τη σειρά της αντιστοιχεί κατά προσέγγιση στο επίπεδο Β ή Γ (Σακελλαρίου & Ευσταθιάδης 2002). Πρόκειται για ΔΑ που αποκλίνει αρκετά από τους ΔΑ που έλαβαν τα περισσότερα κείμενα του συγκεκριμένου επιπέδου, οι οποίοι κυμαίνονταν μεταξύ του 60 και του 48. Όσον αφορά
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την άλλη περίπτωση, δύο κείμενα από το επίπεδο Α έλαβαν από τον ίδιο ΤΥΑ τιμές ΔΑ που κινήθηκαν μεταξύ του 73 και του 68. Αυτές, όμως, οι τιμές τα αξιολόγησαν ως ελάχιστα πιο δύσκολα από τέσσερα κείμενα του επιπέδου Γ, τα οποία έλαβαν ΔΑ μεταξύ 79 και 72. Τα παραπάνω δεδομένα, ενισχύουν τη θέση ότι οι ΤΥΑ, με τη μορφή που έχουν στο λογισμικό grval 1.1, δεν μπορούν να κάνουν τίποτε παραπάνω από το να παρέχουν μια κατά προσέγγιση αξιολόγηση της αναγνωστικής δυσκολίας των ελληνικών κειμένων. Με σκοπό τη βελτίωση της ακρίβειας των ΤΥΑ, η έρευνα θα μπορούσε να λάβει τις εξής κατευθύνσεις: α) προσθήκη του παράγοντα «εύκολες – δύσκολες σημασίες» μέσω της μέτρησης του ποσοστού των λέξεων σε κάθε κείμενο, οι οποίες δεν συμπεριλαμβάνονται στον κατάλογο των εύκολων/συχνόχρηστων λέξεων (πρβλ. ΤΥΑ Dale and Chall 1948), β) χρήση του παραπάνω παράγοντα συμπληρωματικά με τους υπόλοιπους παράγοντες του grval 1.1, γ) μέτρηση συντακτικών και γραμματικών παραμέτρων (μέρη του λόγου) που συμβάλλουν στη δυσκολία/ευκολία ενός κειμένου. Στην τελευταία περίπτωση, βέβαια, προϋποτίθεται απαραιτήτως η χρήση ηλεκτρονικών εργαλείων, όπως μορφολογικού και συντακτικού αναλυτή για φυσική γλώσσα (βλ. Γιάγκου 2009 και Giagkou forthcoming).
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Βιβλιογραφία
Bormuth, J.R. 1966. Readability: a new approach. Reading Research Quarterly 1: 79- 132.
Γαγάτσης, Α. 1985. Η αναγνωσιμότητα των σχολικών βιβλίων των μαθηματικών του Δημοτικού Σχολείου. Σύγχρονη Εκπαίδευση 20: 40-48.
Γιάγκου, Μ. 2009. Σώματα Κειμένων και Γλωσσική Εκπαίδευση: Δυνατότητες Αξιοποίησης στη Διδασκαλία της Ελληνικής και Συγκρότηση Παιδαγωγικά Κατάλληλων Σωμάτων Κειμένων. Αδημοσίευτη διδακτορική διατριβή, Εθνικό και Καποδιστριακό Πανεπιστήμιο Αθηνών.
Coleman, E.B. 1971. Developing a technology of written instruction: some determiners of the complexity of prose. In E.Z. Rothkopf and P.E. Johnson (eds), Verbal Learning Research and the Technology of Written Instruction. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 155-204.
Dale, E. and J.S. Chall. 1948. A formula for predicting readability. Educational Research Bulletin 27(1): 11-20.
DuBay, W.H. 2004. The Principles of Readability. Costa Mesa, California: Impact Information.
Ευσταθιάδης, Σ., Ν. Αντωνοπούλου, Κ. Ζούρου και Θ. Τριανταφυλλίδης. 2002. Λογισμικό Αναγνωσιμότητας Ελληνικών Κειμένων. Αντλήθηκε στις 20 Σεπτεμβρίου 2011 από: http://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/foreign/tools/ readability/01.html
Flesch, R. 1948. A new readability yardstick. Journal of Applied Psychology 32: 221- 233.
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Flesch, R. 1949. The Art of Readable Writing. New York: Harper.
Giagkou, M. (forthcoming). Quantitative investigation of linguistic features as indices of Greek text difficulty. Poster presentation at the 10th International Conference of Greek Linguistics, September 1-4 2011, Komotini, Greece.
Gray, W.S. and B. Leary. 1935. What Makes a Book Readable. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Gunning, R. 1952. The Technique of Clear Writing. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Kincaid, J.P., R.P. Fishburne, R.L. Rogers, and B.S. Chissom. 1975. Derivation of New Readability Formulas (Automated Readability Index, Fog Count and Flesch Reading Ease Formula) for Navy Enlisted Personnel. CNTECHTRA Research Branch Report 8-75.
Kitson, H.D. 1921. The Mind of the Buyer. New York: Macmillan.
Klare, G.R. and B. Buck. 1954. Know Your Reader, the Scientific Approach to Readability. New York: Heritage House.
Lorge, I. 1939. Predicting reading difficulty of selections for children. Elementary English Review 16: 229-233.
Lorge, I. 1944. Predicting readability. Teachers College Record 45: 404-419.
McCall, W.A. and L.M. Crabbs. 1926, 1950, 1961, 1979. Standard Test Lessons in Reading. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University Press.
McLaughlin, H.G. 1969. SMOG grading – A new readability formula. Journal of reading 22: 639-646.
Σακελλαρίου, Α. και Σ. Ευσταθιάδης. 2002. Σύγκριση Προγραμμάτων Σπουδών. Σύγκριση του Αναλυτικού Εξεταστικού Προγράμματος Πιστοποίησης Επάρκειας της Ελληνομάθειας του Κέντρου Ελληνικής Γλώσσας προς το Πρόγραμμα Σπουδών για τη Γλώσσα όλων των Εκπαιδευτικών Βαθμίδων. Θεσσαλονίκη: Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Αντλήθηκε στις 20 Σεπτεμβρίου 2011 από http://www.greeklanguage.gr/ certification/sites/greeklanguage.gr.certification/files/Sigkrisi_programmatwn_
Sherman, A.L. 1893. Analytics of Literature: A Manual for the Objective Study of English Prose and Poetry. Boston: Ginn & Co.
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Thorndike, E.L. 1921. The Teacher’s Word Book. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University.
Zipf, G.K. 1949. Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology. New York: Addison-Wesley.
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3 8 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Contact Sessions in Distance Education: Students’ Perspective
Dina Tsagari
University of Cyprus [email protected]
Abstract
The value of including student perspectives in identifying learning experiences (such as ideas and assumptions about what constitutes an ideal learning environment or the roles and needs of learners) occupies an important place in distance education (White, 1997). Learners’ perspectives are central in this paper, too, as they constitute the core data of a research study that examined the role of ‘contact sessions’ as part of a delivery system for adults in a distance learning programme. More specifically, the paper presents findings of a research study that investigated the ways in which a group of Greek EFL teachers, enrolled in a distance learning programme, experienced the effectiveness of their contact meetings. The method of data collection used was reflective learning journals that students kept at the end of their contact sessions for a whole academic year. The results showed that contact sessions are indeed effective and beneficial of the students in that they help them orientate their study, discover interesting ways for improving their learning and encourage them to share their own experience with their peers. Through contact sessions students’ motivation for the course is sustained and their morale is kept high thus supporting them to successfully complete their studies. The paper concludes with pedagogical and research recommendations.
1. Distance Learning Education
Distance learning (DL) refers to ‘a mode of learning in which the learners are working without direct control of the teacher, outside a conventional classroom environment’ (White, 1995:208). What primarily characterizes DL is the absence of a teacher to oversee the students’ learning process, choice about the content, place, time to study and monitor students’ self-direction.
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A distance context presents learners with different learning challenges and opportunities compared to those experienced in conventional classrooms. For example, distance learners have more opportunities than their classroom counterparts to choose the content and ways they learn; they have more freedom to determine the kinds of tasks they work on and to ignore activities or sections of their learning materials which they do not consider to be personally useful for their development. However, distance learners are involved in continuous management of their learning environment and are faced with numerous decisions and roles (White, 1997, 2003). DL students face challenges which range from immediate demands of their distance learning context and conditions (e.g. isolated study context, maintaining initial motivation, limited access to real-time interactions, etc) to the availability of teacher mediation and learner awareness of the rate and direction of their learning. The focus of ‘learner autonomy’ (Benson, 2001; Holec, 1981; Little, 1991), through strategy development and learner training, is emphasized in the DL literature as a way of facilitating independence and enhancing the repertoire of students’ learning skills (Hurd, Beaven, & Ortega, 2001; Paul, 1990). Anderson and Garrison (1998) argue that distance learner autonomy best develops through a commitment on the part of learners to develop and assume responsibility for their learning processes and collaborative control of learning experiences, e.g. through opportunities for meaningful interaction with other learners and teachers. This is in line with approaches of learning which emphasize the importance of negotiation in supporting learners to shape their own learning (Breen & Littlejohn, 2000). The challenge for DL is then to develop efficient approaches of interaction, collaboration, participation, social presence, learner networks and support systems (White, 2003).
2. Learner Support Systems: the Case of Contact Sessions
In discussions related to the organization and management of learner support systems (Mcasson & Mcasson, 1997; Tait & Mills, 2002), that is the assistance and guidance that students are offered in open and distance education, Harichandan (2005), recommends the following four components of Learner Support Services (Figure 1). The components presented in Figure 1 are conceived as being in balance to each other, that is, they need to be framed together if effective services are to be provided.
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Figure 1. Learner Support Services
Quite a number of DL institutions accommodate student support services known as ‘contact sessions’ (CS), that is short stints of face-to-face teaching. CS may be offered in the mode of formal teaching, tutorials, seminars or group discussions. In CS, DL students are provided with opportunities for peer interaction, collective guiding, counselling and guidance, clarification of doubts, and problem-solving in using self-learning materials, receiving feedback in specific and difficult concepts/areas, assignments, examinations, etc. (Rowntree, 1992; Simpson, 2002). CS are accepted as a necessary strategy in many educational systems (Jamtsho, 1999; Rao, Soundaravalli, & Sarada, 1994). DL institutions that believe in the provision of student support services accommodate face-to-face CS to help students in their study. A number of such institutions make attendance in CS voluntary (Keegan, 2000). In such cases, CS play a supplementary role by providing only revision, tutorial, practical and seminal sessions. No new topics are taught apart from those contained in the self-instructional course materials. These are presented in the form of mini-quizzes, reference lists, samples etc. For instance, the Hellenic Open University (HOU), Greece (www.eap.gr), offers regular CS, on a voluntary basis, for students as part of its delivery system for undergraduate and postgraduate programmes (Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 2001; Vasilou-Papageorgiou, 2001; Νοταρά, 2001). Other institutions make attendance of CS compulsory (see Agboola, 1993; Ushadevi, 1994). Discussions and research in distance education point to both positive and negative reactions about the usefulness of CS. Holmberg (1982), for instance, states that CS often prove to be very useful and successful in supplementing the study materials, focus on examination topics and activities, offer students opportunities to interact among themselves, and share ideas. Struggling learners, too, see CS as an opportunity to communicate their problems with other learners and tutors alike (Laurillard, 2002). CS are also said to offer necessary input to overcome the social and academic alienation of learners in DL systems (Ushadevi, 1994). CS are also believed to mitigate isolation experienced by DL students (Agboola, 1993), known as ‘the isolation syndrome’ (Ljosa, 1975). Rogers (1996), in particular, points out that face-to-face CS assist in the release
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of emotions involved in the learning process. Finally, CS are seen to afford personal interaction among participants, contribute towards course completion and reduce the load on other student support services (Rashid, 2009). However, certain problems are associated with the logistical organisation of CS. For example, Agboola (1993) points out that CS need to be properly organised, e.g. classrooms secured, tutorial staff sought and employed in adequate numbers, meetings scheduled, instructional materials designed and delivered in time, students informed, etc. Also staff selection and recruitment need to be carried out as well as supervision and co-ordination of their activities. In some systems, the overall contribution of CS to DL appears to be of a limited value reporting low student attendance (Fung & Carr, 2000; Hiola & Moss, 1990; Morgan & Morris, 1994), especially when CS play a supplementary role and attendance is optional (Nasseh, 1996). These observations and findings imply that a bagful of problems attenuate a substantial proportion of the contribution of CS to the effectiveness and efficiency of DL education. These gave rise to the following questions which have shaped the research scope of the present study, e.g.: • To what extent do CS form a useful component of learner support systems in distance education? • Are CS really indispensable in distance education? • In what ways do CS support and contribute to DL?
Against this background, the present study set out to explore DL students’ perspectives of distance learning during a whole academic year with an expectation of understanding the effectiveness of CS in a DL programme. More specifically, the study’s aim was to: • explore and illuminate what is happening within the CS of a postgraduate module course offered by a DL institution namely the Hellenic Open University • explore how communication and teaching practices are managed within the framework of the CS offered in the specific module • investigate the role of face-to-face CS in support of students’ studies.
3. Context of Present Research
The Hellenic Open University (HOU) is a State University in Greece that provides DL education via the development and utilization of DL materials and teaching. Since its foundation in 1997, the HOU has catered for the academic needs of a great number of students. For example, in the academic year 2010–2011, the HOU offered 32 undergraduate and postgraduate courses where 1,520 tutors taught 197 thematic modules to 15,430 undergraduate and 17,986 postgraduate students. The figures look really impressive for a tertiary institution
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which offered its first two programmes in 1998. The DL methodology employed by the HOU requires students to: • study from specially-designed DL materials, study-guides and audiovisual material, • participate in 4-5 CS for each module taking place in 9 different towns around Greece, • communicate on an on-going basis with their tutors by telephone, fax, email and letters, • prepare 4 – 6 assignments for each module (depending on the structure of the course), and • take a final examination at the end of each module.
The course under study, the MEd in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (MEd in TESOL), aims at helping graduate students to enhance students’ professional development as English language teachers by engaging them in theoretical and practical studies concerning language teaching and learning. The course comprises eight course modules. Students are required to complete four modules before they embark on their final dissertation. Each module is assessed by four assignments. Grading of assignments is done on a scale from 0 to 10 using a specially-designed rating scale that allows also for detailed feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of each assignment. The module under study, namely the ‘Assessment in Language Learning – AGG65’ mostly selected by third year students, aims at helping EFL teachers whose work involves them in language test construction and development at school level (private or public) to build on their knowledge of language testing and assessment issues. The module introduces students to both theoretical and practical input on current trends in language assessment development, validation and research. For their module assignments, students select and evaluate a range of language assessment methods and develop their own taking into consideration the needs of their teaching situation. So far, approximately 650 students have completed the module. This is quite an encouraging number as the majority of the students are EFL teachers in state schools where training in language test construction and evaluation is scarce. Although HOU policy does agree with the principle of CS, the usefulness of organising CS in the particular module have not yet been investigated. The present study aimed therefore at evaluating the effectiveness of CS within the context of the Assessment module offered in the Med in TESOL programme. The cohort of distance learners registered on the module the year the study was conducted (academic year 2009-2010) comprised twenty two teachers- in-training (twenty-one female and one male) with years of prior teaching experience.
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4. Data Collection
Previous research on the usefulness of CS in the HOU has been conducted by means of questionnaires and interviews exploring mainly the perceptions of students and tutors’ attitudes towards them (Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 2001; Tzoutza, 2010; Βασάλα, 2003; Βασιλού – Παπαγεωργίου, 2001). The present study aimed at focusing on learners’ perspective of CS on a longitudinal basis with a view to immediately capturing reactions, feelings, experiences, etc after students had experienced them. Therefore, other data collection procedures were sought for in the relevant literature that could record the immediacy of the students’ learning experiences. The method which suggested itself as the most feasible was the use of ‘reflective journals’ . Bailey & Ochsner (1983) stress that journals can provide an emic perspective of students’ learning experiences. Bailey (1983:98) sees that journals allow researchers to see the ‘dynamic and complex process through the eyes of the learners’ while Genesee & Upshur (1996:120) stress that journals give learners the opportunity to express their views, thoughts and experiences on a wide variety of topics and areas, such as students’ learning experiences inside and outside learning environments, attitudes towards themselves, their teachers, their expectations, learning goals, interests, etc. before these are forgotten or lose their immediacy and significance (see also Sturman, 1996). Matsumoto (1987) also emphasises that journal studies can shed light on ‘hidden psychological variables such as […] learning strategies, decision making, self-esteem and sources of enthusiasm’ (ibid: 26) which were of interest in the present study. Inspired mainly by the above literature, the possibility of using learner journals as a data collection instrument for the present study sounded promising. Journals suggested themselves as a way of collecting data discreetly and regularly providing also a description of ‘phenomena over time’. This was important in the present study because the period over which data was to be collected needed to be long enough to capture behaviour and events of interest in the study. However, despite their popularity, journal writing is not without limitations. For example, it is said that if journal writing is unstructured, journal entries tend to be about anything which appears to be significant when reflecting on learning events and outcomes (the ‘naturalistic approach’, Palmer & Palmer, 1994). Even though this might result in very interesting and widely varying responses, it is likely that informants will self-select the information they believe to be interesting and might provide less data or produce a preponderance of trivia or comments that will be difficult to analyse especially in the case of large numbers of respondents (Banerjee, 2004). To avoid such problems, the literature (Hettich, 1990; Stevenson & Jenkins, 1994; Symon, 1998) suggests that researchers give
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their informants guidance (the ‘interventionist approach’, Palmer & Palmer, 1994) so as to exert more control over the content of the journals e.g. through a combination of closed and open-ended questions (Banerjee, 2004). In the present study, students were provided with a pro-forma (see Appendix A) with open questions that they were asked to answer at the end of their five CS to avoid the problems discussed above.
5. Analysis and Interpretation of the Results
At the end of the data collection period, all journal entries were processed and coded. The responses were initially sorted into answers to the questions included in the journal pro-forma on the basis of their similarities and differences and then placed into conceptual categories based on emergent themes and categories. The analytical process, based on principles of grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006; Glaser, 1992; Strauss, 1987), was iterative and the data analysis involved a number of readings of the data entries and progressive refining of emerging categories (These will be presented in the following section). For the interpretation of the data, the study employed a sociocultural theory perspective that has recently had a significant impact on the analysis and interpretation of classroom experiences and the development of learning skills (Kramsch, 2002; Lantolf, 2000; Lantolf & Thorne, 2006; Swain, Kinnear, & Steinman, 2011). Sociocultural theory supports that human behavior is a result of the integration of socially and culturally constructed forms of mediation into human activity (Lantolf, 2000). In line with this way of thinking, journal entries were related to the sociocultural reality of the participants within the context under study. Therefore, the findings from the journals were interpreted and reflected upon through the realities of the participating teachers in thelocal educational system, society and culture these occurred. The next section will present the results of the study where points will be made with regard to the function of CS illustrated by journal extracts. To safeguard the identities of participants, code names (initials) will appear next to the journal extracts.
6. Presentation of Findings
Reflecting on students’ learning experience through their journal entries, several distinctive features and themes emerged. These were organized under three broad areas: ‘cognitive support’ (supporting and developing learning), ‘affective support’ (reassurance and psychological support) and ‘systemic support’ (administrative and information management associated with practical help and
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advice) informed mainly by the work of Tait (2000), Tait and Mills (2002) and Carnwell (2000).
6.1. Cognitive Support
CS were deemed important to students as the collaboration and exchange of ideas for academic support, development and consolidation of new input was essential, e.g.
“We worked in groups a lot today. We all expressed our views on the assessment of writing. I personally participated in the discussion, based on my experience, and had the chance to listen to other colleagues’ views and compared them to mine” (E.K.)
CS contributed in supporting course outcomes. In the following extracts, the students highlight the contribution of CS in the writing of their course assignments, e.g.
“Today I found out that when preparing my assignment, I should be more practical and to the point: focus on one language area rather than trying to include all of them. This also needs to be in line with the books I teach because the texts I am going to select need to be taught in class in advance. At the end of the contact session, I realised that it is important to study the relevant literature” (A.P.)
“I feel that today’s contact session gave me practical support for my studying and preparation of the next assignment. The fact that many terms were clarified made our reading of the material and preparation for the assignment easier. Actually we discussed the requirements of the 1st assignment in detail, we raised several issues on bibliography (quantity, style of references, etc) and the selection of the test for our assignment. I received loads of clarifications and ideas and the evaluation of specific examples of tests has contributed to the way I should think and work for the next assignment” (G.K.)
Students made other practical realizations with regard to writing such as: “be sure that everything is clear for me before starting writing” (E.R.), “check the rubrics of the assignment” (C.P.) and “use more references” (E.R.). During the CS, the tutor presented and evaluated the strengths and weaknesses identified in the work of students. The feedback students received on their assignment during the CS contributed to clearer formulation of future action plans:
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“After my contact session my action point is: In the following weeks, I have to study the course material and take notes. I will look for more sources regarding my study and think about the requirements of the assignment. I will borrow relevant books and articles from the library; search the internet to find a published test to use in Assignment 2, study the test and its specifications; talk to my fellow students and exchange ideas in order to clarify things; talk to my tutor too and then start drafting my next assignment” (C.P.)
The use of high-quality materials in CS, a key component in fostering and maximising learner independence and self-sufficiency (Hurd, et al., 2001; Vanijdee, 2003), was another recurrent point in the journals. Indeed, mini-quizzes designed for each of the five contact sessions of the module were used to consolidate students’ learning of the DL material through self- assessment activities. In the following extract, a student describes how the mini-quiz used in one of the CS helped in making her aware of key concepts of the module, e.g.
“In the mini quiz key concepts of the course were made clear. For example, the distinction between different views and generations of testing and the tasks they dictate. I enjoyed the authenticity and usefulness of the tasks we were engaged: the analysis, evaluation and re-design of a listening and speaking test” (E.D.)
In the following extract, another student describes how the mini-quiz used in a CS proved to be a helpful resource for her assignment preparation, e.g.
“Today I found out that the mini quizzes we work on in our contact sessions can be used as a helpful resource for the preparation of our assignments. The quizzes are really challenging and helpful. I can use them as a reference and guide for our assignments as well as a reflection of our teaching methods and techniques” (I.M.)
6.2. Affective Support
The opportunities offered by CS of growing relationships between members of the group was an important issue for the students overall. In the following extract, one of the participants stresses the importance of the personal contact with her fellow students and the faculty member during their CS, e.g.
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“Today I got to know my fellow students as well as the tutor. We come from so many different places around the country but we all have the same interests and practical problems to solve in our teaching contexts. This helped me a lot because I now know my colleagues a bit better and can contact those with similar teaching experiences” (A. P.)
The centrality of developing networks, an important part of the philosophy and methodology of the current program, and DL education in general, is highlighted in the following entries, e.g.:
“I found out the new contact details of our fellow learners from my tutor and now can communicate with my colleagues through e-mails” (I.M.)
“I didn’t know that there was another student in our group who comes from Crete. I will get in touch with her from now on and talk about similar difficulties we will face and discuss questions that relate to our study through e-mails” (E.D.)
The use of mini-quizzes during CS had a positive impact on student psychology, e.g.
“Through the activities of the mini-quiz of today’s contact session I confirmed my answers. I feel more confident about my reading of the relevant material. This made me feel more confident in studying the rest of the materials” (D.A.)
CS also offered continuous opportunities for collaboration and exchange of ideas among members of the group. This contributed towards psychological and motivational support and understanding which was vital to participants, e.g.:
“Today’s contact session helped me a lot. I got the feeling that both the reading and the assignment are manageable” (V.B.)
CS helped in building and strengthening their self-confidence; especially in the case of struggling learners, this meant reassurance of their learning, too, e.g.:
“Even though I hadn’t had the time to study the relevant chapters for today’s meeting, I now have a clear idea of what and how to study the following chapters” (P.F.)
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“I am really happy I attended today’s contact session. The reason was that students who hadn’t studied the material yet like me were able to contribute and put things in practice” (E.M.)
The collaboration, mutual assistance and support in learning among participants in the face of practical problems (e.g. lack of equipment, bibliographical references etc) was encouraged during CS. In the following extract two students talk about the type of help they offered to the rest of the members of their group, e.g.:
“The two colleagues I worked with today admitted that they did not have the time to study the relevant chapters at home for various reasons. During our groupwork I helped my colleagues to carry out the tasks allocated to us: assess the reading and writing tasks included in an achievement test” (E.D.)
“During our contact session today I feel I helped my group a lot. I recommended a book to my partners who were not aware of this. I am going to email an important reference to my partners too (The Ministry Exam Specifications). I also brought extra materials with me today: The Teacher’s handbook of YLE and KET. In my group we went through these documents and exchanged opinions on them. I am happy I managed to help my partners by providing copies of materials they didn’t have” (T.D.)
6.3. Systemic Support
Students identified several IT strategies and sources they can use in their study during their CS, e.g.:
“During today’s contact session I got help on how to download articles from our yahoo site, order books from the library and extra articles from Heal link to compile references for the teaching of the four skills. I will add this to what I have gathered from books. This will help me in the organization of the 1st assignment” (R. G.)
Time management is an important issue for the DL students who feel the need to organize and plan their work efficiently, e.g.:
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“From the discussion today I realized that I need to start planning my tasks earlier this time, drafting my assignments, downloading, etc.” (D.A.)
“I have to organise my study time more effectively. During the contact session today I found out that I need to complete my studying and researching on time, so as to be able to start writing and editing my assignment earlier” (I.M.)
6.4. Impact of Diary Writing
The act of keeping a diary at the end of their contact sessions gave participants the opportunity to reflect on their personal development as teachers in the module and discuss the impact this is going to have on their teaching context. It is important to stress that the group of students under study were also teachers- in-training in language testing and assessment. The reflective journals that teachers kept at the end of their CS offered them the opportunity to reflect on their awareness of language testing, such as the criteria used in the allocation of scores, use of rating scales, qualities of good tests, design and evaluation of test tasks, etc.
“In today’s contact session I interacted with my fellow students and tutor. I became aware of my continuous development as a teacher” (E.Z.)
“During today’s contact session I expressed my worries concerning scores of students in tests. I found out that we should also take into account students’ behavior, effort and willingness to participate in the whole teaching-learning process apart from good/bad marks in a test” (A.P.)
“We worked on various types of rating scales used in published writing tests. I learned that to give a grade to a writing sample can be subjective even with the use of a rating scale. I feel that my awareness of marking writing was raised” (S.M.)
“.... alternative assessment is a better way to motivate and assess students’ needs (process rather than product)” (A.P.)
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7. Discussion of Results
This paper examined the need and usefulness of CS as part of a course delivery system in distance education for adults. The results of the study showed that the majority of students value the contribution of CS in supporting their studies. Students welcome CS and consider them a necessary and important process in DL. They perceive CS as an educational process where they are activated and learn how to operate autonomously. Students who have experienced conventional education system prior to their DL are in need of the support offered by CS (Παπαευθυμίου - Λύτρα, 2001). They see that CS primarily meet their cognitive and academic needs such as the exchange of ideas, experiences and understanding of knowledge included in the DL materials, guidance in their study and writing of their assignments. Students consider CS as a learning process during which they can become autonomous learners. Students find that CS mostly support their academic needs such as their desire to successfully complete their studies as stressed in other research, too (Fung & Carr, 2000; Morgan & Morris, 1994; Tzoutza, 2010; Παπαευθυμίου - Λύτρα, 2001). Unlike the findings of other research (Tzoutza, 2010), CS in the present study emphasized the development of a friendly learning environment. This was expressed in the practice of students to develop cooperation and establish channels of communication with the rest of the members of their group during and in between CS. It seems that students gradually acquire the view that, to succeed in their studies, it is necessary to adapt practices that accommodate the exchange and sharing of fellow students’ concerns and views. It is also worth noting that the techniques used during the CS, such as group work, were appreciated by students as fostering appropriate learning and overcoming problems. In a similar study, Βασάλα (2003) also found that students see that CS significantly contribute to the development of cooperation among them during the academic year as they meet their immediate educational needs. Overall, the contribution of CS was positively experienced by the students participating in the study. The postgraduate students experienced CS in their various functions constructively, e.g. cognitive support, provision of information on the organization of their studies, encouragement for their studies by fostering a sound learning environment in providing quality learning that contributes in completing their studies. Data collected from participants’ reflective journals suggested that CS reinforce distance education channels, e.g. strengthen interaction between students and tutors, reduce student isolation as CS can play a humanizing, motivating, and instructional role in distance education systems. In addition, during the CS, students became aware of their professional development. They were also found to possess the necessary capacity to self-direct their professional development (Richards & Lockhart, 1994). The advantages of CS, as these are evidenced in the results of the study,
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give meaning and identity to distance education in order to achieve desirable educational goals. CS may ultimately be more important to the quality of the students’ learning experience than singular focus on courseware as these facilitate the process by which learners establish an effective interface with their learning and professional development.
8. Pedagogical and Research Recommendations
Even though there have been experiments in various distance teaching institutions to diversify student support services with the objective of cutting down on CS in order to economise and take advantage of developments in Information and Communication Technologies (Bates, 2003; Burge & Haughey, 2001; Escobar et al., 2003; Keegan, 2000; McVay Lynch, 2002; Perraton, 2000), face-to-face CS are indispensable. Without ignoring the practicalities involved in accommodating CS in DL, the present study argues in favour of retaining CS in DL education. The often-isolated contexts of distance learners, the fact that many have limited access to learning resources and the learner training approach that CS offer, e.g. scaffolding opportunities for learners to manage their independence in optimal ways, should not be underestimated. The present study has shown that CS can afford personal interaction among participants and contribute towards course completion. Therefore, CS need to be built into DL systems but these have to be well-organised and monitored closely. For example, participants have to make use of such sessions to make them cost effective and to achieve the desired results. In addition, during CS, tutors can choose from numerous educational techniques that engage students in active learning combining theory and practice and be suitable for adults. The activities in adult learning should be productive, as adults need to act and explore solutions (Rogers, 1999) and provide learners with guidance regarding how to develop a sense of responsibility for their professional development. Further research into the role of CS should involve a larger sample that would give more generalisable results, e.g. involve students from other modules of the same DL programme or follow the same group over their years of DL study. It would also be interesting to complement the present research with observations of students’ study at home to gain a clearer picture of DL students’ individual study experiences.
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Appendix
My Journal Entry (Contact Session No: ...... )
a. What I really liked about today’s sessions was ...... ______
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Language Learning/Teaching - Education 4 0 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
4 0 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Language Learning Strategy Use by Elementary School Students of English in Greece
Athina Vrettou
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [email protected]
Abstract
The vibrancy gained in language learning research since the mid 1970s has been part of a shift of perspective from teacher-centered to learner-centered instruction for enhancing learners’ achievement through their taking control of their learning and gradually assuming more independent action towards autonomy. Most published studies have investigated adolescents or adults with less research focusing on primary education level. A research study was held in the city of Thessaloniki for a doctoral thesis adopting both a quantitative and a qualitative approach. In the quantitative part, presented in this article, patterns of strategic behavior of 763 EFL students in the sixth grade of Greek state elementary schools were explored. The influence of the language proficiency level of the participants upon their reported strategy use is uncontested. Motivation to learn English appears to have an overwhelming impact on the students’ strategic preferences. Gender differences are recorded indicating a rather strong connection with motivation. Pedagogical implications are also delineated so that appropriate recommendations for the teaching of the young learners can be made.
1. Introduction
Research into language learning strategies, or “language learner strategies”, a term gaining ground among researchers around the world (Cohen and Macaro 2007), was given its initial impulse with the “good language learner studies” in the 1970s aiming at optimizing students’ performance both in second and foreign language learning. In spite of controversies in theoretical conceptualizations of strategies, a general consensus was achieved by an international group of experts who
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 4 0 7 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
responded to a survey questionnaire at Oxford University for the International Project on Language Learner Strategies (IPOLLS). According to the results, strategies have a metacognitive quality (whereby the learner consciously plans, organizes, and evaluates his/her learning); they can include a single action or can be combined with other actions simultaneously in clusters or in a sequence, i. e. chains; strategies make L2 learning easier, faster, and more satisfying; and they are connected to autonomy in language learning as well as self-regulation and self-management (Cohen 2007).
2. Literature Review
2.1. Strategic Use and Language Proficiency
Although some earlier studies produced conflicting results (Vrettou 2011), the majority of research has shown that the higher the language proficiency of the participants, the greater their strategy use was in either second or foreign language contexts; for instance, Oxford and Nyikos (1989) in the USA, Green and Oxford (1995) in Puerto Rico, Dreyer and Oxford (1996) in South Africa, and Griffiths (2003, 2006) in New Zealand. In Asia, research has indicated a statistically significant impact of strategic use on language proficiency, too; for example, Kaylani (1996) in Jordan, Sheorey (1999) in India, Mochizuki (1999) in Japan, Wharton (2000) in Singapore, Lan and Oxford (2003) and Yang (2007) in Taiwan, Peacock and Ho (2003) in Hong Kong, and Radwan (2011) in Oman. In the Greek context, similar results were obtained by Psaltou-Joycey (2003), Psaltou-Joycey and Kantaridou (2009), Vrettou (2009), and Gavriilidou and Papanis (2010). Nevertheless, a few studies have revealed curvilinear relationships between language proficiency and strategy use (Hong-Nam and Leavell 2006; Kazamia 2003; Phillips 1990, 1991, as cited in Oxford and Burry-Stock 1995) or low correlations (Ehrman and Oxford 1995), or no correlations at all (Brown, Robson, and Rosenkjar 2001; Gardner, Tremblay, and Masgoret 1997; Oxford, Park-Oh, Ito, and Sumrall 1993; Psaltou-Joycey 2008). Scrutiny of the above studies suggests the importance of the number of the sample, the way the study was conducted, the qualities of each learning context (Psaltou-Joycey 2010: 87) as well as the reliability and validity of the proficiency measurements employed each time.
2.2. Strategic Use in Relation to Motivation
The pervasive influence of motivation on the reported overall use of strategies and on the use of specific strategy categories in Oxford and Nyikos (1989)
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was a precursor of findings of a large number of studies showing that various facets of motivation have a positive and statistically significant effect on strategy utilization (for instance, the degree of liking the target language in Lan and Oxford 2003 and Chang 2011; the importance of English in Lee and Oxford 2008; self-determination in McIntosh and Noels 2004; importance and enjoyment of English learning in Mochizuki 1999; motivation aspects from the Affective Survey in Okada, Oxford, and Abo 1996; the importance of language proficiency in Wharton 2000 and Psaltou-Joycey 2003; and various components of motivation resulting from factor analysis in Schmidt and Watanabe 2001 as well as in Kantaridou 2004). In a few studies, the more motivated the students were, the more frequently they deployed strategies and the better achievers they were (Ehrman and Oxford 1995; Oxford et al. 1993).
2.3. Gender Differentiation and Strategic Use
Most studies investigating gender attest to female supremacy over males regarding strategy use (Dreyer and Oxford 1996; Goh and Foong 1997; Green and Oxford 1995; Hong-Nam and Leavell 2006; Kaylani 1996; Kazamia 2003; Lan and Oxford 2003; Lee 2003; Lee and Oxford 2008; Mochizuki 1999; Oxford and Ehrman 1995; Oxford and Nyikos 1989; Papanis 2008; Peacock and Ho 2003; Psaltou-Joycey and Kantaridou 2009; Sheorey 1999; Vrettou 2009). Fewer studies have not found any gender-related differences (Aliakbari and Hayatzadeh 2008; Gavriilidou and Papanis 2010; Griffiths 2003; Kafipour, Noordin, and Pezeshkian 2011; Nisbet, Tindall, and Arroyo 2005; Oxford at al. 1993; Psaltou-Joycey 2008; Shmais 2003; Wharton 2000). Finally, males outperformed females in strategic use in two studies, that by Tercanlioglu (2004), probably due to male dominance in the Turkish society, and that by Radwan (2011), whose Omani sample was unbalanced (females were more than double in number).
2.4. Young Learners and Strategic Use
The majority of published studies on strategies have dealt with adolescents, college or university students, and adults in general. Only a few studies have scrutinized primary level (Chamot and El-Dinary 1999; Chesterfield and Chesterfield 1985; Gunning 1997 as well as Kiely 2002 and Lin 2001, as cited in Lan and Oxford 2003; Purdie and Oliver 1999; Vandergrift 2002, as cited in Anderson 2005; Wong-Fillmore 1976, as reported in Ellis 1994). In the Greek
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 4 0 9 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
context, mention should be made of Papanis (2008), Psaltou-Joycey and Sougari (2010), and Vrettou (2011). On the whole, research into the strategic behavior of young learners is marked by multiplicity of aims, of data collection methodology, and of statistical procedures. In summary, the above studies seem to suggest that there is a natural order in strategy acquisition and metacognitive awareness begins early. Moreover, more highly-proficient students utilize a greater number and variety of strategies and are more motivated than low-proficiency students.
3. Research Questions of the Current Study
Since literature on language learning strategies is rather limited when it comes to young learners in the Greek socio-educational context, the current study (Vrettou 2011) was undertaken in order to probe into primary level students’ strategic behavior, especially in respect of their language proficiency level, motivation to learn English, and gender.
Consequently, the following research questions were framed to accomplish the objectives of the study: • For the entire sample of students, what is their strategy use overall and for the six strategy categories? • For the entire sample of students, what are the most and least used strategies? • Do language proficiency level, motivation to learn English and/or gender have a significant effect on overall strategy use? • Do language proficiency level, motivation to learn English and/or gender have a significant effect on each of the six strategy categories?
4. Research Methodology and Design
A descriptive research study was conducted for a doctoral thesis in the city of Thessaloniki in 2008 (Vrettou 2011). Both a qualitative and a quantitative paradigm were followed. In Phase I, quantitative data were gathered through the method of cluster sampling (Aaron, Kumar, and Day 1995); it included administration of a strategy and a background questionnaire along with a standardized language proficiency test. Phases II and III consisted of individual short and long interviews respectively on a small sample of learners for further collection of qualitative data, which are to be reported elsewhere.
4 1 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Athina Vrettou
4.1. Elicitation Tools
An adapted (Vrettou 2011) and translated-into-Greek form of Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) was employed in order to examine the students’ strategy deployment. In particular, the 7.0 version (for speakers of other languages speaking English) of the SILL, which embraces memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategy sets on a five-point Likert scale, was used. Since the SILL was initially constructed for adults, modifications were deemed to be critical so that more general items could be particularly specified in order for young learners to easily comprehend them. The only strategy item which did not correspond to the one on the original SILL was No 12: “I use a dictionary to look up unknown words” as the use of resources is included in Oxford’s (1990) cognitive category but not on her strategy questionnaire. The adapted SILL was accompanied by a background questionnaire for recording age, gender, and motivation to learn English, a composite variable made up of three constituents, that is, positive affect, will to learn the language, and effort expended on the task, assessed on a five-point Likert scale. The measurement of motivation was based on Gardner’s (2001) socio-educational model of second language acquisition. Among all other motivation variables of the model, motivation to learn the foreign/second language was selected as it proved to be the major affective individual difference support for achievement in Masgoret and Gardner’s (2003) meta-analysis of all studies on attitudes and motivation by Gardner and associates. Language proficiency was measured through the quick placement test (QPT: UCLES 2001), a reliable and well-validated test in twenty countries around the world. The paper and pen version was chosen over the computer-based one for practical reasons. The test is composed of two parts, both of which were given to the participants so that their level could be specifically identified. As Part 2 requires higher language ability, taking Part 1 only, or both Parts 1 and 2, awards a student the same band score resulting in CEFR level classification (Council of Europe 2001).
4.2. Participants’ Profiles
The research was carried out in twenty-seven elementary schools in Thessaloniki, Greece. The respondents were 763 6th-graders aged between 11 and 12 years. They came from all three administrative zones into which the city is divided. In other words, 322 of them were from the east, 330 from the west, and 111 from the center, as there are fewer centrally situated schools. It should be noted that apart from the 763 informants of the study, an additional number of 91 students
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 4 1 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
were considered but finally rejected due to learning difficulties in the Greek language or random completion of the proficiency test. According to official data provided by the local Bureau of Education, in the school year 2007-8 a total of 44,742 students were registered at the state elementary schools of Thessaloniki with 7,621 of them being in the sixth grade. Consequently, 1.7% of all elementary school students and 10% of the total number of the 6th-graders underwent investigation. As far as gender was concerned, there were 386 females in the sample (50.6%) and 377 males (49.4%). On the basis of their QPT scores, the students were classified into three proficiency levels, namely, the beginning, elementary, and lower intermediate one, corresponding to the Council of Europe’s (2001) A1, A2, and B1 levels respectively. More specifically, there were 264 beginners (34.6%), 419 elementary students (54.8%), and 80 lower intermediates (10.6%). With regard to motivation to learn English, there were only 17 low-motivated students (2.2% of the sample) while 85 of them seemed to have medium motivation (11.1%). A large number of 307 students (40.2%) were highly- motivated and a great number (354) were very highly-motivated (46.4%). Motivation categories were established in accordance with Oxford’s (1990) characterization of mean scores on a scale ranging from 1 to 5 (that is: low use: 1.0 – 2.4, medium use: 2.5 – 3.4, high use: 3.5 – 4.4, and very high use: 4.5 – 5.0).
4.3. Procedure
The pilot phase of the research, held in late April 2007, led to the final formulation of the adapted SILL. The study took place from late January to mid April 2008 after permission had been granted by the Pedagogical Institute of Athens and the Ministry of Education. The completion of the background and strategy questionnaires as well as that of the proficiency test required two school hours (40-45 minutes each) either consecutively or on different days according to the timetable in each school. The present researcher administered all the study tools in order to facilitate the whole procedure and ensure comprehension of the questionnaire items. Students participated voluntarily with only a few instances of unwillingness to take part in one school only.
4.4. Data Analysis
Calculation of means and standard deviations concerned the scale variables of overall strategy use and use of strategy categories on the adapted SILL. Absolute
4 1 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Athina Vrettou
and relative frequencies referred to categorical variables, e.g. the language proficiency levels and the motivation categories. Cronbach’s alpha was used for reliability analysis of the strategy questionnaire whose concurrent validity was ascertained through Pearson correlation coefficient evaluating correlations between scale variables. Relation between two categorical variables, e.g. gender and motivation, was explored through the chi-square test of independence. Independent samples t-testing identified mean differences between the two groups of gender and the scale variable of strategy use. A one-way and three-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed in the case of one dependent variable, that of strategy use. A three-way multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) was utilized in the case of more than one dependent variable (i.e. use of strategy categories). In three-way ANOVA and MANOVA, three independent variables were considered: language proficiency level, motivation to learn English, and gender. The Tukey-HSD post hoc test revealed statistically significant differences in strategy means (in respect of language proficiency level and motivation to learn English). Analysis of data was based on the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 13.
5. Results and Discussion
The ESL/EFL SILL has generally exhibited high reliability (Lan and Oxford 2003: 354). In the current study, the internal reliability or internal consistency of the strategy questionnaire was high with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.904. The SILL is also well-known for its criterion-related (i.e. predictive and concurrent) validity, as attested to by Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995: 7-8). In this research, Pearson correlation analysis between the students’ overall strategy mean scores and their QPT scores1 (r (735)= 0.182, p= 0.000) confirmed the concurrent validity of the adapted SILL. Furthermore, before proceeding to the results analysis, relations between the three potentially influential factors on strategy use were sought. Specifically, a cross-examination of language proficiency level with gender did not produce statistical significance (x2 =2.13, p= 0.345). Thus, the males and females of the study are comparable. More importantly, it appears that both sexes are able to reach high proficiency levels. Besides, girls were significantly more motivated than boys (x2 = 21.87, p= 0.000), which may partly explain girls’ superiority in strategic resourcefulness. Finally, when language proficiency level was cross-examined with motivation to learn English, significance emerged (x2 = 36.926, p= 0.000), indicating the intricate bond of the two variables, also found in many other studies (Masgoret and Gardner 2003).
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 4 1 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
5.1. Research Question 1: For the Entire Sample of Students, What is Their Strategy Use Overall and for the Six Strategy Categories?
The overall strategy mean score was 3.18, which shows medium use according to Oxford’s (1990) key to mean scores (see Table 1). Similarly, a great number of studies have yielded medium strategy means; for example, Green and Oxford (1995), Mochizuki (1999), Wharton (2000), Griffiths (2003), Kazamia (2003), Lan and Oxford (2003), Rao (2006), Yang (2007), Lee and Oxford (2008), Psaltou- Joycey and Kantaridou (2009), and Vrettou (2009). That seems to be expected since students deploy various strategies to different degrees in their learning. Concerning the use of the six strategy sets, also included in Table 1 with means and standard deviations, metacognitive strategies were mostly used (with a high mean of 3.63). Similar results were obtained by Kazamia (2003), Psaltou-Joycey (2003), Vrettou (2009), and Psaltou-Joycey and Sougari (2010). Apparently, Greek students are conscious of their learning process irrespective of age. In the Greek society, that is probably related to the high status of English, the certification of which is aimed for, since this language is regarded asan indispensable tool for career and social advancement. Social strategies were second in place with a high mean of 3.50, being at the lower end of the high-use range. The same group came second in Kazamia (2003), second (together with metacognitive strategies having the same mean) in Psaltou-Joycey and Kantaridou (2009), in Vrettou (2009), and first in Psaltou- Joycey (2008) before the metacognitive set. These results accord with the sociable nature of the Greek people. Besides, communicative skills as well as cooperation during group work and collective responsibility are encouraged in the new Greek Cross-Thematic Curriculum Framework for Compulsory Education (2003), that is, for elementary and junior high schools.
Table 1. Means and standard deviations showing strategy use of the whole sample (overall and on each of the strategy categories)
Strategy category (most used to least used) Mean SD
Metacognitive 3.63 0.72
Social 3.50 0.73
Cognitive 3.19 0.62
Affective 3.12 0.71
Memory 2.79 0.61
Compensation 2.78 0.68
Overall strategy use 3.18 0.51
4 1 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Athina Vrettou
Cognitive strategies, which had a medium mean score (3.19), took third place, as in Psaltou-Joycey (2008), Psaltou-Joycey and Kantaridou (2009), Vrettou (2009), and Psaltou-Joycey and Sougari (2010); in addition, they were fourth in Kazamia (2003), indicating their importance in learning. Affective strategies ranked fourth with a medium mean of 3.12 and memory strategies fifth with a mean at the low part of the medium-use range, 2.79. These groups were among the least used in Greek research (Kazamia 2003; Psaltou- Joycey 2003; Psaltou-Joycey 2008; Psaltou-Joycey and Kantaridou 2009; Vrettou 2009) and in other countries as well (Chang 2011; Goh and Foong 1997; Hong- Nam and Leavell 2006; Kojima and Yoshikawa 2004; Lee 2003; Lee and Oxford 2008; Mochizuki 1999; Oxford and Ehrman 1995; Oxford et al. 1993; Peacock and Ho 2003; Wharton 2000; Yang 2007). Affective and memory strategies do not seem to be prioritized by the young learners, who probably do not feel anxious in a supportive climate in school. Compensation strategies came in sixth with a mean of 2.78, still in the medium-use range, contrary to other studies most of which concern adults (for instance, first in Chang 2011, Lan and Oxford 2003, Lee and Oxford 2008, Peacock and Ho 2003, Psaltou-Joycey and Kantaridou 2009; second in Goh and Foong 1997, Kojima and Yoshikawa 2004, Radwan 2011, Wharton 2000; third in Kazamia 2003, Lee 2003, Psaltou-Joycey 2003; fourth in Psaltou-Joycey 2008, Psaltou-Joycey and Sougari 2010, Vrettou 2009). The low preference for the above strategy set appears to be connected to the young age of the participants whose low vocabulary size and limited world experience cannot probably aid in compensating for gaps of knowledge in oral or written language. What is more, motivation to communicate in the boundaries of an English classroom cannot be as strong as in a real life situation in which adults can be involved.
5.2. Research Question 2: For the Entire Sample of Students, What are the Most and Least Used Strategies?
Tables 2 and 3 contain the most and least used strategies, which tend to reflect societal beliefs and values. As a matter of fact, patterns of thinking, feeling and acting nurtured in a specific culture throughout one’s lifetime are called “mental programs” or “software of the mind” in social anthropology (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005). The metacognitive strategy of “thinking about one’s progress in learning English” (No 38) was the mostly deployed, followed by the social strategy of “asking questions in English” (No 49), as in Vrettou (2009). The students’
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 4 1 5 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
metacognitive awareness, also supported by the third most used strategy, that of “paying attention when somebody is speaking English” (No 32), is possibly linked not only to the necessity for learning English but also to the Greek educational system, which uses regular reviewing (fourth in place, No 8), testing as well as constant evaluation. “Using a dictionary” (No 12) ranked sixth (fourth in Vrettou 2009) since elementary school learners are accustomed to this strategy (1st-, 3rd- and 5th-graders are distributed Greek dictionaries for reference).
Table 2. The six most frequently used strategies in the whole EFL sample
No Item (Category Type) Mean SD
38 I think about my progress in learning English (Met.) 4.54 0.92
49 I ask questions in English (Soc.) 4.22 1.04
32 I pay attention when somebody is speaking English (Met.) 4.07 1.07
8 I review English words and grammar often (Mem.) 3.97 1.12
42 I notice if I am nervous when I am studying or using English (Aff.) 3.96 1.25
12 I use a dictionary to look up unknown words (Cog.) 3.92 1.26
Table 3. The six least frequently used strategies in the whole EFL sample
No Item (Category Type) Mean SD
7 I mime English words to remember them (Mem.) 1.70 1.05
6 I use flashcards to learn new English words (Mem.) 1.73 1.10
43 I write down my feelings in a language learning diary (Aff.) 1.84 1.20 When I can’t think of a word during a conversation in English, I 25 2.15 1.28 move my hands (Com.) I make up new words from Greek (with English sounds or ending) if 26 2.17 1.25 I do not know the right ones in English (Cog.) 5 I use rhymes to remember new English words (Mem.) 2.28 1.24
The strategy of “noticing nervousness when studying or using English” (No 42) came in fifth, showing willingness on the young learners’ part to manage their learning in order to achieve maximum results. Three memory strategies (“miming”: No 7, “using flashcards”: No 6, and “using rhymes”: No 5) ranked first, second, and sixth as regards least strategy use. These
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strategies are mostly utilized in the beginning stages of learning. The strategy of “writing down one’s feelings in a language learning diary” (No 43) was also low (i.e. third) in use since it is not reinforced by Greek teachers. All the above strategies were not particularly deployed by young learners or adults in other studies either (for instance, “miming” in Lan and Oxford 2003 or Vrettou 2009; “using flashcards” in Griffiths 2003, Kazamia 2003, or Vrettou 2009; “using rhymes” in Griffiths 2003, Hong-Nam and Leavell 2006, or Vrettou 2009; and “writing down one’s feelings in a language learning diary” in Griffiths 2003 or Kazamia 2003). Finally, the compensation strategy of “moving one’s hands” ( No 25) and the cognitive strategy of “making up new words from Greek” (No 26) also had low places (i. e. fourth and fifth respectively) as far as use was concerned since they do not seem to work in a linguistically demanding classroom situation.
5.3 Research Question 3: Do Language Proficiency Level, Motivation to Learn English and/or Gender Have a Significant Effect on Overall Strategy Use?
In the one-way ANOVA which was conducted, overall strategy use was tested as the dependent variable and language proficiency level as the independent variable yielding statistical significance (F= 7.96, p= 0.000). Three proficiency levels arose, namely, beginners (strategy mean= 3.09, SD= 0.54), elementary students (mean= 3.21, SD= 0.50), and lower intermediates (mean= 3.32, SD= 0.42). The Tukey-HSD post hoc test was subsequently applied and revealed significant effects only between the first and third group with elementary students exhibiting belongingness to the other two. These clearly linear results were also found with the 3rd-graders in junior high school in Vrettou (2009), where significance occurred between the group of beginners and that of lower intermediate, advanced, and upper intermediate students; likewise, the elementary students showed belongingness to both of the other two groups. It seems that the elementary level is a transitory one before achieving high linguistic attainment. Linearity of relationships was also discovered in other studies, as explicated in the present literature review. However, direct comparison with these studies cannot be made due to different proficiency measures employed. The one-way ANOVA with overall strategy use as the dependent variable and motivation to learn English as the independent variable also had significant results (F= 2141.39, p= 0.000). The Tukey-HSD post hoc test identified the location of the significant differences. Thus, very highly-motivated learners had a lead in strategy use (mean= 3.40) compared to highly-motivated students (mean= 3.09); those were also ahead of medium-motivated ones (mean= 2.75),
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who deployed more strategies than low-motivated learners (mean= 2.36). Similar linear results were also found by Vrettou (2009). Besides, aspects of motivation had a significant effect on strategic use in other studies, too (see section 2.2 of this article). Coming to gender, the independent samples t-test showed that females significantly exceeded males (strategy mean= 3.27 for girls; mean= 3.08 for boys). Similar were the findings in many other studies (see section 2.3 of the current research review). Notably, research with statistically significant results is more likely to be published than studies with null-findings (Mertens 1998). Moreover, research into language and gender in sociolinguistics explores historical, cultural, social, and interactional forces which seem to construct gender. Ultimately, it appears that it is “gendered” social practices in which individuals participate that actually interact with linguistic practices (Ehrlich 1997). Table 4 (having means and standard deviations for motivation and gender at its bottom) presents the three-way ANOVA considering all the three independent variables together with overall strategy use as the dependent variable. Significant differentiation occurred only for motivation to learn 2English and gender, as discovered in the respective results by Vrettou (2009) as well. Therefore, these two factors appear to be more influential enriching strategic behavior, which can lead to higher achievement in the foreign language. The fact that no interaction effects were obtained indicates the distinctness of the factors in exerting their influence on overall strategic use.
Table 4. Three-way ANOVA results with overall strategy use as the dependent variable and language proficiency level, motivation to learn English, and gender as the independent variables
Type III Main and Interaction Mean Tukey-HSD post Sum of df F p effects square hoc test results squares Motivation 14.972 2 7.486 37.246 0.000*** LM< MM< HM< VM to learn English Gender 0.993 1 0.993 4.939 0.027* F>M
Proficiency level 0.553 2 0.276 1,375 0.254 n.s. Proficiency level X 0.446 4 0.112 0.555 0.695 n.s. Motivation Proficiency level X 0.845 2 0.423 2.102 0.123 n.s. Gender Motivation X Gender 0.098 2 0.049 0.245 0.783 n.s. Proficiency level X 0.851 4 0.213 1.058 0.376 n.s. Motivation X Gender Notes Significance: *< 0.05, ***= p< 0.001 F= female, M= male LM= low motivation, MM= medium motivation, HM= high motivation, VH= very high motivation
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Means and standard deviations for motivation: LM: 2.36 (SD= 0.49), MM: 2.75 (SD= 0.51), HM: 3.09 (SD= 0.46), VH: 3.40 (SD= 0.43) Means and standard deviations for gender: F= 3.27 (SD= 0.48), M: 3.08 (SD= 0.53)
5.4. Research Question 4: Do Language Proficiency Level, Motivation to Learn English and/or Gender Have a Significant Effect on Each of the Six Strategy Categories?
Three-way MANOVA was performed with the strategy categories as the dependent variables. The three independent variables of language proficiency level, motivation to learn English, and gender had a significant main effect on the use of the strategy groups (Table 5). The MANOVA results with respect to language proficiency level were followed by Tukey-HSD post hoc results in order to show the location of the significant differences. It seems that the lower intermediates deployed a lot more metacognitive strategies than their elementary peers, who used far more of the same strategies than their beginning level counterparts. As concerns metacognition, it is generally regarded as a means for better learning (Anderson 2008; Chamot and O’Malley 1994; Cotterall and Murray 2009). Regarding motivation to learn English, linearity was once again obvious as very highly-motivated respondents deployed memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies exceedingly more than highly-motivated students, who used the same groups far more than their medium-motivated peers. Vrettou (2009) found significant effects for all the strategy groups, including that of the compensatory set, in respect of motivation to learn English, probably because her informants were older and more highly-proficient. All the strategy categories were also significantly affected by various aspects of motivation in Mochizuki (1999), Schmidt and Watanabe (2001), Lan and Oxford (2003), and Chang (2011), highlighting the major importance of this factor in L2 learning. Results for gender in relation to strategy categories exhibited significance in favor of girls as far as cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategy sets are concerned. In different cultural backgrounds, females outperformed males in the use of various strategy categories; for example, in all groups except for the cognitive and compensation ones in Green and Oxford (1995) in Puerto Rico, or in the metacognitive and social sets in Dreyer and Oxford (1996) in South Africa, or in all groups except for the affective one in Lan and Oxford (2003) in Taiwan. In
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Table 5. Three-way MANOVA results with strategy categories as the dependent variables and language proficiency level, motivation to learn English, and gender as the independent variables
Proficiency Level Lower Tukey-HSD Beginner Elementary Strategy category Intermediate p post hoc test results Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Memory 2.80 0.64 2.82 0.59 2.76 0.60 0.856 n.s.
Cognitive 3.10 0.60 3.25 0.59 3.41 0.59 0.184 n.s.
Compensation 2.77 0.71 2.78 0.67 2.85 0.58 0.991 n.s.
Metacognitive 3.51 0.72 3.71 0.66 3.89 0.63 0.002** B< E< LI
Affective 3.11 0.72 3.13 0.71 3.26 0.53 0.649 n.s.
Social 3.48 0.74 3.52 0.73 3.66 0.59 0.344 n.s.
Motivation to learn English Tukey-HSD Strategy category MM HM VHM p post hoc test results Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Memory 2.47 0.63 2.72 0.56 2.97 0.59 0.000*** MM< HM< VH
Cognitive 2.68 0.56 3.11 0.55 3.44 0.55 0.000*** MM< HM< VH
Compensation 2.75 0.74 2.75 0.65 2.82 0.68 0.328 n.s.
Metacognitive 2.93 0.69 3.50 0.62 3.98 0.55 0.000*** MM< HM< VH
Affective 2.79 0.75 3.06 0.70 3.29 0.64 0.000*** MM< HM< VH
Social 3.04 0.81 3.40 0.70 3.74 0.63 0.000*** MM< HM< VH
Gender
Strategy category Male Female p Mean SD Mean SD
Memory 2.77 0.61 2.84 0.61 0.187 n.s.
Cognitive 3.12 0.61 3.30 0.58 0.021*
Compensation 2.78 0.69 2.79 0.66 0.511 n.s.
Metacognitive 3.56 0.71 3.76 0.66 0.023*
Affective 3.03 0.72 3.24 0.67 0.172 n.s.
Social 3.39 0.73 3.65 0.69 0.012*
Notes Significance: *< 0.05, **< 0.01, ***= p< 0.001 B= Beginner, E= Elementary, LI= Lower Intermediate MM= medium motivation, HM= high motivation, VH= very high motivation
4 2 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Athina Vrettou
Greece, strategic deployment appears to be connected to a person’s maturity (exhibited in the cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, and affective categories in which female adolescents exceeded males in Vrettou 2009; also shown in all the six strategy categories in which female adults excelled in Psaltou-Joycey and Kantaridou 2009). No two-way or three-way interaction effects of the independent variables were observed, thus corroborating the distinct influence of each factor on the use of the strategy groups for the young learners of the study.
6. Concluding Remarks
Greek elementary school students seem to deploy a wide variety of strategies making low use of the compensatory set, which does not probably agree with their young age. Evidently, those learners should be given ample opportunity to use the foreign language so that they can regard English not only as a school subject but also as a vehicle for communication in real life situations, which is the goal in L2 teaching. Pedagogical recommendations could also be made towards advancement of young students’ memory and cognitive strategies, cultivation of their metacognitive skills - so that they can center, arrange, and assess their own learning - as well as furtherance of their affective and social skills. More importantly, the students’ motivation should be enhanced in any possible way. That might ameliorate gender differentiation in strategic behavior. Boosting motivation could also have a positive effect upon their strategy use and upon their language proficiency level (since cross-tabulation of motivation to learn English and proficiency has indicated their significant connection). Finally, girls’ higher motivation is to be expected in the English classroom. Additionally, they are likely to display higher strategy use apparently linked to biological and social maturity in comparison to boys, which should be further investigated so that all factors related to the multi-faceted variable of gender can be fathomed. Notes 1. As 614 students finished Part 1 of the QPT and 149 both Parts 1 and 2, the scores of the 149 students on Part 1 were also recorded to be examined for the analysis. That was regarded as necessary so that results could be compared for the two groups. However, 28 of the students who completed both parts attained different proficiency classification than that for Part 1 only, with marginal scores between two adjacent levels. Thus, they were excluded from the correlation. 2. Since the low-motivated students were few in number (17), they were excluded from any further analysis.
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 4 2 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to Dr Marina Mattheoudakis, Dr Areti-Maria Sougari, and, above all, to Dr Angeliki Psaltou-Joycey for their contribution to the adaptation of the strategy questionnaire.
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4 3 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Linguistics Textbooks in Greek: Publication Practices in the Last Three Decades
George J. Xydopoulos1, Anastasios Tsangalidis2 and Athena Prountzou1
1University of Patras, 2Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
In this paper we examine the development of linguistics textbooks published in Greece over the last three decades. We conducted a survey of all textbooks published from 1980 to date and processed all publishing characteristics in quantitative terms as well as a questionnaire-based survey of the opinion of faculty teaching linguistics in Greek universities. Based on the qualitative analysis of these data we found that textbooks have developed substantially over the last 30 years in both their readability and usability attainment and so they appear to serve their educational functions with success. However, there is an increasing need for new textbooks, preferably, originally written in Greek, or sufficiently adapted to the Greek language, in many fields of both microlinguistics and macrolinguistics and, in particular, in generative syntax, formal semantics and phonology and more titles in morphology and lexicography. Furthermore, there is also urgent need for (more or up-to-date) textbooks in interdisciplinary fields including cognitive linguistics, psycho / neurolinguistics (including L1 / L2 acquisition) and dialectology with systematic reference to Greek as well as critical approaches to linguistics (e.g. critical discourse analysis).
1. Introduction
In this paper we attempt to describe the publishing activity of linguistics textbooks in Greece, over the last thirty years, on the basis of quantitative and qualitative data. Our work falls within the field of educational linguistics with emphasis on the teaching of linguistics in higher education (cf. Lier 1994: 203ff). Our purpose is multifaceted. First, we wish to initiate a discussion regarding the current situation of linguistics studies in Greece, focusing on textbooks. In the
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meantime, we would like to stress the importance of publishing textbooks for the promotion of linguistics studies in Greece. Furthermore, we aim at providing an accurate record of linguistics book publishing in Greece since the 1980’s and attempt to determine needs for publishing more textbooks in Greek in various fields of linguistics. The paper is organized as follows. In section 2, we discuss definitional issues regarding the genre of “textbooks”, on the basis of the relevant literature in educational linguistics. In section 3, we examine the appropriate design criteria for the creation of textbooks as opposed to books of other genres. In section 4, we investigate the history of linguistics books publishing in Greece for the last thirty years in both quantitative and qualitative terms. In section 5, we conduct a pilot survey of the opinion of teaching staff regarding fundamental aspects of the function of linguistics textbooks in the educational process. Finally, in section 6, we identify positive features, highlight problem areas and make suggestions for the future of publishing Greek linguistics books.
2. What are Textbooks?
According to Stray (1991) and Johnsen (2001), textbooks can be defined as books specially written and published for educational purposes and, in some cases, also usable in the classroom. Therefore, textbooks may also be defined as a subcategory of teaching media. Other types of books can also be used as “textbooks” when introduced in the teaching process, though they may not be used as textbook-substitutes. Obviously, despite some functional similarities, textbooks are clearly distinguished from schoolbooks.
2.1. A little History
The history of textbooks begins around the 1830s. More than a century later, in the 1950’s, textbooks contain no illustrations, their text is fairly dense, the page layout is not attractive and the language used therein is difficult with vast use of passive voice, nominalized structures and complicated sentences. Forty years later, in the 1990’s, textbooks become more user-friendly as they appear with more illustrations as well as concise text and short active sentences. In the same decade, textbooks become student-centered by actively involving the student in the learning process. This is realized by asking students questions about the material taught, by offering self-practice opportunities through exercises and activities, etc. (see e.g. Sutton 1989, Davies 1999, Johnsen 2001, Wellington & Osborne 2001).
4 3 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education George J. Xydopoulos, Anastasios Tsangalidis and Athena Prountzou
2.2. Some Functions of Textbooks
In order to understand the nature of the genre and their fundamental difference from other genres of scientific books it is important to consider the chief functions of textbooks. According to Issitt (2004: 683-4), textbooks are a quite ‘fuzzy’ category. They are not a mere exposition of ideas but “trace, explain and illuminate ideas and developments”. Indeed textbooks reflect a creative input to scientific research and formalize knowledge so as to be consumed by students. Furthermore, they are referred to for better understanding, are used for revising taught material for exam preparation and, at the same time, are revisited for any need for learning practice (e.g. exercises, queries, case-studies etc.). Therefore, if we adopt Issitt’s (2004: 685) definition we can view “textbooks” as “a focused educational programme in text allied to a scheme of work”. This is a representative and unbiased definition that incorporates both the form and function of textbooks and highlights their role as a teaching medium.
2.3. Usability of Textbooks in the Classroom
Following Wellington & Osborne (2001: 103ff), we attribute great importance to the educational function of textbooks. Koch (2011: 66-67, 69-71), Partee (2011: 41-48) and Potts (2011: 59), among others, believe that textbooks are used in the classroom for various reasons, such as: (a) to support practical work and suggest class work and homework tasks through exercises and activities; (b) to supplement the class, by providing more detailed information about the subject; (c) to illustrate various concepts, through diagrams, tables, illustrations; (d) to introduce students to the topics of the course, by hierarchically and logically organizing chapters and sections; (e) to provide a revision or reference guide, e.g. for exam preparation; (f) to serve as a manual for self-study, through its defined structure, accessibility, content and pedagogical style; and (g) to support the teacher in the organization and smooth operation of the whole educational process, depending on its relevance to the content of the course.
2.4. Readability: the Decisive Criterion for Textbooks
Following Davies (1999: 338ff) and Wellington & Osborne (2001: 109ff), among others, we consider readability as the most important qualitative criterion for textbooks. A highly readable textbook is one that is appealing to the reader, thanks to its good appearance, and is well-structured and laid out, as it is organized in chapters and sections with proper headings and well paragraphed. Expectedly, the text in a highly readable textbook is clear and fluent, supported by illustrations and diagrams, while all keywords are properly flagged in the text.
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3. The Survey
Our investigation of Greek linguistics books consisted of two stages. In the first stage, we conducted a survey of linguistics books published in Greek by collecting, classifying and measuring the relevant publishing data. In the second stage, we made a preliminary survey of the opinion of linguistics teachers with the use of a short questionnaire that focused on the degree of satisfaction from textbook use. Our informants were faculty members employed in linguistics- related departments of Greek universities, namely “Philology”, “Foreign Language and Literature”, “Primary” and “Pre-school Education”, and other humanities departments that include linguistics in their undergraduate curriculum.
3.1. A Survey of Linguistics Textbooks Published in Greek
Our survey of linguistics textbooks consisted of five major steps. First, we located a total of 426 titles published from 1980 to date in Greece, by searching in library databases and publishers’ catalogues. Second, we classified our findings into five genres: (a) grammars (linguistic descriptions of Greek); (b) treatises (single-volume investigations of specific subjects); (c) reference (terminology dictionaries and glossaries); (d) monographs (article- like investigations focused on a narrowly specified subject); and (e) textbooks (introductory books to specific fields of linguistics, recommended to students as indispensable course material; defined earlier in section 2). Third, having excluded all books of other genres, we classified textbooks in 18 major fields of linguistics1. Fourth, we formally examined textbooks on the basis of their publishing characteristics, that is, the publisher, the place and year of publication and the language of the original text. Fifth, we assessed all our findings in quantitative terms and we drew qualitative conclusions. In the subsections that follow we discuss each of these steps in more detail.
3.2. A Preliminary Survey of Linguistics Teachers’ Opinion
We thought that an important ingredient in our research was to survey teachers’ opinion about the use of textbooks. This allowed us to see
1 Namely: General Linguistics, Syntax/Semantics, Pragmatics/Discourse Analysis, Phonetics & Phonology, Morphology, Historical Linguistics, Lexicology/Lexicography, Sociolinguistics, MG Description, Cognitive Linguistics, Psycho/Neurolinguistics, L1/L2 Acquisition, Educational Linguistics, History of Linguistics, Dialectology, History of Greek, Philosophy and Stylistics.
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aspects of the constitution of textbooks that cannot be straightforwardly quantified. To this end, we designed a questionnaire-based survey by applying special attention to issues of professional and academic ethics. Of course, this added specific restrictions and limitations to the quality and force of questions and the depth of expected responses. In particular, we created a one-page anonymous questionnaire that comprised one fill-in question asking the informant to fill in the courses s/he taught as well as six attitude scale questions eliciting subjective response; also allowing for short comments (Appendix I). These questions targeted the teacher’s opinion about the quality of the textbook and its reliability to support the educational process. The first question was about how much of taught material for each course is covered by the book. The second question asked the teacher to assess the usefulness of the textbook for teaching and learning. The third question asked the informant to judge how relevant the textbook was for Greek, in terms of the phenomena covered, the data presented and discussed, the applicability of the concepts discussed, etc. The fourth question in the survey was for teachers to judge how “pedagogical” they found each textbook thanks to its organization, content and simplicity of language. The fifth question was to examine the way technical terms were managed in the book pertaining to accuracy, objectivity and documentation in the treatment of terminology in Greek. Finally, the sixth question looks to measure teachers’ general impression of the textbooks. We determined 34 departments in Greek universities as relevant to our research as their linguistics courses formed part of their undergraduate curriculum. These were the departments of “(Greek) Philology” in the universities of Athens, Thessaloniki, Patras, Crete (Rethimno), Ioannina, Thrace (Komotini) and Peloponnese (Kalamata); the departments of “English”, of “French”, of “German” and of “Italian & Spanish” “language and literature” in the universities of Athens and Thessaloniki; the departments of “Pre-school” and of “Primary Education” in the universities of Athens, Thessaloniki, Patras, Western Macedonia (Florina), Crete (Rethimno), Aegean (Mytilini), Thessaly (Volos) and Thrace (Alexandroupolis); the department of “Translation Studies” in the university of the Ionian (Corfu); and three other humanities departments in the universities of the Aegean (Rhodes), Thessaly (Volos), Thrace (Alexandroupolis) that offer a diet of linguistics courses. We located and contacted, by e-mail, all teachers of linguistics holding permanent positions in these departments and asked them to fill in and return the questionnaire.
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4. Quantitative Analysis of Greek Linguistics Textbooks
Following the collection of necessary data we conducted a quantitative analysis of textbook features. Our analysis included the classification of linguistics books in different genres, the publishing activity of such textbooks, the original language of the textbooks, the academic profile of authors and translators, the linguistics fields concerned and the response of teaching staff to questionnaire and textbook evaluation.
4.1. Linguistics Books Genres
The bar diagram given in Figure 1 presents the distribution of textbooks across five genres. We observe that the majority of linguistics textbooks published in Greek (i.e. 65.02%) belong to the genre of “treatises”, while only 23.71% of them fall within the category of “textbooks”. Grammars, monographs and reference books form just 11.27% of the total of Greek linguistics titles published.
Figure 1. Textbooks per genre
4.2. Publishing Activity from 1980 to Date
The majority of textbooks (57%) were published during the period from 2000 to 2009. Only 12% of textbooks were published during the 1980’s, a figure that was almost doubled in the 1990’s, showing an ascending tendency, justified by the increasing popularity of linguistics in those years. Publishing of
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George J. Xydopoulos, Anastasios Tsangalidis and Athena Prountzou
Greek linguistics textbooks doubled in each following decade. Current decade (2010-to date) indicates a tendency of intense publishing, comparable to the previous one, as 5 new textbooks were published in a period of just one and a half year.
4.3. Place of Publication
As expected, the publishing activity of linguistics textbooks is represented by publishers based either in Athens or Thessaloniki. The majority of linguistics books we considered, 72.28%, were published in Athens, and the rest in Thessaloniki (27.72%) In Athens, 23 different publishing houses were more or less active in publishing linguistics textbooks. A small portion of publishing in Athens during the 80’s was private as authors of linguistics textbooks published their books on their own. In Thessaloniki, 6 different publishing houses have published linguistics textbooks since the 80’s, including intensive publishing activity by two non-profit research institutes.
4.4. Textbook Language
A comparative distribution of translated and non-translated linguistics textbooks across the four periods studied (Figure 2) indicated the preference in writing original titles directly in Greek rather than translating foreign textbooks; this is apparent, especially from 2000 onwards. As we will see in the discussion of questionnaires results (Section 4.9), this fact is generally welcomed by the majority of linguistics teachers.
Figure 2. Textbook language
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4.5. Source-language of Translated Textbooks
The majority of translated textbooks examined (67%) appeared to have originated from works originally written in English. French is the second source- language (24% of textbooks), as the majority of translated textbooks of the 1980’s originated from French books. Greek textbooks based on German and Italian original books constitute just 9% of the total.
Figure 3. Source-language for translated textbooks
4.6. Translators’ Profile
The translation of foreign textbooks into Greek, in its majority (85%), is done by experts in the field. In recent years, roughly since 2000, translators are usually junior members of linguistics faculty or recent PhD in linguistics holders.
4.7. Textbooks Publishing in Each Field
The distribution of Greek linguistics textbooks in our survey falls across 18 different fields of the discipline (see the line diagram in Figure 4). We found that that there has been a general tendency in publishing textbooks in the areas of General Linguistics (mostly introductions to the discipline), of Educational Linguistics (mostly regarding L1 teaching) and of the (quite popular) history of Greek (Ancient, Modern or a combination of the two). A noticeable publishing activity is also observed in traditional fields of microlinguistics, such as Syntax and Semantics although these are not necessarily formalistic. A tendency that started appearing during the last decade was to publish textbooks in the areas of sociolinguistics, pragmatics and discourse analysis, showing a turn to more interdisciplinary and applied linguistics subjects.
4 3 8 Language Learning/Teaching - Education George J. Xydopoulos, Anastasios Tsangalidis and Athena Prountzou
Figure 4. Titles per linguistics field
4.8. Teachers’ Response to Questionnaire
We noticed a low level of response to the questionnaire among colleagues (a total of 31 informants), especially from foreign language departments. This was expected as the majority of courses they teach are based on foreign textbooks, and only few of them use Greek textbooks as supplementary resources. The majority of responses that were qualitatively-relevant to our research came from faculty in the “Greek philology” departments (see Figure 5).
Figure 5. Staff response to the questionnaire
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4.9. Evaluation Results
Our survey revealed that, in general, members of staff are happy with Greek linguistics textbooks in all aspects, giving a mean grade of 3,48 out of 5 (see the combined column diagram in Figure 6). Staff found that textbooks have a good coverage of the material taught and are quite relevant to Greek language. The treatment of terminology and the pedagogic profile of the textbooks examined seem to be slightly problematic aspects that need more attention by authors
and publishers.
Figure 6. The opinion of teaching staff
These quantitative findings are further verified by informants’ individual comments. So, some teachers do not like using textbooks and do not recommend them to their students at all. They think textbooks just encourage students to reproduce the text without developing their knowledge and skills. A few teachers also find that some textbooks are traditional and not up-to-date with current trends in linguistics. Teachers also report that in some cases textbooks do not apply the analysis to Greek data and the discussion in text is not relevant to Greek either. Finally, problems regarding the translation of foreign technical terms are also reported stressing the fact that in many cases there is no unanimity about the Greek equivalents in linguistics terminology (cf. Xydopoulos 2002 and Moschonas 2003).
5. An Evaluation of Greek Linguistics Textbooks
Let us now decide about the suitable criteria for measuring Greek textbooks in terms of whether they fulfill the definitional conditions we discussed earlier in section 2. Following the relevant literature, we understand that “textbooks”
4 4 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education George J. Xydopoulos, Anastasios Tsangalidis and Athena Prountzou
are a special genre of scientific book with a clear educational purpose. In other words, textbooks are real educational media, so, they should be communicative, instructing and informative as they address a rather “novice” readership in a specialised field. Therefore, we assume that proper textbooks should display a high degree of readability and usability in order to be of good service to both the teacher and the learner.
5.1. Readability Criteria
In this section we propose a mapping of readability features to an applicable set of measurable criteria for readability (see Appendix II) following the ideas of Davies (1999) and Wellington & Osborne (2001: 103-116). Each feature corresponds to a set of measurable criteria for readability. Of course, a measurable criterion can correspond to multiple readability features. The first readability feature concerns the structure of the textbook which needs to be clear and hierarchical. This feature is obtained in a textbook if chapters and sections are hierarchically structured and properly headed. Clarity can also be achieved if there is a summary after each chapter, to facilitate readers remembering the main claims and ideas discussed. The existence of a proper index and a references section, among other things, makes a textbook more readable as it offers users the possibility of finding exactly what they are looking for and gives them the opportunity for further reading in the field. If a textbook is appealing to the reader then, we believe, it becomes more readable. There are several things that can make a book appealing to its readership, both intrinsic and extrinsic. Clarity of structure, as defined above, along with the necessary illustrations, in the form of pictures, diagrams, figures, tables etc. are features that can improve textbooks’ readability and teaching supportive function. In addition, if a textbook contains flagged terms in its body text, a summary and practice exercises after each chapter then it becomes substantially friendlier and more useful to its readers. A high degree of readability in a textbook is also obtained if reader’s attention is systematically drawn to key terms discussed in text. To achieve this, a textbook needs to have one or more terms indices, a mono/bilingual glossary with brief definitions as well as flagged terms in body text linked to the indices and glossary. This allows readers to find all information they need quickly and accurately. A definitional characteristic of textbooks, as opposed to other genres of scientific text, is the fact that they link theory to practice. Readers need sufficient exposure to practice exercises and other (simulation) activities so as to be facilitated in their learning of the study material. So, if a linguistics textbook discusses various concepts with application to the data of a specific language
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(e.g. Greek in our case) and contains the necessary sets of practice exercises/ activities and illustrations (pictures, tables, diagrams) it arguably has a high degree of readability. Finally, we believe that a textbook is more readable if it is sufficiently informative for the purposes of individual readers whose needs and assumptions may not be identical. Chapters and sections hierarchically structured and properly headed, a summary after each chapter and flagged terms in body text are characteristics that are also important for a textbook to achieve a sufficient degree of informativity as defined (subjectively) by the needs of individual readers. Apart from these, informativity is also achieved if a textbook includes all sections that are peripheral to the text but offer the user comprehensive information about the book. These peripheral sections include a mono/bilingual glossary, foot/endnotes, the author’s CV and back cover details. Finally, for a textbook to be informative its title needs to be sufficiently general, that is to instantly inform the readership about its content.
5.2. Usability Criteria
Along with readability, usability is equally important for a textbook to achieve its educational goals. As we did earlier with readability, in this section we propose a translation of usability features to an applicable set of measurable criteria for usability (see Appendix III). Here too we can see that each feature corresponds to a set of measurable criteria for usability and, of course, a measurable criterion can correspond to multiple usability features (see e.g. Davies 1999 and Issitt 2004: 684-695). The first criterion for “usability” is for the textbook to support practical work / class work / homework. Obviously, this can only be achieved if the book includes sets of practice exercises and activities that can be used for teaching and learning. Usability is also increased if a textbook is designed in such a way that the theoretical discussion is properly applied to linguistic data that are familiar to the reader. This criterion is also fulfilled if the textbook includes an index of terms, a mono/bilingual glossary and summaries after each chapter as they allow the user to easily find all information without the teacher’s intervention. The second criterion for usability is for the textbook to supplement the teaching process by offering the user all options for self-study and self- evaluation. Obviously, if a textbook has practice exercises/activities for the reader to apply theoretical knowledge and self-evaluate learning then it becomes highly usable. Similarly, proper referencing offers readers the opportunity to expand their studying on the subject. Illustrations of concepts and data analysis and a glossary of terms further supports the reader in his/ her learning effort and enriches his/her teaching experience. Finally, a good and
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hierarchical organization of chapters and sections offers readers the opportunity to study in an organized and systematic manner. The third criterion for usability is the effectiveness of the textbook in successfully introducing novice students to the topics. We find that to do so a textbook needs to be hierarchically organized in chapters and sections with proper headings. Furthermore, it needs to include a summary after each chapter and a glossary, for revision purposes, as well as proper illustrations and application to language-specific data to offer students sufficient and clear information in their (self-) study experience. A high degree of usability of a textbook is also achieved if (new) concepts are illustrated and explained in detail. To this end, pictures/tables/diagrams are necessary ingredients in the structure of each chapter, along with summaries, a glossary and sufficient and familiar language data for better understanding the mechanisms and phenomena involved. A textbook is highly usable if it can function as a revision or reference guide and as a self-study material. Therefore, such a textbook is expected to combine different study means, including: a hierarchical structure with an index of terms, a glossary, practice exercises and activities, revision summaries after each chapter and proper flagging of technical terms in the text. Finally, a textbook needs to be usable in teaching too. So, teachers and students need to be able to use the textbook during the teaching process. The organization of chapters and sections can guide or follow the teaching programme, so hierarchy and organization are necessary. Practice exercises and activities can serve either as homework assignments, project subjects or examination questions (if altered accordingly). Obviously, illustrations in the textbook can be referred to or discussed during teaching to facilitate explanation and understanding.
5.3. Readability and Usability of Greek Textbooks: The Results
In this section we consider the comparative results from the application of readability and usability criteria, we discussed in the previous sections, to Greek textbooks published in the last three decades. Results generally indicate that Greek textbooks satisfy almost all criteria of readability and usability, gradually, from 1980 to date. Figure 7 offers a comprehensive view of the readability and usability features we determined and measured in our sample of Greek textbooks published from 1980 to date. In particular, only 42% of textbooks in the 1980’s had a hierarchical organization of their content. This partially increased in the 1990’s and, since 2000, all Greek textbooks ate hierarchically structured.
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Figure 7. Readability and usability features in the history of Greek texbooks
An index of terms was absent from Greek textbooks of the 1980’s. This feature has been added to 90% of the textbooks published since 2000. The same holds for glossaries which, although completely absent in the 1980’s, appear in 70% of textbooks since 2000. Similarly, pictures/tables/diagrams appeared in just 30% of textbooks in the 1980’s and the 1990’s and were added to almost 95% of textbooks from 2000 onwards. Practice exercises/ activities were also absolutely absent in all textbooks of the 1980’s and 1990’s and, since 2000, they started appearing in a few titles. Since last year, practice exercises/activities were included in 60% of textbooks published. Greek data appeared in 80% of textbooks published between 1980 and 1999 and reached almost 95% during the last decade. Foot/Endnotes were used (mostly for referencing) in approximately 35% of textbooks from 1980 to 2009. In 2011, the use of foot/endnotes for commentary purposes has increased to 100%. Authors’ CVs were not included in many textbooks of the 1980’s but were added to almost 80% of textbooks published to date. References appear in almost all textbooks since 1980 with a few exceptions where there was no bibliography at all or only a selection of indicative references was available. Chapter summaries were not available in textbooks published the 1980’s but were added to almost 75% of textbooks published after 1990. Similarly, flagging of key terms in body text is a feature that appeared in only 35% of textbooks in the 1980’s but gradually increased to 80% of textbooks published in the last two decades. The titles of textbooks were general in the 1980’s and since then they have become more specific with or without the use of a subtitle. Finally, with the exception of textbooks published in the 1980’s, almost 85% of titles published since 1989 display book details in the back cover.
4 4 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education George J. Xydopoulos, Anastasios Tsangalidis and Athena Prountzou
5.4. A Note on Non-measurable Qualitative Criteria
In our research we did not evaluate quality of text as it is a qualitative criterion for readability that cannot be measured. A readable textbook of high quality is one that is clear, direct and simple in structure and vocabulary. Its text is brief and concise, it is balanced in information quantity and contains short, properly interconnected and one-idea sentences. Finally, such a textbook motivates and directly addresses the reader (see e.g. Wellington & Osborne 2001). The question about the quality of text also applies to translated textbooks where special attention needs to be paid to the adaptation of linguistics metalanguage from source to target language (including terminology and standard expressions) and to the translation of examples, illustrations and exercises (see e.g. Xydopoulos 2002) Judging from the comments made by the teachers in the evaluation questionnaire we assume that modern Greek textbooks fulfill the criterion of text quality to a satisfactory level. In impressionistic terms, we can say that the majority of textbooks that appeared in the 1980’s and 1990’s are considered less readable (and usable) as they reflect textual and stylistic trends of that period when scientific books were written in a more complicated language and more formal style (i.e. extensive use of impersonal structures, passive voice, nominalisations etc.). The majority of textbooks published since 2000 are taken to be more readable as they generally use a more relaxed style and engage in a pedagogical “conversation” with the reader, imitating the usual practices found in foreign (mostly English) textbooks.
6. Dominant Linguistic Paradigms and Publishing Tendencies
Let us now have a quick look at the dominant linguistic paradigms (cf. Robins 1997) and publishing tendencies for Greek textbooks in the past thirty years. Textbooks of the 1980’s placed emphasis on theoretical linguistics and levels of analysis and mainly focused on structuralist linguistics (European and/or American schools). By the end of the decade, they attempted an introduction to generative linguistics, though without clearly opposing the two schools of thought. Other textbooks, in the same period, focused on the history of Greek (from AG to MG) applying rather philological than purely linguistic approaches. Textbooks of the 1980’s showed an important influence mostly from linguistics in France than in the UK or the US. Textbooks of the 1990’s show a turn from structuralist to generative linguistics, while still maintaining traditional historical approaches to Greek. However, in this
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decade there were textbooks dealing with various fields of applied linguistics e.g. sociolinguistics, text linguistics, psycholinguistics, pragmatics, philosophy of language, discourse analysis, L1 teaching etc. Many textbooks of this decade were translations from English renowned textbooks with minimal or substantial adaptation to the particularities of the Greek language. Textbooks of the first decade of this millennium showed a tendency to deal with as many linguistics fields as possible. An important number of textbooks were adaptations of new (mostly) English textbooks in various fields of general and applied linguistics. Major publishers invested in linguistics textbooks during the first decade of the millennium. A strong tendency was also observed in publishing (either original or translated) textbooks in the new field of educational linguistics with emphasis on language teaching, literacy and multilingual education. During this decade, textbooks were either translated or written by junior linguists, while, some older but renowned titles from the 1980’s and 1990’s also appeared in newer editions with major improvements towards higher degree of readability and usability. At the beginning of the second decade of this millennium we observe similar tendencies to those of the previous decade. However, there is a new tendency in publishing multiple textbooks per field thus giving the opportunity to students, teachers and other users to choose from a variety of titles or to be able to consult multiple sources.
7. Conclusions and Suggestions
In this work we studied the development of textbooks publishing in Greece during the last three decades. So, in section 2, we discussed definitional issues regarding the genre of “textbooks”, following the relevant literature. We found that textbooks are not an ordinary type of book as their chief function is to serve as a multifaceted teaching and learning medium. Therefore we understood that they should not be treated as an inferior genre or used as a derogatory term. As we saw in section 5, we conducted a survey of all textbooks published from 1980 to date and processed all publishing characteristics in quantitative terms. We also conducted a questionnaire-based survey of the opinion of colleagues teaching linguistics in Greek universities. We were able to collect interesting data from both surveys. Based on the qualitative analysis of these data in section 5.4, we found that textbooks have developed a lot over the last 30 years in both their readability and usability attainment and so they appear to serve their educational functions with success. In other words, there are indeed good Greek textbooks in linguistics (both original and translated) as confirmed by the vast majority of teachers. However, as we showed in section 6, there is an increasing need for new textbooks, preferably, originally written in Greek, or sufficiently adapted to
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the Greek language, in many fields of both microlinguistics and macrolinguistics. More particularly, we believe that there is an urgent need for more up-to- date textbooks in generative syntax, formal semantics and phonology and more titles in morphology and lexicography. Furthermore, there is also urgent need for (more or up-to-date) textbooks in interdisciplinary fields including cognitive linguistics, psycho/neurolinguistics (including L1/L2 acquisition) and dialectology with systematic reference to Greek as well as critical approaches to linguistics (e.g. critical discourse analysis). Certainly, our research has several drawbacks as it did not record students’ feelings towards linguistics textbooks and did not investigate content and textual issues of textbooks in some detail. We leave these issues for further research.
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References
Davies, F.I. 1999. Textbooks. In B. Spolsky (ed.) Concise encyclopedia of educational linguistics. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 337-343.
Foster-Cohen, S. 2011. Teaching language acquisition. In K. Kuiper (ed.). Teaching Linguistics. London: Equinox, 137-144.
Issitt, J. 2004. Reflections on the study of textbooks. History of Education 33.6, 683-696.
Johnsen, E. 1993/2001. Textbooks in the Kaleidoscope: A Critical Survey of Literature and Research on Educational Texts (Translated by L. Sivesind). Oslo: Scandinavian University Press.
Koch, H. 2011. Teaching historical linguistics: A personal memoir. In K. Kuiper (ed.). Teaching Linguistics. London: Equinox, 66-86.
Lier, L. van 1994. Educational linguistics: Field and project. In J. Alatis (ed.) Educational linguistics, crosscultural communication, and global interdependence. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 197-209.
Moschonas, S. 2003. Prin apo ti didaskalia tis elinikis os ksenis glosas [Before teaching Greek as a foreign language]. In D. Theofanopoulou-Kontou, C. Laskaratou, M. Sifianou, M. Georgiafentis and V. Spyropoulos (eds) Sinxrones taseis stin eliniki glosologia [Current trends in Greek linguistics]. Athens: Patakis, 87-107.
Partee, B.H. 2011. On teaching formal semantics. In K. Kuiper (ed.). Teaching Linguistics. London: Equinox, 40-50.
Potts, C. 2011. Teaching pragmatics. In K. Kuiper (ed.). Teaching Linguistics. London: Equinox, 51-65.
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Robins, R.H. 1997. A short history of linguistics (4th edition). London: Longman.
Stray, C. 1991. Paradigms Lost: Towards a Historical Sociology of the Textbook. Paper presented in the PEXU Conference, Härnösand, Sweden.
Sutton, C. 1989. Writing and reading in science: the hidden messages. In R. Millar Doing Science: images of science in science education. Lewes: The Falmer Press, 137-159.
Wellington, J. and J. Osborne. 2001. Language and literacy in science education. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Xydopoulos, G.J. 2002. Metafrazontas ena epistimoniko singrama: diskolies ke pithanes lisis [Translating a scientific textbook: difficulties and possible solutions]. In Proceedings of the International Conference “Translating in the 21st Century: Trends and Perspectives”, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 740-751.
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Appendix I
ΕΡΕΥΝΑ ΣΧΕΤΙΚΑ ΜΕ ΤΗ ΧΡΗΣΗ ΤΩΝ ΕΛΛΗΝΟΦΩΝΩΝ ΣΥΓΓΡΑΜΜΑΤΩΝ ΓΛΩΣΣΟΛΟΓΙΑΣ ΣΤΑ ΑΕΙ
Αξιότιμες Κυρίες και Αξιότιμοι Κύριοι
Στο πλαίσιο έρευνας που διεξάγουμε στο Πανεπιστήμιο Πατρών σχετικά με τα ελληνόφωνα συγγράμματα που χρησιμοποιούνται για υποστήριξη των μαθημάτων γλωσσολογίας στα ελληνικά ΑΕΙ, θα θέλαμε να σας ζητήσουμε να μας βοηθήσετε, συμπληρώνοντας το ερωτηματολόγιο που ακολουθεί. Σας ενημερώνουμε ότι: • Δεν χρειάζεται να σημειώσετε πουθενά τα προσωπικά σας στοιχεία. • Τα συμπληρωμένα ερωτηματολόγια θα τύχουν της απαιτούμενης στατιστικής επεξεργασίας και θα χρησιμοποιηθούν αποκλειστικά για τις ανάγκες της συγκεκριμένης έρευνας. • Ερωτηματολόγια έχουν σταλεί προς συμπλήρωση σε όλα τα μέλη ΔΕΠ που διδάσκουν γλωσσολογία σε τμήματα των ελληνικών ΑΕΙ.
Μόλις ολοκληρώσετε τη συμπλήρωση, σας παρακαλούμε στείλτε μας το ερωτηματολόγιο ως συνημμένο στη διεύθυνση [email protected]. Θα εκτιμούσαμε ιδιαίτερα αν καταφέρνατε να μας απαντήσετε το αργότερο έως τις 15 Μαρτίου 2011.
Σας ευχαριστούμε εκ των προτέρων για την πολύτιμη βοήθειά σας. Αθηνά Προύντζου Διδακτορική Φοιτήτρια Γλωσσολογίας, Τμήμα Φιλολογίας, Πανεπιστήμιο Πατρών
1. Σημειώστε τα στοιχεία των (προπτυχιακών) μαθημάτων γλωσσολογίας που διδάσκετε στο Τμήμα στο οποίο υπηρετείτε; ΤΙΤΛΟΣ ΜΑΘΗΜΑΤΟΣ ΕΤΟΣ ΣΠΟΥΔΩΝ
α.
β.
γ.
δ.
ε.
2. Σε τί βαθμό θεωρείτε πως τα συγγράμματα που προτείνετε στους φοιτητές σας καλύπτουν τη διδακτέα ύλη των μαθημάτων σας; Σημειώστε, με υψηλότερο το 5 και χαμηλότερο το 1 →
Σχόλια:
4 5 0 Language Learning/Teaching - Education George J. Xydopoulos, Anastasios Tsangalidis and Athena Prountzou
3. Πόσο χρήσιμα κρίνετε πως είναι αυτά τα συγγράμματα για τις ανάγκες των μαθημάτων σας (διδακτικές, μαθησιακές κ.τ.ό.); Σημειώστε, με υψηλότερο το 5 και χαμηλότερο το 1 →
Σχόλια:
4. Πόσο συναφές κρίνετε πως είναι το περιεχόμενο των συγγραμμάτων αυτών με ό,τι αφορά την ελληνική γλώσσα (φαινόμενα, γλωσσικά δεδομένα, παραδείγματα, εφαρμογές κ.τ.ό.); Σημειώστε, με υψηλότερο το 5 και χαμηλότερο το 1 →
Σχόλια:
5. Πόσο «παιδαγωγικά» κρίνετε τα συγγράμματα αυτά ως προς τη δομή, το περιεχόμενο, τη γλώσσα γραφής κ.τ.ό. Σημειώστε, με υψηλότερο το 5 και χαμηλότερο το 1 →
Σχόλια:
6. Πόσο ακριβής, αντικειμενική και τεκμηριωμένη θεωρείτε πως είναι η διαχείριση της ορολογίας της γλωσσολογίας που αναφέρεται στα συγγράμματα αυτά (μετάφραση των όρων, αντιστοίχιση με ξένη ορολογία, κ.τ.ό.). Σημειώστε, με υψηλότερο το 5 και χαμηλότερο το 1 →
Σχόλια:
7. Πόσο ικανοποιημένη/ος είστε γενικά από αυτά τα συγγράμματα. Σημειώστε, με υψηλότερο το 5 και χαμηλότερο το 1 →
Σχόλια:
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 4 5 1 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
Appendix II
Readability features Measurable criteria for readability
• Chapters and sections hierarchically structured and headed Clearly and hierarchically • Chapter summary structured • Index of terms • References
• Chapters and sections hierarchically structured and headed • Illustrations Appealing to the reader • Flagged terms in body text • Chapter summary • Practice exercises
Graphically supported • Pictures, tables, diagrams
• Index of terms Attention drawn to key terms • Mono/Bilingual glossary • Flagged terms in body text
• Application to Greek data Theory linked to practice • Practice exercises/activities • Pictures, tables, diagrams
• Chapters and sections hierarchically structured and headed • Mono/Bilingual glossary • Application to Greek data • Foot/Endnotes Sufficiently informative • Author’s CV • Chapter summary • Flagged terms in body text • Generality of book title • Back cover details
4 5 2 Language Learning/Teaching - Education George J. Xydopoulos, Anastasios Tsangalidis and Athena Prountzou
Appendix III
Usability features Measurable criteria for usability
• Practice exercises /activities • Application to Greek data Supporting practical work / • Index of terms class work / homework • Mono/Bilingual glossary • Chapter summary
• Practice exercises /activities • References • Pictures, tables, diagrams Supplementing teaching • Mono/Bilingual glossary • Chapter summary • Chapters and sections hierarchically structured and headed
• Chapters and sections hierarchically structured and headed • Chapter summary Introducing students to • Mono/Bilingual glossary topics • Pictures, tables, diagrams • Application to Greek data
• Pictures, tables, diagrams • Application to Greek data Illustrating concepts • Mono/Bilingual glossary • Practice exercises /activities
• Chapters and sections hierarchically structured and headed • Index of terms Serving as a revision and/or • Flagged terms in body text reference guide • Mono/Bilingual glossary • Practice exercises /activities • Chapter summary
• Chapters and sections hierarchically structured and headed • Index of terms • Flagged terms in body text Serving as self-study manual • Mono/Bilingual glossary • Practice exercises /activities • Chapter summary
Contributing to the • Chapters and sections hierarchically structured and headed organisation and operation • Practice exercises / activities of teaching • Pictures, tables, diagrams
Language Learning/Teaching - Education 4 5 3 Major Trends in Theoretical and Applied Linguistics
4 5 4 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Breadth of Vocabulary, and Frequency and Recycling of Vocabulary Items in Primary Schools’ English Course Books
Thomas Zapounidis
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki [email protected]
Abstract
This paper examines vocabulary issues with regard to the English course books taught in Greek primary state-schools by examining the older and recently introduced new English course books. Quantitative and qualitative analyses at a variety of levels (unit, course book, series) unfold concerning: (a) the total size of vocabulary breadth, (b) the frequencies of vocabulary items compared to those in a native corpus, and (c) the actual recycling of vocabulary items in the two series.
1. Introduction
The present paper is part of an MA research aiming to enrich the literature in vocabulary issues by investigating (a) the size of the vocabulary, (b) the frequency of items, and (c) the recycling of vocabulary items in both the older and new English course books (CBs) taught in Greek State primary schools. The corpus-based analyses of these CBs at a variety of levels (unit, book, and series) provide valuable data concerning the tokens and types of the older and new CBs (henceforth OCBs and NCBs) with regard to the concepts of size, frequency and recycling. High frequency vocabulary, lack of recycling and the need to match patterns with native corpora are but a few reasons that explain why the findings of this research are expected to be of great value not solely to practicing teachers, but for course book writers as well.
2. Theoretical Backgrounds
When dealing with measures of vocabulary of a language a number of terms such as breadth, frequency and recycling become prominent. The establishment of such terms means they will also be used in the research on making the
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comparisons between the CBs, but their use will differ slightly, as will be explained later.
2.1. Breadth of Vocabulary
Breadth of vocabulary is an important dimension of vocabulary description and refers to “the number of words one has at least superficial knowledge of (i.e. one’s vocabulary size)” (Matsuoka and Hirsh, 2010: 58). Although possessing the full breadth of vocabulary of a language is deemed unattainable1, size of vocabulary is still considered significant in comprehending any language. Increased vocabulary proficiency has shown significant correlation with L2 reading proficiency (Coady, Magoto, Hubbard, Graney and Mokhtari, 1993; Laufer, 1992; Qian, 1999) as well as with writing ability (Astica, 1993; Laufer and Nation, 1995). Further research has indicated that for unassisted reading, 95% of all the running words should be known to the reader (Laufer, 1992) and this necessitates a minimum knowledge of about 3,000 word families2. However, a more fluent reading and guessing of unknown words, necessitates a number of 5,000 word families for 98% coverage of texts (Coady, Magoto, Hubbard, Graney and Mokhtari, 1993; Hirsh and Nation, 1992; Laufer, 1997). Still, the acquisition of 3,000 or 5,000 word families in an EFL instructed context is not an easy task for young learners. Cameron (2001) considers a realistic goal for vocabulary learning about 500 words per year, while Milton and Meara (1998) mention that only 4 words for each hour of tuition might be learned. Therefore, the CBs should be looked at with the purpose of seeing how successfully they increase learner vocabulary breadth.
2.2. Frequency of Vocabulary Items
Increasing the size of an individual’s lexical items in any language necessitates the selection of the optimum vocabulary to be taught and the best way to present it. A useful criterion, among others, for choosing what vocabulary to teach is the frequency with which any particular vocabulary item appears in the language.
1 According to Nation and Waring (1997), the English language is said to contain about 54,000 word families which is a huge amount to master, even for native speakers (Schmitt, 2000). 2 A word family consists of a base form and all its derived and inflected forms.
4 5 6 Language Learning/Teaching - Education Thomas Zapounidis
According to Nation (2001a), there are four categories of vocabulary items that can be distinguished when frequency is considered: high frequency items, low frequency items, academic items and technical items. The high frequency items seem to constitute the most significant target group of words. They refer to the 2,000 most frequent words of any language and are deemed important as they constitute a significant percentage of words (80%) in any text (Schmitt and McCarthy, 1997: 9-10). The need to acquire the most frequent vocabulary items is further corroborated in language teaching contexts. According to Nation (2001a: 167) “High frequency words deserve direct teaching and classroom time”. Despite the significance of high frequency words, Milton and Vassiliu (2000) found low level EFL CBs then in use in Greece to contain a considerable amount of infrequent vocabulary items which seems inappropriate for this level considering that a great percentage of infrequent vocabulary is a characteristic of technical texts (Milton and Hales, 1996:72). Therefore an examination of CBs should investigate how the high frequency items of the language are incorporated into the course books to help learners gain valuable items.
2.3. Recycling of Vocabulary Items
Much as an individual’s mental lexicon (Aitchison, 1998: 97) can accommodate a vast amount of information, there are times when information cannot be retrieved. The decay theory states that stored information when not used in a short time is prone to being forgotten (Gairns and Redman, 1986: 89) and the cue-dependent forgetting states that information persists in the memory but cannot be retrieved (ibid). Therefore, lexical acquisition not only “ requires multiple exposures to a word” (Schmitt, 2000: 137), but also, as there is only a 5%-14% chance of retaining a word from one exposure (Nagy, 1997: 74), “recycling previously met words in varied contexts and activities is essential to keep learnt words active” (Cameron, 2001: 95). Although the exact number of repetitions that is required for establishing learning varies from study to study, it is certain that one or two exposures to the word do not suffice for its acquisition and so a systematic recycling is required in teaching materials. To this end, foreign language CBs should be examined for the extent of vocabulary recycling they provide. López-Jiménez (2009), for instance, identified in 12 textbooks for teaching English in Spain that words were not recycled much. Furthermore “in some courses, half of the different words occur only once and most of the words occur less than five times” (Nation, 1990:44). Finally, special attention should also be paid to vocabulary that has been learned first in a course as this is the first to be forgotten (Laufer, Meara, and Nation, 2005:3;
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Nation, 1990: 45). Therefore CBs should be examined to reveal the patterns of recycling and how this helps learning of vocabulary.
2.4. ELT Teaching in Greek State Primary Schools
The teaching of foreign languages was introduced in Greek primary schools in 1987, and in 1991 it became compulsory for the last three grades3 (ages nine to twelve) of the six and was taught for three hours per week at each grade4. A specified course book (Funway 1, 2, 3 respectively) was taught for each of the three grades. In 2003, the instruction of English in Greek State schools was introduced at the third grade of primary school, and the selection of a CB for the 3rd grade is done by the teachers; they were required to select from a list of approved CBs that is prepared each year by the Ministry of Education Lifelong learning and Religious Affairs. The CBs for the next three grades (4th, 5th, and 6th) remained the Funway series CBs until the school year 2009-2010 when they were replaced by the new series of English CBs. A revised unified curriculum was introduced through the Government Gazette No 304/13-3-2003 that enriched the development of literacy and communicative competence with awareness of multilingual and multicultural aspects of language learning; this new trend is evident in a number of features of the NCBs that include: Cross-curricular/cross- cultural content, self-assessment and portfolio sections, strategy sections, grammar tables, pedagogically informed guidelines for teachers (Bratsoli and Diamandidou, 2009:7-16). In addition to the above changes, very recent governmental decisions enacted the increase by one hour (from three to four hours a week) of the English instruction from the 3rd to the 6th grade, and the introduction of English language teaching in the first and second grades of Primary school (about 7-8 year old learners) for two hours per week. These changes were introduced in 8005 pilot schools from the school year 2010-2011in an attempt to: (a) promote early language learning and (b) counterbalance the distinct phenomenon of the “thriving private sector of foreign language institutes” (Mattheoudakis and Alexiou, 2009:230) and of private tuition.
3 Grade is the term used instead of level. 4 There are two extra hours for each grade of the all day school (this type of school ends at 16.15 instead of 13.15) but during these hours consolidation of knowledge is aimed for and not presentation of new language. 5 The number of this type of schools was increased with 161 more schools in the next school year (2011-2012).
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3. Methodology
Preparatory to any elaboration on the corpus design, an explanation of the slight different use of the terms, described in the theoretical backgrounds section, is needed. Given that there is a specific breadth of vocabulary knowledge required to ‘know’ a language, course books have to approach the presentation of a specific amount of vocabulary items for learners to become equipped. In this light, the term breadth, in this research, refers to the total amount of types/ tokens in the CBs whereas the term frequency is to see whether high-frequency tokens in the language are the same as those that are given such a ranking in the English language. Finally, the term recycling in the research will examine which tokens and types are recycled as the books proceed.
3.1. Corpus Design
Taking into consideration that pedagogic corpora include all the language learners are exposed to in educational contexts, attempts were made to include in the corpus for this research all the material that has been produced by the Ministry of Lifelong Education and Religious Affairs. Therefore, student books, activity books (also called workbooks) and the listening materials (411 minutes, in total, from cassettes and CDs) of each grade of the primary school were included in this research project. The researcher typed about 80% of the above mentioned material (12 primary school books) down to its last detail (from the front page to appendices and back cover, including all details, such as names of roads in maps); the remaining 20% was copied and includes pages of the NCBs. Typing all this material was a lengthy and time consuming process that took several months to complete. The corpus eventually totaled about 1,800 pages of all the books. Typing, instead of scanning, all this material was considered necessary as map details and picture information (e.g. T-shirt words, titles of books) would have been missed had the scanning (in the case of the OCBs) and copy-paste methods been used. The material was categorized into many sub-corpora in order to facilitate the various analyses. In this light, there were (a) two ‘comprehensive’ corpora; one comprising the student books, workbooks and listening material of the older CBs (Funway 1, 2, 3) and the second one comprising the student books, workbooks and listening material of the NCBs (b) six ‘basic’ subcorpora that include the full material (student book, workbook and listening material) of each grade. Therefore, there is one for Funway 1, one for Funway 2, one for Funway 3, and respectively one for each CB of the new set, and (c) about 180 ‘unit’ subcorpora that represent each one of the units of the student book, workbook and listening material of each CB of each series.
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3.2. The Tools
Two main tools were used in the present project. The first is the FREQUENCY program (Heatley, Nation, and Coxhead, 2002) which can produce frequency lists of all the words in texts in either alphabetical or frequency order with information about the rank order of words, raw frequency and cumulative percentage frequency. The second is the ANTWORDPROFILER software (previously named AntVocabCheck), developed by Professor Laurence Anthony in the Center for English Language Education in Science and Engineering at Waseda University, Japan. This software is based on Paul Nation’s RANGE program (it even uses three of Paul Nation’s baseword lists as its default lists) but its interface is more functional and it further includes Unicode characters that enable it to recognize other languages as well. This word profiling tool was used in comparing the texts from the same or different CBs.
3.3. Framework of Analysis
The tools and the categorization of the corpora into a number of sub-corpora enabled multileveled analyses of all materials. As Figure 1 indicates, all data for each series were analyzed vertically, horizontally and diagonally. This three directional framework mirrors analyses at three different levels: at unit level (vertical), at CB level (horizontal), and at series level (diagonal). In particular, at the vertical level the units within each CB6 are compared in terms of their contribution to: (a) size, (b) frequency and (c) recycling of vocabulary. At the horizontal level a comparison of the first, second and third book for each set of CBs (old and new ones) is presented. Each CB is analyzed separately in terms of: (a) breadth of vocabulary (size) (b) frequency and (c) recycling of vocabulary. The diagonal level considers all three CBs of each set together and examines the size, frequency and recycling of vocabulary items in the whole series. These analyses aimed to produce both quantitative and qualitative data. The former refer to the total number of items in measuring size, frequency and recycling in the CBs whereas the latter refers to the identification of the items. The identification of the type of the items of the CBs was achieved by classifying items into five distinct categories: (a) Core, (b) Names, (c) Places, (d) Foreign (lexical items), and (e) Greek (lexical items). The Core category included the main body of lexical items, that is English common (not proper) words. The Names
6 The term CB refers to all the material (student book, workbook and transcribed audio cassette or CD) of that CB.
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category included proper names (names, surnames, brands, email addresses and so on). The Places7 category included items referring to places such as streets, countries, continents and nationalities. The Foreign category included items that belong to any other language other than the English and Greek ones (e.g. bonjour, buenos). Finally, the Greek category included Greek vocabulary items. The above categorization intends to examine the identity of tokens so as to examine in more detail the differences of the total number of vocabulary between the CBs.
Unit 4th grade 5th grade 6th grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 1. Three directional framework of analysis in the Funway series.
4. Results and Discussion
Taking into consideration the extensive amount of data of this research in terms of tables and appendices (more than 40 different tables and 90 pages of data in appendices) and the limited scope of this paper, only a number of key findings is presented.
7 It was considered proper to break proper names into two categories (Names and Places) so as to examine the extent to which use of maps and geographical descriptions or names, surnames contribute to the total number of types and tokens.
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4.1. Size of the Total Number of Vocabulary Items
The vertical analysis aimed to examine the vocabulary size of each unit within all CBs. The vocabulary size of each unit in terms of the total number of tokens and types follows a gradual increase in the number of tokens in both the old and new CBs with a significantly higher average in the new material. This seems partly natural given the maturity of learners with each new grade and their ability to cope with more material. Types follow a similarly increasing pattern with the exception of the last two NCBs (5th and 6th grades); in these CBs units have about the same average (1,195 and 1,168). The results of the qualitative analyses of the material in terms of tokens and types indicate that the majority of the words are found in the ‘Core’ category. Differences between the old and new CBs exist in the slightly increased number of ‘Names’ and ‘Places’ (5th grade) in the new material. However, the most important difference between the two sets of CBs is the greater percentage of Greek lexical items, both tokens and types, found in the NCBs. An example from the qualitative analysis of the 4th grade’s old and new material is provided in Table 1. Although the presence of Greek lexical items in the units of the NCBs is mainly located in the self-assessment sections and the appendices, they may significantly reduce learners’ exposure to the English language. The horizontal analysis compared the units of the first CB with the equivalent units of the next two CBs with the aim of examining the pattern of tokens/ types across the CBs of the same set. Results indicated that the older CBs demonstrated a more balanced distribution of vocabulary both in terms of tokens and types when compared to the NCBs, to the 5th grade NCB in particular. Finally, the aim of the diagonal analysis was to measure the total size of vocabulary that learners are exposed to through the use of the CBs over a period of three years (4th to 6th grade). The results of this kind of analysis are presented in Table 2. As can be seen the new material includes more than double types and tokens compared to the older material. This may partly be attributed to the increased size of the NCBs in terms of pages (2 extra pages for each unit compared to the Funway series). Still, the size of the NCBs may be considered great considering the 500 words a year that Cameron (2001) mentioned. Further qualitative analysis of the tokens and types of Table 2 produced the results of Table 3. In this table the most notable information regarding types of all the old and new CBs are: (a) a quarter of the types (26.43%) in the NCBs are Greek compared to the corresponding 12.84% percentage in the old CBs, and (b) a considerable decrease of percentage of the types in the ‘Core’ category in the NCBs; about half of them (56.6%) are included in this category whereas
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Table 1. Qualitative analysis of tokens in the 4th grade’s old and new material.
Funway 1 tokens UNIT CORE NAMES PLACE FOREIGN GREEK Preunit 46.75% 2.54% 1.03% 0.16% 49.52% 1 90.32% 9,50 0.18 0 0 2 91.83 8.17 0 0 0 3 97.72 2.28 0 0 0 4 97.25 2.75 0 0 0 5 97.88 1.83 0.29 0 0 6 96.96 1.83 0.74 0.47 0 7 98.39 1.57 0.04 0 0 8 97.42 2.51 0.07 0 0 9 98.48 1.37 0.15 0 0 10 89.44 2.82 6.14 0.08 1.52 Appendix 90.32% 9,50 0.18 0 0 Average 91.06 3.88 0.73 0.05 4.25 4th grade NCB tokens UNIT CORE NAMES PLACE FOREIGN GREEK 1 80.95 2.73 1.34 0 14.98 2 84.85 3.10 0.70 0 11.35 3 78.08 2.88 5.94 0 13.10 4 90.38 2.39 0.84 0 6.39 5 90.05 2.18 1.35 0 6.42 6 84.80 2.94 2.17 0.15 9.94 7 89.25 4.17 0.38 0.06 6.14 8 90.42 1.49 0.46 0.03 7.60 9 96.82 1.20 0.44 0.03 1.51 10 91.38 1.98 1.36 0.02 5.26 Appendix 56.29 1.56 1.34 0.04 40.77 Average 84.84 2.42 1.48 0.03 11.22
Table 2. Total number of vocabulary for the two series of CBs.
Funway CBs NCBs
Tokens 74,591 178,140
Types 5,406 11,204
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the corresponding percentage in the old CBs is 73.99%. As far as tokens are concerned, no important differences seem to exist.
Table 3. Qualitative analysis of vocabulary size (tokens/types) for both series.
Funway
BASEWORD TOKENS TOKENS% TYPES TYPES%
Core 68,751 92.17 4,000 73.99
Names 1,954 2.62 389 7.20
Places 1,046 1.40 271 5.01
Foreign 74 0.10 52 0.96
Greek 2,766 3.71 694 12.84
Total 74,591 100 5,406 100
NCBs
BASEWORD TOKENS TOKENS% TYPES TYPES%
Core 150,753 84.62 6,348 56.66
Names 11,216 6.30 844 7.53
Places 3,719 2.09 941 8.40
Foreign 317 0.18 110 0.98
Greek 12,135 6.81 2,961 26.43
Total 178,140 100 11,204 100
4.2. Frequency of Vocabulary
From a quantitative point of view, analysis at the unit level of each CB involved identifying the most frequent items of each unit. Examination of the lists indicated a similar pattern for most of the units of almost all CBs; function words such as the, and in rank high in all of the units which is considered natural given that function words rank high in almost all frequency lists including those of the British National Corpus which may be considered as representative of the English language. As far as content words are concerned, ‘unit’ and ‘lesson’ rank high (20th and above) in most of the units; this is attributed to the display of the words on each page of the CBs. Furthermore, the titles of each unit on every page account for the varied frequency of content words such as ‘school’, ‘student’, ‘favourite’, ‘education’, ‘treasure’ and so on, in a number of units of both the old and new CBs. The qualitative analysis of the frequency of vocabulary items involved the comparison of all the items in each unit of each CB with the 14,000 most frequent
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words of the English language according to the British National Corpus in order to examine whether high frequency tokens of the English language are equally frequent in the language of the CBs. The results indicated that at unit level the NCBs, compared to the Funway ones, contain more items that are not included in the 16 BNC lists. This seems to imply that the language of the Funway series is more representative of the English language as it includes more items that are among the most frequent words of the English language (BNC lists). The analysis at the CB level involved the comparison of the 100 most frequent words in each CB. Comparison of the 100 most frequent words among the three CBs of both the old and the new series indicate, as in the case of the unit analysis, that there are many similarities regarding function words: articles such as the rank first in all books while a ranks second or third. Analysis at the series level involved the comparison of two large frequency lists; the first one included the 1,000 most frequent items of all the three CBs of the Funway series whereas the other included the 1,000 most frequent words in all three NCBs. The comparison of these two lists indicated that there are 672 (67.2%) common words in these two lists. A more qualitative analyses of these 672 common items included their comparison against the BNC lists. Results indicated that these common words of the two 1,000 most frequent word lists belong indeed to the most frequent words of the English language; more than 94% of the 672 words are contained in the first two lists (the 2,000 most frequent words of the English language). Comparison of all the items of the CBS with the 16 BNC lists indicated that whereas more than 80% of the tokens included in both the old and new CBs are included in the 3,000 most frequent words of the English language according to the BNC frequency lists, the same does not apply to the case of types; only half of the types (54.85%) of the Funway series and less than half (42.36%) of the types of the new series are included in the 3,000 most frequent words of English. This last discrepancy between the tokens and types is largely explained by the ‘Not in the lists’ category which contains words that were not found in any of the 16 BNC lists; 22.49% of the types in the Funway series and 34.98% of the types in the NCBs are not present in the 16 BNC lists and further qualitative analysis indicate that this is largely due to the increased presence of the Greek items.
4.3. Recycling of Vocabulary in the CBs
The horizontal mode of analysis focused on identifying repetition of English vocabulary items of the first CB in the second, of the second one in the third one, and of the first one in the second and third ones together. This form of comparison indicated, on the one hand, the degree of repetition within the
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same type of CBs (old or new) and, on the other hand, the degree of expanded repetition (cf. Baddeley, 1990, cited in Schmitt, 2000) one year after or two years after the first CB had been taught. The results from this analysis showed that about two thirds of the types of the Funway series are repeated (at least once) in each successive CB (63.97% and 67.51%). Funway 2 and 3 repeat 78.62% of the items presented in Funway 1. With reference to the NCBs, 78.09% of 4th grade NCB vocabulary items are repeated in the 5th and 6th grade NCBs. The above data were supplemented with the calculation of the precise number of repetition for each item. In the results that follow only items with a number of 5 or more occurrences were included. With respect to the Funway CBs only 433 out of the 847 repeated items between Funway 1 and Funway 2 and 656 out of the 1,525 repeated items between Funway 2 and Funway 3, occur five or more times. Out of the 1,041 types found inFunway 2 and Funway 3 only 473 (45.43%) were found to be recycled five or more times. As far as the number of repetitions in the NCBs is concerned, 847 types (56.43%) of 4th grade NCB are repeated five or more times in the5th grade NCB; the respective number of types of the 5th grade NCB repeated in the 6th grade NCB is 1,296 (45.42%, Table 4.19). This shows that as in the case of the old material only about half of the items are recycled at least five times. Even when viewed collectively, 5th and 6th grade NCBs fail to recycle 4th grade’s types to a great extent; of the 1,718 types found in the 5th and 6th grade NCBs only 916 (53.31%) are repeated at least five times. Further analysis examined the recycling of the vocabulary items in the same unit of student book and workbook. In other words, we examined whether each unit in a workbook recycles vocabulary items of the corresponding unit of the student book. Results indicated that types found in the student book units of the NCBs are slightly better recycled in the corresponding units of the workbooks; the averages of 79.13%, 72.85%, and 75.16% of the Funway CBs (Table 4.27) are slightly lower than the corresponding averages of 85.36%, 77.23%, and 78.60% of the NCBs (Table 4.28).
5. Concluding Remarks
The primary aim of this study was to conduct a corpus-based comparative study of the old and new English CBs in Greek State primary schools; in particular, the study investigated the breadth, frequency, and recycling of vocabulary items of the CBs. The major finding in terms of size was that theNCBs include more than double tokens and types than those found in the Funway series. As far as frequency of items is concerned, items of the old CBs proved to be those that are slightly more frequent in the English language according to the BNC lists. Regarding
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the recycling of vocabulary items, both the old CBs and the NCBs only partially recycle their lexical items. A finding influencing all the above variables was found to be the increased percentage of Greek items (mainly in the appendix sections) in the NCBs. This study attempted to enrich research regarding vocabulary issues of the English CBs taught in Greek State primary schools. In particular, the findings regarding the breadth, frequency and recycling of lexical items in these CBs are expected to be useful to teachers and course designers. Primary school English language teachers have to take into consideration the increased vocabulary size of the NCBs and focus on the high frequency items of each unit or CB by teaching it explicitly (cf. Nation, 2001b) in an attempt to reduce significant lexical burden created by the increased size of vocabulary of the NCBs. The identification of the high frequency items should also be followed by a recycling of these items given their increased frequency in the English language. In turn, course designers are expected to take into consideration the high frequency vocabulary and the need to recycle it. More frequent vocabulary items of the English language, preferably those belonging to the first two BNC lists (2,000 most frequent items), should be included in all English CBs. Also, the direct teaching of the, which is among the most frequent items in almost all frequency lists, seems to have passed unnoticed by all stakeholders (Pedagogic Institute, state consultants, course designers, and some teachers) of the educational context who should perhaps include the in the appropriate grammar sections (articles) of the CBs. Finally, the thematic content of the units should be organized in such a way that it will allow adequate recycling of all the previously presented vocabulary. The findings of the present study have shed light to a number of differences in terms of breadth, frequency, and recycling of vocabulary items between the older and new CBs. Most importantly, the increased number of tokens in the NCBs, the insufficient recycling of vocabulary in the series and the presence of some Greek vocabulary in some of the NCBs should raise awareness of all stakeholders in the educational context and initiate efforts of improving CBs taught at schools so that the level of the English language learning and teaching is of the best quality. The NCBs may have included cross-curricular/ cross-cultural content, self-assessment and portfolio sections, strategy sections, grammar tables, pedagogically informed guidelines for teachers but it is the writer’s opinion that more can be done in terms of vocabulary. For vocabulary instruction is too serious a matter to be dealt with unsystematically.
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