& '91 The Science Review of the Bedford Institute of Oceanography, the Halifax Fisheries Research Laboratory, and the St. Andrews Biological Station describes the research and survey programs being undertaken at these three federal establishments. The broad objectives of the programs are: l to perform applied research leading to the provision of advice on the management of marine and freshwater environments, including fisheries and offshore hydrocarbon resources; l to perform targeted basic research in accordance with departmental mandates; l to perform surveys and cartographic work necessary for ensuring a supply of suitable navigational charts for the region stretching from Georges Bank to the Northwest Passage in the Canadian Arctic; l to respond with all relevant expertise and assistance to major marine environmental emergencies.

Three departments are involved: the Department of Fisheries and Oceans; the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources; and Environment Canada. The work encompasses the fields of marine geology and geophysics, physical oceanography, marine chemistry, biological oceanography, fisheries research, seabird research, and navigational surveys and cartography. Contents

RESEARCH The Science Review of the 1990 and ‘91 in review Bedford Institute of Oceanography, by S. B. MacPhee, D. I. Ross, and H. B. Nicholls ...... 1 the Halifax Fisheries Research Laboratory, and the St. Andrews Detecting the effects of marine pollution Biological Station is published by the Scotia-Fundy Region of the by R. F. Addison ...... 9 Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Population energetics of seals on the Scotian Shelf by W. D. Bowen ...... 13 Change-of-address notices and other correspondence regarding The phytoplankton profiling project this publication should be sent to: by G. L. Bugden, D. V. Subba Rao, and P. A. Yeats ...... 18 Marine Assessment and Liaison Division Development of a Canadian ocean mapping system Department of Fisheries and by G. Costello, D. Peyton, and G. Lebans ...... 23 Oceans Bedford Institute of Oceanography The role of information in a scientific community P.O. Box 1006 by A. Fiander ...... 33 Dartmouth, Nova Scotia Canada B2Y 4A2 Geographic information systems applied to the Cat. no. Fs75-104/1991E production of nautical charts ISBN 0-662-20245-7 by D. R. Frizzle, D. D. Nicholson, S. A. Smith, and H. P. Varma ...... 35. La version française est disponible.

From oceanographic research to operational oceanography (c) Minister of Supply and Services by D. Gregory ...... 38. Canada 1992

Fish and invertebrate nutrition Editors: by S. P. Lull and J. D. Castell ...... 42 To June 1992: Thea E. Smith, TES Technical Services, Shellfish culture in Nova Scotia Halifax, Nova Scotia by R. E. Lavoie, D. J. Scarratt, K. Freeman, and B. Bradford . . 47 From July 1992: Joanne Cook, CEF consultants Ltd., Lobster habitat ecology research in the Bay of Fundy Halifax, Nova Scotia by P. Lawton and D. A. Robichuud ...... 53 Production: Arthur Cosgrove Physics and biology of the Georges Bank frontal system by J. W. Loder, R. I. Perry, K. F. Drinkwater, J. Grant, Photographs: BIO Photography Unit G. C. Harding, W. G. Harrison, E. P. W. Horne, N. S. Oakey, C. T. Taggart, M. J. Tremblay, Electronic Assembly: Paragon Services, D. Brickman, and M. M. Sinclair ...... 57 Lower SackvilIe, Nova Scotia Gravity and magnetic surveys with C.S.S. Baffin Printer: by B. D. Loncarevic and G. C. Rockwell ...... 62 McCurdy Printing and Typesetting Limited, continued... Halifax, Nova Scotia The Atlantic Fisheries Adjustment Program by R. O’Boyle, K. Drinkwater, B. Petrie, T. W. Rowell, and W. P. Vass ...... 68 .

Water-level instrumentation and data dissemination: A look at the present and the future by C. T. O’Reilly, G. D. Steeves, S. de Margerie, and T. Millen ...... 75

Digital techniques for sidescan sonar and seismic data acquisition and display by D. R. Parrott, B. C. Nichols, J. R. Currie, R. G. Currie, and R. C. Courtney ...... 79

Concerns addressed in the ocean dumping permit process by D. Peer, N. Prouse, and G. Seibert ...... 84

Swordfish research and assessment by J. M. Porter ...... 87

Monitoring the properties of sea ice for coupled ice-ocean modeling and ice forecasting by S. J. Prinsenberg and G. A. Fowler ...... 91

Science and salmon management in the 1990s by J. A. Ritter and R. E. Cutting ...... 96

Impacts of nearshore sedimentary processes on hydrocarbon development in the Beaufort Sea by S. Solomon ...... 100

The effect of flow on the suspension feeding of molluscs by D. J. Wildish ...... 108

Understanding oil and gas distribution in offshore sedimentary basins: A research strategy for the 1990s by M. A. Williamson and K. D. McAlpine ...... 111

ORGANIZATION AND STAFF ...... 119 Editor's note: This edition of PROJECTS ...... 121 the Science Review was produced using Aldus(R) FreehandTM, VOYAGES ...... 130 Aldus(R) PageMakerTM, and Microsoft(R) WordTM on an CHARTS AND PUBLICATIONS ...... 149 Apple Macintosh IIci computer. Research 1990 and ‘91 in review S. B. MacPhee, D. I. Ross, and H. B. Nicholls

Dr. Keen wrote one of the first textbooks on marine geophysics, and rose to be the Chairman of the Department of Geology and Assistant Dean of Science. He joined AGC in 1977 as its second Director and remained in that post for 11 years. He led major growth of the Centre by securing strong support from a number of govern- ment initiatives, including the Frontier Geoscience Program. He was a strong supporter of international science, and spearheaded the initiative for Canada to join the Ocean Drilling Program. In 1988, Dr. Keen “returned to the bench” to pur- sue studies of the origin and distribution of metamorphic rocks on the seafloor, and D. I. Ross, S. B. MacPhee, and H. B Nicholls the impact of recent geological processes on global climate change. Although it was a period of financial Bellefontaine as Regional Director- restraint, the years 1990 and ‘91 were General of the Scotia-Fundy Region. Awards, appointments, and interesting and fruitful ones for the research Mr. Bellefontaine assumed his new presentations and survey programs carried out at the duties in late 1990 and replaced Mr. Jean- The following were among the Bedford Institute of Oceanography (BIO), Eude Haché, who became Assistant awards, appointments, and presentations the Halifax Fisheries Research Laboratory, Deputy Minister of Fisheries Operations. involving staff of the laboratories: and the St. Andrews Biological Station. Within the Atlantic Geoscience Cen- l Dr. Shubha Sathyendranath, Adjunct The following paragraphs describe a tre (AGC) of DEMR, there were a number Research Scientist in the Biological number of significant events that occurred of key staff changes. Mr. Don McAlpine Oceanography Division of DFO, was during those years at the laboratories of the replaced Dr. Mel Best as Head of Basin awarded the EUROSENSE Prize for Department of Fisheries and Oceans Analysis when the latter transferred to the 1989. This award is presented by the (DFO), and at those of the Department of Pacific Geoscience Centre. In addition, Remote Sensing Society for work Energy, Mines and Resources (DEMR) and Dr. Jacob Verhoef replaced Dr. Matt published in its International Journal of Environment Canada. Salisbury as Head of Regional Reconnais- Remote Sensing.

sance, and Mr. George McCormack (on l Dr. Trevor Platt, Head of the Biological Staff assignment from Statistics Canada) took Oceanography Division of DFO, was Within DFO, the one senior staff over the responsibilities of Head of elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of change was the appointment of Mr. Neil Administration upon the departure from Canada. BIO of Ms. Carol Racine. Within Environment Canada, Dr. Harry Samant, Chief of the Regional Laboratory (Environmental Protection), left the Institute to take up a new appoint- ment with Public Works Canada.

In memorium Dr. Michael J. Keen, former Director of AGC, died suddenly at home on Janu- ary 8, 1991. He began his career at Dalhousie University in 1961, with a mandate to establish the first academic N. Bellefontaine program in marine geophysics in Canada. M. J. Keen

1 Research l Dr. Peta Mudie, Research Scientist in understanding of circulation and mixing inorganic nutrients, feces, and, in the case the Environmental Marine Geology on the continental shelf and in lakes. of finfish aquaculture, ungrazed food. A Subdivision of AGC, was elected a Fel- multidisciplinary program is being under- low of the Royal Society of Canada. Research and survey highlights taken which aims to develop a hierarchy l Dr. Alan Longhurst, Research Scientist Some of the major events that oc- of computer impact assessment models. in the Biological Oceanography Divi- curred during the 1990-91 biennium are Underlying the development of the sion of DFO, was awarded the 1991 listed below by broad geographic region. numerical models are associated field Gold Medal by the Professional Insti- Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, Bay studies. One example in 1991 was an tute of the Public Service of Canada for of Fundy: In August 1990, AGC and the experiment, conducted in cooperation his cumulative influence in the devel- University of Maine studied the shallow with SeaFarms Canada Limited, to deter- opment of Canadian oceanography. geology of the Gulf of Maine in a project mine the flushing rate in the vicinity of l Dr. Charlotte Keen, Research Scientist sponsored by the U.S. National Science salmon cages located in the L’Etang area in the Regional Reconnaissance Subdi- Foundation (NSF). The purpose of the of New Brunswick, and to determine the vision of AGC, was named the 1991 study, which took place aboard the NSF rate’s correlation with current velocity, Rutherford Lecturer for her contribu- vessel Cape Hatteras, was to determine cage fouling, and stocking density. tion to understanding the development how the Gulf of Maine developed from a During both 1990 and ‘91, research of continental margins and associated basin filled with glacial ice into the on lobster migrations in the Gulf of Maine sedimentary basins. biologically productive body of water that area continued. Movements over long l Dr. Ken Frank, Research Scientist in it is today. During the cruise, the deep- distances, sometimes as great as 100 km, the Marine Fish Division of DFO, was towed, high-resolution seismic reflection are unique to the Gulf of Maine and parts named the 1992 J. C. Stevenson Lec- system developed by Huntec Ltd., a of the southern New England shelf. turer. This prestigious lectureship was Canadian company, provided high- Movements along the Eastern and South instituted in honour of Cam Stevenson, quality profiles of the seafloor and Shores of Nova Scotia, the Gulf of St. the longtime editor of the Canadian subsurface. Maps and reports prepared Lawrence, and Newfoundland are gener- Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic from the joint survey will aid in the ally less than 10 km. Migration studies in Sciences. geological interpretation of this region. the Gulf of Maine have identified three Huntsman Award: The A. G. Hunts- Work continued during 1990 on a common elements: the vast majority of man Award for excellence in the marine project to examine the population struc- tagged animals are recaptured near the sciences is administered by a private ture of the sea scallop on major east coast area of release; long-distance return foundation based at BIO. It was awarded fishing grounds. The approach adopted migrations occur; and a small percentage twice during the period covered by this was to determine differences in shell mor- of animals move very long distances in Review: phology and to identify groups showing what appears to be a one-way dispersal. On January 8, 1991, Dr. Nick common morphological traits. The work This research, which is important for stock Shackleton of Cambridge University was involved the collection of over 1,000 management purposes, is continuing. presented with the 1990 Huntsman Medal shells of four- and five-year-old scallops Scotian Shelf: The Scotian Shelf in recognition of his innovative work on from the Bay of Fundy, Georges Bank, Basin Atlas, the second in an east coast paleo-oceanography and the development Western Bank, and St. Pierre Bank. series being produced by the AGC as a of oxygen isotopic stratigraphy. An important emerging issue ad- synthesis of existing geoscience knowl- On November 15, 1991, Dr. Gabriel dressed throughout the review period is edge of frontier basins, was published in Csandy of Old Dominion University in the environmental impact of aquaculture 1991. The atlas covers bathymetry, Norfolk, Virginia, was presented with the on the coastal zone. The main impacts are surficial geology, structural geology, geo- 1991 Huntsman Medal in recognition of thought to be due to the release of physical parameters, biostratigraphy, his fundamental contributions to the dissolved and particulate wastes such as seismostratigraphy, and paleo-environ- mental conditions throughout the period of formation of the sedimentary basins. During a 1990 cruise of C.S.S. Dawson, DFO scientists investigated euphausiid abundance on the Scotian Shelf. They utilized a Batfish-mounted optical plankton counter, the BIONESS plankton net sampler, and multifrequency acoustics. The research, which focused on Emerald Basin and the “Gully” (a canyon at the shelf edge adjacent to Banquereau Bank), is of interest to fisheries managers, since euphausiids may provide a winter N. Shackleton G. Csandy food source for silver hake in Emerald

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components: a mark-recapture experi- ment to determine the size of the bluefin tuna school in the Hell Hole, and an ultra- sonic telemetry experiment to assess mortality rates and follow tuna move- ments during the fishery. A total of 133 tuna have been tagged in the two years since the experiment began. The move- ments of telemetry-tagged fish show that tuna remain active after being tagged and released. Additional mark-recapture and telemetry experiments are planned for 1992. Scientists from DFO joined col- leagues from Dalhousie University, Memorial University, the University of Quebec at Rimouski, Lava1 University, McGill University, the University of British Columbia, and Simon Fraser Uni- versity for an interdisciplinary study of Atlantic cod and sea scallops during the review period. The research is being carried out as part of the Ocean Produc- The Batfish tion Enhancement Network (OPEN), one

Basin. Concentrations were found to be extremely high near the bottom of Emer- ald Basin, a phenomenon which appears to persist throughout the year. However, sampling in the Gully and in the coastal Nova Scotia current showed these areas to be virtually devoid of euphausiids. Over the review period, AGC com- pleted the last of a series of cruises in Halifax Harbour as part of a program to study the geological history of the inlet and to map the distribution of sediments and seabed features. The purpose of this 1990 cruise was to fill in remaining gaps in the data and to collect seabed samples. A digital sidescan sonar system provided detailed information about the harbour floor, while a ROV (remote-operated vehicle) with onboard camera systems investigated sites of particular interest. The resulting geological maps will be use- ful to the engineering community in the design and construction of the new regional sewage system for the Halifax- Dartmouth area. During 1990 and ‘91, personnel at the St. Andrews Biological Station conducted a bluefin tuna tagging experiment in the “Hell Hole” area of Browns Bank. The research was a cooperative effort between the Biological Station and the Southwest Nova Tuna Association and had two The BIONESS net Sampler system. 3 Research of the Networks of Centres of Excellence Atmospheric Environment Service, which Program (CASP) was conducted from (NCE) announced by the government of conducted two flights with synthetic C.S.S. Hudson on the northern Grand Canada in 1990. The principal goal of the aperture radar (SAR) in order to obtain Banks near Hibernia. The major objec- OPEN program is to investigate the proc- microwave images of ice distribution. In tives of the cruise were the following: to esses which control the survival, growth, addition, the Centre for Cold Ocean deploy a mooring array; to conduct a and reproduction and distribution of these Resources Engineering, at Memorial hydrographic survey of the area; to carry species. In addition to government and University in Newfoundland, deployed a out surface drifter studies along the in- university support, the OPEN program sonic sensor for measuring ice ablation, shore edge of the Labrador Current; and receives funding from the three major and collected ice-melt data from the to coordinate Batfish and acoustic Dop- fishing companies in Atlantic Canada. bottom of a floe. pler current profiler transects of the Lab- C.S.S. Hudson’s AGC cruise to Sable In 1990, AGC scientists collaborated rador Current with SAR measurements Island Bank in March 1990 provided a with French colleagues from IFREMER in made by aircraft flying along the same valuable database on sediment stability a study of the continental margin of the track. While several fierce storms resulted and the internal fabric of the sands com- southeast Grand Banks. The joint cruise in problems with moored instruments and prising the bank. Vibracores, box cores, onboard C.S.S. Hudson utilized the other equipment, the experiment was suc- and large grabs of bottom sediment across French high-precision, deep-tow digital cessful in many respects and useful data the postulated position of a “hydraulic sidescan (SAR) and the Canadian Huntec were obtained. fence” demonstrated a dramatic change in system to image the seafloor across the Arctic: In January 1990, Soviet sediment type. Above the fence, sedi- margin in an investigation of slope stabil- geologists from the All Union Ocean ments are well-sorted sands, while below ity and debris flows. Research Institute in Leningrad visited it they are silty or clay-like. The hydraulic During the summer of 1991, C.S.S. Canada to work on the final stage of the fence barrier to sand transport is caused Dawson completed the first of a series of Circum-Arctic Quaternary Mapping by a major change in the magnitude and cruises to investigate the impacts of Project. The result was the first map to direction of the current flow on the bank fishing gear on the benthic habitat of show the genesis, age, and material edges. It appears from this work that Sa- Canadian fishing banks. Surveys were composition of Quaternary deposits in the ble Island Bank is analogous to ancient conducted at two sites: an area just north region from latitude 65°N to the North petroleum reservoirs, and that the hydrau- of Hibernia on the Grand Banks, and one Pole. The western part of the map was lic fence is a viable mechanism for the on Western Bank on the Scotian Shelf. produced collaboratively by scientists at generation of reservoir-scale sand bodies Side-scan sonar was used to map the dis- the Geological Survey of Canada and at the edge of continental shelves. tribution of trawl and dredge marks on the marine geologists from AGC. The eastern Grand Banks, Labrador Sea: In seafloor, and sampling gear was equipped portion was compiled by geologists from January 1990, scientists onboard C.S.S. with video cameras to supply information the Soviet institute. The map, which was Hudson worked in the region of the about the efficiency of the gear and the produced using the Canadian CARIS Southeast Newfoundland Ridge. This was composition of benthic communities. computerized geographic information the Hudson’s first cruise after an extended In late 1991, the initial cruise of system and which complements the mid-life refit. The cruise was part of a the second Canadian Atlantic Storms Circum-Arctic Geology Map that the two study of the flow across this ridge, the objective of which was to gain a quantita- tive understanding of the role of ocean currents in transporting heat from south- em latitudes to the northern North Atlan- tic. A seven-mooring current meter array that had been set from the Hudson in April 1988 was recovered during the cruise, and various measurements of tem- perature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and nutrients were taken. A survey of the pack ice off the Newfoundland and Labrador coast was conducted in March 1990 during a cruise of C.S.S. Baffin. The work was part of the Labrador Ice Margin Experiment (LIMEX), which has been undertaken annually since 1987. The cruise studied the oceanic conditions and ice move- ment during the retreating phase. It was The Polarstern, a German icebreaker. was one of the first conventionally powered ships led by DFO, in cooperation with the to reach the North Pole as part of the Arctic ‘91 expedition.

4 Research countries published jointly in 1989, (20 m per 1,000 years). These high rates was released to the public during the in a deep-sea environment provided visit of President Gorbachev to Ottawa unique conditions for testing the corer, in June 1990. which was initially developed at the That same year, the successful recov- University of Rhode Island with par- ery of two sediment traps moored under ticipation from AGC. The successful Canada’s Ice Island research station pro- deployment during the 1990 cruise led to The GPS screen reading at the North Pole. vided the first annual record of particulate interest being expressed by several other matter sedimentation in the upper water countries. column of the Arctic Ocean. The field were onboard both the Oden and the In March and April 1990, DFO chem- work, completed in early September, was Polarstern. Unfortunately, Polarstar ists participated in the first cruise of a undertaken as a joint project between developed problems with a propeller shaft multi-year international investigation of scientists from DFO and AGC. and was forced to retire from the expedi- baseline levels of inorganic contaminants In 1991, the Environmental Marine tion. Scientific programs on Oden focused in the Atlantic Ocean. This project was Geology subdivision at AGC initiated col- on studying the origin and circulation of developed by the Intergovernmental laborative studies with Hydro-Québec to water masses within the Arctic Ocean, the Oceanographic Commission’s Environ- investigate the environmental impact of radiation properties of sea ice, and proc- ment Programme Group of Experts on hydroelectric projects such as the pro- esses involved in cloud formation in the Methods, Standards, and Intercalibration, posed Grande Baleine development. Arctic. The Polarstern and Polarstar sci- with considerable input from DFO scien- Under the terms of the collaboration, AGC ence programs were primarily geological tists. The first cruise was conducted on the will provide the regional perspective and included studying the history of German research vessel Meteor with par- seaward of the proposed outflows, and seafloor spreading within the Arctic ticipation by marine geochemists from Hydro-Québec will undertake the Ocean basin and the history of the several countries. The main objective of detailed, site-specific studies near the region’s climate. On September 7, both this project is to determine the back- river mouths. The regional work will Oden and Polarstern arrived at the North ground distributions of trace inorganic provide the overview and context for the Pole. This marked the first time conven- contaminants in the major deep-water site-specific work, both aspects being tionally powered ships reached the Pole, masses of the Atlantic Ocean. essential for understanding the cumula- and the first time ever that two surface In April and May 1991, studies were tive impact of the projects. A major cruise ships were at the North Pole together. undertaken in the North Atlantic in sup- of C.S.S. Hudson to Hudson Bay and Offshore and international: In port of two major global research pro- James Bay is planned for 1992. 1990, a C.S.S. Hudson cruise to the grams: the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study During August 1991, two BIO scien- northeast Bermuda Rise provided the (JGOFS) and the World Ocean Circulation tists, Dr. John Vandermeulen and Dr. Don opportunity for the first sea trial of Experiment (WOCE). During April, as Gordon, visited Prince William Sound, AGC’s modified “long corer”. This part of part of the JGOFS program, scientists Alaska, the site of the 1989 Exxon Valdez the Atlantic Ocean is a sediment-drift onboard C.S.S. Hudson investigated spill. When the Exxon Valdez grounded region with very high sedimentation rates oceanographic events surrounding the on March 24, 1989, it spilled 36,000 t of Prudhoe Bay crude oil into Prince William Sound, contaminating about 20% of the shoreline with oil. Exxon undertook a cleanup program which continues to the present. Visiting teams of scientists, including Vandermeulen and Gordon, witnessed once heavily contaminated shorelines that now bear few traces of oil. Intertidal plant and animal communities appear healthy and productive, and other information indicates that marine mammal and fish populations are at normal levels. Arctic ‘91, an international scientific expedition to the Arctic Ocean, took place from August through October of 1991. The expedition initially comprised three ships: the Swedish icebreaker Oden, the German icebreaker Polarstern, and the U.S. icebreaker Polar-star. BIO scientists Atlantic Geoscience Centre’s “Long Corer”

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spring bloom of phytoplankton, a brief mals from seeing the approaching net. research. One such facility, the Atlantic period of intense biological activity in the The experiment showed that, with the Reference Centre (ARC), marked its sev- oceans that accounts for a substantial light, the BIONESS caught orders of enth year of operation in 1991. Located on fraction of the year’s total primary magnitude more euphausiids during both the grounds of the St. Andrews Biological production. During May, the Hudson was day and night than it did without the light. Station, the ARC is a joint project of DFO involved in WOCE activities to define The outcome of the experiment has and the Huntsman Marine Science Centre. water transports into and out of the north- important implications for krill biomass It houses collections of aquatic biota from west Atlantic Ocean. Also on this second estimates in the Antarctic and other the Atlantic region and serves as a centre cruise, measurements in support of the oceans, suggesting that the biomass for taxonomy, life history, functional JGOFS work were taken to assess the should be orders of magnitude higher than morphology, the determination of envi- transport of dissolved inorganic carbon to previously thought. ronmental baselines, and the provision of the ocean interior. Both cruises were In December 1990, Dr. Allister ecological advice. The ARC museum now undertaken in cooperation with ships McVicar from the Marine Laboratory in contains over three million samples of from other nations. Aberdeen, Scotland, and Dr. Trevor preserved organisms, ranging from In December 1991, Dr. Alex Herman Evelyn from the Pacific Biological protozoans to fishes (freshwater, estua- of DFO participated in a cruise on the Station in Nanaimo, B.C., conducted an rine, and marine) and including marine American vessel Cape Hatteras as a co- in-depth peer review of the DFO Scotia- algae. Construction of a building to investigator in the U.S.-sponsored South Fundy Fish Disease Program based at the accommodate the collections, which are Atlantic Bight Recruitment Experiment Halifax Fisheries Research Laboratory. currently housed in a trailer complex, was (SABRE). The project is developing tech- Both scientists have longstanding exper- begun in late 1991. niques for detecting and measuring the tise in fish diseases in the traditional The Canadian Ocean Mapping Sys- concentration of Atlantic menhaden eggs fisheries and aquaculture industries of tem (COMS), an initiative to implement along the east coast of the U.S. and in the Scotland and the west coast of Canada. Canada’s Ocean Strategy, progressed Gulf of Mexico. Surveys of menhaden The review included an assessment of the favourably during the review period. The eggs could provide important information program’s scientific content and its goal of this cooperative venture between required by stock assessment scientists, relevance to the needs of Atlantic Canada. government, industry, and universities is and the new techniques could eventually The review report was favourable; in to enhance ocean-mapping capability in be used by DFO’s east coast ichthyo- particular it lauded the close link between the private sector through technology plankton programs. The SABRE cruise the diagnostic and research components transfer. To achieve this, the remotely resulted in successful sea trials of the of the program, and commended the operated semi-submersible DOLPHIN has system for counting menhaden. provision of integrated advice on disease been transferred to industry, where a new AGC’s Kate Moran participated in the control. multi-beam sonar system has been 1990 Ocean Drilling Program Leg 131 During 1991 and ‘92, researchers at installed and a handling system to launch cruise to the Nankai Trough. The accre- BIO and McGill University made progress and recover the system has been devel- tionary prism of this trough is the product toward developing a relatively simple oped. In addition, DFO staff are working of subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate computer model which can be used to closely with industry and the University below the Honshu Arc. The focus of the study the very long time-scales of interest of New Brunswick’s Ocean Mapping drilling program was to study the influ- to modellers of ocean climate. The Group to develop software for managing ence of pore fluids on the accretionary model’s key innovation is its ability to the data that the system will collect. wedge, the mechanical state and physical efficiently represent the circulation of properties of deformed sediments, and the individual ocean basins by using zonally Task force membership fabric and structural styles of accreted averaged equations of motion. The Staff were appointed to a variety of sediments. An in situ lateral stress tool resulting global ocean model yields a national and international task forces and developed by AGC in cooperation with realistic representation at sensitivities other working groups during the review university and industry partners was used found in much more sophisticated and period, including the following: for the first time to measure stress and expensive models. In addition, it can l Dr. T. Platt, Head of DFO’s Biological pore pressure in the accretionary prism. reproduce present oceanic conditions and Oceanography Division, was appointed Non-site-specific: An experiment processes - for example, the formation of Chairman of the Joint Global Ocean was conducted from C.S.S. Dawson in deep water in the North Atlantic and its Flux Study (JGOFS) international May 1990 to test the hypothesis that a flow into the Pacific and Indian oceans program. In this particular position he light on the Canadian BIONESS net via the Southern Ocean, where it slowly will lead a group of international scien- system reduces net avoidance by euphau- upwells and eventually returns to the tists in the study of the ocean carbon siids, and results in population estimates North Atlantic as near-surface water. cycle and its effect on climate. much closer to those given by other meth- Natural history facilities dedicated to l Dr. M. Best, Head of AGC’s Basin ods. It is believed that euphausiids use the long-term maintenance of important Analysis Subdivision, was appointed to visual cues to avoid predators and nets, taxonomic collections are becoming the Canada-Newfoundland Offshore and that the bright light prevents the ani- increasingly important in marine Oil and Gas Committee in 1990.

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Conferences and workshops concurrent sessions and over 100 poster with various scientists in an informal During the review period, the follow- presentations. setting in order to discuss common areas ing conferences and workshops were ICES Working Group on Environmental of interest and concern. Several of among several held at, or sponsored in Assessment and Monitoring Strategies the many items on display were the whole or in part by, the three regional - This working group held its first result of technology transfer involving facilities: meeting outside of continental Europe DFO and DEMR scientists at BIO. GLOBEC Workshop - Sponsored by the when it met at the Halifax Fisheries Other technology transfer highlights U.S. Joint Oceanographic Institutions Research Laboratory and BIO from during the review period include the and involving Canadian and U.S. scien- November 4-8, 1991. following: tists supplemented by several other Joint Annual Meeting and Conference l A Transfer of Technology Agreement experts, this event was held at BIO from of the World Aquaculture Society and was signed between DFO and ORACLE June 19-21, 1990. GLOBEC (Global the Aquaculture Association of Canada Canada Corporation so that spatial data Ocean Ecosystems Dynamics) is - This major event, held in Halifax in structuring techniques developed by designed to evaluate the likely conse- June 1990, involved staff of the Halifax DFO’s Canadian Hydrographic Service quences of changes in global climate Fisheries Research Laboratory and the and physics on the sustainability of St. Andrews Biological Station as offic- animal production in the sea. The focus ers of the societies, organizers of meet- of the BIO meeting was a proposed ings, and chairs of sessions. GLOBEC study in the Georges Bank/ Fourth Biennial Benthic Workshop - Gulf of Maine region. The 1991 workshop in this series, held 1990 Canadian Workshop on Harmful at the St. Andrews Biological Station, Marine Algae - This workshop (the focussed on the impacts of mariculture second in the series) was held at BIO on coastal systems. from October 2-4, 1990. It involved 60 participants from government, acade- Technology transfer mia, and industry who discussed recent A major open house was held at BIO research in the fields of the ecology, from October 18-20, 1990, during which toxicity, monitoring, and chemistry of the Institute was host to almost 30,000 toxin-producing algae. members of the general public. The day Halifax Inlet Research Workshop - before the open house, October 17, was This workshop, held at BIO on February designated “client day”, which gave BIO’s 13, 1991, provided a forum for the clients from industry, universities, and presentation and discussion of government the opportunity to tour the Young visitors to the BIO Fish Laboratory research results and plans pertaining to open house exhibits, attend sessions on during the 1990 Open House. the inlet. A workshop on the same topic the science activities at BIO, and meet had been held in 1989. In addition to scientists, the audience comprised persons from a wide variety of back- grounds, including members of the joint federal-provincial environmental review panel that is examining the environmental implications of the proposed regional sewage treatment facility. Workshop on the Environmental Aspects of Aquaculture - This national workshop was held at BIO on March 5 and 6, 1991. Participants represented DFO, relevant provincial agencies, and the aquaculture industry. American Society of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO) - BIO hosted ASLO’s 1991 annual summer meeting at Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, from June 10-13. The meeting drew the largest number of participants in recent memory (650) with 400 papers in four Students take a close look at BIO during the 1990 Open House.

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could be investigated and implemented Of particular interest were the visits to Station was officially opened and dedi- as a marketable database product. BIO by the following: the Commons cated to Dr. H. B. Hachey (1901-85) in l AGC continued to provide geological Standing Committee on Industry, Science recognition of his significant contribu- advice to the oil industry with regard to and Technology, Regional and Northern tion to marine science in Atlantic offshore exploration and production. In Development; the Select Committee on Canada. particular, during 1990 and 1991 Energy and Processing of Resources of l During 1990, a “mini-supercomputer”, considerable emphasis was placed on the Legislative Assembly of Western a Stardent 3040, was installed at BIO for the Cohasset-Panuke-Balmoral devel- Australia; the Minister of Fisheries of the physical oceanography modelling opment offshore Nova Scotia, which former Soviet Union; Dr. R. K. Steedman, applications. began production in 1992. Chairman-Designate of the Australian l Two of BIO’s major research vessels, l Technology transfer in the field of Institute of Marine Sciences; the Engi- C.S.S. Baffin and C.S.S. Dawson, were aquaculture continued during the neering Committee on Oceanic Resources retired from active service during 1991. review period. A focus for such transfer (ECOR) on the occasion of its 1990 Part of the Baffin workload will be was the Atlantic Aquaculture Fair, General Assembly and Council Meeting; taken up by C.S.S. Matthew, transferred which is held annually in St. Andrews M. Pierre Papon, President of IFREMER, from DFO’s Newfoundland Region, and involves staff of the St. Andrews France; the Canadian Commission for while the Dawson will be replaced by Biological Station. UNESCO; and members of the Japan C.S.S. Parizeau, to be transferred from l Technology transfers to industry Marine Science and Technology Centre DFO’s Pacific Region in January 1992. involving instruments and other items (JAMSTEC). of hardware during 1990 and ‘91 in- Publications cluded the BIO water sampling bottle, Support services The establishments reach their the AGC vibracoring system, the BUD With regard to support services, respective clients and customers through (biological upwelling and down- items of interest during the 1990-91 a variety of means, including journal welling) probe, and an underwater biennium include the following: articles, reports, and nautical charts. magnetic release mechanism. l C.S.S. Hudson returned to service on During 1990 and ‘91, the published March 9, 1991, after an extensive refit output of the establishments continued Visitors that included the replacement of two high. In particular, several books and As in previous years, the three main engines. atlases were produced. Full details are regional establishments received many l On May 23, 1991, a new conference provided in the section of this Review special visitors from Canada and abroad. room at the St. Andrews Biological entitled “Charts and Publications”.

C.S.S. Baffin and C.S.S. Dawson retired from service in 1991.

8 Research Detecting the effects of marine pollution R. F. Addison

measured here - death - is not a useful exposed to these chemicals. During the indicator of the quality of lakes or last 20 years, we have done a lot of work the open sea. We need a measure of to characterize the MFO systems in fish, environmental quality that records a and to define what chemicals induce change long before organisms begin to them, how the induction process varies die, and that is what many of the newer with exposure and dosage, and how effects-monitoring methods provide. induction is influenced by natural factors We can think of biological effects as like the age of the fish and its sex and occurring at different levels of biological reproductive condition. As a result, we complexity. Some are biochemical have “calibrated” the MFO response in a effects, where an enzyme or a hormone few species of fish and can use MFO changes in response to pollution. Other measurements to indicate the sublethal R. F. Addison effects may occur in whole organisms, in effects of some marine contaminants. populations or communities, or at other A study of Sydney Harbour in Nova points on a continuum of biological Scotia illustrates the kind of information Most of us think about pollution in organization. In practice, the most useful we get from MFO measurements. This terms of chemistry. We worry about the and sensitive responses involve biochemi- area has been contaminated by PAHs dis- concentration of mercury in fish, or about cal changes, physiological changes within charged during the last 90 years or so the amount of DDT in sea birds. In the whole organisms, and changes in the from the coking operation associated with long run, however, we are not concerned structure of benthic communities. I will the Sydney Steel Corp. (SYSCO). Figure 1 so much about the absolute levels of these describe examples of each of these. is a contour map of PAH contamination in pollutants as about the effects that they the sediments of Sydney Harbour: there is produce. Will high mercury concentra- Measuring biochemical responses a clear gradient of PAH concentrations tions in fish be toxic to anyone who eats to pollution (over a thousand-fold) from locations them? Or will high DDT concentrations One of the best biochemical close to the Sysco steel plant down to the prevent seabirds from breeding? Chemi- measures of the effects of some organic mouth of the harbour. Although the har- cal information is only one step toward contaminants is induction of the mixed- bour is polluted, it supports a varied popu- answering biological questions; we function oxidase (MFO) enzyme system in lation of fish and other marine organisms. describe pollution in chemical terms only fish liver. MFOs in mammals were first because we are better able to measure described about 30 years ago by pharma- small concentrations of chemicals than cologists who were studying how drugs the biological effects that they may cause. and other foreign compounds acted on In other words, analytical chemistry is animals. They found that some drugs more advanced than toxicology. were metabolized by an enzyme system That situation is changing. During induced by exposure to them. Normally, the past 20 years or so, we have devised the enzymes were quite inactive, but if the some very sensitive methods to detect animal were exposed to drugs or other subtle biological changes in organisms foreign chemicals, the activity of the affected by pollutants; these approaches system increased dramatically to degrade have become known as “biological effects and excrete the drug. Once it had rid the monitoring”. In this article I will outline body of the compound, the system some of these approaches and describe reverted to its usual low level of activity. some results of their application. In other words, this MFO system, as it In one sense, that of lethality, we came to be known, functioned as a sort of have used biological-effects monitoring latent defence mechanism for the animal. for a long time. Lethality provides a Many of the chemicals that induced means to estimate the overall quality of MFO systems were pollutants, like poly- industrial effluents; for example, if an chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and effluent kills fish or some other test polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons Figure 1. Concentrations (parts per organism, then regulations may require (PAHs), so it seemed that measuring the billion) of polynuclear aromatic hydro- that it be diluted to some nonlethal activity of the MFO system would show carbons (PAHs) in the sediments of concentration. But the biological effect the extent to which the animal had been Sydney Harbour.

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In 1989 and ‘90, we measured MFO growth. SFG provides a fairly integrated activity in winter flounder from various measure of the quality of the environment points around the harbour and from in which the bivalves live. It responds to Georges Bay, a reference site chosen specific pollutants such as oil or metals, because there is no obvious source of but also to general factors like food sup- contamination there. (We chose winter ply, temperature, and the oxygen content flounder as our test fish because they do of water, which must be allowed for when not migrate very far, so they will usually interpreting SFG measurements. be fairly representative of their environ- Figure 3 shows some SFG measure- ment. As well, they bury themselves in ments made in blue mussels taken from an sediment and so maximize their exposure industrialized fjord in Norway. The fjord to sediment-bound pollutants.) had been contaminated by various chemi- Figure 2 shows the activity of two cals, including PAHs, PCBs, and metals, MFO enzymes in these test fish: ethoxy- with the highest concentrations of these resorufin O-de-ethylase (EROD) and occurring near the industrial sites at the cyanoethoxycoumarin O-de-ethylase head of the fjord and the lowest levels at (CN-ECOD). EROD and CN-ECOD activi- its mouth (fig. 4). At sites 1 and 2, the ties in fish from Georges Bay were low, Figure 3. Scope for growth (SFG) in mus- least contaminated, the mussels were rela- indicating the absence of any pollution sels from Stations 14 in Langesundfjord, tively healthy and actually gained energy there. As fish from Sydney Harbour were Norway. during the six-hour course of the SFG sampled from locations progressively measurement; this energy would eventu- closer to the steel plant, MFO activity results show a sensitive, sublethal ally have been used for growth or repro- increased along with the increasing PAH response to PAH contamination. A cur- duction. At sites 3 and 4, however, the contamination in the harbour. The corre- sory glance suggests that Sydney Harbour mussels actually lost energy, as shown by lation between MFO activity and PAH is not unhealthy, as it supports a varied a negative SFG, during the measurement distribution was not perfect for a number community of marine organisms. A period. The quality of the habitat at sites 3 of technical reasons, but the general trend superficial examination of the fish sug- and 4 was poor enough to cause the mus- in MFO activity reflects PAH trends very gested that they were healthy, and even sels to ingest and use energy much less well. chemical analysis of the fish did not show efficiently than those from sites 1 and 2. It is worth emphasizing that these any PAH residues (because the MFO sys- tem had partially degraded them). But the induced EROD and CN-ECOD activity showed that exposure to PAHs in Sydney Harbour sediments was affecting the normal biochemical functions of the fish. A biochemical change rather similar to MFO induction occurs in response to exposure to metals. Many organisms detoxify metals such as cadmium by producing a metal-binding protein called metallothionein (MT). Measurement of the concentrations of MT can be used to indicate exposure to metals in much the same way as MFO induction reflects exposure to organic contaminants such as PAHs.

Measuring scope for growth An effects-monitoring method which has been very useful at a higher level of biological complexity is the measurement of “scope for growth” (SFG) in mussels or Figure 2. The activity of two MFO Figure 4. Map of Langesundfjord, Nor- enzymes, EROD and CN-ECOD, in winter other bivalves. SFG is a measurement of way, showing relative concentrations (on flounder trawled at various sites in how bivalves use their energy, reached by different scales) of polynuclear aromatic Sydney Harbour. The height of the calculating the amount of joules (or calo- hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated bars shows the extent of enzyme activity ries) they ingest, and how the absorbed biphenyls (PCBs), and lead (Pb) in mus- (mean ± s.d.). energy is used for maintenance and for sels sampled from stations 14.

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This could affect the long-term survival of species. By counting the numbers of mussel populations at sites 3 and 4. (If the species present, and the number of organ- mussels lost energy continuously in their isms within each species, one can arrive at natural habitat, they would eventually die. an index of the health of a community. In this experiment, however, the negative In marine research, this approach has SFG probably reflects the slightly artifi- been used most often with benthic com- cial but standardized conditions under munities, which are relatively stable. Usu- which SFG was determined.) ally, communities of benthic meiofauna It is worth noting that SFG measure- (animals whose size ranges from 0.1 to ments do not identify a possible cause of a 10 mm) and macrofauna (animals greater deterioration in environmental quality - than 10 mm) are examined separately. unlike MFO induction, the response does Although the modern approaches are not identify the cause - and the reduced based on the same principles as the SFG in mussels from sites 3 and 4 may traditional diversity index approaches, result from the combined effects of they use powerful analytical procedures several contaminants, rather from any one to extract more information from smaller specific contaminant. Again, it is worth data sets. emphasizing that these SFG measure- Studies of sediment communities in ments showed a sublethal effect: mussels Hamilton Harbour, Bermuda, illustrate were obviously living at sites 3 and 4, but the value of these approaches. This under more stressful conditions than at harbour is not industrialized, but it sites 1 and 2. receives some urban runoff from the city of Hamilton and so has slightly Measuring a community’s health elevated levels of lead (probably from The final general approach to detect- gasoline) and PAHs. There are also fairly ing sublethal effects of contaminants is high levels of tri-butyl tin (TBT), a the application of modem statistical meth- component of marine antifouling paints, Figure 6. Two-dimensional representa- ods to data about the abundance and probably contributed by recreational tions of multidimensional scaling (MDS) diversity of species. Healthy communities sailing vessels. plots, which show how closely any one contain not only appreciable numbers of Figure 5 shows sampling stations in station is related to any other station. (a) organisms (consistent with conditions Hamilton Harbour, whose sites were Benthic macrofaunal abundance at sta- such as food supply) but a variety of chosen because they are approximately tions 2-7 in Hamilton Harbour, Bermuda, with four replicate analyses per station. (b) Tributyl tin (TBT) concentrations in the water column above sampling stations 2-7. The diameter of the circles is propor- tional to the concentrations of TBT.

the same depth and have sediments with approximately similar grain sizes, enabling these “nuisance” variables to be eliminated during comparisons of com- munity structures. Figure 6a shows an analysis of the similarity of the structure of macrofaunal communities at these sites, as identified through an approach called multidimensional scaling. Essen- tially, the closer are the points on this plot (where each number represents one site and there are four replicate analyses of each site), the more similar are the sites. The structure of the benthic macrofaunal communities at sites 2, 6, and 7 (all of which are in the inner harbour) differs appreciably from that at site 5 (the outer- most site) and, to a lesser extent, from Figure 5. Sampling stations numbers 2 through 7 in Hamilton Harbour, Bermuda. sites 3 and 4.

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Figure 6b shows concentrations of increases. The choice of an effects- at which biochemical responses showed TBT in the water at these sites, with the monitoring approach therefore depends the effects of contamination were the larger circles indicating greater concen- very much on the problem being ad- same as those at which SFG and commu- trations of TBT. It is clear that sites 2, 6, dressed; to monitor the possible effect of a nity changes also indicated the effects of and 7 are associated with high TBT levels specific contaminant, biochemical re- pollution. in the overlying water, although this sponses are probably the best choice, but a Although the links between correlation does not establish a cause- retrospective assessment of the impact of responses at different levels of organiza- effect relationship between TBT a sewage discharge may best be achieved tion are not understood, the fact that they concentrations and changes in benthic through analysis of benthic community are correlated may have some predictive community structure. Nevertheless, the structure. value. In other words, if we detect MT data show the resolving power of these One final point concerns the mecha- induction in fish from waters which are approaches, even between very similar nisms of these responses. Biochemical beginning to be contaminated by, say, a sample types. measurements are good indicators of the new industrial effluent, we can be reason- sublethal impact of pollution because we ably sure that higher-order responses will Conclusion understand quite well the mechanism by occur in the future. Modern effects-monitoring tech- which the presence of a chemical in the Where do we go from here with niques of the sort described here can pro- environment causes a biochemical effects monitoring? Some of these tech- vide considerable insight into the subtle response. Yet we do not understand these niques, especially those for MFO induc- and sublethal effects of pollution. Each of connections as well in the more complex tion in fish, are already being used for the approaches I have described has responses; thus, we cannot explain in environmental assessments. For example, some strengths and some weaknesses. detail why SFG is lowered in mussels during the last two years the North Sea Biochemical approaches, for example, exposed to a mixture of industrial wastes. Task Force Master Monitoring Plan (an are specific and sensitive, but difficult to However, in situations where several attempt to monitor the overall state of the interpret at the population or community effects-monitoring techniques have been North Sea environment) has included level. For example, how does MFO induc- used together, there have been good EROD measurements as a complement to tion affect the population of winter floun- correlations between responses. Thus, in other measurements. The results of such der in Sydney Harbour? At the other end Hamilton Harbour in Bermuda, the sites programs will allow us to assess the value of the scale, changes in the benthic of these effects-monitoring approaches. macrofaunal community, such as those As a final point, however, I should seen in Hamilton Harbour, show that an emphasize that no one yet sees biological effect, albeit a sublethal one, has already effects monitoring as replacing analytical been felt, possibly in response to TBT. chemistry as a way of assessing contam- This is useful information, perhaps for ination. Instead, the measurement of litigation or for subsequent regulation, but biological effects is seen as a complement it does not allow any control or prevention to chemical measurements, providing of the identified problem. essential information to help interpret These points are expressed more gen- the significance of chemical data. erally in figure 7, which shows that responses are related to biological com- plexity in such a way that sensitivity and Further reading specificity decrease with increasing com- Addison, R. F., and K. R. Clarke (eds.). 1990. Bio- logical effects of pollutants in a subtropical environ- plexity, and so does timeliness - the abil- Figure 7. The sensitivity, specificity, and ment. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 138: l-2. ity of these measurements to provide an timeliness of biological-effects monitor- Bayne, B. L., K. R. Clarke, and J. S. Gray (eds.). early warning for control. On the other ing techniques in relation to biological 1988. Biological effects of pollutants. Mar. Ecol. hand, the relevance to the real world complexity. Prog. Ser. 46: 1-3.

12 Research Population energetics of seals on the Scotian Shelf W. D. Bowen

and on how the mortality caused by seals of grey seals (within about 6 hours) means compares to other sources of mortality, that most stomachs are empty when col- such as predatory fish, seabirds, whales, lected, and those stomachs which do con- man, and the effects of unfavourable tain food probably represent feeding ocean conditions. Given the nature of the which occurred near shore. Thus, offshore above list, it is clear that seals and fisher- feeding by seals is likely not represented ies will interact in complex ways. In this in these samples. Third, because it is more essay, I present the results of recent stud- difficult to hunt seals at certain times of ies on the energy requirements of seals, the year, information is still not available and the foods which are eaten in order to for significant periods in all of the study meet these requirements. areas. The distribution and abundance of Between September 1988 and W.D. Bowen grey and harbour seals have been studied December 1990, hunters contracted from by scientists in the Department of Fisher- communities along the Eastern Shore of ies and Oceans’ Marine Fish Division of Nova Scotia and Grand Manan Island col- In many parts of the world, the inter- the Bedford Institute of Oceanography for lected the stomachs of grey and harbour action of marine mammal populations and more than 15 years. The main colonies for seals in order to complement samples fisheries is thought to be often detrimen- both species are located on Sable Island, which scientists from the Marine Fish tal to commercial fishing activities although several small breeding colonies Division had taken from Sable Island. To (Beddington, Beverton, and Lavigne, are located on islands along coastal Nova estimate the type and weight of food items 1985). The central question is simple Scotia. About half of all the grey seal pups consumed, hard parts such as fish otoliths enough: do marine mammals reduce the in Canada are born on Sable Island (Stobo were recovered from the stomachs by yield of fish to fishermen? Conversely, is and Zwanenburg, 1990), and since the passing the contents through a series of the recovery of an endangered or threat- early 1960s production of these pups on fine-mesh sieves and water baths. Recov- ened marine mammal population the island has been increasing at a com- ered hard parts were used not only to adversely affected by current fishing pound rate of almost 13% per year identify the type of food eaten, but also to practices? (Zwanenburg and Bowen, 1990). Slightly determine the size of prey on the basis of, On the Scotian Shelf, grey seals more than 10,600 pups were born there in for example, relationships between otolith (Halichoerus grypus) and harbour seals 1990. As a result of efforts to tag all of the size and fish length and between fish (Phoca vitulina) likely interact with harbour seal pups, we know that the har- length and weight. commercial fisheries in four ways: by bour seal population on Sable Island has About 530 grey seal stomachs have interfering with the operation of gear or also been increasing, but less rapidly, at a been analyzed since the fall of 1988. by damaging the fish caught in fishing rate of 3 to 5% per year since the mid However, only 143 (27%) of these con- gear; by transmitting the sealworm 1970s (Stobo, unpublished). In 1991, 591 tained food remains. Based on these lim- parasite (Pseudoterranova decipiens) to harbour seal pups were born. ited data, it appears that grey seals feed commercially harvested fish stocks; by Studies to monitor trends in popula- primarily on juvenile fish, ranging from directly feeding on commercial species; tion size are continuing, but since 1988 about 15 to 40 cm in length, depending on and by indirectly affecting the productiv- there have been increased efforts to pro- the species consumed (fig. 1). Grey seals ity of commercial species by feeding on vide a better understanding of the diets summering off Anticosti Island also con- their food. and energy requirements of both species. sumed primarily young fish, with the To evaluate these interactions, the However, determining what and how mean lengths of 5 species ranging from 14 following information is needed: the much seals eat is difficult for several to 28 cm (Benoit and Bowen, 1990). number of seals in each age class; their reasons. First, seals forage at sea and are Thus, with a few exceptions (for example, distribution in different parts of their often widely distributed both in coastal spawning herring and silver hake), it range at different times of the year; the areas and on offshore banks (Stobo, Beck, appears that the fish eaten by grey seals species and weight of food they eat; how and Home, 1990). Because it is usually are prerecruits to commercial fisheries the types of prey vary at different times of impossible to directly observe seals feed- (fig. 1). the year; and the yearly energy require- ing, information on seal diets is routinely Our studies also indicate that rela- ments of individual seals of different derived from the analysis of the stomach tively few species, usually 3 to 5, account ages. Finally, we need information on the contents of seals collected at sites where for most of the estimated wet weight of seasonal distribution, abundance, and the animals haul out on land. Second, the food consumed by grey seals in any one energy content of species eaten by seals, rapid passage of food from the stomachs area or season. For example, only 4

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but not sufficient for evaluating interac- tions between seals and fisheries. We must also know the quantity of food con- sumed by seal populations. Population energetics is the study of how populations meet their energy requirements. In theory, energy needs could be determined by esti- mating the average meal size of an aver- age-size seal from, for example, stomach contents, and multiplying this value by the number of meals per day, the energy content of the meal, and the total number of seals. However, in practice this approach is difficult, as was previously discussed. Another approach has been to estimate the quantity of food required to maintain captive seals at a relatively con- stant body weight, or to estimate the rest- ing metabolic rate of captive seals. These estimates are then usually multiplied by a factor of two or three to account for the greater energy needs of wild seals. Because data from captive animals may not be reliable when extrapolated to the wild, we have initiated studies on the feeding behaviour, food intake, and en- ergy requirements of seals in their natural environment. These studies are now pos- sible because of advances in electronics and computer technology which have led Figure 1. Estimated length of six prey species eaten by grey seals on the Scotian Shelf. to the development of time-depth record- Light hatched bars represent lengths which are not normally retained by commercial ers (TDRs), and to developments in the fishing gear, whereas the heavy hatched bars are commercial-size prey. N is the number of uneroded otoliths measured. analysis of low concentrations of stable isotopes of water and oxygen. TDRs are microprocessors capable of measuring species accounted for about 90% of the Shore of Nova Scotia in late summer con- and recording information about depth at mass of this food sampled at Sable Island sisted mostly of herring (66%) and juve- timed intervals over the course of several in 1989. These were young cod, 26.5%; nile cod (18%), whereas mackerel (47%), weeks or months. These units, deployed silver hake, 23%; squid, 22%; and sand herring (9%), juvenile cod (14%), and on the seals’ backs (fig. 2), can deliver lance, 19%. Similarly, grey seals col- squid (13%) were most important in detailed information about the proportion lected at inshore sites along the Eastern winter. of time the animals spend at sea and the Shore of Nova Scotia in the fall of 1989 These results illustrate the consider- frequency and depth of their dives, and fed mainly on herring (66% by weight) able variation in the relative importance thus can measure their overall activity and and young cod (18% by weight). of species eaten by grey seals. Although foraging behaviour. Although only a few species account we are beginning to document the extent Stable (that is, nonradioactive) iso- for most of the weight of food consumed, of this variation, we do not have sufficient topes of water and oxygen have been used as data from the Scotian Shelf illustrate, data to explain its causes and hence to to study animal energetics for several dec- there is considerable seasonal, geogra- predict how diets will change in the ades (Nagy, 1989). However, until re- phic, and interannual variation in the future. However, because young fish are cently, their use in seals and other large composition of grey seal diets. Seals usually taken, variations in year-class mammals was limited by the high cost of taken on Sable Island in 1989, which pre- strength could have marked effects on the high-enrichment 18oxygen. The recent sumably had been feeding offshore, con- species composition of the diet. In addi- development of isotope-ratio mass spec- sumed mainly sand lance (56% by tion to this factor, it is likely that our trometers, which are 50 to 100 times more weight) and young cod (36%) in winter, present understanding of seal diets also accurate and precise, has enabled the use but ate silver hake (41%), squid (25%), suffers from a number of sources of bias of low-enrichment 18oxygen and thus has and juvenile cod (21%) in summer. In- (Benoit and Bowen, 1990). lowered the cost to the point where iso- shore samples taken from the Eastern Knowing what seals eat is necessary topes can now be used to study grey and

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sessions, each dive lasts about 2 minutes on average, with about 60% of this time spent at the sea bottom. Thus, for the first time we are learning how these marine mammals behave under natural condi- tions at sea. We now have enough experi- ence with this technology that studies on the diving behaviour of grey seals are planned for 1992. To estimate the amount of food eaten during the diving sessions, a subset of this group of adult harbour seals was adminis- tered a known quantity of deuterium

oxide (D2O), a stable isotope of water, when the animals were initially captured. After about 3 hours, the concentration of

D2O in the body water of the seal reaches an equilibrium and can be determined from a blood sample. Provided that cer- tain assumptions are met, a plot of the natural logarithm of the concentration of D2O over time can be used to estimate the turnover rate of body water (fig. 4) and thus the rate of water intake. Since seals Figure 2. Two adult female harbour seals equipped with microprocessor-based time- do not normally drink, the isotope depth recorder. The pup in the lower panel has been fitted with a radio transmitter. concentration will be diluted only by the intake of water in the food and by meta- harbour seals. pup, either on land or in the sea. Females bolic water production. If the water, fat, In the past three years, we have been exhibit little diving during this period, and and protein content of the food are known, studying the diving (that is, feeding) thus must support their own metabolic then it is possible to estimate food intake behaviour, food intake, and metabolic rate requirements and those of their pups from once the rate of dilution of the isotope is of adult female harbour seals during the energy stored prior to giving birth. How- known (fig. 5). breeding season on Sable Island. We ever, about 10 days after the pups are Recently, we conducted feeding chose these seals for several reasons. born, females begin to make foraging experiments using the captive harbour First, harbour seals on Sable Island are trips of several hours duration, as evi- seals at Dalhousie University to test this easily caught and recaptured at frequent denced by the bouts of dives to 20 m or approach. Each of 7 females was hand fed intervals, enabling us to test methods of more. By late in the nursing period, forag- a known quantity of herring daily for 3 TDR attachment and to determine the ing trips average 13 hours and females weeks and also given D2O at the begin- appropriate isotope dosage for different often reach depths of 60 m. During these ning of the experiment. In this way, the kinds of studies. Second, the cost of con- ducting isotope studies on harbour seals is substantially reduced because they are smaller than grey seals. Third, we already had eight adult female harbour seals from Sable Island in captivity at Dalhousie University, and these could be used to validate methods we planned to use on wild seals. In 1989 and 1990, with colleagues from the Smithsonian Institution in Wash- ington, D.C., we deployed TDRs on 24 adult females, starting shortly after the birth of their pups and continuing for peri- ods of up to 60 days. A typical pattern of diving behaviour is illustrated in figure 3. Figure 3. A diagrammatic representation of the type of data collected by the time-depth These studies show that the female spends recorders. Although the instrument samples depth every 7 seconds, the data have been most of the first week postpartum with her aggregated into I-hour blocks for ease of presentation.

15 Research

that the metabolic requirements of grey and harbour seals are about what one would predict for land mammals of simi- lar body weight (for example, Lavigne et al., 1986). In fact, recent studies by Brit- ish scientists indicate that, during diving, the heart rate of grey seals falls dramati- cally (to only a few beats per minute), so that the overall metabolic rate of these diving seals is only marginally greater than an animal at rest. Also, we now know that seals dive for up to 80% of their time at sea, as a result of our studies on the diving behaviour of harbour seals, as well as British studies on grey and harbour seals and studies on several other species. Thus, the overall metabolic requirements of seals may turn out to be considerably Figure 4. A typical plot of the natural logarithm (Ln) of the concentration of D2O lower than previously thought. against time. The slope of the line is an estimate of the rate of water turnover. This rate, Given present uncertainties in our along with other information, can be used to determine food intake. basic understanding of the diets and energy requirements of seals, we can estimated food intake from isotope dilu- average of 4 kg of milk containing an make only rough estimates of how much tion could be compared to the known average of 60% fat. Thus, grey seal pups food is eaten by seal populations on the amount of food eaten by each female. consume 22,000 kilocalories a day - the Scotian Shelf. If metabolic rates are as Figure 6 illustrates the results from equivalent of more than 9 litres of whip- low as recent work suggests, then current one of these experiments. In all cases, the ping cream, or 10 to 15 times the food estimates of food needs, which are based estimate of food intake derived from energy that a person typically consumes on Kleiber’s allometric relationship measurement of the isotope was greater in a day. Of this, the pups store 15,400 between metabolic rate and body mass, than the known intake, but the mean over- kilocalories, or 2.8 kg. may be too high. Furthermore, food intake estimation was only about 12%. These Although it is widely believed that will also depend on the quality of food results suggest that reasonable estimates adult seals have ravenous appetites, criti- eaten. For example, if seals eat only lean of food intake of free-ranging seals are cal reviews of previous research suggest prey, such as cod or squid, which have an possible using this method. The food in- take of wild females can be calculated from the difference between the water- turnover rate during fasting and the rate observed later during the lactation period (fig. 5). As part of our long-term goal to determine the energy requirements of seals, we have also completed studies on the milk production of grey and harbour seal females. The lactation period is the most energetically demanding time of the year for all female mammals, with the greatest single cost being milk pro- duction. Shortly after giving birth, grey seal females on Sable Island weigh an average of 226 kg. Over the 16-day lacta- tion period, during which they fast, about 47% of their body mass is lost in the course of meeting their own metabolic requirements and those of their rapidly Figure 5. A plot of ln D2O concentration against time during a period of fasting growing pups. Using isotope dilution (shaded area) and during a period of feeding in a free-ranging adult female harbour methods, we have determined that, every seal on Sable Island. The difference between these two slopes can be used to estimate day, grey seal mothers produce an food intake.

16 Research average energy content of 1 kilocalorie research programs will be necessary if we months. In this way, we hope to signifi- per gram of wet weight, then they would are to reliably predict the diet and food cantly increase our understanding of the need to consume about 2.5 times more consumption of seals and, ultimately, the feeding ecology of seals and how seals food than that required on a high-fat diet impact of seal predation on commercial interact with commercial fisheries. of herring. This comparison illustrates the fisheries. We need to continue studying range of values that can result from differ- the diets and food requirements of seals in References ent assumptions about even the energy their natural environment. However, we Beddington, J. R., R. J. H. Beverton, and D. M. content of the prey consumed, even must also determine the location of feed- Lavigne. 1985. Marine mammals and fisheries. George Allen & Unwin, London. though neither of these diets is likely to ing areas and what fraction of seal Benoit, D., and W. D. Bowen. 1990. Summer diet of occur because seals consume a varying populations use these different feeding ar- grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) at Anticosti Island, mixture of both fat and lean prey. eas. As part of this research, a study Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. In: W. D. Bowen Our studies over the past 2 to 3 years planned for 1992 will attach small (500 g) (ed.), Population biology of sealworm (Pseudo- show that seal diets vary according to satellite transmitters to a number of adult terranovo decipiens) in relation to its intermediate and seal hosts. Can. Bull. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 222:227- place and season, and almost certainly grey seals. These transmitters will send 242. over time as the availability of prey positional data and diving information to Lavigne, D. M., S. Innes, G. A. J. Worthy, K. M. changes. This suggests that long-term the Argos satellite for periods of 8 to 12 Kovacs, O. J. Schmitz, and J. P. Hickie. 1986. Meta- bolic rates of seals and whales. Can. J. Zool. 64:279- 284. Nagy, K. A. 1989. Doubly labeled water studies of vertebrate phystological ecology. In: P. W. Rundel, J. R. Ehleringer, and K. A. Nagy (eds.), Stable iso- topes in ecological research. Springer-Verlag:270- 287. Stobo, W. T., B. Beck, and J. K. Home. 1990. Sea- sonal movements of grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) in the Northwest Atlantic. In: W. D. Bowen (ed.), Population biology of sealworm (Pseudoterranovo decipiens) in relation to its intermediate and seal hosts. Can. Bull. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 222:199-213. Stobo, W. T., and K. C. T. Zwanenburg. 1990. Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) pup production on Sable Island and estimates of recent production in the Northwest Atlantic. In: W. D. Bowen (ed.), Popula- tion biology of sealworm (Pseudoterranova decipiens) in relation to its intermediate and seal hosts. Can. Bull. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 222:171-184. Zwanenburg, K. T. C., and W. D. Bowen. 1990. Population trends of the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) in eastern Canada. In: W. D. Bowen (ed.), Population biology of sealworm (Pseudoterronova Figure 6. Comparison of actual and isotope-derived estimates of the food intake of decrpiens) in relation to its intermediate and seal seven adult female harbour seals in captivity. hosts. Can. Bull. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 222:185-197.

17 Research The phytoplankton profiling project G. L. Bugden, D. V. Subba Rao, and P. A. Yeats

indicate times when screening for toxins should be intensified, assuming a consistent species succession could be established; 3) to provide background information for gauging whether observed phytoplankton distributions are normal, or whether changes in biomass and species diversity may be related to exceptional meteorological events, changes in the adjacent ocean, or human activity. An important part of this project was G. L. Bugden, P. A. Yeats, and D. V. Subba Rao the identification of the physical and chemical factors that can affect phyto- plankton dynamics. Therefore, measure- Shellfish poisoning has been a by the Department of Fisheries and ments of variables such as nutrient sup- serious problem along the Canadian Oceans’ Biological Sciences Branch at ply, turbidity, stability of the water col- Atlantic coast, especially in the Bay of the Bedford Institute of Oceanography, umn, temperature, salinity, and exchange Fundy and the St. Lawrence Estuary. was started in October 1988. The general with offshore waters were an integral part These poisonings are caused by eating approach was to establish the phyto- of the program. The knowledge gained bivalve molluscs, such as clams and plankton composition of selected inlets; about the physical and chemical dynamics mussels, that have accumulated toxins that is, to determine the abundance, types, of the various estuaries and inlets would produced by certain dinoflagellates, a and time of occurrence of various species also apply to such topics as aquaculture type of phytoplankton on which molluscs throughout the year for a period of three capacity, waste disposal, and recreation. feed. years. With this information, it was antici- Five sites along the coast of Nova In late 1987 a unique shellfish poi- pated that it would be possible: 1) to Scotia were chosen on the basis of their soning occurred in eastern Prince Edward determine what areas and times are different physical characteristics, as well Island. Massive atypical blooms of a favourable or unfavourable for shell or as their proximity to aquaculture opera- ubiquitous diatom Nitzschia pungens f. finfish aquaculture in terms of the pres- tions. These were Tor Bay, Ship Harbour, multiseries, another type of phytoplank- ence of toxin-producing species; 2) to St. Margarets Bay, Woods Harbour, and ton, were implicated. These phyto- plankton produced domoic acid, a toxin which affects the central nervous system; this effect had not been recognized before. The domoic acid poisoning caused the tragic deaths of several elderly people. As well, it had an adverse effect on the mariculture industry in Atlantic Canada, through loss of consumer confidence. At the time, detailed studies of the distribution of phytoplankton, including this diatom, did not exist for the Atlantic region. Consequently, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans sponsored a multi- laboratory, coastal phytoplankton moni- toring program, with sampling in the St. Lawrence Estuary, Chaleur Bay, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and along the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia and in the Bay of Fundy. The sampling program along the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, undertaken Figure 1. Phytoplankton monitoring sites along the Atlantic Coast of Nova Scotia.

18 Research

Annapolis Basin (fig. 1). The differences in their physical - chemical environments resulting from their differing geography, tides, and freshwater input (table 1) were expected to be reflected in each site’s phytoplankton populations. The sampling schedule was fort- nightly during the periods from October to December and March to May, monthly during January through March, and weekly during June through October. At some sites, ice caused sampling problems during the winter months. At each location, detailed vertical profiles of light intensity, temperature, salinity, and fluorescence (an indicator of the amount of phytoplankton present) were obtained (fig. 2). In addition, water samples were collected at a depth of 1 m, at mid-depth, and just above the sea bot- tom, and were analyzed for nutrients (fig. 3), the abundance of phytoplankton species, and extracted chlorophyll. To monitor changes in the inlets over periods shorter than this sampling frequency was able to resolve, instruments which Figure 2. Time-depth contour plots of temperature, salinity, and fluorescence (a measure of phytoplankton biomass) at Ship Harbour in 1990. The upper tick marks recorded water temperature every hour indicate the times at which the measurements were taken. were moored at two depths at each of the sampling sites.

Results Phytoplankton distribution: In gen- eral, the annual phytoplankton cycle had two peaks of biomass: a major one in spring, and a minor one in the fall (fig. 2). There were regional differences in the timing and magnitude of these peaks. For example, in 1989 major peaks occurred between March and April at Tor Bay, between March and June at Ship Harbour and St. Margarets Bay, in March at Woods Harbour, and between April and June at Digby. Minor peaks occurred dur- ing October at Tor Bay, Ship Harbour, and St. Margarets Bay, between October and November at Woods Harbour, and in late September at Digby. During the peaks, the bulk of the phytoplankton consisted of diatoms. At all sites, phyto- plankton were sparse during the winter. More than 300 different types of phytoplankton were identified, and the distribution studied of 120 of these which are common to northwestern Atlantic waters. Diatoms, the microscopic algae Figure 3. Time-depth contour plots of nitrate, silicate, and phosphate, the inorganic which specifically require silicon to con- nutriants required for phytoplankton growth, at Ship Harbour in 1990. The upper tick struct their skeletons, were the dominant marks indicate the times at which the measurements were taken,

19 Research group, represented by 96 types. Dino- Table 1 flagellates were represented by 23 types. Physical characteristics of phytoplankton monitoring inlets A variety of microflagellates (less than 10 St. microns) were abundant, but because of Tor Ship Margarets Woods Annapolis their fragility were difficult to identify. Bay* Harbour Bay Harbour Basin Many phytoplankton known to be Geometry toxigenic elsewhere were observed at the sampling sites. However, none of them Surface area at low water (km) 1.81 19.3 130 21.5 65.1 achieved concentrations high enough to Mean depth at low water (m) 4.3 8.3 34 5.6 9.6 be of concern. Nitzschia pungens f. multi- Station depth (m) 9 14 12 8 10 series, the diatom responsible for the Sill depth (m) none 6 none none none (some reefs) poisonings in P.E.I., was present in small Mean tides quantities at all sampling sites. It attained 6 3 Nontidal volume ( 10 m ) 7.72 161 4420 121 626 a maximum of 221 x 103 cells/litre at Woods Harbour and 66-125 x 103 Tidal range (m) 1.3 1.4 1.6 2.6 6.8 cells/litre at the other stations. It was Ratio of tidal to present year-round at Woods Harbour and nontidal volume 0.29 0.17 0.05 0.50 0.84 most of the year at Digby, generally Mean freshwater runoff increasing from May through September. Monthly maximum (m3/s) 2.0 34.0 67.0 2.5 103.0 At the other three stations it appeared (Apr.) (Apr.) (Apr.) (Apr.) (Apr.) intermittently. Monthly minimum (m3/s) 0.4 7.5 6.0 0.6 14.4 Dinophysis norvegica, D. acuta, (Sep.) (Sep.) (Aug.) (Aug.) (Sep.) D. acuminata, and Prorocentrum micans, Annual total ( 106 m3) 33.7 578 836 49.2 1750 which can be toxigenic species, were also Ratio of average runoff present in small quantities at various over a tidal cycle 3 times and places. Alexandrium, a toxi- to nontidal volume (x 10 ) 6.3 5.2 0.27 0.59 3.96 genic dinoflagellate known for its sea- Environmental factors sonal recurrence in the Bay of Fundy, was Pollutant source fish plant town, not observed in our samples. agriculture Although there were no mono- Aquaculture mussels mussels mussels, mussels none specific toxic blooms of algae at the five salmon, trout regular monitoring stations, blooms of the Toxic episodes none none none DSP PSP benign dinoflagellate Gonyaulax digitale and the toxigenic Dinophysis norvegica Ice cover solid solid little, little negligible variable and Prorocentrum micans occurred at other locations in Nova Scotia during the *Values for the Northwest Arm of Whitehaven Harbour only. study. Physical-chemical environment: This suggests that a larger tidal exchange heat and freshwater were mixed down- The five stations chosen for the project with the ocean moderates the temperature ward. Warming and freshening continued vary widely in their geography, tidal throughout the year at these two inlets. steadily through to early October, with range, freshwater runoff, and aquaculture Observations obtained from Ship some irregularities caused by variations in activity (table 1). For example, Woods Harbour in 1990 are shown in figure 2, as surface heating, river discharge, and Harbour and Annapolis Basin have the an example of the temperature-salinity exchange with outside waters. A major largest ratios of tidal to nontidal water cycles observed at the monitoring sites. In storm-induced event occurred in early volume, suggesting that tidal exchange is winter, Ship Harbour had subsurface October when the whole inlet was flushed important at these sites. Annapolis Basin, water temperatures which were uniformly with saltier, cooler water from the conti- Ship Harbour, and Tor Bay have compa- near 0°C. River discharge was relatively nental shelf. Toward the end of October rable, relatively large ratios of freshwater high, resulting in a fresher, lighter surface and until early November, the inlet again discharge to nontidal volume, suggesting layer, the top of which froze to form an became fresher as river discharge the potential importance of this driving ice cover. The ice cover broke up and increased. Through December, the water force. melted in late February and early March column became uniformly cool as The annual range of temperature was as surface heating increased and the inlet seasonal cooling and vertical mixing greater at Tor Bay, Ship Harbour, and St. began to warm. Warming of the deeper proceeded. Margarets Bay, resulting in ice formation layers lagged behind that of the surface. The nutrient distributions at all five in winter (table 1). Summer temperatures River discharge was higher in the sites varied in a manner that is fairly typi- at these three inlets were also higher than spring, and the entire water column cal of temperate coastal waters. Concen- at Woods Harbour and Annapolis Basin. gradually became fresher and warmer as trations of silicate, nitrate, and phosphate

20 Research were high during the winter months, with result of phosphate inputs from natural The most fascinating station from the substantial and rapid reductions occurring and human sources, nitrate to phosphate perspective of nutrient chemistry is Ship in the spring as the phytoplankton and silicate to phosphate ratios were low Harbour, where extremely high concen- populations increased (fig. 3). This initial compared to those in offshore waters. trations of silicate, phosphate, and ammo- spring depletion of nutrients was gener- Winter concentrations at each of the nia, another nitrogen-containing nutrient, ally followed by increased concentrations five stations were surprisingly constant, were seen in the bottom waters in late in late spring/early summer, and then by varying little from one year to the next. summer and fall. This is probably a result periods of variable duration when very There were, however, some significant of both the geometry of the inlet and the low levels were observed. In the late fall, station-to-station differences. The most large freshwater discharge. Ship Harbour a return to the elevated wintertime noticeable were the relatively high con- has a shallow sill at the entrance which to concentrations was seen. The observed centrations of nutrients and the high a certain extent prevents the free pattern was similar for silicate, nitrate, nitrate to phosphate ratios seen at exchange of the deeper waters in the inlet and phosphate, but complete removal Annapolis Basin. This may be due to the with shelf waters. The large freshwater essentially occurred only for nitrate. The predominance of agriculture in the sur- discharge results in a fresher, lighter sur- nutrient concentrations were generally rounding area, and the resulting contami- face layer, which limits vertical mixing, fairly uniform from surface to bottom at nation of runoff with fertilizers. The again isolating the deeper waters. these rather shallow sampling sites. The major determinant of the nutrient input The silicate, nitrate, and phosphate exception was Ship Harbour, where via freshwater is the ratio of freshwater distributions for 1990 in Ship Harbour are marked vertical gradients were found for discharge to estuarine volume; Tor Bay, shown in figure 3. Extensive measure- all three nutrients in summer and fall. Ship Harbour, and Annapolis Basin thus ments of ammonia were not made in A comparison of the nutrient distri- have by far the largest input of nutrients 1990, but the results for 1991 showed that butions at the five sites can be made using via freshwater (table 1). elevated bottom-water concentrations of two indicators of nutrient dynamics (ta- Nitrate concentrations were reduced phosphate were accompanied by elevated ble 2). The first, nutrient concentrations to less than 0.1 µM for at least one ammonia concentrations. during the winter months, gives a measure sampling period at each station each year. Fluorescence, which is a measure of of the nutrient accumulation during the The timing of this nitrate reduction, and phytoplankton biomass, is shown in period of minimum biological activity. the duration of the period before levels in figure 2. The fluorescence was low in The second, the timing and extent to excess of 0.1 µM were again observed, winter and increased during the spring which nitrate levels were reduced to less varied significantly from station to bloom in late February, remaining high than 0.1 micromolar (µM), indicates the station. The earliest onset and longest until late April, when it decreased to amount of nutrients removed in the course duration for the period with essentially levels which are as low as those found in of spring and summer biological activity. no nitrate concentrations in the water winter. The low values were maintained Winter concentrations were substan- column occurred in Tor Bay and St. in the surface waters from early May to tially higher than those in spring and sum- Margarets Bay, and the latest and shortest early September and in the bottom waters mer. Nevertheless, they were relatively period occurred in the Annapolis Basin, from early May to early July. Nitrate low compared to winter levels in some perhaps indicating the effect of larger concentrations were high until late March other inshore areas, especially those with freshwater discharge and differences in and then decreased through April and large industrial or sewage inputs. As a regional land use. May, remaining below 0.1 µM from July 4 to September 25 in the upper water Table 2 column and from July 10 to August 7 in Indices of nutrient dynamics the bottom waters. St. Ammonia, phosphate, silicate, and Tor Ship Margarets Woods Annapolis fluorescence increased in the bottom Bay Harbour Bay Harbour Basin waters starting in early July. The nutrients Concentrations of were presumably released by the decom- winter nutrients position of biogenic debris on or in the Si (µM) 7.80 8.70 7.60 6.00 9.40 sediments, and the increases in fluores- cence resulted from increased biological NO (µM) 3.60 5.40 5.30 4.70 8.90 3 productivity stimulated by the increased PO4 (µM) 0.68 0.82 0.79 0.74 0.89 nutrient levels. By late September, fluo- N:P 5.30 6.60 6.70 6.40 10.00 rescence, phosphate, and silicate were Si : P 11.50 10.60 9.60 8.10 10.60 elevated throughout the water column as Nitrate level <0.1 µM vertical stratification was reduced and the Onset June/July July June/July July July/Aug. fall bloom occurred. In mid-October, the high fluorescence throughout the water Length (weeks) 13 10 14 3 1 column and the nutrients in the deeper Note: Si = silicon; NO, = nitrate; PO, = phosphate; N = nitrogen; P = phosphorus. water were reduced rather abruptly as the

21 Research whole bay was flushed by denser, cooler been gathered from the five dynamically environment in each of the inlets and its shelf waters. different sites. A first look at the interac- effect on the phytoplankton populations. tion between the oceanographic environ- The reasons why toxic blooms occurred at Further work ment and phytoplankton dynamics at one some locations and not at others will also The Phytoplankton Profiling Project site has shown some interesting inter- be explored. It is hoped the results will has identified the major phytoplankton relationships which may be typical of have a wider application to different types in five inlets in Nova Scotia. An inlets with similar physical character- problems in inlets with character- extensive suite of complementary bio- istics. In the future, we hope to analyze istics similar to those of the five inlets logical, physical, and chemical data has more fully the unique physical-chemical studied.

22 Research Development of a Canadian ocean mapping system G. Costello, D. Peyton*, and G. Lebans** (*Geo-Resources Inc. **Brooke Ocean Technology Ltd.)

by International Submarine Engineering Research Limited (ISER). DOLPHIN’s intended use was to conduct offshore hydrographic surveys in a multi- DOLPHIN and mother-ship configuration. During five years of trials, DOLPHIN has proved to be an excellent operational platform, and several sensors in addition to echosounders have been successfully deployed on the vehicle. The need for a systematic ocean map- ping program in Canada was recognized G. Costello D. Peyton G. Lebans in the Oceans Policy for Canada announced by the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans in 1987 (DFO, 1987). One The Canadian Hydrographic Service, the Autonomous Underwater Vehicle component of the new policy called for in cooperation with the academic and pri- (AUV), DOLPHIN. the development of a contracted-out vate sectors, has developed a unique DOLPHIN is a semi-submersible AUV ocean mapping program to collect ocean mapping system by integrating the developed in the mid-1980s for the hydrographic and geophysical data. SIMRAD EM100 multibeam sounder with Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS) In response to this policy, a proposal

Canadian Ocean Mapping System - COMS

Figure 1. COMS Master Plan. This is a generalized version of a detailed schedule chart prepared for COMS project management.

23 Research was submitted to the Department of Fish- COMS project management responsible for a well-defined deliver- eries and Oceans (DFO) in 1988 by four Because the COMS program involved able. Although the projects were exclu- private companies, led by Geo-Resources several projects and organizations, a com- sive in that they had separate teams, they Inc. of Newfoundland. They proposed to prehensive Master Plan, which included were also interdependent; in particular the integrate existing technology within gov- an organizational structure and a schedule success of Project C, Operational Sea Tri- ernment and industry and to complete the chart, was prepared to ensure coordina- als, was very dependent on the success of necessary research and development to tion and completion of the projects the other three projects. produce an operational ocean mapping (fig. 1). The objectives for COMS, clearly system. Initially there were three projects; The organizational structure con- established at the outset, were as follows: a fourth, Data Processing, was added to sisted of: l a DOLPHIN with an EM100 multibeam have a complete production system. The DFO senior management: responsible sounder operational in survey mode, final DOLPHIN/EM 100 program consis- for overall program management inclu- including navigation and data logging; ted of four projects involving several ding the allocation of funding; l a prototype DOLPHIN handling system, companies: steering committee: responsible for capable of launch and recovery of a live DOLPHIN/EM100 Integration: ISE reviewing and approving planning and or ‘dead’ DOLPHIN in sea states up to 6; Research and Simrad Mesotech, Van- contract documents, and general l an improved data processing system for couver, B.C.; guidance of the projects, and made up high density bathymetric data. DOLPHIN Launch and Recovery Sys- of technical personnel; tem (Atlantic Arm): Brooke Ocean project manager: responsible for plan- About DOLPHIN Technology, Dartmouth, N.S.; ning and coordination of all the projects DOLPHIN is an acronym for Deep Operational Sea Trials: Geo-Resources and contract management; Ocean Logging Platform with Hydro- Inc., St. John’s, Nfld.; four project teams: responsible for graphic Instrumentation and Navigation. Data Processing System: Ocean Map- detailed project plans and completion The DOLPHIN concept was conceived in ping Group at University of New of the deliverables according to con- 1982 following renewed efforts to Brunswick, and Universal Systems tract specifications. increase productivity in offshore hydro- Ltd., Fredericton, N.B. The schedule chart outlines the indi- graphic surveying, at the same time mini- These projects were grouped into a vidual projects and their major tasks and mizing the risk to humans under the single program over three years with a shows the relationship between all the strenuous working conditions in open common management team. The program projects. This schedule was based on the seas (Dinn et al., 1987). became the Canadian Ocean Mapping proposal from the private companies, with The first DOLPHIN was delivered in System (COMS) and a Master Plan was modifications to reflect changes before 1983; its primary purpose was the techni- established for project management. work commenced. This deliverable-based cal evaluation and proof of its concept. COMS began in May 1989 and was suc- structure was well suited for the COMS The first sea trials demonstrated that the cessfully completed in May 1992. program, as each project team was vehicle could be used as a hydrographic sensor platform having superior stability and hydro-dynamics (Malone et al., 1984). In 1984 hydrographic instrumenta- tion was also successfully installed and tested. Analog echo sounding and Loran C positioning data were telemetered from DOLPHIN and logged on the mother ship (Malone et al., 1984).

Figure 2. DOLPHIN has a 7 m long aluminum hull with a lead keel for stability. It is powered by a diesel engine and can cruise at 12 knots about 4 m below the surface.

24 Research

From 1985 to 1987 efforts concen- aligned and rigidly mounted with no gyrocompass, a Watson motion sensor trated on improving the hydrographic mechanical pitch correction, and can be package and a heave meter, required for operations and developing a launch and easily removed and replaced by another vehicle dynamics, and to supply accurate recovery system. The hydrographic transducer if desired. The nose of heading, heave, roll, and pitch data to the operations progressed well (Lamplugh, DOLPHIN is attached to the hull by a EM100. Later, during final sea trials in 1986), but the launch and recovery system bolted flange and can be removed for Newfoundland, it was determined that the did not. Following unsuccessful sea trials servicing (fig. 3). Watson sensor did not meet specifications; in 1987, there was a period of retrench- The transceiver/preamplifier elec- it was replaced by a TSS 335 motion sensor. ment; in 1989 the DOLPHIN project tronics and power supplies are repack- Following integration and bench within CHS was renewed under the aged in splash-proof aluminum boxes, testing, sea trials were carried out near broader COMS initiative, emphasizing designed to dissipate heat effectively Vancouver. A small survey area was greater private sector involvement. through electric fans, black heat sink fins, successfully completed to demonstrate The DOLPHIN hull is constructed of and paste on the floor of the compartment. the functionality of the system. Following marine grade aluminum and is 7 m long The existing RMS radios were this the DOLPHIN/EM100 was shipped to by 1 m diameter. A 212 horsepower replaced with Dataradio Asynchronous BIO for testing with Brooke Ocean Tech- diesel engine supplies power for pro- Packet Radios, which provide the capabil- nology’s Handling System, then to the pulsion, hydraulics and electronics. ity to multiplex up to 5 separate serial data DOLPHIN shore base in Newfoundland DOLPHIN can cruise at 12 knots with a streams onto one radio channel; configu- for operational sea trials with Geo- maximum speed of 16 knots (fig. 2). A ration is straightforward, and the level of Resources. microprocessor-based active control ongoing software effort is reduced. In system controls the vehicle’s hydrody- addition, the Surface Network Computer COMS Project B: namics and maintains its stability in roll, on the mother ship, no longer required, DOLPHIN handling system pitch, heading, and depth. The reader is was removed from the system (ISER, Project B involved the design, model referred to the many published papers, 1991). In shallow water, at a maximum of testing and then the fabrication of a full some of which are listed in the references 3 pings per second, the EM100 data rate is size unit of a DOLPHIN handling system. here, for more details on DOLPHIN design about 4400 bits per second. With the 9600 Brooke Ocean Technology (BOT) was and previous sea trials. baud radio link, about 15% of radio usage responsible for installing the handling is required for vehicle control, leaving a system on a ship, and then delivering it to COMS Project A: sufficient 85%, or about 8000 bits per Geo-Resources for operational sea trials. DOLPHIN/EM100 integration second, for the EM100 sounder and The general requirements for the handling Project A involved the design, devel- positioning data. Good data throughput is system were as follows: opment and integration of the EM100 estimated to be 98% with the Automatic l portable and adaptable to vessels of multibeam sounder in DOLPHIN. A mul- Repeat Request (ARQ) function enabled opportunity; tibeam sounder developed by Simrad (Dinn, 1991). l must be capable of launching and Subsea, Norway, the EM100’s main com- Some new sensors were also installed recovering DOLPHIN in sea states up to ponents include a transducer, transceiver/ in DOLPHIN, including a Robertson 6, corresponding to average wave preamplifier, operator console and quality assurance unit. Its bottom coverage is up to 2.4 times water depth across track (100° angle), with 32 narrow beams and a 3° beam angle in the along track direction. It operates at 95 kHz and has a range from 10 to 600 m depth. Two main technical problems were faced in this project: how to physically accommodate the EM100 transducer and the transceiver/preamplifier electronics in DOLPHIN, and how to handle the in- creased data rate from the EM100 required to be telemetered to the mother ship. Both of these were easily solved following design modifications to DOLPHIN. The transducer, because of its rela- tively small size (about 50 cm x 100 cm) and a radius of curvature almost the same as the DOLPHIN hull, fits well in the for- Figure 3. During the EM100 Integration project, the curved transducer fitted well into ward compartment. The transducer is the DOLPHIN hull and the nose is now removable to permit servicing. 25 Research

heights of 4 to 6 m and wind of about Following a detailed analysis of each 9. Locking plates engaged, and brakes 35 to 40 knots in open sea; concept, the Mast Lift and CG Lift were locked on the swing frame; l capable of being remotely operated, identified as systems that appeared to 10. DOLPHIN swung over the deck and without the need for a person in the meet the required criteria, and were fur- into the cradle. water. ther evaluated with model testing. The The launching procedure is more or less l capable of handling multiple other three were eliminated. the reverse order of recovery. DOLPHINS, with a minimum of three Model seakeeping tests were con- A disabled or ‘dead’ DOLPHIN is ini- vehicles to be operated simultaneously; ducted at the Ocean Engineering tially retrieved using the First Line l capable of recovering disabled or Research Centre at Memorial University ATTachment System (FLATTS). FLATTS ‘dead’ DOLPHINS. in Newfoundland, to observe vessel consists of a projectile and a spool con- The project was carried out in two response at various headings in sea state taining a tag line and sea anchors, all phases. Phase I covered the design of con- 6. Towed and moored tests were con- mounted in the nose of DOLPHIN. When cepts and model testing, and Phase II ducted in sea state 6 in the water tank. The DOLPHIN is disabled, and following a involved the fabrication of a full size results showed that large, and at times certain sequence of events, the projectile system, and its testing during operational violent, pitch and yaw motions were con- and attached tag line are fired from trials. tinually experienced; the rolling motion DOLPHIN’s nose using compressed air. During Phase I, five concepts were was not as severe. This re-affirmed the The tag line floats on the surface; the evaluated; two were selected for model decision to eliminate the ramp, scissors, DOLPHIN streams downwind with the aid testing and one, the Centre of Gravity and docking garage concepts, and to pro- of the sea anchors; and the tag line is (CG) Lift, was selected as the most suit- ceed with the two side recovery, single retrieved from the mother ship. DOLPHIN able to meet the requirements. The CG point pickup concepts. is then taken under tow from the towing Lift concept, or “Atlantic Arm” as it Two radio controlled models of boom, and a normal recovery is became known, was fabricated and sea DOLPHIN and an electro-pneumatic completed, starting at step #3 above. trialed during Phase II of the project. model crane were fabricated at approxi- Once this CG Lift concept had been Details of these concepts can be found in mately 1/6 scale. The crane was installed successfully demonstrated during model BOT’s Phase I contract report (Brooke on an 11 m fishing boat for the model trials, a full size system was fabricated in Ocean Technology, 1991). trials. Following a series of model trials in Phase II of the project. The main compo- The five concepts included: Halifax Harbour the Mast Lift concept nents of the system include (fig. 4): l Mast Lift: a side recovery system with a was eliminated, primarily because of the l articulated marine crane with single point pick-up at the mast head, potential for damage to DOLPHIN during self-contained electro-hydraulic power using a motion compensated crane and hoisting and the magnitude of the modifi- unit. A Seattle marine crane, model a clamping assembly around the hull of cations to DOLPHIN required to permit MCK-1837, was selected to meet the DOLPHIN; lifting at the mast head. requirements; l CG Lift: a side recovery system that Model tests continued with the CG l capture mechanism consisting of a evolved as a variation of Mast Lift, Lift concept; following several design swing frame and snubber. It serves to with a single point pick-up near the changes the following recovery procedure guide and eventually lock DOLPHIN in DOLPHIN’s centre of gravity using a evolved: place once hoisted; motion compensated crane and a 1. Ship underway at 4-5 knots, about 30° l constant tension winch for hoisting and snubber assembly. A tow cable was at- off the significant sea or wind to give lowering DOLPHIN; tached to stabilize the DOLPHIN during some lee on the recovery side; l towing boom assembly, with tension- hoisting; 2. DOLPHIN manoeuvred alongside in limiting system to minimize line surges l Ramp System: could either be a side or position about 8 m from the ship’s when DOLPHIN is under tow; a stern system, with the DOLPHIN hull (fig. 4a); l deck cradle with tilting mechanism; guided onto the ramp and then taken up 3. DOLPHIN’s tow cable remotely l remote latching equipment for initial to the ship’s deck. This concept was latched to the towing boom (fig. 4b); attachment of the tow cable and the CG similar to ISE Research’s ramp concept 4. DOLPHIN winched forward of the hook to DOLPHIN; and the UK GLORIA system; crane; l FLATTS, the First Line Attachment l Scissors: could be a side or stern 5. CG Hook latched remotely to the CG System for retrieving ‘dead’ or disabled system, with the DOLPHIN guided lifting frame on DOLPHIN (fig. 4c); DOLPHINS. into an underwater motion-compen- 6. Hoisting cable placed in constant Except for the crane and winch, all sated scissors-shaped mechanism and tension mode; the components were designed and then taken on board with a crane; 7. DOLPHIN hoisted, tilted nose down at fabricated in Dartmouth. The complete l Docking Garage: could be a side or about 20° and with the tow cable system was assembled and tested on the stern system, with the DOLPHIN tensioned to minimize pendulum wharf at BIO. Once the ship was selected, manoeuvred into a submerged rectan- motion (fig. 4d); final modifications were made and the gular frame and hoisted on deck using a 8. DOLPHIN secured within the snubber system was installed on board ready for motion compensated crane. (fig. 4e); sea trials.

26 Research

COMS Project D: Ltd. (USL) as their industrial partner to various statistical surfaces, and automatic data processing system commercialize the software package. (algorithmic) and interactive editing of Project D developed a data process- The concepts of “cleaning” point data soundings. Once cleaned, the data can be ing system to handle more efficiently the and retaining measured data were funda- passed on to a source database, or to the high density data sets collected by acqui- mental to the software package. Statistical visualization software for generating vari- sition systems such as the SIMRAD EM100 analysis tools and automatic and interac- ous surfaces such as digital terrain mod- and Navitronic MCS-1B. Existing proces- tive cleaning tools were developed by the els, 3D perspectives, field sheets, contour sing systems that involved generalization UNB Ocean Mapping Group (Ware et al., maps, profiles and volumes (fig. 6). or gridding techniques were not accept- 1991) as part of the Hydrographic Data HIPS has the following features: able to nautical charting organizations Cleaning System (HDCS) (fig. 5). These l rigid adherence to software and user such as the CHS, which require strict point tools were combined with USL’s CARIS interface standards such as X-windows data integrity for the safety of navigation. visualization software, and packaged as a and Motif; Following a study completed by the Uni- commercial product called the Hydro- l a generic data structure to accept data versity of New Brunswick (UNB) Ocean graphic Information Processing System from a variety of ocean mapping Mapping Group in 1988, the CHS adopted (HIPS). systems; its recommended approach, which called During processing, data from the l retention of all measured data, without for the development of new algorithms acquisition system is loaded in HDCS thinning of the data; with hydrographic criteria combined with where it is cleaned. This includes correct- l fast, automatic algorithms and statisti- interactive graphics and visualization ing the data for tides and various sensor cal surfaces. This “power tools” ap- tools. UNB selected Universal Systems offsets, navigation editing, generating proach can quickly highlight possible

Figure 4. (a) To begin recovery, DOLPHIN is manoeuvred alongside in position about 8 m from the ship’s hull. (b) DOLPHIN’s tow cable is remotely latched to the towing boom. (c) The CG hook is latched remotely to the CG lifting crane on DOLPHIN. (d) DOLPHIN is hoisted, tilted nose down at about 20° and with the tow cable tensioned to minimize pendulum motion. (e) DOLPHIN is secured within the snubber before it is swung into its deck cradle.

27 Research

Figure 5. The Hydrographic Data Cleaning System (HDCS). The raw data are loaded into HDCS; automatically and interactively cleaned; and then passed onto a source database or to the CARIS HIPS visualization package (from Wells et al., 1991).

errors in the navigation and depth data; The HIPS package was first sea trials and made the necessary refinements l interactive editing tools to allow the trialed in November 1991, and following to bring the system to a production level. hydrographer to check and override the modifications it was implemented in the This was an important project in that it results of the automatic tools; CHS hydrographic program during 1992. forced COMS to be product-oriented l efficient transfer of cleaned data to a rather than development-oriented. This hydrographic source database, retaining Project C: operational sea trials project involved technology transfer all required attributes; In Project C, Geo-Resources was the between all alliance members, in particu- l supply of statistical and reporting func- COMS system integrator. This involved lar to Geo-Resources, who received the tions for quality control purposes and to training, development work, sea trials, end product. check for adherence to standards; and marketing the system as an ocean During 1989 and 1990 the project l provision of a wide range of output mapping service. As the other three emphasized training. Geo-Resources products such as Digital Terrain projects (DOLPHIN/EM100 Integration, were involved in CHS hydrographic Models, 3D perspectives, field sheets, DOLPHIN Launch and Recovery System, surveys, and they became experts with contour maps, profiles and volumes and Data Processing) were completed, DOLPHIN. In 1990 a shore base was (Wells et al., 1991; USL, 1992). Geo-Resources conducted a series of sea established at Long Pond, Newfoundland,

28 Research

Matthew /EM100. In these conditions, the Matthew /EM100 experienced significant data loss due to pitching, whereas the DOLPHIN/EM100, travelling below the waves, functioned well. There was no acoustic interference between the two EM100 sounders when DOLPHIN and Matthew were staggered along track. With positioning accuracy of about 5 m using DGPS and DOLPHIN under compu- ter control, excellent line keeping was achieved (Clarke et al., 1991). Previously, this same test site was surveyed using conventional single beam sounders; 200 kHz and 30 kHz. This per- mitted the comparison of the single beam and EM100 multibeam surveys. The two data sets agreed well. The real advantages of the EM100 multibeam data were in cov- erage and time; the multibeam survey gave 100% bottom coverage in only a fraction of the time it took to complete the Figure 6. CARIS HIPS Visualization. Here workfile files are created and various tools single beam survey, which did not give are available for visualization and plotting of data sets (from USL, 1992). full coverage. In addition, the amplitude and the first series of sea trials were conducted from there. These included general testing of all DOLPHIN compo- nents following a complete overhaul, navigation software development, instal- lation of GPS positioning in DOLPHIN, and completion of a hydrographic survey of a test site in Conception Bay. Sea trials, November 1991: These trials, based from Long Pond, involved DOLPHIN/EM100, Differential GPS, and Data Processing; these were conducted in conjunction with the C.S.S. Matthew. The Handling System was not used. This was the first real test of the fully integrated system, and the trials were extremely suc- cessful. DOLPHIN and the Matthew, both equipped with EM100 multibeam sound- ers and real time Differential GPS (DGPS) positioning, completed the survey of the 8 km by 17 km test site. The bathymetric data sets were processed using the USL/ UNB Hydrographic Information Process- ing System. The data were “cleaned”, and then both computer visualizations and hard copies such as 3D perspectives, field sheets, and contour maps were produced on board ship shortly after the data were collected. In sea state 5 (35 knot gales and 3 to 4 m seas) the DOLPHIN/EM100 Figure 7. DOLPHIN IS recovered from the north Atlantic in sea state 4 with the “Atlantic functioned much better than the Arm” during the Grenfell sea trials in February 1992.

29 Research data (pseudo imagery) supplied by the System, two weeks of sea trials, again potentially foul on parts of the DOLPHIN EM100 system permitted some geological using the Grenfell, were conducted off the hull if it were left unattended for a long interpretation, which was later completed east coast of Newfoundland in May 1992. period. Retrieving the tag line as quickly by the UNB Ocean Mapping Group. Several successful launch and recov- as possible avoided this problem. All One particular day during the trials eries demonstrated that the DOLPHIN the objectives of the trials were there was an air of suspense and excite- could be safely launched and recovered accomplished. ment. About 20 people stood on the Mat- with this Handling System. Night time Following these trials the complete thew’s bridge, including U.S. Navy per- operations and 24 hour endurance tests system, including three DOLPHINS and sonnel and CHS senior management. The were successful. Depths up to 530 m were the Handling System, were transferred to Matthew and DOLPHIN were underway collected and the data were within Geo-Resources under a Loan Agreement in survey configuration at 12 knots; specifications. for further exploitation and marketing. DOLPHIN was under ‘hands-off’ compu- The recovery of a disabled DOLPHIN Geo-Resources are now equipped to pro- ter control; both were collecting 100% using FLATTS was also demonstrated and vide ocean mapping services to interested bottom coverage bathymetry at a rate of 3 worked well. Some minor problems were clients (fig. 8). megabytes per hour each, and DGPS was overcome by modifying the procedures. providing positioning to about 5 m! It Once the FLATTS projectile and tag line Other applications and future was a first for hydrography. were fired, DOLPHIN did not stream as developments Sea trials, February 1992. These tri- expected; as well, the tag line could In addition to hydrography, als involved the DOLPHIN/EM100 and the Handling System and were conducted off the east coast of Newfoundland. With the cooperation of the Canadian Coast Guard (CCC), BOT’s Handling System and the DOLPHIN/EM100 were installed on the C.C.G.S. Sir Wilfred Grenfell. The Gren- fell, formerly an offshore supply vessel now used for search and rescue, had ample deck space on the stern and proved to be a very stable ship. Operating condi- tions were typical winter North Atlantic, with temperatures as low as minus 20°C without a wind chill factor. Winds were as high as 30 to 40 knots, with freezing spray. A number of launch and recoveries were completed in sea states up to 4 (3 m wave heights). Although sea state 5 was not experienced, the crew were quite con- fident that operations could have been safely performed had the conditions been present. The ship’s speed during handling operations was approximately 5 knots. The sea trials went quite well. After two weeks of training an inexperienced crew, the launching or recovery of the DOLPHIN could be completed in 10 to 15 minutes for each. Following these trials, some proce- dures had not yet been tested including the recovery of a disabled DOLPHIN, recovery in sea state 5, and night time operations; there were also some mechanical problems with the crane. These all required additional sea trials. Figure 8. This would he a typical configuration with two DOLPHINS and mother ship Sea trials, May 1992. These were the equipped with DGPS positioning and providing 100% bottom coverage. Geo-Resources last series of sea trials for COMS. Follow- are now equipped with DOLPHIN/EM100 technology to provide ocean mapping services ing some modifications to the Handling to interested clients.

30 Research

DOLPHIN has been used and tested in sonar, thermistors, void fraction sensors of Defence. Defense applications focus on other applications; it is an ocean-going and video cameras were installed on mine countermeasures, in particular the platform with many potential uses. DOLPHIN (fig. 9). The project was a suc- mine hunting role. Towed sidescan sonar In 1991, DFO contracted Geo- cess. Although ideal surfing conditions systems have been installed and tested by Resources to conduct a Wave Breaking were not encountered, sufficient data these departments and ISER. Study using DOLPHIN. The objective was were collected to demonstrate the feasi- Several companies are jointly plan- to investigate the transfer of gases from bility of using DOLPHIN for such ning a project similar in magnitude to that the ocean to the atmosphere during research. of COMS, whereby DOLPHIN will be surfing conditions on the sea surface. To Other organizations have shown keen modified to accommodate a sonar for fish do so, various sensors, including sidescan interest in DOLPHIN, in particular the stock assessment and then sea trialed as sonar, upward and downward looking United States and Canadian Departments part of a larger research project. In August 1992 the U.S. Navy contracted Geo-Resources and USL to complete a demonstration of the system in U.S. waters. Two 24-hour surveys were completed in the Norfolk Canyon area. The DOLPHIN/EM100 data were proc- essed on site using HIPS, and compared with data collected by the HYDROCHART multibeam system on the NOAA ship Whiting. General impressions were posi- tive, and several people indicated that the DOLPHIN/EM100 system “would add tremendous survey capability to existing and future platforms” (Kalcic, 1992). The project was very successful and has heightened interest in the DOLPHIN/ EM100 system among several U.S. organizations. The next logical development is to install an EM1000 in DOLPHIN. The EM1000 is Simrad’s latest shallow system; it has bottom coverage up to 7 times water depth, range of 10 to 800 m, and provides high quality sidescan imagery. The preliminary design for the EM1000 instal- lation in DOLPHIN was completed as part of the ISER Integration project; with a new radio and other minor modifications it appears to be feasible (ISER, 1991).

Conclusion The Canadian Ocean Mapping Sys- tem (COMS) consists of a SIMRAD EM100 multibeam echosounder integrated into an autonomous underwater vehicle, DOLPHIN. The system is fully integrated with differential GPS navigation, and provides real time automatic acquisition of seafloor bathymetry and pseudo imagery. A handling system was devel- oped to safely launch and recover DOLPHIN in sea states up to 5. A new Figure 9. During a “Wave Breaking Study”, DOLPHIN was equipped with side scan processing package, HIPS, was developed sonar on the keel, thermistors and void fraction sensors along the forestay, upward and to manage the resulting large data sets downward looking sonar on the bow, and video cameras at the mast head and base. collected. The complete system has been The system worked well and the data were recorded on board. successfully put through extensive sea

31 Research trials. The DOLPHIN/EM100 has also been Clarke, J. H., G. Costello, and L. Mayer. 1991. Kalcic, M. 1992. Preliminary report of DOLPHIN/ EM100 demonstration for the United States Navy. operated from a 10 m survey launch for Ocean mapping: A Canadian perspective. 1991 EEZ Symposium, Portland, OR. Lamplugh, M. 1986. DOLPHIN, her next big step. near shore and coastal applications. This Department of Fisheries and Oceans. 1987. An Proceedings, CISM conference: 105-117. first system is now in production and ex- oceans policy for Canada. Malone, A. K., R. G. Burke, and R. Vine. 1984. pansion to a multi-vehicle system for cost Dinn, D. F., R. G. Burke, G. D. Steeves, and A. D. DOLPHIN: a proven hydrographic vehicle. effective seafloor mapping world wide is Parsons. 1987. Hydrographic instrumentation and USL, 1992. CARIS HIPS. System overview, March. software for the remotely controlled survey vehicle feasible. Ware, C., W. Knight, and D. Wells. 1991. Memory ‘DOLPHIN’. intensive statistical algorithms for multibeam Acknowledgements ISER. 1991. DOLPHIN RF propagation report. bathymetric data. Computers and Geosciences 17:985-993. Several factors contributed to the success ISER. 1991. To develop a novel and cost effective hydrographic survey system. Final Report, Contract of COMS, including: strong support and com- Wells, D., L. Mayer, and J. H. Clarke. 1991. Ocean FP962-0-0037/01-OSC. mitment from DFO senior management (Paul mapping: From where? To what? CISM Journal ACSGE 45(4): 505-518. Bellemare, Director of Hydrography, Atlantic Region, and Don Dinn, Manager, Engineering and Technical Services, BIO); interdepartmen- tal cooperation, in particular from the Cana- dian Coast Guard; a hands on working rela- tionship between government, academia and industry; and most importantly, a “commit- ment to completion” effort from all the project teams who actually conducted the work. References Brooke Ocean Technology. 1991. Development of a handling system for the semi-submersible DOL- PHIN. Phase I Final Report.

The C.C.G.S. Sir Wilfred Grenfell, shown here in St. John’s Harbour, proved to be an ideal ship from which to conduct the sea trials.

At -20°C and 35 knot gales, the crane DOLPHIN/EM100 passing the U.S. Navy 2nd Fleet in Norfolk, Virginia, enroute to the operator had the coldest job. Norfolk Canyon survey in August 1992.

32 Research The role of information in a scientific community A. Fiander

have it they ask, “Where is it?“. And if we humanities materials (Hoffer, February don’t, “When can you get it?“. 1992). Space limitations for libraries make it difficult to house expanding The library’s changing role collections in accessible quarters. And Libraries, however, are undergoing a yet, despite increased publishing costs, metamorphosis and they are forcing their new periodical and book titles continue to users to change as well. They are chang- proliferate. Francis Bacon wrote, “I have ing from being warehouses of published taken all knowledge to be my province.” materials to being gateways to informa- However, it is no longer possible or tion. A number of factors are playing a practical to think of libraries as being so role in this change. comprehensive, even in a specialized and Cost increases have made it virtually limited subject field. A. Fiander impossible to collect comprehensive materials in a particular subject area, such Traditional and modern roles as the marine sciences (table 1 and fig- Libraries like ours must play a dual The Department of Fisheries and ure 1) (Hoffer, September 1992). The role in the 1990s. While offering tradi- Oceans’ (DFO) Scotia-Fundy Regional costs of scientific books and periodicals tional services such as reference, acquisi- Library System is composed of three have suffered inflationary increases in the tions, and interlibrary loans, we must libraries: the Bedford Institute of Ocea- last two decades which are three times explore the changing face of information nography Library, the Halifax Fisheries those imposed on social sciences and and determine how, both technically and Research Laboratory Library, and the St. philosophically, we can deliver optimum Andrews Biological Station Library. Table 1 services in a cost-efficient but effective These facilities serve 1,333 staff of the Increases in journal prices, 1992 way. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 132 The role of the modem library lies in Prices in Britain 18% staff of the Atlantic Geoscience Centre effective networking. Since we can no (part of the Department of Energy, Mines Prices in Europe 27% longer collect everything we need in order and Resources), and 19 staff of Environ- Prices in the U.S. 14% to be self-sufficient, we must establish co- ment Canada. In addition, they are used operative ties with other libraries which Average increase: 19-20% by consultants from industry, students and complement our collection. professors from universities in the area, staff from provincial government depart- ments, and the general public.

Scientific researchers Scientists are voracious consumers of information. They need information in order to keep in touch with research being done around the world, to explore new fields and methods of approaching their work, to gain insight into research already accomplished in their area of expertise, to acquire background material for projects they are working on, and to give them ideas for innovative programs in the future. The library has always been a quiet place to browse through current periodi- cals, as well as a service centre where scientists get access to the information they need. Scientists and researchers us- ing a special library like ours have tradi- tionally asked, “Do you have this?” If we Figure 1. Predicted I993 price increases for various libraries.

33 Research

Technology and information abstracts for books, reports, and journal movable type brought us the book as we Technology and information are now literature published worldwide. In addi- now recognize it, with computer type- inextricably linked. In addition to the tion, WAVES identifies the locations of setting improving the quality and speed of materials collected in our libraries, library material housed in DFO’s 13 libraries production. staff have access to more than 400 online across Canada. This database represents a Today, the media are fond of predict- databases. Our scientists have 4 databases very successful step toward networking ing the demise of the book in the so-called available to them on CD ROM (compact DFO’s libraries and is regarded as an paperless society. In the 1970s all paper disk read-only memory). exemplary model of information-sharing. was to be replaced with microfilm or A CD ROM can hold up to 600 mega- microfiche. In the 1990s we still have bytes of data, the equivalent of about The future paper books, but the arrival of books in 1,600 floppy disks or 250,000 single- In the future, the trend among librar- electronic form has offered qualitative spaced typewritten pages. CD ROMs are ies will be toward providing electronic and quantitative benefits. For example, user-friendly, with menus to choose from, information. The costs of print-on-paper extensive word searches of a CD ROM a variety of display options, and plain- information continue to escalate and encyclopedia can be performed rapidly language search terms. The disk itself is scientific journals are pricing themselves through the use of simple logic param- virtually indestructible in a normal envi- beyond the resources of many subscrib- eters - something that is just not possible ronment, so it requires no special han- ers. As library budgets remain static and with the 33-volume printed version. Elec- dling or treatment. And because CD ROM inflation continues, our purchasing power tronic books, periodicals, and indices are is a nonmagnetic medium, magnetic fields decreases. This in turn necessitates the also excellent for quick reference, brief cannot corrupt the data. Finally, the disk cancellation of subscriptions, and creates reading, and bibliographic searching. itself is a sandwich of tough polycar- a vicious circle for publishers, since fewer They are less costly than the printed bonate and aluminum, which encase a subscribers mean prices must be version, consume less space, and are protected reading surface. As a result, fin- increased to cover costs. It is not portable. gerprints and spilled coffee will not harm economically feasible to sustain print-on- However, before electronic versions the data. paper publications unless an extremely replace books as we now know them, sig- CD ROM technology is attractive to large market can be reasonably assured. nificant improvements must be made scientists because it gives them the oppor- Because of this, many publishers will either to computer screens or to the hu- tunity to do bibliographic searches of begin new journals in electronic form. man eye. So far, nothing has replaced the extensive databases without incurring the With more office computers available, superb characteristics of paper and ink. high costs associated with online database scientists will have direct access to full- Paper does not “flicker”, whereas the inquiries. CD ROM searches can also be text data (versus simply bibliographic typical computer screen is displaying 60 done independently of library staff, so information) through either online to 72 interlaced frames per second. This they are available whenever the library is services or CD ROM products. Since constant flickering is detected by our eyes open. many researchers now compose and edit as motion and causes constant movement The libraries at BIO, the Halifax their papers by electronic means, the of the fovea portion of the retina, substan- Laboratory, and St. Andrews are each transmission and even the publishing tially reducing reading speeds. A well- equipped with an IBM PC clone with a of journals will be possible without a printed book has an ink-to-paper contrast CD ROM player attached, and each facility printing process. of about 120 to 1, whereas typical compu- subscribes to updated abstracts on CD In the 1990s more material will be ter screens are half that. And print and ROM. Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries available on CD ROM. Even now, the CD illustrations in a book represent a resolu- Abstracts (ASFA) covers literature ROM version of many publications is tion of about 600 to 1,000 dots per inch, published from 1982 to 1991, Wildlife cheaper than the paper version; for exam- whereas computer screens offer one-tenth and Fish Worldwide includes material ple, ASFA on CD ROM is cheaper than the of that and books on CD ROM provide published from 1971 to May 1991, and paper abstract, and it is faster to search even less. Given these disadvantages of Pollution and Toxicology Abstracts and takes up a lot less room on the shelf. electronic media, it seems that the book (Poltok I) covers the years 1982 to 1991. will be with us for some time to come! WAVES/VAGUES includes books and The demise of the book? reports from all years and is the official The book has evolved through a vari- References information database of the Department ety of forms: from the clay tablets of Hoffer, H. (ed.). 1992. Readmore Bulletin, Febru- of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO). Mesopotamia, to Egyptian papyrus ary. Readmore Inc., New York. All of these CD ROM databases scrolls, to the goatskin pages used in Hoffer, H. (ed.). 1992. Readmore Bulletin, Septem- ber. Readmore Inc., New York. contain bibliographic information and ancient Greek Pergamum. Printing and

34 Research Geographic information systems applied to the production of nautical charts D. R. Frizzle, D. D. Nicholson, S. A. Smith, and H. P. Varma

D. R. Frizzle D. D. Nicholson S. A. Smith H. P. Varma

For centuries, the sextant and the information. Charts would become one of The main problems with managing leadline comprised the backbone of data the many byproducts of the database that spatial objects were associated with their collection tools for hydrographic surveys. provide information to clients. relationships, representation, analysis, Information was collected and drawn The early to mid ’80s saw experi- and retrieval. These problems included: manually on field sheets. These hardcopy mentation with interactive chart compila- l how to maintain spatial objects in a data representations were brought to a tion using CARIS (the Computer-Aided format that a user could query; common scale photomechanically and Resource Information System). At the l what query language to use for spatial were compiled on a single base known as same time, data acquisition technology and nonspatial data; a mosaic. Cartographers selected appro- was making significant improvements l how to provide spatial relationships that priate data from the mosaic and, using and the advent of acoustic sweep and could be analyzed; traditional drafting techniques, produced swath systems increased the volume of l how to generate an image on the basis a nautical chart. data by orders of magnitudes. The diffi- of query conditions. By the 1970s echosounders and elec- culty of managing these large data sets These were the fundamental questions tronic positioning systems revolutionized necessitated a proper database manage- that CHS (Atlantic Region) and Oracle the acquisition of hydrographic informa- ment system. Corp. (Canada) explored during the de- tion. Data loggers, able to store informa- In 1988 work began on the design of velopment of a SIMS (Spatial Information tion about position and depth in digital a bathymetric database system. Relational Management Systems) prototype. form, were introduced. At the same time, concepts in database technology were rec- SIMS is based on a new concept of the use of computers to produce chart bor- ognized as being most appropriate for this hydrographic hyperspatial codes, or HH ders and LORAN lattices increased the task. However, the relational technology codes. These codes are generated by sub- speed of the chart-making process. in existence at the time could not handle dividing space using a quadtree approach. Advances in data processing in the large sets of spatial data. That is, any shown subpartition is, by late ’70s and early ’80s included the abil- ity to store not only information about position and depth but also supporting attributes. Computer-assisted drafting became used in virtually all aspects of cartography. However, the process was still graphically oriented (fig. 1). In the 1970s the Canadian Hydro- graphic Service (CHS) realized that the full power of digital information was not being used, and it became increasingly accepted that CHS’ mandate was to create a hydrographic database of digital Figure I. The creation of nautical charts: The old and the new.

35 Research definition, one-fourth of the parent and is Points can also be clustered by sort- The early stages of interactive compi- given an identity code containing the ing and grouping similar HH codes into lation virtually mimicked the traditional characters 0, 1, 2, and 3. Subsequent tables (designated as a common GROUP methods of data selection. The person repartitioning generates new HH codes HHCODE name of a given length), and compiling the information was required to derived from the existing code, with the storing these tables off line on either tape review all the data visually to make the size of the squares dictated by the length media or disks. selection and derive features such as con- of the codes: the longer the code, the What is most important about this tours. However, this method falls apart as smaller the square. Relationships are then capability is that it provides a means of the density of collected data grows. Fig- formed by matching codes to given maintaining a very large database off line, ure 2a shows the visually impenetrable lengths and signifying whether the areas bringing only the required segments volume of data plotted at chart scale. In specifically relate. With this method, on line when needed. At present the order to deal with this density, computer- relationships between point data can be prototype can handle points, lines, areas, aided methods of selecting digital data established without the use of grids or volumes, and topology. were created. The following are some of polygons. While progress was being made in the methods that were used:

HH codes give relational databases data acquisition and management, work l to exclude data with unwanted attri- the capability to use SQL, a standard rela- continued on the computer-aided compi- butes, pre-determined sets of attributes tional database query language, to per- lation of nautical charts from digital data. were used; form efficient queries on sets of spatio- It was originally planned that a carto- l to automatically select soundings, vari- temporal information. For example, these graphic compilation expert would assem- able spacing specifications were used in could include the following: ble all necessary digital data files and then combination with depth biasing; l analyzing the difference between two window them to fit the chart before begin- l to automatically generate depth con- sets of spatial data; ning the compilation. But without a data- tours, a triangulation network was used, l computing the volume by summing all base management system, this plan was and the lines smoothed after they were areas and multiplying them by the doomed to failure. The data collected over processed. depth attribute; the years within a charted area had created Figure 2b shows the results of using l compressing data by subdividing infor- a large number of digital files. In addition, these data selection tools. The product, mation into statistical tiles; these files had required various degrees of although not meeting exact standards, l finding the nearest neighbours to a modification as the geography within favourably resembles a printed nautical selected data item; their limits changed. Unless the source chart and is referred to as a pseudochart. l defining trends over periods of time; information could be validated and man- The creation of the pseudochart is virtu- l making ad hoc queries among several aged, compiling charts from the digital ally automatic. Figure 2c shows the final distributed databases. data would be impossible. product after human interaction. Very lit- Previous relational database management Validating the source data on a chart- tle difference can be seen between 2b systems were not capable of performing by-chart basis has begun. This has and 2c. However, the processing of data such tasks. allowed CHS to begin the interactive com- to produce a pseudochart takes a matter of The SQL query language has been ex- pilation process while preparing for the hours, as opposed to the months required tended to incorporate encoding, decoding, eventual arrival of the database manage- for manual equivalents. windowing, and the manipulation of HH ment system. A special group within CHS With the installation of a relational codes. The user can work with standard has been created to supply all the neces- database management system, data coordinate systems; however, the data- sary digital information. One electronic manipulation specialists will have quick base management system will convert file for each chart is provided at the scale access to all of the data for a given area, them to HH code representation in order and projection of the particular area; and can also call upon data analysis and to facilitate the database’s internal figure 2a is an example of the digital comparison devices as required. This will operations. data available for a charted area. allow the necessary decision-making

Figure 2. The compilation process.

36 Research when producing charts to be better chart is one example of the changing publications could also be included on informed. Many of the routine tasks of demand for digital information. Since the this medium. chart-making will also be completed by size of a digital chart typically is about To serve the needs of mariners and of computers, resulting in a faster process. one megabyte, in theory all of the 404 an increasingly diverse group of clients, CHS collects and maintains a very charts of the Atlantic region could be the requirement for a complete database diverse base of information, and the stored on one side of a CD ROM disk. with an efficient management system is number of people who use these data is Sailing directions, annual notices to mari- paramount. The Canadian Hydrographic increasing at a rapid pace. The electronic ners, tidal predictions, and other nautical Service is dedicated to attaining that goal.

37 Research From oceanographic research to operational oceanography D. Gregory

oceanographic analyses, and create envi- An obvious advantage of the personal ronmental databases. computer is that the directories can be easily integrated into commercially avail- Data access able and relatively inexpensive database The needs of other organizations and and mapping programs, thereby greatly disciplines for oceanographic data divide increasing the usefulness of the informa- roughly between those clients who tion. Users do not have to contend with require immediate statistical summaries telecommunication charges or poor and those who want to access complete response times if our own computer facil- data sets in order to carry out their own ities are busy. Telecommunications analyses. To inform both groups of the systems must be used when clients want availability of data and how these data can to obtain a complete data set, but in such D. Gregory be accessed, a series of online directories cases it is simply a matter of submitting a is being developed which describes all of directory-generated request to BIO’s the physical oceanography holdings at our computer. Figure 1, which shows the Through its many research programs, laboratory. The directories contain distribution and number of months of the Physical and Chemical Sciences (PCS) detailed monthly statistical summaries ocean current data held in the PCS Branch at the Bedford Institute of Ocea- (means and variances - see Gregory and archive, is an example of the type of prod- nography is developing the techniques Smith, 1988), as well as instructions for uct that is readily accessible through the and, in many cases, collecting the data to retrieving complete data sets in a format directories and a commercially available answer a broad range of questions in the suitable to the client’s requirements. At PC-based mapping program. fields of fisheries, climate, and offshore the same time, similar directories and Supplementing the observational energy. Providing this information to statistical summaries, which can be sent data are the simulated observations from other organizations and disciplines is one to client agencies and updated on an numerical models. Many of these models of the challenges faced by a research labo- annual basis, are being developed for use are remarkably reliable in duplicating ratory. Clients increasingly demand use- on a personal computer. observational results, and they are ful products that will help them solve problems such as assessing the abundance of fish stocks, determining suitable sites for aquaculture facilities, and modelling the effect of an oil spill. While the avail- ability of high-speed computer networks allows easier access to data, it also intro- duces a new level of complexity, as data and software needed for a particular project are frequently spread over a number of different machines. An immediate concern is improving distribution and accessibility of informa- tion, through products that already exist or can be produced relatively easily. These objectives are relatively short term and have well-defined goals. A longer- term objective is to develop the necessary hardware and software infrastructure and the scientific expertise to facilitate the development of new oceanographic prod- ucts for our clients. It is in the context of these short- and long-term objectives that this article will discuss some of the many developments being introduced by PCS in Figure 1. The number of months of ocean current data observed in 1° x 1° squares and order to improve access to data, provide archived by PCS for the Atlantic east coast.

38 Research becoming accepted as an alternative form the Environmental Subcommittee of the the development of new software. The of oceanographic information in data- Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organiza- system, which to date consists of over 125 poor regions and seasons. Numerical tion (NAFO) (Drinkwater and Trites, oceanographic modules, has been models, when verified, have a consider- 1991). The reviews are based on a variety received with enthusiasm within Canada, able advantage over observational data in of oceanographic and meteorological data and interest has been expressed from re- that they offer spatial or temporal cover- sets, on information provided in national search laboratories in the United States, age and a degree of resolution that is sim- research reports, and on other research Korea, and China. ply not available with field data. documents prepared for the NAFO Data assimilation: Incorporating Frequently, the results from such models Science Council. Data sets include: observational data into statistical or are the only source of information about l coastal and offshore sea-surface tem- numerical models is another way to maxi- some areas and are therefore a valuable peratures; mize the information available from exist- resource. Inclusion of these data in the l hydrographic data from standard ocea- ing data. This process can also help to online directories will become a priority nographic stations (such as Station 27 determine the quantity of data required to after completing the directories of off St. John’s, and Prince 5 at the mouth achieve a given level of accuracy or the observational data. of the Bay of Fundy); point of diminishing returns for additional

l the position of the shelf-slope front, the data. The technique of blending observa- Oceanographic analyses number and location of warm core tional data with models, called “data The state of the ocean: Since 1984, a rings; assimilation”, has been in use for some group of scientists within PCS have been l the first and last appearance of sea ice; time in meteorology, but the methodology producing a monthly state-of-the-ocean l the number of icebergs; is still being developed in oceanography. summary which describes the sea-surface l the air pressure and geostrophic wind However, the imminent availability of temperature, the amount and location of fields over the North Atlantic; oceanographic satellite measurements sea ice, and the positions of fronts, all in l air temperature over eastern North that will cover the entire globe with relation to other environmental variables America. unprecedented spatial and temporal reso- such as wind and air temperature. The Environmental conditions are compared lution is accelerating the efforts at BIO to current monthly values of sea temperature with those of the preceding year and with make use of these techniques. and ice cover are compared to long-term the long-term means. Various aspects of the research averages in order to assess whether or not Analysis tools: Combining data from include developing algorithms to produce the conditions are normal for the period. different sources in order to subject them representations of surface wind and pres- The region of interest extends from the to a uniform analysis is often made more sure fields from satellite imagery, com- Gulf of Maine to the Grand Banks and difficult by the need to deal with a variety bining these data with in situ observa- offshore to the Gulf Stream. The primary of formats and data structures. To facili- tions, and coupling both types of data into source of data for the analysis is the fron- tate this process, the PCS disciplines have models. Optimal estimation techniques tal chart titled “Oceanographic Analysis”, made a major effort over the past two are being investigated so that gridded data which is produced three times a week by years to develop an analysis and data fields can be generated from observa- the National Environmental Satellite, management system (O’Neill and tional data, which are generally not uni- Data, and Information Service and the Bodner, 1991) which is a radical depar- form in space and time and have different National Weather Service, both American ture from previous systems. Instead of degrees of resolution and accuracy. agencies. This chart is, in turn, based pri- developing large programs that perform Sophisticated data-sorting algorithms are marily on infrared imagery collected by specific tasks and require a rigid input and being developed in order to allow effi- polar orbiting and geostationary satellites output format, the analysis software, writ- cient access to large data sets, a step that and prepared by the National Oceanic and ten to strict ANSI standards, consists of a is necessary before the large volumes of Atmospheric Administration. These satel- number of modules or functions which modelled parameters can be considered as lite data are also supplemented by surface operate independently of any data format. a source of data to be managed and observations. Other data used in the analy- The modules can be assembled in various archived. sis come from various sources, including ways to provide the desired analysis. the Atmospheric Environmental Service As new analysis techniques are Oceanic indices Ice Centre, and field measurements by developed, modules can readily be added With an understanding of a physical research scientists and the maritime fishing to the system without affecting the exist- system that comes from the analysis of industry. The monthly report is sent to an ing ones. The data management compo- both observational data and the use of extensive list of environmental consultants, nent, which the system sees as simply modelling techniques, it becomes possi- universities, other government agencies. another module, permits scientists to ble for oceanographic variability over a and clients in the fishing industry. define the structure of the data being sup- large area to be summarized in one or NAFO annual environmental over- plied to the analysis routines. Using this more oceanographic, hydrological, or view: Since 1982, PCS scientists have approach, data from a variety of sources meteorological indices. These indices provided annual reviews of environmen- can be combined and subjected to the may then be applied to a whole range of tal conditions in the Northwest Atlantic to same uniform analysis without requiring problems, from long-term climate change

39 Research to shorter-term fluctuations in the abun- the Scotia-Fundy Region, to identify the Furthermore, 25 longtime series of dance of a particular fish stock. By com- forces controlling local climate change, various oceanographic and meteor- paring these oceanographic indices with and to determine what large-scale envi- ological parameters have been assembled time series from individual sites, monitor- ronmental factors contribute to long-term into the database of climatic indices. ing locations can be established, thereby fluctuations in groundfish abundance. Some of the series, such as sea-surface reducing the need for massive observation The Gulf of Maine area (fig. 2) has been temperature off Halifax Harbour and St. programs. selected for a pilot study because of its Andrews, New Brunswick, span seven relatively great climatic variability and its decades. An example importance to the fisheries. When the system is fully operational, A scientific study currently under In total, the records of some 55,000 scientists at BIO will be able to select and way illustrates many of the developments stations with over 600,000 observations review data using a high-speed data link mentioned in this paper (Drinkwater et of temperature and salinity have been connected directly to the MEDS databases. al., 1990, 1991); it involves the establish- obtained from both the Canadian Marine As with any large database, identifying ment of a database, the application of Environmental Data Service (MEDS) and duplicate or erroneous data is a major analysis tools, the process of data the United States National Oceanographic problem. Quality-control tests, developed assimilation, and the formulation of Data Center. As the database is expanded by MEDS in conjunction with the Global oceanographic indices. Its purpose is to to include the entire shelf region, there Temperature-Salinity Pilot Project, have determine the dominant temporal and will be approximately half a million been adopted by BIO’s analysis system to spatial scales of oceanic variability in stations and five million observations. further upgrade the data.

Figure 2. The Gulf of Maine region showing the location of monitoring sites for a number of physical variables.

40 Research

A simple data storage structure has displays of the data and animated movies. References been defined, consisting of the space and When this project is completed in about Drinkwater, K. F., J. W. Loder, C. Mason, B. D. time coordinates (latitude, longitude, four years, it will produce a system that Petrie, and P. C. Smith. 1991. AFAP environmental depth, and time), the parameter name, and integrates data acquisition, quality factors program year-end report - 1990/91. Internal DFO document. the parameter value. This structure control, volume selection, statistical Drinkwater, K. F., J. W. Loder, B. D. Petrie, P. C. permits the data to be easily transferred analyses, and three-dimensional graphical Smith, R. I. Perry, and S. Smith. 1990. Climate vari- between the physical analysis system displays of the ocean. ability in the water-mass characteristics of the shelf (for example, for the computation of waters in the Scotian Shelf region. Project proposal, climate indices) and a relational database Conclusion internal DFO document. (ORACLE) that supports fisheries sciences The current development of data Drinkwater, K. F., and R. W. Trites. 1991. Overview of environmental conditions in the Northwest Atlan- and stock assessment programs. Selected analysis and interpretation techniques tic in 1990. NAFO SCR Doc. 91/87:27 p. volumes of data are also transferred represents one of the most exciting areas Gregory, D. N., and P. C. Smith. 1988. Current over the network to a graphics mini- of oceanographic research at BIO. It statistics for the Scotian Shelf and slope. Can. Tech. supercomputer, where grid interpolation brings together scientists from many Rep. Hydrog. Ocean Sci. 106:iv+l97 p. is performed using nearest-neighbour and disciplines and will lead to an understand- O’Neill, J. T., and J. L Bodner. 1991. OCEANS - optimal-estimator techniques in support ing of oceanographic processes on a broad An Oceanographic Analysis System. User Refer- ence Manual, version 1.51. of visualization studies. These studies will range of spatial and temporal scales not result in three-dimensional colour previously possible.

41 Research Fish and invertebrate nutrition S. P. Lall and J. D. Castell

to the fish. Halver’s semipurified diet led to the quantitative determination of the requirements of Pacific salmon for fat- soluble and water-soluble vitamins and amino acids. Since then, nutritionists have tried to formulate balanced diets by selecting food materials from both plant and animal sources and supplementing them with vitamins and trace elements. It is from this foundation that our knowl- edge of the nutritional requirements of fishes has evolved. Early concern for improving diets S. P. Lall J. D. Castell used in salmon hatcheries has now been accentuated by serious commercial inter- Nutrition is defined as the sum of the interest in the potential of lobster culture ests. Feed is the largest single cost of processes by which a plant or animal in North America and Europe. intensive fish production, and adequate takes in and utilizes food substances. Biologists first approached the prob- nutrition is an important influence on the Nutrition research integrates principles of lem of fish nutrition by investigating the ability of fish to reach their potential for biochemistry and physiology into a study chemical composition of natural foods growth and reproduction. The feed and of the relationships between organisms and the effect they had on growth and feeding regime fish farmers adopt depend and their food supply, including inges- development. In 1924, Embody and on their production goals, which in turn tion, digestion, absorption, and utilization Gordon studied the chemical composition are determined by the genetic potential of of the various chemicals which constitute of insects, the natural food of wild trout, the fish, the types of feed available, and the food, or which the organism needs. and found that they were approximately the local environment. The main objec- The nutrients animals need include pro- 49% protein, 15% lipids, 8% fibre, and tives of our research are to formulate teins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, and 10% ash. Fish feed formulations based on nutritionally balanced feedstuffs, and to minerals. Knowledge of how each func- this information resulted in relatively design feeding regimes which will opti- tions, and of the relationships between good growth, but when liver and fresh fish mize production and yield a high-quality them, is necessary before one can make were replaced by protein supplements product at the lowest possible cost. practical decisions about the formulation derived from plants, the fish exhibited of feeds used both in the scientific study vitamin deficiencies. However, the lack Research into salmonid nutrition of fish and shellfish and in aquaculture. of feed ingredients that were free of In 1979, a program was started to Early researchers into fish biology vitamins prevented these deficiencies develop new diets for use in federal and fish culture relied on natural or read- from being characterized. salmon hatcheries and, incidentally, by ily available foods such as fresh beef This situation changed in 1957, when the few commercial growers of Atlantic liver, shrimp, chopped fish, and fish Halver developed a semipurified diet. Pu- salmon then in operation. The emphasis scraps. A similar story can be told about rified diets are composed of individual was to improve nutrition in order to lobsters. Most lobsters harvested in feed ingredients of known composition reduce the prevalence of bacterial and Canada are sold alive, which requires that mixed in predetermined proportions. In viral diseases in young fish and to they be stored alive. Traditionally, stored experimental conditions, they allow abso- improve the survival and rate of return of lobsters were fed scrap fish, other low- lute control over all aspects of the ani- salmon smolts used in enhancement pro- grade food, or nothing at all for periods mal’s nutrition. They are, however, very grams. Because little was known about lasting up to 5 months. Losses due to dis- expensive and may not be acceptable to the nutrients and energy required by ease or cannibalism were often quite high, the fish. In contrast, semipurified diets salmon in order to swim, to form new and it was reasonable to suppose that pro- contain a combination of natural and pure tissue, muscle, bone, nerves, and so on as viding these lobsters with suitable food ingredients. They can be designed to the fish grow or repair wounds, and to fuel might improve their survival and quality. allow control over one aspect of the all the normal life processes, researchers Studies of the nutritional requirements of animal’s nutrition - a study of a single relied on some of the results of work done lobsters, however, were not initiated until vitamin, perhaps - while allowing the with other species. This in effect “jump the early 1970s when high prices and researcher to formulate a diet that is natu- started” the development of diets for apparently decreasing stocks stimulated ral in all other aspects and still acceptable Atlantic salmon in full culture conditions,

42 Research including diets for use in salt water, which limited. In marine environments, fish can from fresh water may contain both n-6 is where salmon are now grown to market absorb some minerals (calcium, magne- and n-3 EFAs, but salmon reared in sea size. Subsequently, comprehensive sium, sodium, and potassium) directly water contain higher proportions of n-3 research was undertaken to determine the from the water, but phosphorus and trace fatty acids.) chemical composition and digestibility of elements can be obtained only from their Broodstock nutrition: Both the qual- common feed ingredients, the stability of food (Lall, 1989). However, not all that is ity and the quantity of parental diets affect micronutrients during food processing added to the food can be absorbed, and reproductive success and the subsequent and storage, and the palatability of plant excess phosphorus released from uneaten development of the offspring. Variations protein and fishery by-products. Designer food and excreta enriches the water and in the chemical composition of nutrients feeds were also developed for each stage stimulates algal growth. This, in turn, are reflected in the quality of eggs (their of the young fish’s life: “starter”, degrades the downstream environment colour, weight, and size), milt (or sperm), “grower”, and smolt diets. The perform- and is not acceptable. Therefore, experi- and newly-hatched fry (Lall, 1991). The ance of fish that were given these diets ments are underway to identify feed act of spawning leaves salmon physi- was evaluated under controlled laboratory ingredients which have highly digestible ologically exhausted; in nature most conditions, in field trials in federal hatch- forms of phosphorus while supplying the Pacific salmon, and some Atlantic eries, and, later, at the Salmonid Demon- smallest amount required for the diet to salmon, die. Early efforts to recondition stration and Development Farm in St. minimize the environmental impacts of spawned Atlantic salmon were met with George, New Brunswick. Dry and moist hatcheries and fish farms. severe mortality among the next genera- feed formulas developed at the Halifax Because salmonids utilize carbohy- tion of eggs and a low survival rate among Fisheries Research Laboratory are now drates less efficiently than do terrestrial the fingerlings. These problems were widely used by the fish feed industry in animals, they require a higher percentage shown to be due to inadequate concentra- Atlantic Canada. of protein in their diets, some of which tions of zinc, manganese, and vitamins A, Dry feeds based on fish meal and fish may be metabolized for energy. In sea C, and E in the mother’s diet, and to the oil are processed into pellets, using either water the requirement for protein is also inadequate transfer of these materials steam or an extrusion process. These slightly higher than in fresh water. Marine from her to the eggs. This finding was feeds have certain advantages, such as a fish oils are incorporated into diets to sup- taken into account when diets for com- longer shelf life, and can be used in auto- ply energy and essential fatty acids mercial broodstock salmon for the matic feeding systems. Moist-feed formu- (EFAs), as fish cannot synthesize the lat- aquaculture industry were formulated lations, which contain fresh herring or ter. Since dietary lipids are used more (Ritter, 1989). capelin by-products, underexploited fish efficiently than protein as a source of We now know that the n-3 type of species, and other local bycatches, as well energy, commercial salmon diets contain fatty acids are essential in broodstock as vitamins and minerals, were originally a high proportion of fat (24 to 30%), thus diets; they play an important role at each developed for use on smaller farms in conserving protein to maximize growth. stage of egg development, and are response to the absence of suitable local The basic mechanisms by which salmon required for normal spawning and to sources of dry feeds. Being fresh and synthesize and convert fatty acids, and ensure that the eggs will hatch (Leray moist, they spoil fairly rapidly and are deposit them in their flesh, are the same in et al., 1985). Excess carbohydrates in the more difficult to handle, but they give both fresh water and sea water, but there diet may be harmful, producing abnor- extremely good results, particularly when are significant differences in the fatty- mally high levels of glycogen in the liver the water is very cold (fig. 1). Moist feed acid composition of fish raised in the two and increasing susceptibility both to is now produced industrially and is the types of environments. (The lipids of fish infections and to poisoning by minerals, major source of food for Atlantic salmon reared in sea cages in the Maritimes. Silage made from waste products from the herring roe fishery can be used as a sub- stitute for raw herring in moist feeds, providing a good source of protein and lipids. Silage is made by grinding whole fish or fish-processing wastes with acid or fermentable carbohydrates. Natural enzymes break down the protein and liquify the fish, and the acid prevents microbial spoilage. Nutritional requirements of salmon in sea water: Although much research had been conducted on fish grown in fresh water, studies of the nutritional require- Figure 1. The weight gain of Atlantic salmon fed moist and silage-based diets for a ments of salmon living in sea water were period of approximately 17 months.

43 Research such as cadmium, which are already microbiological origin (bacterial, fungal, would all be of the same size, age, and present in the diet. Carotenoid pigments and algal toxins, etc.), compounds of ani- genetic background. such as astaxanthin and canthaxanthin, mal origin (thiaminase, avidin, etc.) and The importance of cholesterol: derived from sources like shrimp and nonessential heavy metals (lead, cad- While adult lobsters had survived on lobster, impart colour to the flesh of mium, mercury, etc.). Toxic compounds casein-based diets for periods exceeding salmon and their eggs, which range from may also form while the feed is being two years and suffered no apparent detri- pink to red, but the exact biological role of processed and stored. mental effects, it was soon discovered that these pigments is not known. Essential An excellent example of fish becom- juvenile lobsters on the same diets died nutrients are critical for egg quality, and ing predisposed to a bacterial disease as within two months. This created a serious the correct feeding rate is important the result of nutrient deficiencies occurred problem, until we discovered the dietary because of its effect on the number of at the Margaree Fish Culture Station. factors responsible for the mortality. The eggs produced. Here we were able to show a relationship possible detrimental effects of cholesterol The role of vitamins and trace ele- between the concentration of iodine in the on human health have been well publi- ments in immune response and disease diet and the incidence and severity of cized, so it was something of a paradox to resistance: Fish diseases have sometimes bacterial kidney disease. The iodine level discover that the deaths were due to a lack been related to a lack or imbalance of was low in both the water and the food, of cholesterol in the casein-based diets. trace elements, to marginal vitamin defi- but by adding small amounts of potassium Although the cod liver oil used in prepar- ciencies, or to rancid food, and such iodide or ethylene diamine dihydro iodide ing the diet was 1 to 2% cholesterol, this factors are frequently at the root of much to the food, the incidence of the disease was not sufficient to meet the needs of of the infection-related mortality could be largely controlled. growing juvenile lobsters. The diet only observed on fish farms. Nutritional defi- contained 0.1 to 0.2% cholesterol even ciencies influence the integrity of skin and Research into lobster nutrition with a formulation of 10% cod liver oil. epithelial tissues and the composition of The Invertebrate Nutrition Research Eventually, we demonstrated that juvenile tissues and body fluids, and they reduce Program at the Halifax Fisheries Research lobsters require cholesterol at approxi- mucous secretions, thus predisposing fish Laboratory was initiated in December mately 0.5% of the dry weight of the diet to infections. Often, signs of nutritional 1970 with an emphasis on lobsters, (Castell et al., 1975). deficiency are masked by the symptoms although minor projects on molluscs such Moult death syndrome: a problem of viral or bacterial diseases, and proper as oysters and scallops were also under- associated with vitamin-free casein: Ini- diagnosis requires the examination of taken. Prior to this, the standard diet for tially, casein-based diets supplemented blood and tissues, the measurement of lobsters held in the laboratory was a com- with 0.5 to 1.0% cholesterol yielded good tissue-nutrient concentrations, and an bination of beef liver and herring scraps, growth and survival among juvenile lob- analysis of the histopathology. and although they survived, their overall sters. However, in 1974 some change in Most of the diseases caused by nutri- condition was poor compared to that of the quality of commercially supplied vita- tional deficiency develop slowly, but it is freshly captured lobsters (Stewart et al., min-free casein began to cause lobsters to obviously in the farmer’s interest to detect 1972). die while they were moulting; the condi- and treat such problems as early as possi- Feeding trials were conducted by giv- tion was termed moult death syndrome, or ble. Subclinical signs of vitamin deficien- ing captured adult lobsters a diet based on MDS (fig. 2). cies have been determined by measuring casein (a protein purified from milk), It is possible that the deaths were due specific enzyme activities in the liver, which had originally been formulated for to changes in the physical characteristics kidney, or red blood cells. For example, rainbow trout. It was determined that ap- the activity of erythrocyte transketolase is proximately 50% of the dry weight of the reduced by thiamin deficiency; that of lobsters’ food had to be protein (Castell muscle amino transferase, by lack of and Budson, 1976), that fish oils contain- pyridoxine; and that of liver acetyl CoA ing omega-3 fatty acids were superior to carboxylase, by a deficiency of biotin. vegetable oils, and that the optimum lipid Both essential and nonessential nutri- content of the diet was about 5% (Castell ents, if consumed in excess over a and Covey, 1975). prolonged period, become toxic. Further- These feeding experiments took a more, excessive use of growth stimulants, long time to yield results, since growth preservatives, binders (used to improve could be observed only at moulting, the stability of feed), and nutrient sup- which in adult lobsters occurs about once plements may also affect the health of a year. In order to obtain more rapid re- fish. Nutrient toxicity problems are sults, we decided to use juvenile lobsters, Figure 2. Juvenile lobsters that died of primarily caused by a surplus of fat- which would moult about five times over the moult-death syndrome (MDS) after soluble vitamins and of copper salts, sele- the course of a 3-month experiment. This being fed a casein-based, semipurified nium salts, and fluoride salts. Natural required that we set up a lobster hatchery diet for 35 days. The animals were unable toxicants in feed include compounds of so that the animals used in the experiment to complete the moult process.

44 Research of the casein, which affected its ability to diets, the lobsters must have been conducted at the St. Andrews Biological bind the diet and to reduce the leaching of absorbing it directly from the sea water in Station in New Brunswick (Castell et al., water-soluble nutrients. Researchers at order to maintain the silver-copper bal- 1977), as well as by a commercial lobster the University of California determined ance. Although lobsters can absorb cop- dealer (Bishop and Castell, 1978) and at that the casein-induced MDS could be re- per directly from sea water, the addition Dalhousie University (Koshio et al., duced or prevented by adding soy lecithin of 16.2 mg of copper for each kilogram of 1989, 1990). (a water-insoluble emulsifing agent) to feed improves growth, but diets with con- Development of international stand- the diet in a concentration of 6 to 10%. centrations of 40 mg or more per kilogram ards for experimental diets: Over the Nevertheless, the problem stimulated a retard growth and reduce survival. The past 20 years, the nutrition research group search for a more suitable protein. In co- toxicity of excess dietary copper can be has participated in a number of interna- operation with Dr. Andrew Boghen of the offset by a supplement of silver. tional task forces and working groups, Université de Moncton, the Invertebrate Marine crustaceans accumulate trace and through these it has played a key role Nutrition Group discovered that excellent elements, such as cadmium, in the in standardizing the techniques used in results could be obtained by using a pro- hepatopancreas; wild lobsters have been aquatic nutrition research. In 1984, an tein extracted from the rock crab Cancer known to have in excess of 700 mg/kg of international cooperative study began to irroratus, a natural prey of the lobster cadmium in the hepatopancreas (Uthe et evaluate the lecithin-supplemented (Boghen et al., 1982). When casein was al., 1982). Although cadmium is toxic to casein-based diet (developed at the replaced with this nutrient-balanced crab fish, diets containing 45 mg/kg had no University of California) and the crab protein concentrate (CPC) in experimental effect on the growth or survival of juve- protein-based diet (developed at the Hali- lobster diets, there was no longer any re- nile lobsters, even though the concentra- fax Fisheries Research Laboratory) as quirement for supplemental lecithin tion of cadmium in the hepatopancreas possible standard reference diets. Experi- (Kean et al., 1985). In addition, the reached 260 mg/kg (Chou et al., 1987). It ments were conducted with 28 different protein requirement was decreased from is not yet known whether lobsters require crustacean species (Castell et al., 1989; 50% of the diet to between 25% and 30%, cadmium, but it is interesting that this Castell, 1990). Subsequent studies which and the cholesterol requirement was element, which is dangerous to humans, we conducted in Nova Scotia, California, halved. has a much wider safety margin in lobster Sweden, and China have investigated the Trace elements: copper, silver, and diets than does copper, which is an essen- optimum ratios of protein to energy and cadmium: Identifying the concentrations tial element for these animals. Waste from the amounts and types of essential fatty of trace elements required in the diet of plants that process lobster and shrimp is acids required in crustacean diets. marine organisms is complicated by the frequently used in commercial fish feeds. presence of trace elements in the water, Since these waste materials contain much Research into molluscan nutrition and by the ability of many aquatic animals hepatopancreas and may have a high cad- The study of the nutrition of bivalve to absorb these directly through the gills mium content, it is essential to monitor molluscs is even more difficult than that and skin or from the water they drink. In toxic trace elements, like cadmium, in of fish or crustaceans. Oysters, scallops, addition, there is sometimes a very small cultured fish in order to ensure that the and mussels are filter feeders which ingest difference between the required amount products are safe for human consumption. single-celled micro-algae, bacteria, and and the level that is toxic. This has led to Growth acceleration: The growth of suspended detritis. They also absorb dis- close cooperation between the toxicology crustaceans such as the lobster is control- solved organic molecules and inorganic and nutrition research groups, and some led by a moult-inducing hormone pro- salts directly from the water. If prepared very interesting information has emerged. duced by a gland at the base of the feeds are used, the extremely small size of For example, in lobsters the respira- antenna, and by a moult-inhibiting hor- the particles results in serious losses of tory protein that carries oxygen in the mone produced by a gland in the eyestalk. water-soluble nutrients. Despite such blood is hemocyanin, which contains cop- Removal of the eyestalk accelerates problems, we were able to demonstrate per, unlike the hemoglobin of mammals, moulting, but the lobster rarely survives that oysters (Crassostrea virginica) also which contains iron. The toxicology more than one or two postoperative require the omega-3 fatty acids found in group had observed a direct relationship, moults unless careful attention is given to marine oils, rather than the omega-6 type a natural balance, between the levels of its diet (Mauviot and Castell, 1976). found in corn oil (Trider and Castell, copper and silver in the tissues of several Lobsters on which this growth-accelera- 1980). This conclusion was further crustaceans (Chou and Uthe, 1978). As tion technique has been used have been supported by studies in which the lipid the copper content of experimental diets reared to market size (500 g) in 13 composition of algae fed to oysters was fed to juvenile lobsters was increased, months, compared with the three years manipulated by varying the conditions there was a corresponding increase in the required for intact lobsters grown under under which the algae were cultured concentration of copper in the animals’ identical conditions. Lobsters without (Enright et a/., 1986). Because of the tissues (especially the hepatopancreas), eyestalks also respond more rapidly to leaching of water-soluble compounds which was itself accompanied by an differences in experimental diets (Castell from prepared feeds, it is impossible to increase in the level of silver (Chou et al., et al., 1976). Cooperative studies of this determine exactly what is consumed 1981). Since no silver was present in the growth-acceleration technique were by oysters. But if some type of thin

45 Research membrane could be wrapped around each salmonids, an important factor in the relationships in lobster (Homarus americanus) and food particle, the problem of leaching survival of cultured marine fish larvae rock crab (Comer irroratus) digestive glands. ICES Statutory meeting, International Council for the Ex- would be solved. will no doubt be the quality of the parental ploration of the Sea, Copenhagen, Denmark. Paper Micro-encapsulation and micropar-diets, which affect the viability of the eggs (mimeo.) C.M. 1978/E:15:8 p. ticulate diets: Feeds have been success- and sperm. Discovering the role of lipids Chou, C. L., J. F. Uthe, J. D. Castell, and J. C. Kean. fully encapsulated in a thin membrane of in broodstock nutrition and in the subse- 1987. Effect of dietary cadmium on growth, survival nylon-casein, a synthetic nylon-protein quent growth, survival, and health of the and tissue concentrations of cadmium, zinc, copper and silver in juvenile American lobster (Homarus membrane developed at Laval University larvae, and developing suitable diet for- americanus). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 45(8X1443- (Chang et al., 1966). Initial attempts at the mulations to support the next major 1450. Halifax Fisheries Research Laboratory to expansion of aquaculture, is a thrilling Emight, C. T., G. F. Newkirk, J. S. Craigie, and J. D. use these feeds with year-old American and rewarding challenge. Castell. 1986. Growth of juvenile Ostrea edulis L. fed Chaetoceros gracilis Schütt of varied chemical oysters resulted in poorer survival rates, composition. J. Exp. Mar. Biol Ecol. 96( 1): 15-26. and greater weight losses than those expe- Kean, J. C., J. D. Castell, A. G. Boghen, L. R. rienced during starvation (unpublished References D’Abramo, and D. E. Conklin. 1985. A re-evalua- results). However, biologist Joan Kean- Bishop, F. J., and J. D. Castell. 1978. Commercial tion of the lecithin and cholesterol requirements of lobster culture feasibility study, Clarks Harbour, juvenile lobster (Homarus americanus) using crab Howie is getting much better results using o Nova Scotia. Fish. Mar. Ser. Industry Report N protein-based diets. Aquaculture 47:143-149. calcium alginate-bound micro-particulate 102:v+18 p. Koshio, S., L. E. Haley, and J. D. Castell. 1989. The feeds in her research with the giant scal- Boghen, A. D., J. D. Castell, and D. E. Conklin. effect of two temperatures and salinities on growth lop (Placopecten magellanicus). This1982. In search of a reference protein to replace and survival of bilaterally eyestalk ablated and intact technique holds much promise, as does “vitamin-free casein” in lobster nutrition studies. control juvenile American lobsters, Homarus study of the nutrient composition of cul- Can. J. Zool. 60(9):2033-2038. americanus, fed brine shrimp. Aquaculture 76:373- 382. tured algae and the effect of differences in Castell, J. D. 1990. Reference diet for crustaceans: Principles of experimentation. In: J. Bat-ret (ed.), Koshio, S., R. K. O’Dor, and J. D. Castell. 1990. The algal composition on the survival, growth, Advances in Tropical Aquaculture. Actes de effect of different dietary energy levels on growth o and health of molluscs. Colloques N 9:339-354. and survival of eyestalk ablated and intact juvenile Castell, J. D., and S. D. Budson. 1974. Lobster nutri- lobsters Homarus americanus. J. World Aquacult. New initiatives in marine fish tion: The effect on Homarus americanus of dietary Soc. 21(3):160-169. nutrition protein levels. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 31:1363- Lall, S. P. 1989. The minerals. In: J. E. Halver (ed.), 1370. Fish Nutrition. Academic Press, San Diego:219-257. The potential for culturing species Castell, J. D., and J. F. Covey. 1976. Dietary lipid Lall, S. P. 1991. Salmonid nutrition and feed produc- such as the Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus requirements of adult lobsters, Homarus americanus tion. In: R. H. Cook and W. Pennell (eds.), Proc. hippoglossus) has stimulated several (M.E.). J. Nutr. 106:1159-1165. Spec. Session Salmonid Aquat., World Aquat. Soc., research projects in Canada, the United Castell, J. D., J. F. Covey, D. E. Aiken, and S. L. February 16, 1989, Los Angeles. Can. Tech. Rep. States, and Europe, and our group now Waddy. 1977. The potential for eyestalk ablation as Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1831:107-123. a technique for accelerating growth of lobsters plans to study species other than crusta- Leray, C., G. Nonnotte, P. Roubaud, and C. Leger. (Homarus americanus) for commercial culture. 1986. Incidence of (n-3) essential fatty acid defi- ceans which hold promise for commercial Proc. World Maricult. Soc. 8:895-914. ciency in trout reproductive processes. Reprod. culture in Atlantic Canada. A stumbling Castell, J. D., J. C. Kean, L. R. D’Abramo, and D. E. Nutr. Dev. 25:567-581. block in the development of culture tech- Conklin. 1989. A standard reference diet for crusta- Mauviot, J. C., and J. D. Castell. 1976. Moult- and niques for marine fish is the difficulty of cean nutrition research. I. Evaluation of two formu- growth-enhancing effects of bilateral eyestalk abla- lations. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 20(3):93-99. rearing these fish through their early tion of juvenile and adult American lobsters Castell, J. D., E. G. Mason, and J. F. Covey. 1975. (Homarus americanus). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. larval stages. Species like the halibut have Cholesterol requirements of juvenile American lob- 33:1922-1929. much smaller eggs and larvae than do ster (Homarus americanus). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. Ritter, J. 1989. Report of the working group on At- salmonids, and hence salmonid feeds are 32(8):1431-1435. lantic salmon (Salmo salar) broodstock develop- quite inadequate. Successful efforts to Castell, J. D., J. C. Mauviot, and J. F. Covey. 1976. ment and conservation for the southern New Bruns- wick aquaculture industry. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish raise halibut larvae have used live food The use of eyestalk ablation in nutrition studies with American lobsters (Homarus americanus). Proc. Aquat. Sci. 1678:vi+24 p. organisms, such as brine shrimp, rotifers, World Maricult. Soc. 7:431-441. Stewart, J. E., G. W. Homer, and B. Arie. 1972. algae, and copepods, which must them- Chang, T. M. S., F. C. Macintosh, and S. G. Mason. Effects of temperature, food, and starvation on sev- selves be cultured or captured and some- 1966. Semipermeable aqueous microcapsules I. eral physiological parameters of the lobster how concentrated. An important feature Preparation and properties. Can. J. Physiol. Homarus americanus. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 29:439-442. of these organisms is a relatively high Pharmac. 44:115-128. Trider, D. J., and J. D. Castell. 1980. Effect of di- concentration of the long-chain omega-3 Chou, C. L., J. D. Castell, J. F. Uthe, and J. C. Kean. 1981. Dietary copper requirement and possible role etary lipids on growth, tissue composition and me- fatty acids. In the future, research will of silver in lobster (Homarus americanus). In: G. O. tabolism of the oyster (Crassostrea virginica). J. focus on the factors which control the Pruder, C. Langdon, and D. E. Conklin (eds.), Pro- Nutr. 110(7): 1303-1309. content of these essential fatty acids in ceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Uthe, J. F., C. L. Chou, D. G. Robinson, and R. L. live food organisms, their transfer through Aquaculture Nutrition; Biochemical and physiologi- Lavaque Charron. 1982. Cadmium contamination of cal approach to shellfish nutrition, Delaware. 1981. Beldune Harbour, New Brunswick, Canada - Stud- o the food chain, and the subsequent devel- World Aquaculture Special Publication N 2:414- ies on American lobster (Homarus americanus) dur- opment of microparticulate formulations 415. ing 1981. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. suitable for larvae and juveniles. As with Chou, C. L., and J. F. Uthe. 1978. Heavy metal 1060:iii+10 p.

46 Research Shellfish culture in Nova Scotia R. E. Lavoie, D. J. Scarratt, K. Freeman, and B. Bradford

R. E. Lavoie D. J. Scarratt K. Freeman B. Bradford

Shellfish culture has been practiced Northumberland Strait today appear to be and the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), both for a long time. Oysters were cultivated in disease-resistant. The Bras d’Or Lakes of which are indigenous to the Maritimes; Europe during Roman times (Bardach et also remain disease free. and the European oyster (Ostrea edulis), al., 1972) and, in America, “oyster plant- The culture of the blue mussel which was introduced to the region. Cul- ing” has been employed in New Jersey (Mytilus edulis) became popular in Nova ture of three more species -the giant scal- since 1810 (Stafford, 1913). In Canada, Scotia in the 1970s. Its success, and the lop (Placopecten magellanicus), the the practice began officially in 1865, industry’s desire to diversify, led to quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria), and the when the Government of Prince Edward increased interest in other species. At bay scallop (Argopecten irradians) - is in Island passed a statute providing for the present, there are three species of mol- the development stage (fig. 1). leasing of specific areas for the purpose of luscs under cultivation in Nova Scotia: the This article briefly describes the oyster culture (Mathieson, 1912; Lavoie, American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) current status and potential of cultivated 1989). Until the 1970s, the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica) was the only mol- luscan species under cultivation in Atlan- tic Canada. Its culture was encouraged at the beginning of this century largely as a result of a severe decline in production by the wild fishery, which fell from a peak in 1882 of approximately 5,860 t to a low of 2,475 t in 1907. Culture methods were imported from France, England, Japan, and the United States, and provincial gov- Crassostrea virginica Placopecten magellanicus Mytilus edulis ernments devoted considerable effort to (American oyster) (giant scallop) (blue mussel) research in oyster biology, the adaptation of the culture methods, and the transfer of technology to fishermen. Early attempts by government to secure seed supplies led to the importation of oysters from the United States to Prince Edward Island. It is widely believed that this American seed caused the Malpeque disease, which killed more than 80% of Prince Edward Island’s stocks in 1915 Ostrea edulis Argopecten irradians Mercenaria mercenaria and 1936. Although the disease spread to (European oyster) (bay scallop) (quahog) waters around the Nova Scotia mainland in 1954, oysters living in the waters of the Figure 1. Shellfish species whose culture is currently being pursued in Nova Scotia.

47 Research species and presents some early results policies. Variable prices have resulted in to the Fisheries Act made it possible to regarding species currently under devel- unpredictable sales, and the lack of prod- lease parcels of sea bottom for the opment. It also describes ongoing uct certification has sometimes resulted in purpose of growing the molluscs. research and identifies some of the press- shellfish of inconsistent quality being In 1989, the culture of American oys- ing research needs. produced by poorly trained or uncaring ters in Nova Scotia involved 270 leases entrepreneurs. Problems specific to shell- covering 562 hectares of sea bottom. Re- Species under cultivation: fish, such as the domoic acid crisis of ported production was 135 t with a landed Status and potential 1987, make monitoring programs and value of $210,000. Seed is available from Mussels: Following experimentation research support necessary in order to natural sources in Cape Breton and from in the 1970s mussel culture in Nova promote consumer confidence, and mini- hatcheries elsewhere. Grow-out methods Scotia has undergone a steady expansion. mize market damage in the event a include the use of off-bottom trays and Reported landings of cultivated stock problem arises. on-bottom culture to produce the cup oys- since 1985 demonstrate an increase to Nonetheless, mussel culture offers ter demanded by the half-shell markets of 500 t in 1990 (fig. 2). The leasing of employment opportunities to those Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario. Devel- inshore sites initially proceeded rapidly, looking for alternatives to the traditional opment work includes juvenile grow-out but the subsequent development of farms fisheries. The development of secondary experiments in upwellers and salt has been slow. Full exploitation of exist- product lines will expand local markets, marshes. Constraints on development ing leases alone would result in a seven- and the imposition of regulations will include coastal water pollution, theft of to ten-fold increase in annual production. ensure that all mussels sold are properly oysters from leases, inconsistent quality, Furthermore, not all suitable Nova grown and inspected, thereby improving and a lack of knowledge on the part of Scotian sites have been occupied. This consumer confidence as consistent high prospective producers. However, the contrasts sharply with Prince Edward quality becomes established. In short, the potential is considerable. It is estimated Island, a province with less space for future of the industry is good. that the 2,000 hectares of appropriate sea aquaculture, but whose best sites are fully American oysters: In Nova Scotia, bottom in the province could produce occupied and whose reported production the American oyster grows naturally 4,000 t of oysters annually. Assuming that is ten times that of Nova Scotia. There is along the shores of the Northumberland this production would be of suitable opportunity for major expansion in Nova Strait, from River Philip to the Strait of quality for the half-shell trade, this crop Scotia, but its timing and extent are diffi- Canso, and in the Bras d’Or Lakes and could be worth $6 million annually. cult to predict because the decisions of Aspy Bay in Cape Breton. The species has European oysters: The European, or lease owners depend on other factors, been harvested from the province’s Belon, oyster was introduced into the principally economic, but also related to waters for a long time (Stafford, 1913). Maritimes in the late 1950s as a potential market development. Landing statistics for the period from supplement to the culture of the native To date, commercial mussel cultiva- 1876 to 1909 situate the peak of 392 t in oyster, and was first brought to Nova tion in Nova Scotia has been character- 1891, followed by steady decline. Scotia in 1970 (Muise et al., 1986). It was ized by the usual growing pains of any Jurisdictional disagreements between thought that this species could be culti- beginning industry, including insufficient the province and the federal government vated in the colder, relatively saline or inappropriate regulation, unproven prevented the development of oyster waters between the Strait of Canso and technology, and deficient marketing culture until 1912, when an amendment Yarmouth. In the following 15 years, much research and development work was conducted. By 1983, the species had been studied and tested at 17 sites along the province’s Atlantic coast. At present, 17 leases covering 146 hectares are licensed to grow the Belon. This species is highly ranked in the marketplace, where it fetches top prices as a luxury item. The Belon offers the addi- tional attraction of being in high demand in Europe, where natural and cultivated stocks have been decimated by diseases. At current prices, shipping oysters to Europe by air appears to be economical. For many years, the major obstacle to developing the culture of this species was seed supply, but that is now assured by a modern hatchery. The next hurdles to Figure 2. The increase in mussel landings since 1985. overcome include the development of

48 Research technologies for culturing juveniles, the demand and rising prices, annual landings selection and testing of grow-out sites in rose to around 600 t. previously untested areas, and the training American experience in quahog cul- of new growers. ture (Carver and Mallet, 1991) has stimu- lated local studies of the hatchery produc- Species under development: tion of spat and subsequent out-planting. early results At present, the only commercial source of Giant scallops: A cold-hardy native cultured quahog spat in Nova Scotia is of Maritime waters, the giant scallop sup- S.F.T. Venture, in Blandford. This firm ports traditional fisheries worth in excess has provided spat to Little Harbour Fish- of $100 million annually. Its high price eries, where investigative work has been and established markets also make it an conducted into a combined upweller and attractive candidate for culture. tray rearing system, followed by bottom To obtain giant scallop seed for culti- culture. This process brings the quahogs vation, wild spat are collected and grown to marketable size in 3 to 4 years. in fine-mesh bags in Passamaquoddy Bay, New Brunswick, or in Port-au-Port Bay, Ongoing research Figure 3. Diagrammatic representation Newfoundland. After a year they are Dimorphism among mussels culti- of pearl nets, lantern nets, and ear-hang- vated in Nova Scotia: transferred to pearl nets (fig. 3) and left to ing lines (left to right), used in the culture While the early grow for another year. For the final grow- of giant scallops. pioneers of the mussel culturing industry out stage, the juvenile scallops (40 mm) believed that the Nova Scotia mussel was are transferred to lantern nets or ear-hang- Mytilus edulis, it has now been discovered ing lines. Grow-out sites require water quent conditioning. Breeding is then that two “blue” mussels, M. edulis and M. depths of 10-30 m in semisheltered, started in February in order to ensure that trossulus, are present, with their hybrids, ocean-influenced locations. The equip- sufficient spat are available for planting in varying proportions along the Atlantic ment is usually placed well below the out once the ocean begins to warm up. coast. The latter species has been identi- surface in order to achieve optimal In 1991, two growers in Nova Scotia fied only within the last few years (Koehn growth, reduce wear and tear, and make it were working with this species and annual et al., 1984), although it has undoubtedly less visible. production was about 15 t. The develop- been here for some time. Some growers Cultivated scallops can reach market ment of the industry is currently slowed had recognized independently that mus- size (75-90 mm) in 28 to 30 months by uncertainties about introducing new sels of a certain shape (since shown to be (fig. 4). The product is then marketed diseases, but ongoing research should M. trossulus) tended to be fractured by whole in the European manner or, if there soon resolve this concern. processing machinery, thereby causing are local or seasonal problems with tox- Quahogs: Quahogs occur naturally higher losses than would normally be ins, the meats may be marketed alone. in the Maritimes in the comparatively expected. Furthermore, a recent study As of 1991, two scallop farms were warm summertime waters of the North- (Freeman et al., 1991) has shown that, nearing commercial production in Nova umberland Strait and in the shallow bays among mussels of similar length, Scotia and four others were under devel- of northern Prince Edward Island. In the M. trossulus contains less meat than opment. By 1993, it is expected that close 25 years prior to 1980, natural popu- M. edulis. Although they occur together in to a quarter of a million scallops will be lations supported landings of less than sheltered locations that are well-protected ready for market. 250 t per year. Thereafter, with increased from general coastal circulation, an Bay scallops: Bay scallops were first introduced to the Maritimes in the late 1970s from southern New England (Drinnan, pers. comm.). The species is an annual: larvae spawned in the early sum- mer will be almost full-grown by fall and will mature, spawn, and die the following spring. This brief lifespan makes the bay scallop ideal for aquaculture, for it is the only shellfish species which can yield a cash crop in one growing season: spat set out in June in pearl or lantern nets will be marketable in November. However, bay scallops will not survive the northern win- ter, and brood stock must be brought into Figure 4. Sea scallops at 7, 12, 24, 30 months of age (7, 39, 66, and 86 mm the hatchery for overwintering and subse- respectively).

49 Research as-yet-unknown mechanism has allowed releases small, sticky, biflagellate infec- (fig. 5). Sufficient data have now been these species to maintain their identities, tive cells. It is theorized that these may acquired to establish a depuration proto- despite some hybridization. stick to the surface of newly released eggs col for mussels containing not more than Field and laboratory studies of the or of the developing embryos and infect 100 ppm of domoic acid; the process uses reproduction and recruitment of the two them at some later time. The parasite has recirculating sterilized seawater. species show that their spawning times not been detected in bay scallops younger Depuration to below 2 ppm can be accom- are almost identical, as are the times to than 4 or 5 months, so the actual stage at plished in less than 48 hours, and no indi- metamorphosis of their larvae. Separating which infection occurs is not yet known. vidual mussel is to exceed the control naturally occurring spat in the field, or Attempts are underway to develop a pro- level of 20 ppm. This offers the hope that preferentially selecting for one of the spe- cedure for disinfecting the eggs before farms contaminated with domoic acid can cies, will be difficult if spat settlement parasite transfer to the new generation is remain in operation during a toxic times also coincide, unless there are other complete. Until the nature of the infective phytoplankton bloom and that marketing behavioural differences which can be process, and the host-specificity of the opportunities can be safely preserved. The exploited. Spat have been collected at one parasite, are fully understood, bay scal- establishment of protocols for all species site since they began to settle in June lops will be cultivated in Nova Scotia of shellfish exhibiting high levels of con- 1991, and the ratios of the two species only in the dozen or so areas where they tamination awaits a significant natural will be determined when the animals are have previously been grown. “toxic event”, since meeting the require- large enough to be analyzed. Unfortu- Accumulation and elimination of ment for bulk culture of toxic Nitzschia nately, they cannot be distinguished by phytotoxins in mussels: Phytotoxin pungens remains elusive given current eye until they approach market size, and accumulation is a recurrent problem in the rearing techniques. The elimination rates reliable identification requires the shellfish industry, but it was believed that of diarrhetic shellfish toxins are not analysis of isoenzymes. protocols established 50 years ago to test known, but research on this question is Improvement of bay scallop brood- for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) planned. stock: Nova Scotia’s original bay scallop were sufficient to protect consumers and broodstock was derived from a handful of the industry. However, the toxic shellfish Required research animals first brought to Prince Edward crisis of 1987, which caused amnesic Optimizing culture methods: The Island and raised in quarantine through shellfish poisoning (ASP) and led to the diversity of the bathymetry, currents, several generations. At times, the number discovery that domoic acid from the microregimes of temperature, and pri- of spawning adults in the populations was diatom Nitzschia pungens was a potential mary production of the bays and estuaries very small, and by 1988 there were strong contaminant of cultured shellfish, caused where mussels are cultured is such that suspicions that the poor breeding success these protocols to be re-evaluated. The optimizing production is not simply a of hatcheries was attributable to repeated more recent, and by now not unexpected, matter of applying different cultivation inbreeding. In April 1989, a new group of detection of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning methods. Suspending the mussels on mature bay scallops was brought from (DSP) in mussels off Nova Scotia has longlines is the basic method used in the Cape Cod for breeding at the Halifax added yet more urgency. Maritimes, but variations in the depth at Fisheries Laboratory’s quarantine unit. With PSP, the toxin binds very tightly which they are placed, the length of the After being inspected for diseases, the to shellfish tissues and is eliminated very socks (mesh tubes) in which they are held, laboratory-reared spat were released to slowly. Domoic acid, on the other hand, is the density at which they are stocked, and the industry in order to augment the older very soluble in water and can be elimi- even the variety of seed can have signifi- stock. This new stock is now in its second nated (or depurated) rather quickly cant effects on the level of production at a generation and is proving reasonably suc- cessful, although some technical dif- ficulties in the hatcheries must still be overcome to ensure better survival of the larvae. Parasites and studies of their trans- mission: Notwithstanding the insistence on quarantines and careful inspections, it appears that bay scallops do, in fact, carry a parasite (Perkinsus karlssoni) which is new to science. It does not appear to be harmful to the scallop, and all experimen- tal attempts to transfer it to native species appear so far to have been unsuccessful. This microsporidian parasite lives scattered throughout the gonads and other tissues of infected individuals and Figure 5. Uptake and elimination of domoic acid by bay scallops at 10°C.

50 Research given site (Mallet and Carver, 1991). Not unknown, it should be resolved. growers are requesting that their shellfish all possible combinations of stocks and Additional research needs involve be inspected for diseases, since they do sites have been tried, and comparative comparisons of grow-out techniques, not want to put existing stocks at risk. studies will continue in order to optimize including manual and mechanical ear- There is still much to learn about shellfish yields from different farms. An under- hanging methods, different types and diseases, and in the short-term the prudent standing of the commercial value of sizes of nets, and bottom culture. Informa- approach will be best. resocking undersized mussels culled at tion on the shelf life and on shipping and Controlling the effects of contami- harvest is needed, particularly in areas handling procedures is also required as nants: Nova Scotia is fortunate in that, where M. trossulus is present. Since this is the market develops for whole, in-shell with a few notable exceptions, little of its a commercially inferior species, returning scallops. Implicit is the need for standard- shoreline is contaminated by industrial the culls to the socks may be counterpro- ized, mandatory testing for all possible pollution. However, this is not the case ductive in the long term. There is also a shellfish toxins and contaminants. with domestic sewage discharges: at need to develop methods for preferen- Last but not least on the list of present, about one-third of the province’s tially collecting M. edulis, or identifying research candidates are quahogs, whose coastal zone is off limits for shellfish local, pure populations from which com- natural settlement is capricious and, as a culture. mercial quantities of spat can be collected result, causes many natural spat to be lost The long-term solution is for for grow-out elsewhere. to predation. Thus, the development of improved sewage treatment systems European oyster growers need more quahog culture will depend upon hatchery onshore, but there are some short-term information in the areas of broodstock production of a reliable supply of geneti- options which merit exploration. First, selection, high-density rearing of larvae, cally improved, fast-growing seed and the these nutrient-enriched nearshore zones larval survival, juvenile rearing tech- development of nursery technology to could be used as nursery areas to allow niques, and predator-prey relationships. bring the seed through the vulnerable the accelerated growth of the juvenile spat The research required to address these juvenile stages. Trials of various rearing of a number of species before they are questions will likely involve nutrition methods (such as upwellers, trays, and on- transferred to clean sites for final grow- and diet studies, the methodologies and bottom culture) need to be continued, and out and finishing. Bay scallops, quahogs, results of which may apply to more than alternative sites must be evaluated. and European oysters are likely candi- just this species. Detailed environmental Establishing transfer protocols: dates. A second option is to explore more data for potential culture areas and criteria The culture of shellfish requires the regu- fully the use of depuration techniques for for selecting grow-out sites are needed in lar transfer of seed from the hatchery or cleansing shellfish that are grown to order to give growers the advantage of collection site to the farm, and of brood market size in marginally contaminated knowing where optimal conditions exist stock from the farm to the hatchery. The areas. In some locations, this might be for growing the oysters in Nova Scotian process of moving any living organism is more cost-effective than a full-scale waters. accompanied by the risk of transferring municipal sewage plant, and might even Research on the culture of giant scal- diseases and parasites and, in the case of be municipally funded. lops has so far been undertaken primarily shellfish, other species which may not by the industry. The first priority is for a normally live in the receiving zone. For Conclusion hatchery able to produce a superior, fast example, the unintentional introduction of Molluscan culture in Nova Scotia growing scallop seed and the develop- shellfish diseases to France destroyed the still has far to go before it reaches its full ment of successful setting techniques. native European oyster stocks. potential. The history of oyster production Much has been accomplished privately Thus, there is a pressing need for on the Northumberland Strait indicates but the results are not publicly available. comprehensive regulations which will that the environment is suitable for the To complement these efforts, DFO is cur- ensure that, in their zeal to establish new activity. The Atlantic coast’s myriad bays rently funding a survey of Nova Scotia’s industries and maximize the aquaculture and estuaries offer many sites that are pro- coast in order to locate a dependable potential, developers do not bring in tected from storms, and on the south shore source of wild seed. Because spat collec- debilitating diseases or strange bedfel- of Nova Scotia several areas are ice free. tors at seven sites have yielded low lows with their cultured stocks. This will Yet why is development so slow? Some catches, more intensive sampling will be be accomplished in part by amendments of the reasons may be scientific, and some required (M. J. Dadswell, pers. comm.). to the Fish Health Protection regulations social. Scallops grown experimentally in which, for the first time, will include Several species appear to be good suspension grow faster than those grown shellfish and shellfish diseases and candidates for commercial shellfish cul- on the sea bottom. However, this may not require that stocks be free of named ture. This could, over time, provide a be so for commercial quantities, and little diseases and parasites before they can be healthy diversification of products. In the is known about the carrying capacities of transferred or introduced. There will also short term, however, simultaneous different sites. The mortality of spat and be requirements to ensure that alien attempts to develop several species create juveniles is almost negligible but species are not transferred with shellfish large and diversified demands for new increases as scallops approach market shipments. Even now, in the absence of information. At present, government and size. Although the cause remains such regulations, hatchery operators and industry do not have sufficient resources

51 Research

to acquire such information through Mathieson, J. A. 1912. Oyster fishery of Prince research and integrating it into the culture Edward Island. In: Sea-fisheries of eastern Canada. Commission of Conservation, Mortimer Co., Ot- processes and tradition that accompany tawa, Ont. shellfish culture. Muise, B., L. MacLeod, K. Henderson, and R. New legal and administrative struc- Truen. 1986. Cultivation of the European flat oyster tures must be put in place and tested in (Ostrea edulis) in Nova Scotia: general growth and order to protect and control aquaculture economic model. N.S. Department of Fisheries, Manuscript and technical report series 86-01. activities and to ensure the safety and Stafford, J. 1913. The Canadian oyster. Commission quality of the products. Coastal communi- of Conservation, Mortimer Co., Ottawa, Ont.:159 p. ties must be sensitized to the requirements and benefits of aquaculture before it is fully accepted and supported. Like any process requiring human evolution, molluscan culture in Nova Scotia needs more input from science, industry, and the community before it matures to its full potential. The promise is still there, and it is more attractive than ever.

References Baby mussels attach themselves to plastic Bardach, J. E., J. H. Ryther, and W. O. McLarney. “collectors”. 1972. Aquaculture: the farming and husbandry of freshwater and marine organisms. Wiley- Interscience. John Wiley & Sons, Toronto, Ont.:868 p. Carver, C. E. A., and A. L. Mallet. 1991, Assessment Mussels in the socks are hung on the of nursery grow-out strategies for juvenile quahogs long lines. (Mercenaria mercenaria) in Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia Department of Fisheries, Report No IDD101:22 p. Freeman, K. R., K. A. Perry, and B. Bradford. 1991. Reproductive aspects of Mvtilus edulis and Mytilus trossulus from a Nova Scotian mussel farm. 14th Annual Fish Health Workshop, Halifax, N.S. Koehn, R. K., J. G. Hall, D. J. Inner, and A. Z. Zera. 1984. Genetic dtfferentiation of Mytilus edulis in eastern North America. Mar. Biol. 79: 117-126. Lavoie, R. E. 1989. Culture of the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica). In: A. D. Bohgen (ed.), Cold-water Aquaculture in Atlantic Canada. Can. Inst. Res. Reg. Dev., Univ. de Moncton, Moncton, N.B.:124-155. Mallet, A. L., and C. E. A. Carver. 1991. An assess- ment of strategies for growing mussels in suspended Mussels from collectors are placed in Mussels in sosks grow on long lines for a culture. J. Shellf. Res. 10 (2):471-477. plastic mesh “socks”. year before harvest.

Mussels are grown underwater on “long line.s”, which are ropes attuched to buoys

52 Research Lobster habitat ecology research in the Bay of Fundy P. Lawton and D. A. Robichaud

environmental quality deteriorate. Nevertheless, lobsters during their early benthic and reproductive phases (par- ticularly those that are carrying eggs, or are “berried”) use their habitat in ways that can make them more susceptible to changes in benthic habitat conditions, such as those associated with salmon farms.

Early benthic-phase lobsters Following postlarval settlement P. Lawton D. A. Robichaud (Wahle and Steneck, 1991), early benthic- phase lobsters adopt a cryptic life-style. Initially, they may continue to exploit Obtaining a comprehensive under- Stasko, 1986). Following sexual maturity, plankton through suspension feeding standing of the habitat requirements of the which depends on temperature and varies (Lavalli and Barshaw, 1989) before lobster Homarus americanus is problem- geographically (Aiken and Waddy, 1980), adopting a fully benthic foraging mode atic. The species exhibits a complex life reproductive-phase lobsters are more mo- (Elner and Campbell, 1987). The few cycle (sensu Wilbur, 1980), with a pelagic bile, moving toward deeper waters and field studies conducted to date indicate larval phase, metamorphosis prior to set- possibly dispersing offshore (Campbell that rocky bottoms between 5 and 10 m in tlement (Charmantier et al., 1991), and a and Stasko, 1986), or making distinct sea- depth, and cobble bottoms in particular, protracted benthic life phase. During the sonal return migrations between shallow are prime recruitment habitats. benthic phase, the lobster can grow from and deep water (Campbell, 1986). There is presently no consensus approximately 5 mm in carapace length The Invertebrate Fisheries Section at among lobster biologists over a hypoth- (CL) at settlement to greater than 250 mm the St. Andrews Biological Station pro- esis advanced by Wahle and Steneck CL (Wolff, 1978), and the animal’s natu- vides biological advice on the Bay of (1991) that the availability of early ral life span is thought to be between 20 Fundy lobster fishery, which recorded benthic habitat may be a limiting resource and 100 years (Elner and Campbell, landings in 1989 of 984 t, valued at $6.9 for lobsters. One of the long-term goals of 1991). Lobsters over 200 mm CL are rou- million. Other lobster fishing areas within the early benthic phase research being tinely captured in the deep-water trap and the Scotia-Fundy Region are monitored conducted by the St. Andrews team is to mobile gear fisheries of the Bay of Fundy by scientists at the Halifax Fisheries help resolve this debate. Early benthic- and in the Canadian offshore lobster fish- Research Laboratory, who have their own phase lobsters have limited mobility, are ery. In our diving studies, conducted from research programs within the broad con- susceptible to predation, and occupy 1989 to 1991, lobsters captured in shallow text of lobster habitat ecology. A unique nearshore rocky habitats year-round. It inshore waters (less than 20 m deep) aspect of the research conducted by the St. thus seems possible that they might be ranged from 5 mm to 217 mm CL. Andrews team is that, in addition to meet- harmed by the changes in bottom condi- Clearly, a discussion of lobster habitat ing a fisheries assessment mandate, the tions and increases in predatory fish abun- ecology has to focus on well-defined life work has been directed to respond to dance that occur adjacent to salmon phases. demands for advice about the impacts that aquaculture sites. Wahle and Steneck (1991) recog- a burgeoning local salmon aquaculture Between 1989 and ‘91, synoptic div- nized, from their experience and a review industry might have on the existing ing surveys were carried out in the Fundy of earlier literature, three benthic life lobster fishery. Cook and Lavoie (1991) Isles region of the Bay of Fundy (from phases. The early benthic phase refers to provide a brief review of recent aqua- Campobello Island to Point Lepreau). The lobsters from the time they settle until culture development in the Bay of Fundy. survey method involved capturing lobster they reach approximately 40 mm CL - It is commonly believed that salmon of all sizes encountered in belt transects perhaps the most cryptic segment of aquaculture has little or no adverse effects (150 m by 2 m) set perpendicular to the lobster life history. Adolescent-phase lob- on lobsters. As mobile opportunistic scav- coastline, over depths ranging from 20 m sters are larger, pre-reproductive lobsters engers, lobsters may well immigrate into to the low-tide mark. This sampling tech- which dominate nearshore habitats, forag- aquaculture areas to exploit locally nique was considered to yield quantitative ing nocturnally (Lawton, 1987), but only increased benthic productivity, or, density estimates for lobsters greater than moving several km a year (Campbell and conversely, are able to emigrate should 40 mm CL. While smaller lobsters, down

53 Research

substrate, in which they then reside (fig. l), making it easier for their popu- lation density to be estimated. During 1990, efforts were made to obtain a more complete picture of the sea- sonal use of inshore habitats. To this end, surveys were conducted at monthly inter- vals between June and November, and the sex ratio and frequency distribution of population size at Flagg Cove were com- pared with those at other coves on Grand Manan (fig. 2). The salient details were that lobsters use such areas from late June to early October, with an autumn migra- tion to deep water likely triggered by storm surges. The highly skewed sex ratio at Flagg Cove and the high proportion of berried females were not seen in the lob- ster population censused at Seal Cove, although Whale Cove, to the north of Figure 1. Lobsters occupying depressions excavated in a sandlsilt substrate at Flagg Flagg Cove also accommodated berried Cove, Grand Manan Island (drawing by D. E. Aiken, St. Andrews Biological Station). lobsters (fig. 3). For divers, one of the most striking, to 7 mm CL, were routinely encountered, Reproductive-phase lobsters and initially intimidating, aspects of the these were not considered to be sampled Reproductive-phase lobsters are gen- shallow-water spawning area at Flagg quantitatively. Peak juvenile densities erally regarded as relatively solitary, Cove was the high densities of large-sized (approximately 2 lobsters/m2) were found highly migratory animals. Yet tagging lobster they encountered. The highest at sampling locations in embayments and and diving research conducted in the late along the New Brunswick shore. Within 1970s and early 1980s yielded an intrigu- Passamaquoddy Bay, only locations in the ing observation of temperature-related, northern portion of the bay yielded com- seasonal, shallow- to deep-water migra- parable lobster densities (Lawton and tion of lobsters off the eastern coast of Robichaud, unpubl.). Information gained Grand Manan Island. Seasonal aggre- from these surveys has been used exten- gations of reproductive-phase lobsters, sively in inter-agency and industry con- principally berried females, were discov- sultations regarding salmon aquaculture ered in shallow waters (less than 20 m sites in the Fundy Isles region. deep) in the vicinity of North Head, Grand If lobsters less than 40 mm CL are Manan (Campbell, 1990). Subsequent to captured in a benthic habitat, one can infer these studies, a small-scale salmon farm that postlarval settlement occurs at that was established near this lobster spawn- location. Accordingly, direct censuses for ing and egg incubation area. postsettlement-stage lobsters were made Early in 1989, an expansion request in the Beaver Harbour area in 1991 with from the operator of the salmon farm air-lift samplers (after a design by underwent a federal and provincial inter- Benson, 1989) and sampling protocols agency review and was subsequently similar to those used by Wahle and approved. The St. Andrews team was Steneck (1991). Early benthic-phase lob- requested to document the existing distri- sters were found in cobble/boulder habi- bution of lobsters in relation to the histori- tats at depths of 10 to 15 m at a density of cal database and to follow changes in 3.95 lobsters/m2 (with a standard devia- lobster distribution as the farm expanded. tion of 3.89 lobsters/m2) across 78 Diving surveys in September 1989, which quadrats - a discovery which challenges used survey techniques employed in the speculations in Wahle and Steneck (1991) earlier studies, generated a pattern of Figure 2. The study areas (shaded) off that postlarval settlement does not occur habitat use remarkably similar to that Grand Manan Island, New Brunswick, in the Bay of Fundy, and that the popula- observed in 1982 and ‘83. Flagg Cove which were surveyed during 1990 in or- tion is supported by the immigration of lobsters characteristically excavate shal- der to examine the seasonal patterns of benthic-stage lobsters. low depressions in the sand/gravel/silt shallow-water habitat use by lobsters.

54 Research

studied, the centre of distribution of the resident lobster population has markedly varied from year to year (fig. 4). Although cause and effect relationships are not clear, it is interesting to note that the number of cages and the consequent bioloading at the aquaculture site increased between 1989 and 1990, dropping to only one early in 1991. This latter change followed a decision by the New Brunswick Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture to relocate the site outside of Flagg Cove, due in part to concern over the ability of passenger ferries to enter North Head harbour. Follow-up surveys will be conducted in September 1992 and in 1993, in order to produce a time series of seasonal habitat use by lobsters over the course of the entire production cycle of the aquaculture operation. Figure 3. Size-frequency distribution of lobsters sampled during September 1990 at Flagg Cove, Whale Cove, and Seal Cove, Grand Manan Island. The dashed vertical line Future research indicates the minimum legal carapace length in the commercialfishery. The geographi- In the general context of population cal locations are shown in figure 2. regulation in lobsters, there is currently considerable focus on early benthic-phase ecology. The St. Andrews team is now density recorded in 25 m long transect 13 g/m2 (Miller, 1985). In another series well-placed to conduct manipulative field sections (2 m bandwidth; 50 m2) was 11 of field observations, minimum distances research in this area. Earlier fisheries lobsters (122 to 217 mm CL), represent- of 0.7 m were recorded between the monitoring (Robichaud and Campbell, ing a wet weight biomass of 570 g/m2. A centres of adjacent, occupied depressions. 1991), based on lobster size distribution typical lobster biomass on inshore fishing Over the three years during which the in at-sea trap samples, indicated that the grounds off Nova Scotia is between 5 and seasonal use of Flagg Cove has been lobster fishery at the head of the Bay of

Figure 4. The lobster density (number of lobsters/100 m2) at Flagg Cove during (a) September 1989, (b) September 1990, and (c) September 1991. Note the location and number of salmon cages present in each month. The filled circles denote lobster density, as explained in the key.

55 Research

Fundy was largely supported by seasonal population ecology. The definition of Elner, R. W., and A. Campbell. 1987. Natural diets migration of reproductive-phase lobsters. important lobster spawning areas and key of lobster, Homarus americanus, from barren ground and macroalgal habitats off southwestern Recently, there have been indications of settlement habitats, which was initiated Nova Scotia, Canada. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 37:131- enhanced local recruitment, and a signifi- during this review period, together with 140. cant challenge will be to ground-truth this the focused studies now underway, should Elner, R. W., and A. Campbell. 1991. Spatial and phenomenon using either directed substantially improve our understanding temporal patterns in recruitment for American lob- trapping programs, or diving surveys in of the life history cycle of lobsters within ster, Homarus americanus, in the northwestern At- lantic. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 31:349- the dynamic environment of the upper the Bay of Fundy. 363. Bay of Fundy. Karnofsky, E. B., J. Atema, and R. H. Elgin. 1989. There remain many intriguing References Natural dynamics of population structure and habitat aspects of reproductive-phase behaviour Aiken, D. E., and S. Waddy. 1980. Reproductive use of the lobster, Homarus americanus, in a shal- low cove. Biol. Bull. 176:247-256. to be addressed through experimental biology. In: J. S. Cobb and B. Phillips (eds.), The biology and management of lobsters. Vol. 1. Aca- Lavalli, K. L., and D. E. Barshaw. 1989. Post-larval studies at Flagg Cove. Due to typically demic Press, New York:215-276. American lobsters (Homarus americanus) living in low population densities and a depth Benson, B. L. 1989. Airlift sampler: Applications burrows may be suspension feeding. Mar. Behav. distribution usually beyond effective dive for hard substrata. Bull. Mar. Sci. 44:752-756. Physiol. 15:255-264. planning, detailed field observations on Campbell, A. 1986. Migratory movements of Lawton, P. 1987. Diel activity and foraging behavior the social behaviour of mature lobsters are ovigerous lobsters, Homarus americanus, tagged off of juvenile American lobster, Homarus americanus. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 44:1195-1205. very rare (see, for example, Karnofsky et Grand Manan, eastern Canada. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 43:2197-2205. Miller, R. J. 1985. Seaweeds, sea urchins, and lob- al., 1989). However, the comparatively Campbell, A. 1990. Aggregations of berried lobsters sters: A reappraisal. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. high lobster population densities at Flagg (Homarus americanus) in shallow waters off Grand 42:2061-2072. Cove have afforded the opportunity for Manan, eastern Canada. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. Robichaud, D. A., and A. Campbell. 1991. Annual research to begin addressing residency 47:520-523. and seasonal size-frequency changes of trap-caught time, activity patterns, and behavioural Campbell, A., and A. B. Stasko. 1986. Movements lobsters (Homarus americanus) in the Bay of Fundy. of lobsters (Homarus americanus) tagged in the Bay J. Northw. Atl. Fish. Soc.11:29-37. interactions. of Fundy, Canada. Marine Biology 92:393-404. Wahle, R. A., and R. S. Steneck. 1991. Recruitment The challenge during the period from Charmantier, G., M. Charmantier-Daures, and D. E. habitats and nursery grounds of the American lob- 1989 to ‘91 was to respond to manage- Aiken. 1991. Metamorphosis in the lobster Homarus ster, Homarus americanus; a demographic bottle- ment requests for advice on the relation- (Decapoda): A review. J. Crust. Biol. 11:481-495. neck? Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 69:231-243. ship between the traditional lobster fish- Cook, R. H., and R. E. Lavoie. 1991. Science and Wilbur, H. M. 1980. Complex life cycles. Ann. Rev. ery and salmon aquaculture, while mount- aquaculture: A matter of demand and supply. In Ecol. Syst. 11:67-93. T. E. Smith (ed.), Science Review 1988 and ‘89. ing a research program that was targeted Wolff, T. 1978. Maximum size of lobsters Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Dartmouth, (Homarus) (Decapoda, Nephropidae). Crustaceana at fundamental questions about lobster N.S.:40-44 34:1-14.

Diver taking measurements of lobster. Diver recording details of habitat use by lobster in shallow water.

56 Research Physics and biology of the Georges Bank frontal system J. W. Loder, R. I. Perry, K. F. Drinkwater, J. Grant, G. C. Harding, W. G. Harrison, E. P. W. Horne, N. S. Oakey, C. T. Taggart, M. J. Tremblay, D. Brickman, and M. M. Sinclair

measurements. Despite the apparently low level of secondary production, fish production on Georges Bank is very high, particularly among bottom fishes, scallops, and lobsters. Proposed explana- tions include the retention of larvae on the bank by the circulation gyre, the persist- ent transport of the larvae to nursery areas, and ready availability of prey for various species. Several of the proposed physical influences on Georges Bank’s biological production appear contradictory: namely, that primary production is high because the transport of nutrients onto the bank is high; that secondary production is low because plankton are transported off the Standing (1.-r.): M. M. Sinclair, N. S. Oakey, J. Grant, P. Cranford, C. T. Taggart. bank; but that fish production is high Seated (I.-r.): K. F. Drinkwater, E. P. W. Horne, J. W. Loder, R. I. Perry, and because the circulation retains eggs and W. G. Harrison. Not Present: D. Brickman, G. C. Harding, and M. J. Tremhlay. larvae on the bank. Simultaneous meas- urements of the circulation and the distributions of nutrients, plankton, and Georges Bank is one of the most A frontal zone, in which water properties larvae are required in order to resolve this productive oceanic areas in temperate change markedly, separates the mixed apparent paradox. latitudes and one of the prized fishing area from the surrounding stratified The frontal system surrounding the grounds in the Northwest Atlantic, with waters. bank has been suggested as an important annual landings valued near $200 million. The rate of phytoplankton production regulator of horizontal exchange because It has been intensively studied over the (primary production) on Georges Bank is of its persistence, its expected circulation, past 75 years, but the reasons for its high among the highest on the world’s conti- and its location along the bank’s periph- productivity are still not completely nental shelves. In the central mixed area, ery. It is most strongly developed from understood. In recent decades, concerns this production is driven by nutrients spring to fall, precisely the period when have been raised about possible adverse excreted from animals and bacteria. How- nutrient demands are greatest, when impacts that oil and gas exploration might ever, an external source of nutrients is phytoplankton and zooplankton produc- have on the bank’s fisheries resources. required to maintain the overall high tion is maximized, and when most fish We describe here the results of recent production rates. Transport and/or mixing species are spawning or in their early life studies directed at answering why associated with the frontal system, stages. Furthermore, on the Northeast Georges Bank is so productive and what storms, and Gulf Stream rings have been Peak, presently the most important fishing would be the potential impacts of hydro- suggested as important factors in supply- region on Georges Bank, the frontal zone carbon exploration. ing external nutrients, but the relative lies near the bank’s densest scallop beds, The dominant physical oceano- roles of these processes have not been and important spawning and nursery areas graphic factors on Georges Bank are the established. for cod and haddock (fig. lb). strong tidal currents (2 to 3 knots) and Compared to the high primary pro- What are the physical and biological persistent patterns in the temperature and duction, zooplankton production (second- processes associated with the frontal zone salinity distributions. These generate a ary production) on the bank is unusually that might enhance the supply of external clockwise circulation gyre over the bank low. The reasons for this are unknown but nutrients and either retain or disperse which narrows into an intense current jet may include zooplankton losses from the zooplankton and larval fishes? What along the bank’s northern edge (fig. la). bank by transport and mixing, and heavy would be the likely movement and con- The shallow central part of the bank predation by fish. The level may also centration of any pollutants (for example, remains vertically well-mixed all year, appear lower than it really is, due to oil from a spill, or drilling discharges) primarily due to the strong tidal currents. the difficulty of obtaining adequate released near the biologically productive

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areas? These questions were the focus of the Georges Bank Frontal Study, which was conducted in 1988-89 along the northern edge of the bank. The study area was chosen because the physical processes are most energetic there, and because of its potential significance to the Northeast Peak. The study’s goals were to determine the circulation, water-property variations, and mixing rates in the vicinity of the frontal zone, and their influences on the distributions of nutrients, primary produc- tion, plankton, and larval fishes. The results are being used to evaluate the importance of the frontal system to the input of nutrients and the retention of plankton on the bank, as well as the poten- tial impacts of hydrocarbon exploration. Measurements were concentrated along a line (fig. la) across the front where moored instruments continuously monitored currents, temperature, and salinity from June through October of 1988. Higher-resolution sampling of the physical environment was obtained from a towed vertical-profiling Batfish/CTD system (which measured temperature and salinity), a ship-mounted acoustic current profiler, conventional CTD and nutrient sections, repeated drops of the turbulence profiler EPSONDE, the tracking of drifting buoys using satellite and Loran C navigation, and satellite images of sea- surface temperature. The biomass, production rate, and nitrogen uptake rate of phytoplankton were measured along the line in late August using standard techniques. Zooplankton and larval fish distributions on the line were repeatedly sampled in July, August, and October with a multi- ple-net (BIONESS) system and a Tucker trawl. Higher-resolution and size-struc- ture information on the phytoplankton and zooplankton distributions was obtained from a fluorometer and an optical plankton counter mounted on the towed Batfish. Shipboard scallop produc- tion, respiration, and feeding experiments were conducted with samples from the study site. Figure 1. Bathymetric map of the Georges Bank region showing (a) key physical features and (h) selected fisheries distributions. The physical features shown are the The physical oceanographic observa- frontal zone bounded by the mixed and stratified areas, and the circulation gyre tions that were made have provided (arrows). The fisheries distributions include the major concentrations of adult cod, detailed quantitative information about haddock, and scallops, and the nursery areas for juvenile cod and haddock. The study physical features that were already known line is shown in (a). to exist, and have also revealed structures

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Figure 2. Typical distributions of tem- perature and nitrate on the study line, from a CTD/nutrient section in July 1988. Nitrate, which is required to support new Figure 3. Detailed distribution of temperature on the study line, from a Batfish section primary production in the near-surface during off-bank tidal flow in July 1988. Internal waves are apparent at the bank edge. region, is depleted in the mixed area but The abrupt vertical displacement of the 8-12°C isotherms is called an internal available at depth in the stratified area. hydraulic jump. which had not been previously documen- of the isobaths in the vicinity of the study internal waves, which propagate into the ted on Georges Bank. The turbulence line (fig. la). The internal waves originate frontal zone and provide an additional measurements confirm that vertical mix- at the bank edge during off-bank tidal energy source for vertical mixing. The ing rates are generally much higher in the flow when an “internal hydraulic jump” surface convergence occurs near the central mixed area and vary in response to (an abrupt vertical displacement of water mixed-area boundary, and results in drift- the changing tidal current. There are sharp parcels) develops (fig. 3). The jump sub- ing materials slowly converging as they changes in the concentration of ‘nitrate sequently evolves into large-amplitude spiral around the bank in the current jet (the most abundant external form of the key nutrient, nitrogen) across the frontal zone (fig. 2), suggesting that cross-frontal exchange is critical to the supply of external nutrients to the bank. The current jet flows persistently along the bank’s northern edge, with a peak speed in early summer near 0.5 m/s (1 knot), and total transport exceeding 3 km3/hr (70 times greater than the St. Lawrence River’s flow). It is the primary summertime path- way for water exiting the Gulf of Maine and a dominant factor regulating property distributions in the region. The physical features identified dur- ing the study include the spreading of a portion of the current jet across the North- east Peak, a variety of internal (subsur- face) waves near the bank edge, and a line of surface convergence in the frontal Figure 4. Trajectories of two Loran C drifting buoys (#‘s 26 and 39) released in the zone. The spreading of the current jet is frontal zone to the west of the study line. The drifters, released about 4 km apart, were associated with a downstream divergence recovered about 2 days later less than a km apart in a surface convergence line.

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and tidal current (fig. 4). This provides a regions of new production are associated across the Northeast Peak acts to retain mechanism for concentrating floating with tidally driven mixing processes. The both zooplankton and phytoplankton on materials in the frontal zone. turbulence measurements, and energy the bank and contribute to their accumu- The biological measurements that estimates for the tidal currents and incom- lation in the mixed area. The extent of were made confirm that the phytoplank- ing internal waves, indicate that vertical transport toward the centre of the bank ton biomass and production rate are high- mixing in the frontal zone can supply sub- should be greatest for plankton in the up- est in the mixed area, and generally stantial amounts of nitrate to the phyto- per layers or those which undertake daily decrease with the increase in stratification plankton in the near-surface region. The vertical migration. However, some across the frontal zone (figs. 5a and b). nitrogen reservoir at depth in this zone is zooplankton which are distributed However, the f-ratio, which is the fraction maintained by the spreading of the current predominantly in near-surface waters, of the primary production that uses nitrate jet onto the bank. The frontal-zone peak in such as certain small copepods and late as the source of nitrogen, peaks both in new production is therefore consistent stages of lobster larvae, were found across the tidal front near the mixed-area bound- with the classical explanation that tidal the front from the mixed area to the ary and over the bank edge (fig. 5c). fronts have high primary production rates These measurements were taken in late as a result of optimal conditions of light summer, when the frontal zone extends and nutrient supply. The new-production furthest onto the bank. We suspect that the peak at the bank edge coincides with the regions of elevated “new production” location of the hydraulic jump during off- (that is, those which use nitrate) overlap bank tidal flow. The turbulence measure- during early summer, when the frontal ments indicate that vertical mixing is zone is more closely confined to the bank enhanced in the jump, resulting in a per- edge. sistent local mechanism for supplying The physical observations made new nutrients to the near-surface region. during the study suggest that these two Tidally driven physical processes also influence the dispersion and retention of plankton on northern Georges Bank, thereby regulating the distributions of zooplankton and larval fishes in the region. The simultaneous measurements of temperature, salinity, chlorophyll fluo- rescence, and plankton abundance from the undulating Batfish show coincident patterns in the distribution of small parti- cles (phytoplankton and small zooplank- ton) and the vertical displacement of den- sity surfaces by the internal waves. In contrast, the distribution of larger parti- cles (zooplankton) is not as closely related to the internal wave displacements, prob- ably due to the greater swimming ability of the larger animals. The distribution of zooplankton across the frontal zone, as represented by the net samples, also shows apparent size- dependent differences related to the physical processes. Small zooplankton, such as copepods (Acartia sp.), peak in abundance near the mixed-area boundary Figure 5. Distributions of (a) phyto- (fig. 6), while differences in the abun- plankton biomass (chlorophyll a), (b) pri- dance and species composition of larger mary production rate, and (c) f-ratio zooplankton (for example, Metridia Figure 6. Depth distributions of repre- along the study line in August 1988 (solid sentative zooplankton species along the lucens and euphausiids) are greater at the circles). The data are plotted against the study line in July 1988, and concurrent bank edge. The frontal zone has a density difference (sigma-t units) between distributions of temperature, salinity, the surface and 50 m. Data from an ear- zooplankton composition that is transi- density, chlorophyll, and nitrate. The lier study (July to August 1985) are also tional between the mixed area and the width of the shaded “kite” is proportional included and are represented by open stratified waters in the Gulf of Maine. to the abundance of each species at that circles. The spreading of the current jet depth.

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stratified region. The origin of these new conceptual model for the interrela- current jet, internal waves, turbulent discrepancies is unclear, but they may be tion of the physical and biological mixing, and a surface convergence zone. related to different species having dif- regimes on northern Georges Bank is These processes have strong influences ferent upstream distributions and/or to emerging (see fig. 7). Physically, the on the distribution of materials and organ- spatial or temporal variations in the flow regime has characteristics of both a clas- isms in the water, whether they be dis- upstream. Nevertheless, the observations sic tidal mixing front (a transition zone solved nutrients, plankton, fish eggs and indicate that the frontal zone plays an between mixed and stratified waters) and larvae, or pollutants. important role in keeping plankton and a stratified shelf break (or bank edge) with Peak levels of new primary produc- fish populations on the bank separate strong tidal forcing. In combination with tion and distributional boundaries for from those of surrounding regions. stratification and the abrupt topography of many zooplankton species coincide with On a bank-wide basis, previous esti- the bank edge, the strong tidal currents the persistent physical structures (fig. 7). mates have suggested that the supply of result in a variety of persistent and The dense scallop beds and the nursery external nitrogen and the subsequent new energetic phenomena: a frontal system, a areas for juvenile cod and haddock on the production by phytoplankton on Georges Northeast Peak are situated in the down- Bank are sufficient to meet the annual stream path of this biologically produc- production requirements of the bank’s tive system, which originates along the extensive scallop beds. Because of the bank’s northern edge (fig. 1). The frontal current jet, the nutrient supply mecha- system on northern Georges Bank thus nisms and elevated new production along makes substantial contributions to the the bank’s northern edge are particularly bank’s high primary production, the re- favourable for providing food for the tention of plankton on the bank, and its dense scallop beds on the downstream rich fisheries production. The potential Northeast Peak (fig. lb). Tidal mixing impact of hydrocarbon activities is the redistributes nutrients upward to phyto- subject of ongoing study, but the intensity plankton in the near-surface region and and close coupling of the physics and carries particulate matter downward to biology on Georges Bank provide the scallops on the seafloor. Studies else- potential for both amplified and reduced where have shown that water-column pri- effects compared to other regions; for mary production can be important to the example, pollutants might tend to con- nutrition, growth, and reproduction of centrate in the convergence zone or be bivalves, and our shipboard measure- rapidly dispersed by the currents and ments indicate that the Georges Bank mixing. scallops have relatively high filtration rates. Seasonal and tidal (spring-neap) Further reading variations in frontal (and current jet) posi- Backus, R. H. (ed.). 1987. Georges Bank. MIT tion on the Northeast Peak provide a Press. 593 p. sprinkler-like mechanism for wide distri- Figure 7. Schematic summary of the Gordon, D. C., J. D. Neilson. and G. Robert, 1988. Georges Bank-research behind the management of bution of the food supply in summertime. physical and biological regimes on north- ern Georges Bank in summer. The physi- habitat and commercial resources. Science Review In addition to its dense scallop beds, 1987:14-18. cal regime (bottom panel) includes strong the Northeast Peak is an important nurs- tidal currents and large tidal excursions, Home, E. P. W., J. W. Loder, W. G. Harrison, R. Mohn, M. R. Lewis, B. Irwin, and T. Platt. 1989. ery ground for newly settled cod and had- a tidal front with a surface convergence dock juveniles during July and August Nitrate supply and demand at the Georges Bank tidal (arrows), an along-bank current jet (dots front. In: J. D. Ross (ed.), Topics in Marine Biology, (fig. lb). Their survival in this area may within circles), internal waves which Sci. Mar. .53:145-158. be enhanced by the presence of the frontal cause vertical displacements of the den- Loder, J. W., D. Brickman, and E. P. W. Home. region and the elevated concentrations of sity contours, and intense small-scale tur- 1992. Detailed structure of currents and zooplankton prey that it provides. The bulence. The f-ratio distribution (second hydrography on the northern side of Georges Bank. predominant prey of these juvenile fish panel from bottom) shows the regions of J. Geophys. Res. 97:14,331-14,351. include the euphausiid Meganyctiphanes elevated new primary production associ- Perry, R. I., G. C. Harding, J. W. Loder, M. J. ated with the tidal front and the bank Tremblay, M. M. Sinclair, and K. F. Drinkwater. (In norvegica and the amphipod Themisto press.) Zooplankton distributions at the Georges edge. Species difference indices for compressa. Both of these species are dis- Bank frontal system: Retention or dispersion? Cont. zooplankton abundance and composition tributed principally in deep water off the Shelf Res. (top panels; higher histograms imply bank but are brought into the frontal zone Tremblay, M. J., and M. M. Sinclair. 1992. Plank- greater differences) indicate that the tonic sea scallop larvae (Placopecten magellanicus) by the on-bank flow component of the greatest differences occur at the bank in the Georges Bank Region: broodscale current jet at this location. edge and tidal front for large and small in relation to physical oceanography. Can. J. Fish. As a result of our recent studies, a zooplankton, respectively. Aquat. Sci. 49:1597-1615.

61 Research Gravity and magnetic surveys with C.S.S. Baffin B. D. Loncarevic and G. C. Rockwell

came on board to carry out near bottom microbiological investigations. For the next two months she was the mother ship and base for six launches charting inshore areas of Bonavista Bay, Newfoundland. On the 23rd of July, Baffin went on a three month long Northern Voyage, the type of project for which she was uniquely outfitted. She carried out stand- ard hydrographic charting in Hudson Bay, including launch work, with an observer on board who monitored the behaviour of B. D. Loncarevic G. C. Rockwell marine mammals. On completion of the hydrographic work, during her last two weeks up north, a party of geologists from “.. Baffin, commissioned in 1956, was . . . year old C.S.S. Baffin came alongside her the Atlantic Geoscience Centre (AGC) at the supremely complete hydrographic BIO berth for the last time. We did not BIO used seismic profiling and bottom ship operating in Canada . . . But it’s gener- know it at the time, but she was never to sampling gear to study sea floor sedi- ally acknowledged that she is probably sail again under her own power (fig. 1). ments. Baffin returned to BIO on the 26th the last of a breed.” The projects undertaken during 1990, of October and sailed on her last project, S. Fillmore and R.W. Sandilands: the Baffin’s last season, were typical of the continuation of the Nova Scotia Shelf The CHARTMAKERS ( 1983) the work that she accomplished through- gravity and magnetic charting surveys, on out her career. In March and April she the 5th of November. The last voyage of C.S.S. Baffin was off Newfoundland participating in On a dark and stormy night, in the the international LIMEX Project, monitor- Multidisciplinary surveys early hours of the 5th of December 1990, ing the break up and movement of ice. In Between 1960 and 1990, many with a grinding noise and a bump against late April and early May magnetic meas- hydrographic survey projects were multi- the jetty at the Bedford Institute of Ocea- urements were collected on a passage disciplinary, involving geoscientists col- nography (BIO) which opened a gash in from BIO to St. John’s, Newfoundland, lecting geophysical and geological data the hull near the port side cargo doors, 34 where a party from Memorial University simultaneously with the charting of the sea floor by hydrographers (fig. 2). The earliest marine geological study from a CHS ship was conducted in 1960 on the first great Northern Voyage (Buckley, 1971). The C.S.S. Baffin gravity and magnetics charting surveys were initiated in 1963; they are listed in Table 1. Over that period the projects evolved from two solitudes sailing on the same ship to fully integrated operations. The idea for multidisciplinary sur- veys was a simple one. Since hydrogra- phers were already conducting systematic offshore surveys along closely spaced and well controlled survey lines, why not have geologists and geophysicists collect other Figure 1. Departure of C.S.S. Baffin from her berth at BIO. This photograph appeared compatible measurements underway, in the Halifax Mail-Star on 10th December 1991, with the following caption.. “The Canadian Survey Ship (C.S.S.) Baffin made an unceremoniousfinal voyage Friday while thus increasing the productivity of morning from the Bedford Institute of Oceanography to the Magazine Dock. With little the vessel? fanfare, the 35-year old hydrographic surveying ship, owned by the Department of In practice there were two obstacles Fisheries and Oceans, has been mothballed. The 345-foot, 3,511-t vessel was built in to be overcome. By tradition, hydrogra- 1956 and boasted a complement of 29 hydrographic staff.‘” phers were responsible for the quantity

62 Research and quality of bathymetric survey data cerned about the constancy of speed/ so that a minimum of course correction collected in the field. Anything that inter- course only as required for interpolation was required to keep the ship on the line, fered with the “survey-miles collected” between the soundings. In gravity meas- thus greatly improving the quality of was considered a nuisance. The hydrogra- urements, however, the constancy or gravity measurements. phers had to be convinced that collecting smooth, gradual change of speed/course is the additional parameters was just as use- of great importance. The measurements Survey operations at sea ful and productive as was the somewhat are affected by the east-west component Information about the development, larger number of survey-miles of bathy- of ship’s velocity, since this adds or sub- practices and achievements of the metry alone. Younger hydrographers un- tracts from the rotational speed on the sur- underway multidisciplinary surveys is derstood this and enthusiastically adopted face of the earth. It was important to learn scattered through Cruise/Project reports, gravity and magnetic measurements as a that conning the ship had to be a gradual Conference Proceedings, inter office part of offshore hydrographic surveys. process. If the ship had drifted off the memoranda and internal BIO publica- The second obstacle was a technical/ intended survey line, then sharp course tions; a comprehensive account is yet to logistics problem of controlling the ship’s changes had to be avoided and the track be written. An early account was given by speed and course. For traditional hydro- corrected gradually. As navigation Loncarevic (1975, 1976) and updated by graphic surveys only the position of improved, it became easier to compensate Macnab (1983). Recent issues of the soundings was important; they were con- for the effects of wind, tides and currents Science Review have carried several accounts of improvements in survey tech- Table 1 niques (Grant and McKeown, 1987; Kerr, C.S.S. Baffin Multidisciplinary Cruises 1987; Verhoef and Sherin, 1990). Loncarevic and Woodside described in Cruise No Area of operations Gravity Magnetics some detail Baffin operations in 1988 and 1. 64 - 019 Bay of Fundy 7,233 12,400 1989 (Loncarevic and Woodside, 1991). Joint charting surveys were an oppor- 2. 66 - 008 Grand Banks 5,862 tunity to collect gravity and magnetic data 3. 67 - 014 Grand Banks 58,203 82,000 at a marginal increase in cost, and thus 4. 68 - 021 Gulf of St. Lawrence 58,922 74,800 provide an example of the benefits of multiuse of facilities. The priorities for 5. 69 - 021 Gulf of St. Lawrence 46,321 65,600 survey areas were set by the hydrographic 6. 71 - 017 Grand Banks 62,331 94,800 charting requirements, and geophysicists 7. 73 - 014 Gulf of St. Lawrence 25,156 30,000 went along as far as the manpower Eastern Arctic resources allowed. In most cases, the geophysicists would be on board for only 8. 74 - 015 Gulf of St. Lawrence 5,880 22,000 a part of the survey season. During that 9. 75-011 Fox Basin 30,000 time, the ship would establish a broad net 10. 76-001 Scotian Margin 56,433 85,200 of track lines with spacing five to ten times larger then the survey specifica- 11. 76 - 012 Gulf of St. Lawrence 33,600 tions. After the departure of geophysi- 12. 77 - 008 Gulf of St. Lawrence 31,200 cists, the rest of the season would be spent 13. 78 - 010 Labrador Sea 15,200 interlining the remaining lines. Members of the Canadian Hydro- 14. 79 - 015 Scotian Shelf 8,562 52,800 graphic Service played the major part in 15. 80-031 Labrador Sea 20,368 23,600 multidisciplinary surveys by planning the 16. 82 - 039 Scotian Shelf 12,339 54,800 layout of the ship’s tracks and arranging for the installation of navigational aids as 17. 83 - 035 Scotian Shelf 18,363 26,400 necessary; by maintaining the operational 18. 84 - 044 Scotian Shelf 36,426 39,200 control of the ship, including all dealings 19. 88 - 039 Scotian Shelf 32,700 179,000 with the Captains and officers of the watch; and by plotting the ship’s track and 20. 89-031 Scotian Shelf 31,957 182,238 maintaining round the clock watch on all 21. 90 - 029 Scotian Shelf 35,300 187,140 the equipment. Geophysicists maintained Note 1: The data in this Table were compiled from GSC Open Files 1232 (Woodside et al., the gravity and magnetics instruments and 1986), 1504 (Verhoef and Macnab, 1987) and Cruise reports. were responsible for the geophysical data Note 2: The last three Baffin cruises retained all 10 sec magnetometer readings resulting in a quality and for processing those data. A substantially larger data volume. team of six or seven hydrographers and Note 3: Between 1972 and 1981 there were nine additional multidisciplinary cruises on other three geophysicists could operate around BIO and charter ships. the clock for as long as the project lasted.

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Figure 2. C.S.S. Baffin surveys of the Nova Scotia continental shelf, 1979-1990. The area west of 61° West was covered during the last three seasons of multidisciplinary surveys. Thirty-five launch parties participated in the surveys of the eastern section. These surveys have produced an invaluable database (Loncarevic et al., 1992).

Data handling something of a record in the age of rapid computers and one SUN workstation. Before the first gravity and magnetic innovation in electronics. Adjusted navigation is required to survey cruise, it was recognized that a The problem with both GEODAL and carry out the data processing on board. A large volume of data would be collected BIODAL was a fixed data format. The great emphasis is placed on accurate posi- and that special techniques for data han- equipment became obsolete when the tioning on all hydrographic surveys, and dling had to be developed. Digital data supply of spare parts dried up and when Baffin was always equipped with the lat- processing was perceived as a way of the the new instruments with digital output est available technology. With the advent future and suitable equipment, named could not be easily accommodated. It was of navigational satellites an integrated GEODAL, was developed and built at BIO then recognized that a new unit must be navigational system was developed in 1964 (Mason, 1966). The equipment under software control. (BIONAV) which was at the forefront of was hardwired so that the input data The next data acquisition equipment technology for a number of years (Grant format was fixed. The output was on was CIGAL (Loncarevic and Coldwell, and McKeown, 1987). punched paper tape because magnetic 1987), based on an HP Series 200 compu- storage was too expensive at that time and ter. This equipment is still in use but its Results considered unreliable for continuous capacity is limited, and plans are now The annual surveys were routine and operation on board ships. Punched paper developed to replace it within the next ongoing in nature, not problem-oriented; tape had the advantage that a watchkeeper year or two. it was not expected that the results of any could read it at any time and verify that In the early days data were processed one season’s work would directly address the data were recorded properly. ashore. The first general purpose mini- a specific geological problem. The value A few years later a more versatile data computer, a PDP-8 with 4K memory, was of the project was in compiling a vast and acquisition system was built and code- installed on Baffin in 1967, thus initiating perhaps unique database which became named BIODAL. This equipment was based digital data processing in the field. This increasingly more useful as the quantity on all solid-state electronics. An integral was followed by HP Series 1000 com- of observations and the area of coverage part of the equipment was a highly accurate puters in the early ’70s and by DEC grew. ship’s clock which distributed correct time Microvax II computers in the early ’80s. The use of hydrographic data for throughout the ship. The outstanding engi- On the last cruise in 1990, there were over marine geological interpretation was pio- neering design and construction enabled us 20 desktop computers on board, in addi- neered by L. H. King and resulted in a to use BIODAL continuously for 20 years; tion to three DEC Microvax II mini series of unique surficial geology maps.

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(King, 1967; King et al., 1974). The geological features, including the distri- the Mid-Labrador ridge he was able to achievements of geological investigations bution of the gravity and magnetic field show that the opening of the Labrador Sea were summarized by Pelletier and anomalies. Production of these charts occurred 92 million years ago (see fig. 3) Buckley (1974). (GSC Maps 1708A and 1709A) represents (Srivastava, 1978; Roest and Srivastava, The exploitation of the potential off- an important synthesis of almost 30 years 1989). The ocean floor spreading changed shore field database is documented in of underway surveys and data collection. direction 59 million years ago to north- over 100 scientific publications over the The above data set was used by south, with a shearing motion through past 25 years. Only a few highlights from Woodside and Verhoef (Woodside, 1989; Davis Strait that probably caused its frag- this literature can be mentioned here. Woodside and Verhoef, 1989) for a more mented crustal structure. The major accomplishment, utilizing detailed description of the geology of the Our third example is from the geo- all the available data, is the publication of Labrador Continental Shelf. This work physical interpretations of surveys around the volume Continental Margin of East- clearly demonstrated the importance of Newfoundland by R. T. Haworth and ern Canada (Keen and Williams, 1990). the interpretation of gravity and magnetic others (Haworth, 1978; Haworth, 1980; This volume synthesized our current data as a reconnaissance tool in areas of Haworth, 1981; Haworth and Jacobi, knowledge of the region in 15 long chap- potential hydrocarbon accumulation. 1983; Haworth and Lefort, 1979). These ters, many of which used the magnetic Srivastava has used the data in a dif- studies unravelled some of the structural and gravity data collected by C.S.S. ferent way to study the history of ocean problems in the crustal basement rocks Baffn and other BIO ships. Part of the spreading and continental drift in the Lab- around Newfoundland. They traced the volume was a series of eight charts at a rador Sea. By carefully matching the extension of Appalachian structures scale of 1:5,000,000 showing many magnetic anomalies on opposite sides of offshore and used this information to

Figure 3. Evolution of Labrador Sea, shown in three stages: (a) at the time of initial opening (92 Ma); (b) at chron 25 (59 Ma); and (c) atpresent. Area of overlap (shaded in (a)) represents the amount of stretching that tookplace in Davis Strait and Baffin Bay before sea-floor spreading started there, at about chron 31 (from Roest and Srivastava, 1989).

65 Research establish Trans-Atlantic geological corre- City, then proceeded to Halifax, her Jamaica, St. Kitts, St. Vincent, lations. This was important independent home port for the next 34 years. Montserrat, Dominica and Guyana. evidence for the fit of continents before l April 1957: commenced operations l April 1967: visited Monaco, for the the opening of the Atlantic and served as a with an offshore sounding program off IXth International Hydrographic constraint on the evolutionary models of Southeast coast of Nova Scotia using Conference. sea-floor spreading as developed by conventional DECCA. l 1970: circumnavigation of North Srivastava and others from the study of l July 4, 1957: ran aground on Black America during which the “pingo” area magnetic lineations. Rock (southeast Nova Scotia) suffering in the Beaufort Sea was surveyed. extensive damage below the water line. l Winter 1976: multidisciplinary survey Conclusions l 1958: first voyage to the Arctic; sur- on the continental shelf of Senegal and In spite of the results obtained from veys in Frobisher Bay. Gambia, sponsored by CIDA. the interpretation of multidisciplinary sur- l 1960: circumnavigation of Baffin Is- l Winter 1977: study of marine pro- veys mentioned above, the exploitation of land (see fig. 4). ductivity, focussing on anchovies, the Baffin’s database has only begun. The l 1962: CAE plotting table installed in the off Peru. data collected so far, augmented with con- drawing office, ushering in automated l 1982: “Mid-Life” refit to increase ocea- tinuing surveys, represent a national treas- hydrography. It was a bold concept but nographic capability and improve the ure, a part of the scientific infrastructure at least 20 years ahead of the techno- safety of launch handling. which will help us in the continuing logical capabilities. l Winter 1989: substituted for the search for new resources, at the same time l Winter 1964: British Virgin Islands Hudson (in mid-life refit) on a major making it possible to implement responsi- Survey. A hydrographic shore party oceanographic program in Denmark ble environmental management. was based at Tortola while the ship car- Strait area. Visited Glasgow, Scotland ried out an oceanographic program at and during the course of the cruise The achievements Aruba which involved mooring a large endured several severe North Atlantic l 1956: built in Montreal by Canadian air/sea interaction tower buoy. storms. Vickers. l Winters 1965-69, 1973, and 1974: l April 1991: quietly retired, without a l January 1957: commissioned at Quebec training surveys in Antigua, Barbados, sailpast or decommissioning, after 34 years of service for Canada; a victim of age and reduced funding.

Acknowledgements This account was written in recognition of many contributions by colleagues in CHS and AGC who sailed on C.S.S. Baffin. We also thank the BIO Library for historical material, and the Ship Division (BIO) for statistics.

References Buckley, D. E. 1971. Recent marine sediments of Lancaster Sound, District of Franklin. Maritime Sediments 7:96-117. Fillmore, S., and R. W. Sandilands. 1983. The Chartmakers: The History of Nautical Surveying in Canada. NC Press, Toronto. Grant, S. T., and D. L. McKeown. 1987. History of navigation research and development at BIO. Sci- ence Review 1986. Bedford Institute of Oceanogra- phy, Dartmouth, N.S. Haworth, R. T. 1978. Interpretation of geophysical data in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence and its relevance to lower Paleozoic geology. Geological Society of America Bulletin 89:1091-1110. Haworth, R. T. 1980. Appalachian structural trends northeast of Newfoundland and their Trans-Atlantic correlation. Tectonophysics 64: 111-130. Haworth, R. T. 1981. Geophysical expression of Appalachian-Caledonide structures on the continen- tal margin of the North Atlantic. In: J. W. Ferguson Figure 4. Track chart of the first circumnavigation of Baffin Island by C.S.S. Baffin and A. J. Kerr (eds.), Geology of the North Atlantic in 1960.

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Borderlands. Canadian Society of Petroleum Geolo- Proc. 14 Ann. Can. Hydrog. Conf., Halifax: 15-20. Roest, W. R., and S. P. Srivastava. 1989. Sea-floor gists Memoir 7:429-446. Loncarevic, B. D. 1976. Modem hydrography as spreading in the Labrador Sea: A new reconstruc- Haworth, R. T., and R. D. Jacobi. 1983. Geophysical seen by a geoscientist. Lighthouse, J. Can. Hydrog. tion Geology 17:1000-1003. correlation between the geological zonation of New- Ass. 13:6-7. Srivastava, S. P. 1978. Evolution of the Labrador foundland and the British Isles. In: R. D. Hatcher, H. Loncarevic, B. D., and E. Coldwell, E. 1987. Com- Sea and its bearing on the early evolution of the Willams, and I. Zeitz (eds.), Contributions to the puter based shipboard data acquisition and logging. North Atlantic. R. Astronom. Soc. Geophys. J. Tectonics and Geophysics of Mountain Chains. Proc. IEEE-Oceans 87,3: 1119-1124. 58:313-357. Geological Society of America Memoir 158:25-32. Loncarevic, B. D., D. J. W. Piper, and G. B. J. Fader. Verhoef, J., and R. F. Macnab. 1987. Magnetic data Haworth, R. T., and J. P. Lefort. 1979. Geophysical 1992. Application of high quality bathymetry to geo- over the continental margin of Eastern Canada: evidence for the extent of the Avalon zone in Atlan- logical interpretation on the Scotian Shelf. Preparation of a database and construction of a tic Canada. Can. J. Earth Sci. 16:552-567. Geoscience Canada (in press). 1:5 million magnetic anomaly map. Geological Sur- vey of Canada, GSC Open File 1504. Keen, M. J., and G. L. Williams (eds.). 1990. Geol- Loncarevic, B. D., and J. Woodside. 1991. ogy of the Continental Margin of Eastern Canada. Multiparameter surveys offshore Nova Scotia in Verhoef, J., and A. Sherin. 1990. Management of Geological Survey of Canada, 2. 1988 and 1989. In: Current Research, Part D. Geo- marine geoscience data. In: T. E. Smith (ed.), Kerr, A. J. 1987. New thrusts in hydrographic tech- logical Survey of Canada paper 91-1D:157-167. Science Review 1988 & ‘89. Department of Fisheries & Oceans, Dartmouth, N.S. nology. Science Review 1986. Bedford Institute of Macnab, R. F. 1983. Multiparameter mapping off Oceanography, Dartmouth, N.S. the East Coast of Canada. In: Current Research, Part Woodside, J. M. 1989. Labrador offshore basins King, L. H. 1967. Use of a conventional echo- A. Geological Survey of Canada paper 83-1A: 163- defined by potential field data. Can. J. Explor. sounder analyses in delineating sedimentary facies - 171. Geophys. 25:138-149. Scotian Shelf. Can. J. Earth Sci.5:691-708. Mason, C. S. 1966. A geophysical data logging sys- Woodside, J. M., R. K. McConnell et al 1986. King, L. H., B. Maclean. and G. B. Fader. 1974. tem for shipboard use. J. Ocean Technol. 1:35-44. Integration of Atlantic Geoscience Centre marine gravity data into National Gravity Data Base. Surficial and bedrock geology of the Scotian Shelf Pelletier, B. R., and D. E. Buckley. 1974. The devel- Geological Survey of Canada, GSC Open File 1232. and Grand Banks. Geologtcal Survey of Canada pa- opment of environmental marine geology at the per 74-1A:117. Bedford Institute of Oceanography. In: Offshore Woodside, J. M., and J. Verhoef 1989. Geological Loncarevic, B. D. 1975. Historical origin of coop- Geology of Eastern Canada. Geological Survey of and tectonic framework of Eastern Canada as eration between hydrography and oceanography. Canada paper 74-30, 1:1-45. interpreted from potential field imagery. Geological Survey of Canada paper 88-26.

Hydrographers at work during the last voyage of the Baffin.

67 Research The Atlantic Fisheries Adjustment Program R. O’Boyle, K. Drinkwater, B. Petrie, T. Rowell, and P. Vass

R. O’Boyle K. Drinkwater B. Petrie T. Rowe11 P. Vass

In the summer of 1989, a crisis hit the study of biological and environmental commercially profitable fish aggrega- Nova Scotia groundfish industry. The factors influencing fishing activity; tions. Scientists, on the other hand, design fleets had caught most of their annual l developing an understanding of how sampling programs that attempt to avoid quota by June. The resultant disruption in environmental factors, such as tempera- these biases and endeavour to provide the the fish supply caused plant closures, lay- ture, influence the distribution and “big picture”. These efforts, however, offs, and severe hardship for those productivity of fish populations; cannot hope to reach the level of sampling dependent upon the fishery. This crisis l studying the effects of seals and of the fish population that the commercial was the symptom of fundamental ills that sealworm on fish populations and fish fishing fleets maintain. Through the coop- had been growing in the fishery since the quality; eration of scientists and fishermen, we early 1980s. Thus, in July, the Minister of l studying the effects of longline fishing can achieve the best of both worlds. Inter- the Department of Fisheries and Oceans on fish populations; action on issues of joint interest will not (DFO), Tom Siddon, commissioned the l studying the effects of gillnets and only improve our understanding of fish Scotia-Fundy Groundfish Task Force, led trawling on the habitat; biology but will also ultimately lead to by J.-E. Haché, to study the region’s fish- l improving DFO’s scientific surveys. better assessment and management of ing industry and make recommendations Scientific programs have been devel- these resources. to ensure its future. oped through AFAP in each of these areas. In order to examine the biology of By December of 1989, after exten- In this brief article, we cannot adequately cod in Sydney Bight (Northwest Atlantic sive consultations with all sectors of the cover progress on all topics. Indeed, in Fisheries Organization (NAFO) division fishery, the task force had compiled its some programs the results are too prelimi- 4Vn), a cooperative study between sci- report (Haché, 1989), which outlined nary to report at this time. Consequently, ence and industry has been developed. what it heard and what changes it felt we present some highlights. For those The management of this fishery has been were needed. The minister accepted the readers who are interested, more detailed plagued by the mixture of cod from adja- recommendations and created the Atlantic information can be obtained from the cent areas. In particular, cod from the Fisheries Adjustment Program (AFAP) to senior author. Gulf of St. Lawrence migrate into 4Vn implement them. during the period from January to April Science issues played a prominent Cooperative studies between each year. The presence of this much role in the task force’s recommendations science and industry larger stock in the Bight may have hidden and, therefore, in AFAP. The guiding phi- Fishermen spend much of their life at the depletion of the smaller resident stock losophy was to ensure that science pro- sea, harvesting the fish populations on in recent years. grams are relevant to fishermen’s needs which their livelihood depends. They are To date, the study has focused on and that such programs foster two-way continually making observations about defining the spawning and juvenile information exchange between scientists the biology of these complex creatures nursery areas of the local cod stock. Early and members of the fishing industry. The and thus are a valuable source of informa- in 1991, discussions were held with recommendations covered a wide range tion to scientists. However, their under- fishermen to identify probable spawning of topics, including the following: standing is sometimes coloured or and nursery areas. Then, using this l furthering cooperation between scien- “biased” by local conditions, particu- information, seven cruises, each of about tists and fishermen with regard to the larly their need to find and harvest ten days’ duration, were designed and

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the fishermen’s anecdotal observations are based on a genuine biological process. In the coming year, this phenomenon will be further investigated with the assistance of fishermen who will be using water- temperature recorders, supplied by DFO’s Biological Sciences Branch, during routine fishing operations. These water-temperature recorders have been developed as part of another AFAP initiative in southwest Nova Scotia. In this case, a group of about 35 fishermen is cooperating with DFO scientists to study how catch rates are influenced by temperature, wind, tide, and so on. While it is too early to present the results here, the study illustrates the interest that fishermen throughout the region have in understanding how environmental influences affect the fish stocks and catch rates.

Environmental influences on fish productivity Fluctuations of the temperature and salinity of continental shelf waters are known to influence fish distributions, and possibly to affect recruitment and fish abundance. Recent interest in ocean vari- ability has been stimulated by the decline in several important groundfish stocks and predictions of possible CO,-induced climate change. As a first step toward incorporating information about ocean climate change Figure 1. Location of cod eggs spawned in the Sydney Bight during 9-10 May 1991, into fisheries management, an AFAP as determined by egg survey. working group of physical oceanogra- phers and fisheries biologists has been es- tablished to coordinate work investigating conducted at roughly monthly intervals possible to provide an estimate of the this phenomenon within the Scotia-Fundy from April to November 1991. Sampling minimum size of the Sydney Bight cod Region. An extensive examination of the included fine-mesh net tows for fish eggs stock. historical data has already begun in an and larvae, bottom trawling for juveniles Aggregations of juvenile cod (10-20 effort to identify the temporal and spatial and water samples collected to measure cm in length) were routinely and almost scales over which temperature and temperature and salinity. Close contact exclusively located near Bird Islands. If salinity vary. was maintained with fishermen to keep up this proves to be the nursery area for the The study will also investigate the to date on the seasonal movements of cod, stock, it opens the possibility for a routine forces controlling local climate change and this information was used to adjust annual survey and thus development of an and will place these changes into geo- the sampling sites. index of year-class strength for use in graphical perspective through compari- The results showed that cod spawn- stock assessment. sons with variations in other areas of the ing occurs in April on Smoky Bank Fishermen have long regarded water northwest Atlantic. A program to monitor (fig. 1) and in Bras d’Or Lake. It is as yet temperatures as having a major influence climatic variability on the Scotian Shelf unclear what the association is between on fish movements and thus the catch. In and in the Gulf of Maine will be estab- the cod in Sydney Bight and those in the the spring of 1991, cod catches in Sydney lished on the basis of the project’s results. Lake. Initial analysis of the plankton sam- Bight were abnormally low, coincident As a first step, existing time series of ples indicated low levels of spawning. with low water temperatures observed on oceanographic, meteorological, and Once the analysis is completed, it may be DFO’s surveys. Given this, it appears that hydrological data or indices have been

69 Research assembled in order to provide an initial relatively level or have declined slightly. originating over the slope, point to a description of the scales of ocean variabil- This pattern is exhibited at all depths in largely oceanic origin for the long-term ity and their relationship to possible mete- Emerald Basin in spite of the different climate changes in the Scotia-Fundy orological and hydrological forces. As origins of the shallow waters (those less Region. The subsurface intrusion of these well, additional historical temperature than 100 m deep) and the deep waters; the oceanic waters onto the shelf and subse- and salinity data for the Scotia-Fundy former are from coastal regions, while the quent upward mixing of heat make a Region have been assembled from the latter are from the offshore slope area substantial contribution to the variability National Archives in Canada and the adjacent to the continental shelf. Similar of near-surface temperature. United States, having been augmented by temperature patterns are found in the deep Ongoing investigations suggest that data from other sources. These data are waters of the Gulf of Maine, the Bay of the observed changes are a result of presently being used to assess existing Fundy, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, as increased westward flow of waters ocean climate indices and to define new well as in coastal sea-surface tempera- formed off the Grand Banks. Interannual ones, where appropriate. Initial results tures recorded at sites in Nova Scotia, differences in the temperature and salinity based upon analysis of these climate New Brunswick, and Maine. These of these offshore waters, and variations in indices are provided below. indicate that the long-term changes in the the air-sea heat exchanges offshore, are While previous studies have concen- region’s subsurface waters are coherent presently being considered as influences trated on patterns of sea-surface tempera- over a broad geographic scale. on temperature and salinity variability on ture, the AFAP-funded climate study is Most interesting was the discovery the shelf. focusing on changes in the subsurface that the maximum amplitude of the long- waters. Upon analysis of long-term term temperature variability in Emerald The impact of seals on the fishery records from Emerald Basin in the central Basin occurred at depths of 100 to 150 m. In 1986, the Royal Commission on Scotian Shelf (Petrie et al., 1991), we With regard to near-surface waters, the Seals and Sealing (Malouf, 1986) stated have found that a large component of the amplitude was approximately half that at that seals have a significant impact on the subsurface temperature variability occurs 100 m, which suggests that these changes fish resource and that control of the herds over long periods (10-20 years). The were not caused by local atmospheric might have beneficial effects. It did not records (fig. 2) show that, following a heating and cooling. This result has recommend a cull, but considered that maximum in the early 1950s tempera- recently been confirmed by a computer work should be done to investigate other tures declined gradually to a minimum in model developed by colleagues at methods to control both the seal and its the mid-1960s rose rapidly until the early Dalhousie University. These larger varia- parasite, the sealworm. The issue was 1970s, and since then have remained tions, which occur in the water masses again raised during the Haché Task Force

Figure 2. Temperature anomalies for Emerald Basin at 0, 50, 100, and 250 m for the period 1946-88.

70 Research consultations, and consequently the type of hemoglobin, and the other colla- parasite. The ecological linkages between scientific work initiated by the commis- gen. A third, smaller protein has also been the two species, particularly through the sion has continued under AFAP. discovered which is similar to that found seal’s diet, are also being studied. The project is composed of two parts. in other worm-like parasites. Preliminary Research on population trends shows The first, referred to as the Sealworm results indicate that immunization with that the number of grey seals born on Sa- Intervention Program (SWIP), investi- some of these proteins may reduce the ble Island has been increasing at about gates chemical and immunological worm burden of infected animals. Further 13% per year, from 2,000 pups in the mid- methods that could potentially be used to studies require large quantities of the pure 1970s to over 10,000 in 1990 (fig. 3 - control seal production and sealworm in- immunogenic proteins, which can be Stobo and Zwanenburg, 1990). In the festation. The second part, called the Seal/ obtained by the fast and effective method past, field surveys were conducted to Sealworm Ecology Program (SSEP), of cloning. Consequently, the complete physically count and tag the pups. But studies the life history of the seal and gene for the hemoglobin and a partial their rapidly growing numbers are neces- sealworm and will provide the analytical segment of the collagen protein have been sitating the use of new survey techniques, basis for assessing the relationship among cloned. Scientists with the program also such as aerial photography. This particu- the size of seal and fish populations and plan to clone the gene for the third pro- lar method is currently being ground- the abundance of sealworm in the marine tein. Field tests with these immunogenic truthed and will be the preferred survey environment. Together, the results of proteins may be possible in 1992. procedure in the future. Information is these two programs will provide policy SWIP is also examining the use of also being collected on the re-sightings of makers with the information they need in glycoproteins from the zona pellucida grey seals branded at birth. These data order to decide if and how control of the (the egg’s surface membrane) to effect will provide improved estimates of both seal herds should be undertaken. immunocontraception in grey seals. This SWIP: This program, conducted in procedure has been used successfully in association with Dalhousie University, is wild horse and deer populations, but seals investigating the feasibility of controlling present some unique problems. They are the number of sealworm parasites through accessible only for 3 to 4 weeks once a the use of drugs such as the anthelminthic year; therefore, if immunocontraception (or deworming drug) Ivermectin and a is to be practical it must be based on a newly developed vaccine. It is also study- single injection. Research has focused on ing the control of fertility in female grey a delivery system capable of effecting seals with an immunocontraceptive. birth control for up to 5 years after only Figure 3. Total grey seal pup production In laboratory experiments, Ivermec- one dose. Laboratory studies to develop observed on Sable Island between 1977 tin has been shown to be effective in pilot systems have been successfully and 1989 (Stobo and Zwanenburg, 1990). reducing the fecundity of sealworms completed, and a field trial involving resident in seal stomachs. SWIP has devel- about 200 seals was undertaken in the mortality and the reproductive success oped a slow-release formulation which January and February 1992. The results of grey seals. produces drug-serum levels in the seal from this field experiment should be Sealworm infection in fish has also that last twice as long and reach levels available in 1994. been on the rise. A comparison of data several times higher than those obtained Studies with captive seals are previously collected by fish inspectors from commercial Ivermectin. Although designed to complement the field trials - with that collected more recently indi- high serum levels of the drug have been in particular, to investigate further cates that the percentage of fish infected maintained, the efficacy of the drug is still delivery systems for immunocontra- with sealworm, and the number of para- uncertain. Further work will be conducted ception. At present, use of a modified sites in individual cod and American on the formulation before field trials are vaccine produces antibody levels which plaice from the Breton and Scotian undertaken. are 200-400% higher than those known to Shelves, increased significantly between The aim of the immunology study is be immunocontraceptive. Furthermore, 1958 and the early 1980s. to reduce sealworm burdens by immu- continuous monitoring indicates that Between 1980 and ‘90, surveys of nizing seals with selected sealworm pro- these high levels are persistent. The moni- American plaice were conducted at more teins to initiate an allergic response. Such toring program has been in operation than 50 sites in eastern Canada. These a response would cause seals to eliminate since the summer of 1991 and will con- indicate that, while levels of infection worms, either by causing the seals to tinue for at least a year. Based on these remained unchanged off Labrador, north- reject fish containing worms or by caus- results, seals captured in February 1992 eastern Newfoundland, and on the Grand ing worms to be voided by the digestive will be used to investigate delivery sys- Banks, the abundance of sealworm in tract. Thus far, the program has concen- tems which can be applied to the immuni- plaice from southern Newfoundland, the trated on identifying the active ingredi- zation of large numbers of seals under Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Breton and ents in the sealworm’s proteins. field conditions. Scotian shelves, and Georges Bank con- The sealworm has been found to have SSEP: This program focuses on the tinued to increase. Indeed, sealworm two immunogenic proteins - one a unique abundance of seals and the sealworm numbers in plaice increased as much as

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tenfold in some areas of the southern Gulf scientists (Messieh et al., 1991) and was doors, each of which weighed 181 kg and and Scotian Shelf. found to be weak in several areas. Thus, a left a mark 5 cm deep and 0.75-0.85 m A 1989-90 survey of more than 24 study was initiated under AFAP to wide. In the area of bottom over which the species from the Breton Shelf, Sable enhance our knowledge of this subject. net and rollers passed, the sediments Island Bank, and southwest Nova Scotia The intertidal area in the Minas Basin appeared to be only slightly compressed showed that the sealworm parasite has at the head of the Bay of Fundy, regularly and there was little evidence of scraping become increasingly abundant in other fished by small inshore trawlers, provided or sediment movement. Again, there was commercially important species, includ- a unique opportunity to examine the little sign of disturbance in the bridle area ing haddock, redfish, grey sole, yellow- impacts of fish trawling on the sea between the net and the doors. Overall, tail flounder, and lemon sole. Heavy bottom. Here, when the tide runs out, it is only 12% of the area swept by the trawl infections were also found in monkfish, possible to walk out onto the flats, and doors was physically disturbed. cusk, and hake, as well as in rockling, examine the tracks made in the mud by a The biological impact on the benthic lumpsucker, various eelpouts, and trawl, and thus directly assess the physical community resident in the disturbed area sculpins. Although these species are of and biological impacts of fishing. also appeared to be limited. This partly little commercial importance, they may In the fall of 1990, a vessel was char- reflected the general paucity of inverte- play an important role in the transmission tered to tow a small flounder trawl at vari- brates in the area; the biota was almost of the parasite to commercial species and ous locations in this area. The resulting entirely infaunal (burrowed) and con- to grey seals. physical changes that the trawl caused on sisted primarily of marine worms or In addition, comparative studies of the bottom were found to remain visible at polychaetes. The most abundant organism the diets of three species of flatfish from least 9 months later (fig. 4). In this case, inhabiting the sediments was the poly- Sable Island Bank indicate that small, the tracks were 23 m wide, which corre- chaete Clymenella torquata, which bur- shrimp-like crustaceans, known as sponded to the size of the trawl used. rows to depths of 10-15 cm, well below mysids, appear to be an important source Detailed examination of the tracks the depths of the observed disturbances. of sealworm infection in these species. showed that the greatest degree of bottom Other macrofauna present in the area were These findings fill an important gap in our disturbance was caused by the trawl free-living and, although some might knowledge of the early life cycle of sealworm. To further this knowledge, the abundance of the sealworm parasite in grey seals on Sable Island and at coastal locations from Cape Breton to the Bay of Fundy is also being monitored. The critical link among seal, sealworm, and fish is through the seal’s diet. Consequently, a number of studies are being conducted to determine the seal’s food and energy requirements, the prey composition of the seal’s diet, and how these change with both location and season. For the results of these studies, see the essay in this Review titled “Population energetics of seals on the Scotian Shelf’. The impact of fishing on the habitat Both before and during the Haché Task Force, concerns were raised about the possible short- and long-term impacts that trawling, dragging, and dredging have on the seafloor and the organisms that live there. Fishermen felt that the con- tinued disturbance of the bottom by fish- ing activity might be causing long-term changes to the ecosystem, both in species composition and levels of productivity. Our state of understanding of this com- Figure 4. Track made over intertidal area off Dehaven Beach by a 18 m flounder trawl plex topic was recently reviewed by DFO (N) and trawl doors (D). Photo from an altitude of approximately 150 m.

72 Research have been damaged (there was little evi- examination. The above assemblage of setting and attempted sonar detection of dence of this), most were probably only sampling gear is now ready for use in test nets over various types of sea bottom displaced. No crustaceans, molluscs, or 1993. off Halifax. A final experiment will ex- echinoderms were found. Had they been Beside questioning the impacts of amine the relationship between the popu- present, the observable biological impact trawl gear, fishermen have also stated that lation density of scavenging amphipods may well have been greater. lost gillnets continue to fish and cause and the residence time of captured fish. A three-year study, in collaboration high mortality in fish stocks. They have with scientists at the Northwest Atlantic called for severe limitations to be imposed Groundfish survey improvements Fisheries Centre in St. John’s, Newfound- on gillnetting in order to avoid this so- Scientists in the Scotia-Fundy land, has also been initiated in order to called ghost-fishing. Little information Region have conducted long-term investigate the impacts of trawls on the exists on this phenomenon and, conse- groundfish-monitoring surveys on the Grand Banks and the Scotian Shelf. West- quently, DFO’s Science Branch, in asso- Scotian Shelf every July since 1970, and em Bank has been chosen as the study site ciation with the Fisheries Development on the Eastern Shelf and Georges Bank on the Scotian Shelf. About half of this and Fisherman’s Services Division (now every March since the mid-1980s. These bank has been closed to fishing by mobile the Industry Services and Native Fisheries surveys have used statistically rigorous gear since 1986 as a haddock conserva- Branch) is conducting a study under methodology and gear procedures that tion measure. By examining the seabed AFAP to describe the situation. have remain essentially unchanged since both inside and outside the closed area, Georges Bank is an area where fish- their inception. Thus, changes in fish we will be able to assess what the impacts ermen believe “ghost” (or lost) gillnets abundance indicated by the survey can of trawling have been since the imposition are a significant problem. A research safely be assumed to be due to biological of the closure. In addition, experimental cruise to document the extent of the prob- and/or environmental factors, rather than trawling in the closed area is planned so lem was run on the Alfred Needler in Sep- a consequence of survey technique. These that the short- and long-term impacts of tember 1991. Prior to the cruise, discus- surveys are an essential component of the fishing can be evaluated. sions were held with representatives of region’s assessments of the groundfish Contrary to the study in the Minas the longline and mobile gear sectors to stocks. Basin, sampling of the seabed offshore identify areas where gear had probably They are, however, expensive to run presents unique problems. For instance, been lost. As well, a representative of the and compared to commercial fishing one cannot simply wait for the tide to go Shelburne County Longliners’ Associa- operations which generate thousands of out before one starts sampling. Conse- tion participated in the cruise itself. tows each year, only generate a relatively quently, during 1991 this phase of the The search was concentrated along small, albeit standardized data set. It is project focused on the development of a the 50-fathom isobath on the northern therefore of considerable importance to suite of gear that will allow comprehen- edge of Georges Bank and consisted of investigate ways in which we can extract sive sampling of the bottom. Included in tows using a grapnel. The 236 tows as much information as possible from this arsenal is a side-scan sonar which is resulted in the recovery of 19 gillnets or these surveys. towed behind the research vessel and pro- parts of gillnets, which contained the The first study under the AFAP vides scientists with information on the remains of 94 fish (cod, hake, dogfish, project addressing these issues examines bottom’s surficial features. Eventually, and unidentified skeletons). As well, lost how the survey trawl fishes under differ- this equipment will be mounted on the or abandoned fishing gear of one sort or ent operational conditions. Since 1989, on BRUTIV (Bottom Referencing Underwa- another (longlines, trawl warps, codends, each tow of the standard July survey, gear ter Towed Instrument Vehicle), a sled that gillnets, and parts of scallop drags) was performance has been measured by elec- “flies” over the sea bottom. Also available found in 26% of the tows. tronic sensors attached to the trawl doors is an epibenthic sled which is equipped Studies were also carried out to deter- and the head-line rope. At the same time, with a video camera. This instrument is mine how long various types of fish information has been collected on the towed over the bottom, much like a scal- remain in gillnets once they are caught. ship’s speed and direction, the gear depth, lop dredge, and collects animals from the The first experiment, completed in the tide condition, and so on. seafloor. November 1990 in St. Margarets Bay, in- The study has shown that gear depth To obtain samples of animals dicated that the residence time (the time plays an important role in the shape and burrowed into the sea bottom, a bottom required for scavengers to consume all the size of the trawl mouth opening. In shal- grab, equipped with a high-resolution flesh of entangled fish) averaged 2 days low water, the door spread decreases video system, will be available. Once an and varied from 1 to 5 days. No correla- while the head-line height increases. The area of interest has been located by the tions were evident between residence opposite is true in deep water. How these other gear, the grab is lowered to the time and water temperature or the location changes affect the ability of the trawl to bottom, the immediate locale is selected of the fish in the nets. catch fish is currently under study. In the with the video system, and the hydraulic Further work was conducted in 1992 coming year, if required, operational jaws of the grab are triggered shut to col- when researchers tested the feasibility of procedures will be investigated to deter- lect a bottom sample. The sample is then using dual-frequency side-scan sonar to mine how to compensate for these brought to the surface for detailed locate lost gillnets. This involved the changes in trawl mouth opening.

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Survey catch rates are also influenced of our fisheries. It was clear from the References by the availability of fish to the trawl. Fish onset that DFO’s Science Branch had a Haché, J.-E. 1989. Report of the Scotia-Fundy such as pollock and cod can wander off central role to play in addressing these Groundfish Task Force. DFO:86 p. the bottom and thus become unavailable problems and, thus, in the recovery of the Malouf, A. H. 1986. Seals and sealing in Canada. to the fishing gear. Therefore, the second industry. What was required was a Report of the Royal Commission: 679 p. part of this project involves examining concerted effort by scientists, in coopera- Messieh, S. N., T. W. Rowell, D. L. Peer, and P. J. Cranford. 1991. The effects of trawling, dredging how acoustical technology can be used to tion with industry, to work on resolving and ocean dumping on the eastern Canadian conti- quantify fish abundance throughout the the broad range of issues identified by the nental shelf seabed. Cont. Shelf Res. 11(8-10):1237- water column. During 1991, the project Haché Task Force. 1263. focused on the development of a With support through AFAP, signifi- Petrie, B., K. F. Drinkwater, and R. Pettipas. 1991. cant progress has been made in several Temperature and salinity variability at decadal times user-friendly dual-beam acoustics system. scales on the Scotian Shelf and the Gulf of Maine: After much testing, both in the lab and areas. Upon completion, some projects Some initial results. NAFO SCR Doc. 91/86:22 p. at sea, the system is now ready for will have immediate management Stobo, W., and K. C. T. Zwanenburg. 1990. Grey implementation during the remainder of implications (for example, the studies seal (Halichoerus grypus) pup production on Sable the AFAP project. The equipment will be of the impacts of trawls and gillnets). Island and estimates of recent production in the Northwest Atlantic. In: W. D. Bowen (ed.), Popula- used on standard groundfish surveys in Other projects, such as the study of tion biology of sealworm (Pseudoterranova tandem with trawling, both to determine environmental influences, will provide decipiens) in relation to its intermediate and seal the optimal operational configuration and the basis for long-term understanding hosts. Can. Bull. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 222:171-184. to allow comparison of the acoustic and of resource productivity. This mix trawl data sets. of short- and long-term studies is a major strength of the AFAP initiative Conclusion and will ultimately lead to the The crisis of 1989 brought into focus wiser long-term husbandry of our fish a number of problems in the management resources.

74 Research Water-level instrumentation and data dissemination: A look at the present and the future C. T. O’Reilly, G. D. Steeves, S. de Margerie*, and T. Millen** (* ASA Consulting Ltd. ** Correpro Atlantic Ltd.) datalogger for use in the Permanent Water Level Network (PWLN). Over the next 5 to 10 years, systems are required to gauge approximately 18 sites in the Scotia- Fundy Region and 27 sites in the Quebec Region. During this time, rigorous assess- ments of all datalogger and sensor hardware will be carried out, including ongoing comparisons of the data with that collected by existing conventional gauges, as well as detailed statistical stud- ies of multiple sensor deployments. Field C. T. O'Reilly G. D. Steeves operation of the gauges will be assessed with a particular emphasis on software menus and ease of installation. All soft- Accurate sea-level data are needed by processing. As well, there is a rapidly ware is written in the “C” programming a large number of disciplines. Oceanogra- growing demand for the dissemination of language and operates on standard phers use them for distinguishing varia- accurate, real-time water-level data - low-cost CMOS 80C188EB architecture. tions in the movement of water masses, something that is difficult, if not impossi- The SOCOMAR datalogger has the and as input to numerical models of ocean ble, with analog equipment. capability of interfacing multiple sensors, circulation, the trajectory of oil spills, and During the 1970s, a digital water- including absolute and differential sen- predictions of iceberg drift. Long-term level recorder was introduced by the sors and a low-cost diaphragm type simi- measurement is required in order to dif- Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS). lar to present analog portable gauges. The ferentiate changes in mean sea level Called the Tidal Acquisition and Telem- absolute sensors have built-in digital resulting from regional crustal movement etry System (TATS), the system has barometers to allow for atmospheric and global sea-level fluctuations. The become the primary source of water-level corrections, while the differential and concern about the effects of global warm- data at most measuring stations in the diaphragm sensors are mechanically ing has recently focused attention on the Scotia-Fundy Region, with some analog compensated for changes in barometric reliability of sea-level data. gauges continuing in use as backup units. pressure. The differential sensors are Geodesists and surveyors also use Although they have performed well, the actually groups of sensors which measure long-term data about sea level to identify TATS gauges are very limited in design conductivity, salinity, and temperature geopotential surfaces for use in establish- and are not commercially available. As a and are used to correct for changes in ing vertical datums for land and for result, technical support is becoming a water properties. Each sensor group func- marine mapping purposes. Mariners and major problem. tions completely independently of the fishermen use tidal information on a daily others and shares only the time reference. basis as a navigational tool. Other users of Instrumentation Having multiple sensors uses redundancy water-level data include biologists, geo- At present, there is almost universal to detect real-time errors without having physicists, search and rescue agencies, movement toward the use of digital to wait for human verification. and coastal engineers, as well as special dataloggers as the next generation of In the initial years of gauge deploy- interest groups such as environmentalists, water-level recording instruments. A ment, sites using stilling wells will be aquaculturists, and tourist bureaus. large variety of dataloggers are being compared with those using sensors in Until recently, the large majority of linked to an even greater variety of sen- open water. This will be done to assess water-level data came from analog sors, from the conventional float/pulley not only data quality, but also operating recorders which used a stilling well with to pressure-sensitive strain gauges costs. This monitoring is essential to either a float and pulley coupling or some and quartz crystals. Acoustic reflection ascertaining the optimum site configura- sort of pressure sensor. This technology, sensors and bubbler technology (which tion; the long-term goal is, of course, to although capable of reasonable accuracy, utilizes the rate of gas bubbles as a maximize data return with minimum cost. has become extremely difficult to function of pressure) are also common. Digital dataloggers allow a great deal maintain, primarily due to obsolete instru- In eastern Canada, CHS has selec- of flexibility if various combinations of mentation and labour-intensive data ted the SOCOMAR Model TMS1000 sensor inputs are mixed and matched.

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Conventional clock-timing errors, which management of these resources requires l surveying and dredging activities; have plagued analog gauge data process- more and better information; l the ability to provide flood warnings in ing in the past, should be essentially l advances in remote sensing technolo- coastal areas. eliminated. Digital clocks can be checked gies are rapidly increasing the rate at The main functions of COWLIS are and reset remotely as often desired, with which ocean data are acquired. Without water-level measurement, data process- time drifts measured in seconds instead of information systems to automatically ing, and data dissemination. The infra- minutes and hours. organize and extract useful information structure needed to serve these functions Options for the SOCOMAR data- from these data streams, the masses of consists of a data network, a database, and logger include a remote telephone, a radio incoming data can hinder, instead of data processing facilities. (UHF/VHF), and satellite (ARGOS) com- assist, management decision-making. The data network connects data munications. Global cellular coverage Real-time data acquisition, process- source (tide gauges) and user access plat- should be available by the end of the dec- ing, and dissemination are essential if forms (PCs) to the database. For simplic- ade. Other options include several these new needs for ocean information are ity, COWLIS was designed with a central weather-monitoring sensors (up to 24), to to be satisfied. For example, COWLIS database and processing facility. The top measure variables such as wind speed, assists CHS in its mandate to acquire, portion of figure 1 shows the physical wind direction, precipitation, and snow quality check, and disseminate water- hardware components of COWLIS. The depth. A multi-channel GPS option and level information in coastal Canada. With Datapac telecommunications network a speech synthesizer have also been COWLIS, these tasks can now be was selected due to its availability announced. performed in real time, with benefits to: throughout Canada and its conformity to l the internal productivity of CHS; the international x.25 communications Coastal Ocean Water Level l the management of harbour traffic in protocol, which allows the system to be Information System depth-limited ports; implemented worldwide. The system is The Coastal Ocean Water Level Information System (COWLIS) was devel- oped in recent years with two objectives in mind: to provide a tool for the acquisi- tion, quality control, and dissemination of water-level data for the CHS; and to sup- ply a working prototype for generalized ocean information systems. COWLIS’ key objectives are flexibility and ease of access to information. The concept of COWLIS was pro- posed by ASA Consulting Ltd. in 1987, and resulted in a government-funded development project in 1989. CHS has played a leading role in supporting and promoting COWLIS. The initial development project was completed and delivered to CHS in 1990, and the system is currently operational, on an experimental basis. In 1991, a technical transfer agreement was signed and an enhanced system is presently being developed. This new version will integrate the TMS1000 tide gauges as well as use an off-the-shelf database structure. With the development of COWLIS, the private sector is playing a major role in the further development and marketing of ocean information systems. The need for these systems arises from both the demand for data and the supply of data, as follows: l coastal and ocean resources are under Figure 1. The network of tide gauges and servers through which COWLIS acquires increasing pressure, and the rational information about coastal ocean water levels.

76 Research presently designed to be accessed through sector gets new capabilities in data collec- monitoring global sea-level change, an readily available MS-DOS personal tion and dissemination, while the private increasingly sensitive issue. Yet success computers. sector ends up with a globally marketable in measuring long-term water levels in The processing software resides product. A notable private-sector joint this region has been very limited and entirely on the central computer. For the venture related to COWLIS is the develop- extremely expensive. purposes of data acquisition and dissemi- ment of OCEANFAX. The successful gauging of the Arctic nation, software must be resident on the OCEANFAX allows access to lies in the development of new and cost- central computer as well as on remote COWLIS via any common fax machine. effective technology. A project has been platforms (the tide gauges and the user’s The user requests data by checking off underway since 1987 to develop a stand- computer), so that communication can be items on a special order form, and faxing alone system which can endure the harsh orchestrated over the network. Through- it to the OCEANFAX computer. There, arctic rigors. The basic approach uses out the system, a modular design proprietary software automatically separate recorders above and below the increases flexibility and allows expan- decodes the form, and transmits the water surface in order to avoid the very sion. COWLIS automatically updates all requested data back to the user’s fax difficult problem of cables travelling software and control files on the remote machine within minutes. This option through the ice-water interface. A digital platforms if they become corrupted, eliminates the need for the user even to barometer which operates unattended for or when new upgraded versions are have a computer. up to a year in temperatures as low as installed. minus 55°C was designed, built, tested, The design of the data acquisition Remote arctic tide gauge and transferred to private industry. system allows the communications inter- Long-term accurate water-level data The next stage of the project was to val to be set individually for each tide are required in remote areas of the Cana- devise methods for communicating gauge site on the network. This increases dian Arctic. Information about Arctic between the outside world and the units system flexibility and cost effectiveness water levels is especially important for above and below the water surface. by allowing: frequent- communication for stations where water levels are more variable or of special interest (for example, for storm forecasting or harbour mainte- nance control); infrequent communication for stations where water levels are stable or where there is no pressing real-time interest; expansion to include other ocean parameters which may require shorter or longer monitoring intervals. The bottom portion of figure 1 shows the location of the Permanent Water Level Network gauges and remote servers that are currently integrated into COWLIS. Communication over data networks requires a degree of intelligence on the part of the monitoring instruments which is beyond the capability of the existing TATS units. To remedy this problem, remote server microcomputers were installed in the field to orchestrate long- distance communication with the central system via Datapac. These servers com- municate with one or more tide gauges through local phone calls. The need for remote servers can eventually be elimi- nated through the use of more intelligent tide gauges, such as the SOCOMAR. The private sector is heavily involved in all aspects of COWLIS development. Liaison between the private and public Figure 2. The stand-alone system for use in the Arctic with an electromagnetic (EM) sectors benefits both partners: the public communications link, a satellite uplink, and the submerged tide gauge.

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Correpro Atlantic Ltd. is now develop- surges and the management of harbour trajectories of oil spills is proposed for the ing a prototype of an underwater and seaway traffic, while streamlining purposes of responding to emergencies and communications system which will use internal data processing and management. managing environmental information. digitally encoded ultra-low-frequency Development must maximize the flexi- The tide gauge of tomorrow may well radio waves; the unit is scheduled for field bility to integrate ongoing technical be a complete ocean-monitoring system, testing during 1992. The digital barometer advances with future user demands. collecting long-term measurements of sea has been modified to accept data from the Promising developments which are level, temperature, salinity, and variations submersible gauge and to transmit them in currently under investigation include the in atmospheric pressure. The infrastruc- near real-time via an ARGOS satellite link. integration of multi-channel GPS receiv- ture described in this paper offers the Figure 2 illustrates the deployment of the ers as a way of relating water-level data to potential for a variety of data about the system. dynamically determined ellipsoidal sur- ocean and environmentally sensitive faces. On-line numerical forecast models issues to be collected, managed, and The future which assimilate real-time observations distributed. Technology is the obvious key to the can maximize the value of remotely future of Canada’s requirements for sensed data. The use of GPS interfaces, water-level measurement and data dis- and integration with the development of Further reading semination. The use of digital dataloggers the electronic navigation chart, promises de Margerie, S. 1991. Coastal Ocean Water Level introduces a large degree of flexibility and to simplify user access and bring ocean Information System (COWLIS). Proceedings of the Canadian Hydrographic Conference, Rimouski, cost-effectiveness to the acquisition of information to where it is often needed the Quebec, April. accurate water-level information. The most - at sea. Along these lines, a proto- O’Reilly, C. T., S. T. Grant, and G. D. Steeves. introduction of a ocean data collection type of a COWLIS option that displays 1989. The development of a permanent tide gauge system such as COWLIS provides real- bathymetry and tidal currents driven by for remote areas. Proceedings of the Canadian time data access, rapid quality control, either observed or forecasted water levels Hydrographic Conference, Vancouver, B.C., March. and data dissemination to a variety of is presently available for two ports in east- Steeves, G., T. Millen, and J. Nangreaves. 1991. Electromagnetic communication through the users. These developments allow for vast em Canada. In addition, the integration of seawater-ice interface. Proceedings of the IEEE improvements in the forecasting of storm existing capabilities to model the fate and Oceans ‘91 Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii.

78 Research Digital techniques for sidescan sonar and seismic data acquisition and display D. R. Parrott, B. C. Nichols, J. R. Currie, R. G. Currie, and R. C. Courtney

D. R. Parrott B. C. Nichols J. R. Currie R.G. Currie R.C. Courtney

The Geological Survey of Canada the seafloor as well as changes in topogra- acquire specialized hardware to study the (GSC) has recently introduced a marine phy are detected. Information about those distribution of seafloor sediments, and to Digital Initiative, a joint project involving changes is taken from the detailed determine sediment properties. the Atlantic Geoscience Centre (AGC) bathymetry surveys and used to separate and the Pacific Geoscience Centre (PGC), the effects of topography from the effects The method which will provide the basis for the re- of small-scale roughness. High-resolu- The objective of using digital tech- peatable, quantitative, and geographically tion seismic reflection and subbottom niques for data acquisition and enhance- accurate mapping of the seafloor and profiler data provide a vertical cross ment is to extract more information from underlying sediments. This initiative will section of the seafloor and underlying the data than is available through the help address Quaternary geoscience sediments, enabling interpretation of their interpretation of analog graphic records of issues such as environmental assessment, structure and distribution. Together, this sidescan sonar and subbottom profiler seabed mapping, and pollution monitor- information allows geologists to recon- records. When traditional analog tech- ing in the coastal zone and on the conti- struct the 3-D geological history of the niques are used, most of the data process- nental shelf. seabed sediments. ing and graphic-record generation is done The studies performed by the GSC The information provided by these during the survey and often represents the require information about the morphology surveys fosters an understanding of the only working copy of the data. Replaying and character of the seafloor and under- processes fundamental to such questions data from analog magnetic tape generally lying sediments, information which is as the transport and deposition of materi- allows application of the same techniques collected through such techniques as als ranging from toxins to sands and grav- which had been used when the data were swath bathymetry, sidescan sonar, and els. Data acquisition and processing tools acquired - for example, simple bandpass high-resolution seismic reflection (or are being acquired to aid the transition filtering, time-varied gain, or presentation subbottom profiling) surveys. Through from traditional qualitative analog meth- at different scales to improve the appear- cooperation with the Canadian Hydro- ods currently in use to more effective dig- ance of the graphic record. graphic Service, which is presently ital technology. During the first part of In contrast, digital data acquisition enhancing its capability to provide the project, digital data acquisition and systems allow shipboard acquisition of detailed water depth information through processing capabilities have been sidescan sonar and high-resolution the use of swath bathymetry techniques, enhanced for use with existing sidescan seismic data at rates up to 100,000 sam- detailed information on the topography of sonar and seismic reflection systems. This ples per second. The use of 12-bit digital the seafloor is available. capacity has been used to produce true- acquisition results in higher-fidelity Acoustic pictures of the seafloor are scale sidescan sonar and seismic images recording than is possible with analog provided through sidescan sonar surveys. of the seabed in a geographically refer- techniques. Data are recorded in industry- Inclined transducer arrays are used to enced (or georeferenced), scale-corrected standard format (SEG-Y - see Barry et al., send sound waves to the seafloor, on both format, and mosaics (composite images) 1975) on high-capacity 8-mm digital tape. sides of the survey track, and echoes from of the seafloor from adjacent survey Navigation data are encoded into the data both the natural small-scale roughness of swaths. In coming years, the project will header in order to allow georeferencing of

79 Research the data. To ensure that no irreversible features such as record annotation, scale, fidelity expected from data recorded procedures are applied to the digital data, and interpretations to be added. The anno- digitally in the field. Rather, they are used only raw unprocessed data are recorded. tated image can then be output to a variety to demonstrate the processing techniques Preliminary enhancements of the field of devices, including colour slide copiers, currently under development. The quality display, such as slant-range correction, thermal graphic recorders, and laser of data and ease of processing should both gain adjustments, and bandpass filtering, printers. improve as digital logging becomes more are then performed by the data acquisition Portable processing and enhance- routine. system before the data are displayed. ment software is being implemented During a recent survey offshore Van- Separate hardware is being used for using the X-Windows/MotifTM window- couver, British Columbia, sidescan sonar data acquisition and data processing. The ing environment available under the UNIX and high-resolution subbottom profiler data acquisition hardware is dedicated to operating system. A “point and click” data were collected on a series of closely recording and replaying data, with options Graphical User Interface (GUI) is being spaced lines, so that the geomorphology, available for minimal data processing to developed to isolate the user from the sediment type, and sediment distribution enhance the quality of the graphic record complexities of the UNIX operating of the Fraser Delta could be studied (Hart and ensure that good-quality data are system. et al., 1991). Sidescan sonar data were being captured. The main data processing High-resolution sidescan sonar collected with a 100 kHz Klein 595 activities are performed on dedicated, surveys can produce up to 160 megabytes sidescan sonar system; high-resolution high-speed UNIX workstations. of data per hour. The data sets are trans- subbottom profiler data were collected The processing of digital data begins ferred from the field tapes, which are with a Huntec Deep Towed Seismic with editing and application of a time- produced by the digital data acquisition system. Navigation was provided by an series analysis, including digital filters, system, to UNIX workstations, where the integrated system using Loran C, the gain equalization, and deconvolution. final processing is done. The field TRANSIT satellite, and the Global Posi- This is followed by geometric corrections processing systems provide an operating tioning System (GPS). These data were (for seismic migration, aspect ratio, and environment and processing steps identi- selected as a test case for acquisition and slant range) to produce a spatial data set cal to those at the onshore facility. processing in a digital format. Figure 1 from the time series data. More advanced shows the bathymetry of the survey area. image-processing techniques may then be Field tests Note the deep channels near the Steveston applied to condition the spatial data and The data acquisition and processing Jetty and Canoe Passage. produce sidescan sonar mosaics and seis- tasks occur at the same time. Many of the mic fence diagrams. At any stage in the data presented in this paper have been Processing sidescan sonar data processing, data may be imported into a digitized from analog field recordings For the survey, sidescan sonar data digital publishing package to allow and, as a result, do not show the increased were recorded in analog format and

Figure 1. A three-dimensional view of the bathymetry of the Fraser Delta, Vancouver, British Columbia.

80 Research digitized after the cruise using an SE880 seabed on sidescan sonar and seismic data The resulting file is a georeferenced data digital acquisition system manufactured are subject to error, so an interactive tech- set of sidescan sonar images precisely by GeoAcoustics Ltd. (formerly Ferranti- nique has been developed which gives the located on the seafloor and provides infor- ORE) of England. This provided 2,100 operator full control over the selection of mation on the morphology and nature of pixels across the 300-m range of the the seafloor return. With this procedure, sediments throughout the survey area. sidescan sonar, giving a theoretical reso- the uncorrected sidescan sonar data are This file can be output to a display device, lution of about 0.15 m. The data were displayed on the monitor, and the operator as shown in figure 4, or exported to a copied to a Silicon Graphics Iris 4D/35 uses a mouse-controlled pointer to select Geographic Information System (GIS) computer workstation, and the original the position of the seafloor on the image. and merged with other data sets to assist tapes were archived for future use. These control points are used to guide the in interpretation, feature extraction and Processing can be performed on the process of locating seafloor position measurement, and the generation of geo- entire suite of data in order to utilize all of across the entire file. On the unprocessed logic maps. the available resolution, or the data can be sidescan sonar data in figure 2 the deep At any stage in the processing, the decimated to reduce the amount of com- channel near Steveston Jetty is quite evi- data can be displayed on the monitor. The putation time. Generally, decimated data dent and the seafloor is easily identified. operator can view any portion of data at a are used to generate mosaics, and full- The data are then processed to com- larger scale by simply selecting the area resolution data are used to study features pensate for geometric distortions and for of interest, cropping the image, and of particular interest identified on the the nonlinear beam pattern of the trans- enlarging it to fill the entire screen. The mosaics. ducer arrays over the width of the swath. data can easily be viewed in their correct The sidescan sonar data are proc- Since the beam pattern is not generally aspect ratio, or enlarged in either the essed using techniques derived from those known a priori, it is deduced from data along-track or cross-track direction. employed by the United States Geological collected in an area with homogeneous Survey (Danforth et al., 1991). The seafloor characteristics, and an inverse fil- Processing the georeferenced data are processed to ter is designed to compensate for the seismic reflection data remove the geometric distortions intro- effect of the beam pattern over the entire A suite of processing software has duced by towing the sensor at varying data set. The data are then processed to also been developed to assist with the heights above the seafloor. The process, remove geometric distortions and are interpretation of seismic reflection referred to as “slant-range correction”, displayed as shown in figure 3. records, a process which in many ways removes the effect of the height of the After processing, each line can be parallels that already described for sensor and repositions the data points output to a graphic recorder, or terminal, sidescan sonar data. Seismic reflection across the entire swath. in proper geographic coordinates. Adja- data are processed to allow the presenta- Removal of these geometric effects cent survey lines are used to produce a tion of sections of graphic records, which requires a known height of the sensor mosaic of the data, and the data sets are have been corrected for variations in the above the seafloor, obtained by deter- “painted” into an array using the naviga- ship’s speed and in the speed at which mining the location of the seafloor return tion and swath width. Lines are placed sound travels through the seafloor signal on the unprocessed digital data. into the array, and any overlapping areas sediments, and to prepare the data for Automated routines for locating the of the swaths are weighted and averaged. subsequent analysis.

Figure 2. Unprocessed sidescan sonar data from the Fraser Delta showing a deep channel and turbidity flow..

Figure 3. Sidescan sonar data from figure 2 after processing to remove geometric distortion and beam pattern.

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profiles, the data were processed for display. The section of data shown in figure 5 was cropped from the processed data, converted to a bitmap image, and annotated using a computer graphics package. Data presentation It is possible to make a hardcopy of an image in a variety of formats at any stage in the processing sequence. Pres- ently, large-format (up to 75 cm wide and several metres long) colour or black and white images can be generated on a Versatec model 8944 colour plotter. Smaller-sized, higher-resolution images may be printed on the same type of digital thermal graphic recorders used during the data acquisition phase of field surveys - for instance, the Raytheon TDU900 or the EPC9000 series and Alden 9315 CTP ther- mal printers. Images may also be trans- mitted from the processing computer to a Figure 4. Mosaic of sidescan sonar data from adjacent lines. Notice how the channel colour-slide maker. In a similar fashion, can be traced throughout the mosaic. images can be transmitted to colleagues around the world. The final stage of data presentation In order to produce the record shown After spatial transformation and entails the preparation of publication- in figure 5, high-resolution seismic data assembly of the data from adjacent survey quality figures. With traditional analog were digitized using a sample interval of lines into a mosaic of seismic reflection techniques it was still necessary, after 20 microseconds in a sampling window of 200 milliseconds’ duration. As the data were also digitized from analog tapes, they had to be time-referenced in the same manner as used for the sidescan sonar records. While the file was displayed on the screen, a mouse was used to digitize bathymetric information by indicating points on the seafloor. Navigation data were smoothed and merged with the dig- ital seismic data based on the times con- tained in the record headers. Since sidescan sonar and subbottom profiler data are generally collected by separate towfish, separate files of seafloor location are maintained for these data sets. The next step was to approximate a velocity function. In the case of the data displayed in figure 5, the speed of sound was assumed to be 1,500 m/sec in the water column and 1,800 m/sec in the first 15 m of the subbottom. A speed- and depth-corrected section was then interpo- lated at a specified spatial interval, scale, and vertical exaggeration using the geo- graphic position, water depth, and veloc- Figure 5. A subbottom profiler record showing sediments deposited over a ity function associated with each shot. bedrock high.

82 Research production of the sidescan sonar or seis- manner which allows the scientist to providing quantitative analyses of varia- mic reflection graphic record, to rely on quickly obtain an overview and determine tions in the data. It is anticipated that the the services of a draftsperson and photog- the geographic relationships of geological use of digital techniques will lead to rapher to produce an image of the record features. The scientist can then use the improvements in the efficiency of data that contained the necessary scales, geo- computer to study features of interest; the analysis and interpretation and will graphic location fixes, and interpretations. data can be digitally processed to remove improve the cost effectiveness of collect- The process was time-consuming and unwanted noise and artifacts such as ing, processing, and interpreting sidescan often involved producing large-scale surface multiples, and portions of the sonar and seismic reflection data. photographic negatives, generating and mosaic can be selected and enlarged overlaying labels on the image, and then in order to help identify fine-scale rephotographing the combined images structures. After processing, the sidescan Acknowledgements and labels. sonar or seismic image can be saved in a The Digital Initiative Project is a GSC All of the images presented in this format which can be imported into a com- project involving input from scientists from paper have been produced using puter graphics package where labels, AGC and PGC. A portion of the research car- ried out under this project is supported by the completely digital techniques. The data scales, and interpretations may be Offshore Geotechnics Program, Tasks 61103 were transformed and imported into a overlain on the image prior to output as and 63203, of the federal Panel on Energy publishing package, where alphanumeric a graphic record or colour slide. Research and Development. The data used for text information, as well as line-drawn Data can be handled in a completely illustrations in this article were collected images, could be incorporated. The digital format from the time of acquisi- during surveys performed by PGC and AGC. annotated images were then output as a tion, through the processing sequence and graphic record (as shown in figures 1 and the final production of the published References 5) and as colour slides. results, and during the preparation of lecture materials such as slides and Barry, K. M., D. A. Cavers, and C. W. Kneale. 1975. Recommended standards for digital tape formats. Conclusion overheads. The digital data can also be Geophysics 40:344-352. The use of digital techniques pro- output in a format appropriate for Danforth, W. W., T. F. O’Brien, and W. C. Schwab. vides an opportunity for an improvement inclusion in a GIS. 1991. Near-real-time mosaics from high-resolution in the way seismic and sidescan sonar The use of digital techniques for data side-scan sonar. Sea Technol. 32( 1):54-59. data are collected, processed, and pre- acquisition and processing has resulted in Hart, B.S., J. V. Barrie, R. G. Currie, J. L. Luternauer, D. B. Prior, and R. D. Macdonald. 1991. sented. The infrastructure now exists for an improvement in the dynamic range and High-resolution seismic and sidescan sonar mapping the production of digital mosaics of quality of the data available for interpreta- of the Fraser Delta front and adjacent Strait of Geor- sidescan sonar and seismic reflection tion. More information can be extracted gia, British Columbia. In: Current Research, Part E. data. These mosaics present the data in a by enhancing the graphic record and by Geological Survey of Canada, paper 91- le: 19-23.

83 Research Concerns addressed in the ocean dumping permit process D. Peer, N. Prouse, and G. Seibert

example, through the contamination of edible fish - it is important to assess the potential impacts of chemical constituents. CEPA lists two classes of substances that, alone or in combination, are poten- tially harmful: prohibited substances and restricted substances. Prohibited substances are those known to cause serious harm and include such materials as cadmium and mercury, and their compounds; oil and grease; D. Peer N. Prouse G. Seibert organohalogenated compounds, e.g. PCBs; plastics, and other synthetic materi- als that do not readily decompose; and In the past, unwanted materials were with the proposed method of containment high-level radioactive materials. Prohib- commonly disposed of in the oceans with- or packaging of the spoil, if any is deemed ited substances are under strict control out much thought given to potential necessary), the dredging and dump site and cannot legally be dumped if they impacts. As environmental awareness locations, the transport method and route, exceed predetermined limits. grew and the limits of the coastal marine and the chemical, biological, and physical Restricted substances are those that environment’s ability to dilute wastes be- characteristics of both the spoil and the are potentially hazardous, and can only came evident, nations began to recognize dump site. Chemical data are included be dumped with extreme care. Such that the oceans and marine resources must with the application and assessed to substances have no predetermined limits, be protected. ensure that concentrations are within e.g. arsenic, lead, copper, zinc, beryllium, In 1975, Canada joined 50 other regulated limits set by CEPA Part VI. chromium, nickel, and vanadium (and countries in ratifying the Convention on Possible effects of the ocean dump- their compounds); cyanides; fluorides; the Prevention of Marine Pollution by ing process, and the properties of the pesticides not listed as prohibited; Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (the dumped material, must be carefully organosilicons, e.g. water repellents; London Dumping Convention), designed assessed before a permit can be approved. containers and scrap metal; low-level to prevent the indiscriminate disposal of As part of the approval process, the permit radioactive materials; and bulky wastes wastes and to provide a basis for the regula- applications are reviewed by technical (which could present hazards to fishing tion of ocean dumping. Canada, as signa- and scientific experts in several disci- and shipping). Concentrations of some tory to the London Dumping Convention, plines. At the Bedford Institute of Ocea- restricted substances in disposal material passed the Ocean Dumping Control Act nography (BIO) this is carried out by are flagged when they exceed the regional (ODCA) in the same year. ODCA actively the Department of Energy, Mines and averages. A permit application may be regulated ocean dumping until 1988, when Resources, which reviews the geological rejected if there is any indication that such it was replaced by Part VI of the Canadian and geophysical characteristics of the levels might adversely affect the marine Environmental Protection Act (CEPA). dredged material and the dump site, and environment or pose a risk to human CEPA mandates the identification, assess- by the Department of Fisheries and health. ment, and control of hazardous substances Oceans, which considers potential im- At present, there are over 30,000 in order to protect the environment and pacts on marine organisms and habitat, chemical substances in common use human health. Part VI under the CEPA and on navigation and marine safety. within Canada, and new introductions and addresses ocean dumping. In terms of quantity, most material to importations are ongoing. To manage be disposed of at sea comes from the these, a Priority Substance List has been The regulatory regime maintenance dredging of existing chan- established under CEPA. Currently 44 Under CEPA Part VI, anyone wishing nels and harbours to navigable depths chemical substances are being evaluated to dump material at sea applies for a per- (fig. 1); however, wastes from fish for their environmental and health risks. mit to the Toxic Chemicals and Waste processing and vessels at sea also contrib- Information collected through literature Management Branch of Environment ute a significant amount. To ensure that and research is being used to determine Canada. The application must detail the dumped materials and disposal methods safe levels, whether each substance source and kind of material to be dumped, will not pose an environmental risk or should be controlled, and how high a pri- its amount, the rate of disposal (along create a human health problem - for ority that action has. For example,

84 Research concentrations of cadmium and total (Kranck and Milligan, 1989). Benthic example, sediment deposited onto herring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHS) organisms may be killed by dredging. eggs increased mortality (Messieh et al., in every dredge spoil sample must be Spoil disposal might bury others. How- 1981). Siltation may also delay metamor- below 0.6 mg.g-1 and 2.5 mg.g-1 dry ever, studies on fish and lobster entrain- phosis of lobster larvae. Free-swimming weight, respectively, if the material is to ment by the dredge head (Burton, 1979; lobster larvae will not settle onto sandy or be approved for ocean dumping. Where Pelletier and Wilson, 1981) indicated that muddy bottoms and will delay settling concentrations are exceeded, the applica- entrainment is not a problem for species and moulting until favourable rocky con- tion is returned, along with a description that can move freely. However, benthic ditions are found (Cobb, 1968). After lob- of the chemical basis for the objections, infauna, e.g. clams and burrowing worms, ster larvae have settled, dredging or smoth- and the permit may be denied. Often, will be entrained and buried. ering of “nursery” areas occupied by juve- samples exceeding the acceptable level Reestablishment of the benthic com- niles could have serious consequences for require verification through resampling. munity depends on the topography and future recruitment into fishing areas (Pottle Similarly, levels of restricted hydrographic conditions. If the original and Elner, 1982). For these reasons, a pro- substances are examined and any that conditions are not restored, a benthic posed dump site must not be near major exceed the general background concentra- community in equilibrium with the new nursery or rearing areas and dumping tions are noted. Levels of trace metals conditions will develop over time. activity must be timed to avoid critical measured in eastern Canadian marine Species will move into the disturbed periods, e.g. bivalve “spatfall”. sediments by Loring (1982), among oth- region from nearby areas. Initially these A further consideration in ocean ers, provide values for comparison. are small species with short life spans, e.g. dumping is that suspended solids (turbid- Unusually high concentrations require polychaete worms. If the sediment is ity) could have lethal and sublethal effects biological assessment, especially if continually resuspended, such small on marine organisms. A literature review chronic or acutely toxic effects on marine organisms will be the only species able to by Appleby and Scarratt (1989) stated that organisms or human health have been live in the area. However, under more suspended solids have the potential to previously observed. stable conditions, larger, longer-lived cause histological and haematological species, like lobsters, also reestablish damage and induce physiological and Dumping of dredge spoils themselves. behavioural changes in fish and shellfish. Increases in suspended solids and The particle-sizes of dredge spoil This review noted “eggs and larvae are changes to the seabed are the main physi- samples are analyzed and assessed less tolerant to suspended solids than cal impacts of dredging and dumping on because of the possibility of burying adults, and larvae are more sensitive than the benthic environment. Dredging can benthic organisms and disrupting habi- eggs”. For example, suspended material destabilize the seabed and resuspend tats. Siltation can particularly affect eggs from dredge spoils inhibited feeding by solids, as was observed in Miramichi Bay and larvae of some marine species. For herring larvae, and concentrations as low as a few parts per million resulted in juvenile herring avoiding the area (Messieh et al., 1981). Appleby and Scarratt suggested that “many species of adult fish and shellfish survive in concentrations of suspended solids far greater than those commonly observed in nature”. This tolerance also varies between species and among the various types of suspended particles: larger or jagged particles appear to be more harmful than smaller or smoother particles. Organisms may also be exposed to higher concentrations of contaminants associated with the suspended solids. To minimize the problems associated with the resuspension of dredge spoils, Appleby and Scarratt recommended dumping in sheltered (poorly flushed) areas, or in deep water, or on land. They cautioned that this solution is not always straightforward because dumping in a poorly flushed area would increase biological oxygen demand (BOD), Figure 1. Hydraulic dredge in operation creating additional problems.

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Dredging and dumping activity can associated wastes, polychlorinated fish and shellfish wtth special reference to ocean also lead to increased coastal erosion and biphenyls (PCBs), mercury-filled bear- dumping: A Literature Review. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1681:v+33 p. wave action. Removal of material that ings, and ammonia from refrigeration Burton, J. 1979. Preliminary assessment of the im- naturally maintains barrier islands and systems might be released and contami- pact of mining sand at Sandy Hook, Magdalen Is- sand beaches can lead to their erosion. nate the dump site. Non-degradable litter, lands, Quebec. Report prepared for Marmines, Inc., which could pose a threat to turtles, Montreal, Quebec. Dumping fish waste seabirds, and marine mammals through Cobb, D. A. 1968. Delay of moult by larvae of Solid waste from fish processing ingestion or entanglement, must be Homarus americanus. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 25:2251-2253. (offal) is the second largest amount of removed. Johnson, B. H. 1988. User’s guide for models of material disposed of by ocean dumping in dredged material disposal in open water. Draft Tech. the Atlantic region. Such waste, which Research needs Rpt., U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Expertmental can amount to hundreds of tonnes from a The foregoing underscores the Station, Civil Engineering, Vicksburg, MISS. single plant over a season, is disposed of importance of assessing the physical and Johnson, B. H., and Holliday, B. W. 1978. Evalua- tion and calibration of the tetra-tech dredged mate- at designated ocean dump sites. The chemical behaviour of dredged material rial disposal models based on field data. Tech. Rpt. major concerns are the potential impacts in the marine environment, particularly D-78-47, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi- on nearby fisheries, habitat disruption, the the degree and extent of chemical con- mental Station, Civil Engmeeting, Vicksburg, Miss. high BOD of the waste, and the organic tamination and turbidity plumes gener- Kester, D. R., B. H. Ketchum, I. W. Duedall, and P. contaminants associated with it. Aesthe- ated during the dredging or dumping K. Park. 1983. Have the questtons concerning dredged material disposal been answered? In: D. R. tics is a further consideration. The review operations. The short-term fate of mate- Kester, B. H. Ketchum, I. W. Duedall, and P. K. of applications to dump offal must verify rial may be analyzed by using numerical Park (eds.), Wastes in the Oceans, vol. 2, chap. 14. that it will be well-dispersed at the dump models (Johnson and Holliday, 1978; Wiley-Interscience, New York. site and that floating material will not foul Johnson, 1988). Simulations can be Kranck, K., and T. G. Milligan. 1989. Effects of a beaches. An interesting sidelight is that carried out to predict, among other things, major dredging program on the sedtmentary envi- ronment of Miramichi Bay, New Brunswick. Can. gulls eat dumped fish waste and thus may the maximum lateral movement and Tech. Rep. Hydrog. Ocean Sci. No 112:iv+61 p. gain a competitive advantage over other subsequent thickness of the disposed Levy, E. M., K. Lee, K. S. Saunders, and S. E. marine bird species such as terns. material, and the conditions under which Cobanli. 1988. The distribution of petroleum Fish meal processing produces large sediment will be resuspended or depos- residues in near-shore sediments from Atlantic amounts of liquid waste, called stick- ited. Accurately predicting the long-term Canada. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1612:iv+169p. water, which has a high BOD and could fate of dumped material cannot be done at Lot-ing, D. 1982. Overview of trace metal levels in increase eutrophication if dumped in present. Monitoring dump sites is costly, eastern Canadian coastal and estuarine sediments. areas of limited circulation. Every year, and as the time scale increases, it becomes ICES-MEQC, CM 1982/E:20. many foreign factory ships apply to dump difficult to separate natural and human- Messieh, S. N., D. J. Wildish, and R. H. Peterson. such waste after processing over-the-side caused changes. 1981. Possible impact from dredging and spoil dis- purchases. These applications are We note that assessing the potential posal in the Miramichi Bay herring fishery. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1008:iv+33 p. approved provided the dumped waste will impacts of ocean dumping does not Pelletier, L. H. H., and D. J. Wilson. 1981. Monitor- be well-dispersed and will not affect guarantee the absence of impacts, because ing for fish entrainment by a 90-cm suction dredge fishing grounds or recreational areas. it is often difficult or impossible to in McKinley Bay and Tuktoyaktuk Harbour, North- demonstrate scientifically that an impact west Territories. Prepared for the Regional Ocean Scuttling vessels Dumping Advisory Committee, Environmental Pro- has or has not occurred. In fact, what tection Service, Environment Canada:30 p. A permit is required before vessels constitutes an impact is still debatable Pottle, R. A., and R. W. Elner. 1982. The effect of can be scuttled at sea. The scuttling must (Kester et al., 1983). However, critical suspended and deposited sediment on the behaviour not interfere with navigation and the and careful evaluation minimizes these of the American lobster, Homarus americanus. In: disposal site must be in deep water away impacts and preserves valuable resources. C. D. MacGregor and G. A. Packman (eds.), Report on Ocean Dumping Research and Development At- from fishing grounds. All hazardous lantic Region 1980-1981 (Proceedings of workshop, materials must be removed prior to References Jan. 27-28, held at Bedford Institute of Oceanogra- scuttling. The chief chemical concerns Appleby, J. A., and D. J. Scarratt. 1989. Physical phy). Environment Canada Surveillance Report are that petroleum products and their effects of suspended solids on marine and estuarine EPS-5-AR-82-1:5-11.

86 Research Swordfish research and assessment J. M. Porter

when they are most abundant. Tibbo et al. years, a maximum of 15.1 years). In (1961) proposed a swordfish migratory particular, the large (adult) swordfish pattern as north and east in the summer (85 to 210 kg - see fig. 1) were caught (as far as the Flemish Cap), and south and within 200 km of their release sites, west in the autumn, with spawning in the usually at the same time of year and Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. Between several years later, which suggests their 1961 and 1981, a total of 281 swordfish tendency to return to the same northern were tagged and released in the Canadian feeding areas each year. Large Pelagic Fish Tagging Program; 26 The smaller (mostly immature: 45 to of these were later recaptured (fig. 1; 84 kg) swordfish showed similar local- Burnett et al., 1987). ized nondirected movements after release, Recent analyses show that most with two movements of longer distance: J. M. Porter tagged swordfish were caught close to from the tail of the Grand Banks of their release sites, although after consider- Newfoundland to Nova Scotia, and from able periods at large (an average of 3.2 Sable Island Bank to the Bahamas. The Canadian swordfish industry, located primarily in the Scotia-Fundy Region, annually harvests approximately 15,000 fish, valued at $6 million. Work by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans in the 1960s and ’70s focused on collecting data on the basic biology of large pelagic fishes, and an extensive tagging program was conducted (Burnett et al., 1987). In 1989, the Scotia-Fundy Region re- established at the St. Andrews Biological Station a large pelagic fisheries program, dealing with swordfish, tunas, and sharks. (The program had been dormant for sev- eral years.) In addition to building on the base of the historical studies, the current program includes participation in the international assessment of swordfish and a variety of research projects in support of this activity. Scientists work closely with industry in order to fulfill the depart- ment’s zonal mandate to provide the best advice for current management of swordfish stocks.

Distribution in the Atlantic Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) are widely distributed throughout the entire Atlantic Ocean, ranging in the northwest from the Gulf of Mexico to the Grand Banks of Newfoundland (Scott and Scott, 1988). In the Scotia-Fundy Region, swordfish are harvested along the edge of Figure 1. Release and recapture points for large (adult: 85-210 kg) and small (mostly the Scotian Shelf and the Grand Banks of immature: 45-84 kg) swordfish tagged in the Canadian Large Pelagic Fish Tagging Newfoundland from June to October, Program, 1961-86.

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than in a directed fishery. Swordfish longline fishermen set their gear where there is a temperature gradient of several degrees in water depths between 100 and 1,000 m. The best fishing occurs in areas where warm water meets the edge of an offshore bank; thus, the canyons and edges of Georges, Browns, and the New- foundland Grand banks are prime long- lining areas. Vessels fish between 22 and 60 km of gear per day, with hook depths ranging between 5.5 and 20 m. During the 1980s there have been Figure 2. The standard arrangement of gear for swordfish surface longlining. improvements in hooks, gangion and backline material, and setting procedure. The fishery Japan continued to fish the species during Further developments in the longline fish- The Canadian swordfish fishery the 1970s. In 1978, relaxation of the ery have centred around the attachment of began in 1903 and overtook its American American mercury restriction was accom- light lures, luminous beads, and rattles to counterpart in importance in 1940 panied by an increase in Canadian the gangion lines above the hook. Our (Stephenson and Power, 1985). Prior to catches, which now average about own studies have shown clearly that catch 1963, this was a harpoon fishery, taking 1,000 t. In the late 1970s and ’80s catches rates are enhanced by the use of light large, almost exclusively female fish. by the United States and Spain increased sticks (fig. 4). On an experimental fishing Longlining was introduced in 1962, and dramatically, such that each country now cruise in 1990, 25% of the 1,710 gangions the fleet rapidly converted its gear (fig. 2). lands over 30% of the North Atlantic had light sticks on them. However, 71% The catch increased dramatically to swordfish catch, for a total of more than of the 41 swordfish captured were on 7,482 t in 1963, but dropped to about 13,000 t. gangions with light sticks, demonstrating 5,000 t in the late 1960s (fig. 3). During In 1991, over 1,000 t of swordfish, a positive attraction to these lures (Porter, that time, there was a decrease in the aver- valued at $6 million, were landed in the unpublished). age size of fish landed, and catches Scotia-Fundy Region, mainly in south- included both males and females. west Nova Scotia and near Sambro. Management Until 1971, Canada was the major Surface longlining now accounts for over Swordfish fished in Canadian waters swordfish-fishing nation in the Atlantic. 90% of the swordfish landings in Canada are believed to be part of a single North But in that year its fishery all but ceased, (fig. 3), and there are 53 active licenses. Atlantic stock (Anon., 1992). Hence, because the mercury content of swordfish In addition, several hundred harpoon swordfish are monitored on an Atlantic- tissues exceeded an American market licenses were issued, but these are gener- wide basis by the International Commis- restriction of less than 0.5 ppm. Spain and ally only used opportunistically rather sion for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), established in 1966. Prior to 1971, swordfish fishery was not managed. From 1971 to ‘78, landings in the U.S. and Canada were regulated by markets (that is, the American regulation on the mercury level in tissues). In 1979, Canada introduced strict licensing regula- tions and quotas for Canadian vessels. In 1991, regulatory measures were recom- mended by ICCAT for the first time. ICCAT scientists, including Canadi- ans, are concerned about the decline in the size of the spawning stock (ages 5+) since 1978, and the high catches of small fish (Anon., 1992). The new regulatory meas- ures reduce the catches of the most active fishing nations, limit countries such as Canada to recent catch levels, and intro- Figure 3. Swordfish landings in the North Atlantic from 1961-91, including the total duce a minimum-size restriction. Canada, Canadian catch, which was taken mostly by longline, and the portion of the total because of its own strict management Canadian catch taken by harpoon. practices, has been little affected by these

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presumably due to the different degrees of Swordfish in the future stress the fish were exposed to during Because of concern over the decline initial tagging; harpoon-tagged fish were in the size of the spawning stock and the not handled at all but were simply tagged high catches of small swordfish, regula- with a specially adapted harpoon, while tory measures were introduced by ICCAT fish caught by longline might remain on in 1991. For a decade, Canada has had the line for hours before being hauled in, strict management practices, although a tagged, and released. reduction in quota and a minimum-size restriction were implemented in the 1991 Scientific basis for swordfish and 1992 Atlantic Swordfish Manage- management ment Plan in response to the ICCAT In order to make a numerical assess- ruling. There is still serious concern about ment of a fish stock, certain basic infor- the rapid increase in the catch from the Figure 4. The results of experimental mation must be collected over time. This southern Atlantic in recent years, and the longline sets using artificial lures show includes a definition of the stock struc- possibility that these fish are part of a the percentage of gangions with light ture, landing or catch statistics, a measure single Atlantic swordfish stock cannot be sticks on them and the percentage of of effort - that is, how difficult it is to ruled out. However, at present they are swordfish captured on those gangions. catch the fish - and information on the managed as separate North Atlantic and Significantly more swordfish were cap- age or size of the fish in the catch. In South Atlantic stocks. tured on gangions with light sticks 2 addition, information about fecundity There are many unanswered ques- (x1 = 45.3, p < 0.05). and maturity, and an understanding of tions regarding swordfish biology, includ- the basic biology of the species, are ing the uncertainty of its stock structure. new regulations. The average size of fish important. These issues are being examined through caught in Canada (about 60 kg) is well Standard research surveys are not a dedicated research effort in Canada and above the average in the northwest Atlan- practical for swordfish because the fish elsewhere in the Atlantic. In the near tic (fig. 5), the result of larger fish appar- are quite dispersed, making it difficult to future, there will be pressure for further ently feeding in the cooler, productive catch enough for a representative sample. conservation measures, especially by the waters along the edge of the Continental In addition, an individual fish is valued, major fishing nations. Through strict Shelf. on average, at $500 (100 lb at $5 per lb) management practices and careful scien- To achieve the reduction in the catch and so is too valuable to sacrifice to a tific monitoring, a stock recovery and a of small swordfish recommended by survey. As an alternative, personnel from sustained fishery can be realized. ICCAT scientists, small fish must be the St. Andrews Biological Station have avoided entirely by longlines; if the small worked closely with industry during the swordfish are captured and released, they past four seasons in order to improve will probably die. Recent analyses of our landing statistics, collect details of the historical tagging studies show that only fishing techniques as documented on log 2.3% of the 216 fish that were caught by records, and determine the weight of longlines, then tagged and released, were individual fish. subsequently recaptured. In comparison, Initially, the fundamental problems 26.9% of the 78 fish that were caught with of identifying the age, growth, and fecun- harpoons and then tagged and released dity of swordfish are being addressed, as were recaptured (fig. 6). This difference is they are essential to the age-based assess- ment models. The current swordfish research program was established with the recognition that a lack of information on basic population parameters and a gen- eral understanding of swordfish biology is a major shortcoming of the current assess- ment process. In particular, although it is known that swordfish are fast-growing and that females seem to grow faster than Figure 6. Recapture rates by gear type males (Porter and Smith, 1991), our for swordfish captured, tagged, and knowledge of their growth is scant and released during the Canadian Large Figure 5. A comparison of the average contradictory; because adult swordfish do Pelagic Fish Tagging Program, weights (kg round) of swordfish caught in not have scales and their otoliths are 1961-86. Far more of the fish caught the northwest Atlantic and in Canada minute, the usual aging methods are by harpoon and tagged were recaptured 2 from 1980-91. difficult to apply. (x1 = 43.0, p < 0.05).

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References Anonymous, 1992. SCRS report on swordfish. Int. Porter, J. M., and S. C. Smith. 1991. Literature fishery. Can. Atl. Fish. Sci. Advis. Comm. Res. Doc. Comm. Conserv. Atl. Tunas, Rep. of Biennial Period review of differential growth and mortality in Atlan- 71:7 p. 1990-91, Part II:126-133. tic swordfish, Xiphias gladius. Int. Comm. Conserv. Tibbo, S. N., L. R. Day, and W. F. Doucet. 1961. Burnett, C. D., J. S. Beckett, C. A. Dickson, P. C. F. Atl. Tunas Coll. Vol. Sci. Pap., Madrid 35:445-448. The swordfish (Xiphias gladius), its life history and Hurley, and T. D. Iles. 1987. A summary of releases Scott, W. B., and M. G. Scott. 1988. Atlantic fishes economic importance in the northwest Atlantic. and recaptures in the Canadian large pelagic fish of Canada. Can. Bull. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 219:731 p. Bull. Fish. Res. Board Can. 130:47 p. tagging program 1961-1986. Can. Data Rep. Fish. Stephenson, R. L., and M. J. Power. 1985. 1985 Aquat. Sci. 673:99 p. biological update for the Canadian swordfish

Waiting for the proper moment. Researcher affixing tag to swordfish.

90 Research Monitoring the properties of sea ice for coupled ice-ocean modeling and ice forecasting S. J. Prinsenberg and G. A. Fowler

istics of sea ice on Canada’s east coast is its movement in response to atmospheric and oceanic forcing. Ice is formed along the Labrador shore and, like a giant con- veyor belt, moves across the shelf where it is joined by ice formed in the Arctic. It then swings south with the Labrador Cur- rent and is eventually consumed by the warmer waters around the Grand Banks. Tracking this movement in satellite images is difficult by visual means alone, requiring the use of computer-assisted pattern recognition techniques which are still under development. On the other G. A. Fowler- and S. J. Prinsenberg hand, the Argos System is ideally suited to this task as it requires only that a simple For most Canadians, the term “sea the distribution and type of ice economi- transmitter be placed on the ice to produce ice” conjures up an image of broken ships cally and without risk. However, the use track plots. The device used to accom- manned by scurvy-ridden men awaiting of remote sensing does have its limita- plish this task was the ice beacon, devel- their fate in its frigid grip. Today, the risk tions; it is still in its infancy, and must be oped by Hermes Electronics. A beacon to human life has been reduced with the complemented by in situ measurements of was simply a sealed can containing a advent of modem ships, radar, and a host the atmosphere, the ocean, and the ice. In transmitter with a specific identification of forecasting techniques, but the effects fact, there may always be a need for field number, an antenna, and enough batteries of a frozen sea are still very real. Oil operations in order to meet all of the meas- to keep the package working for six exploration, fisheries, and transportation urement requirements of scientists inter- months under arctic conditions. The off the Labrador and Newfoundland ested in this challenging environment. devices were economical enough to be coasts have placed increasing demands on Recent developments have allowed expendable, and were allowed to fall off our ability to monitor and predict the the required in situ data to be obtained the ice and sink when the ice melted, thus properties and movement of the annual using the Argos System, another satellite- signaling the end of the southward pack ice throughout the winter and spring. based technology. This system employs a journey of the ice the beacon was on. But in spite of all its negative aspects, pattern of polar-orbiting satellites which, As noted above, it is possible to fix a the melting edge of the ice creates an in addition to recovering limited amounts position to within 0.2 km, which opportunity for the fishery, since this is of data from a platform transmitter termi- translates to a standard deviation in where vertical oceanic mixing stimulates nal (PTT) in near real-time (256 bits 6 to velocity of 0.3 cm/sec for fixes one day biological activity. In addition, through 10 times per day), is also capable of apart. When the ice is actually moving, mechanisms that are just now beginning “fixing” the PTT’s location with an accu- measured velocities fall in the range of 10 to be understood and quantified, ice has a racy (standard deviation) of 0.2 km. These to 50 cm/sec, yielding velocity measure- profound effect on climate. capabilities are employed in order to ments with an accuracy of 0.6 to 3%, an The study of ice properties, such as evaluate and enhance remotely sensed acceptable range. its growth, movement, and eventual data and identify environmental contribu- Between 1985 and 1989, 42 satellite- decay, is a difficult proposition. Observa- tions to the properties of pack ice. tracked ice beacons were deployed by tion sites are remote, the environment is This article will describe some of the helicopter on the mobile pack ice off the harsh and often treacherous, and ice is instrumentation that has been developed Labrador coast to study the response of almost always on the move. Ship- and at BIO and by local industry for the pur- sea ice to atmospheric and oceanographic helicopter-based studies are expensive pose of obtaining data from the mobile forcing (Peterson and Symonds, 1988). and can provide only a time-limited pack ice and adjacent atmospheric and Generally, ice-borne beacons move glimpse of the overall situation. oceanographic environments. southward at 18 km/day over the shelf and Fortunately, new satellite imagery at 45 km/day over the shelf break, techniques are now at our disposal, mak- Ice movement advected by southerly directed oceanic ing it possible to obtain a good picture of One of the most significant character- currents and by prevailing northwesterly

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data are used to calibrate numerical mod- els which attempt to predict the advance and retreat of the seasonal ice pack.

Ice growth and decay The rate at which ice grows or decays is primarily a result of the balance between the thermodynamic forcing of the atmospheric and oceanic environ- ments. When the air above the ice cools it more than the water below warms it, the ice gets thicker. The ice melts either when the reverse is true, or when both the atmosphere and ocean heat the ice. Precipitation build-up on the ice surface, although less important, can with time form new ice or, depending on the circumstances, act as an insulator to retard ice formation. To quantify these effects, beacons have been developed that take advantage of the Argo System’s ability to transmit some data along with positional informa- tion. This is accomplished by equipping standard Argos PTTs with electronic interfaces which, when appropriately programmed, can accommodate the data collected by sensors of various types. For thermodynamic studies, the most economical and commonly used device is the thermistor, which responds to a temperature change with a repeatable and easily calibrated change in electrical resistance. Strings of thermistors configured in various ways can define a vertical temperature profile, the slope of which can be used to calculate heat flux through the ice, water, or atmosphere. Figure 1. The mean path of the trajectories followed by ice beacons deployed off the The ice monitoring platform (IMP) northern coast of Labrador. The highlighted trajectory is for the temperature chain from Metocean Data Systems (fig. 2) col- beacon, the data for which are shown in figure 5. lects temperature profiles, such as those shown in figure 3, from the surface water, winds (fig. 1). Beacons deployed in mid- combined with the optimization of battery ice, and atmosphere. The sensor module January and mid-February on floes along requirements for the subarctic conditions consists of a rigid fibreglass tube housing the northern Labrador coast drifted to the experienced on the Labrador coast, has an array of thermistors mounted along its northern flank of the Grand Banks (a dis- led to the development of a new genera- length, and also containing the system’s tance of 800 km) in 1.5 to 2.0 months tion of miniature ice beacons. These bea- battery pack. The data shown in figure 3 before turning eastward along the Grand cons, designed by Metocean Data Sys- were collected at a landfast ice station on Banks. When not blown offshore, where tems of Dartmouth, are considerably more the Labrador coast at latitude 54°N from their floes melted, beacons followed two compact than their predecessors, yet they January 24 - April 28, 1988. During this preferred routes: one inside and one out- retain all the other features of previous period, the ice thickness increased from side Hamilton Bank, located at a latitude models. In addition, this type of beacon 55 cm to 90 cm (Peterson et al., 1991). of 54°N. Ice-drift rates can reach up to can be deployed in the air from fixed- The data are used to estimate the growth 100 km/day when moving southward in wing aircraft, which significantly rate of the ice and the balance of heat flux the Labrador Current under the influence increases their range of operation. between the ocean and the atmosphere. of strong northerly winds. Ice drift data are now routinely avail- Of particular interest in the data is the Miniaturization in electronic design, able from these devices. In addition, their point of inflection in the temperature

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When temperature data from deeper oceanic layers is needed, a flexible thermistor chain can be suspended from the surface and connected to an Argos reporting system (Fowler and Bugden, 1987). Taking temperatures in deeper levels, in concert with those nearer to and in the ice, permits the estimation of the contribution of oceanic heat flux to ice melting. It is important to place a pressure transducer on the chain’s bottom so that depths of temperature measurements can be corrected for vertical excursion caused by drag as water flows past the flexible chain. In April 1988, a prototype tempera- ture-chain buoy deployed off northern Labrador first moved northward before Figure 2. Ice monitoring platform being installed in ice off Labrador with an coming southward (see the trajectory in anemometer-equipped ice beacon in the background. figure 1). The thermistor chain provided instantaneous temperature data at depths profiles. This discontinuity defines the the development of a smaller version of a of 0.7, 3, 5, 7, 20, and 50 m below the ice/water interface, since seawater cannot temperature staff specifically for the ice air-ice interface and did so 6 to 10 times remain in its liquid state below -1.8°C. conditions on the Labrador Shelf (fig. 4). per day. The temperature sensors 10 and The use of a temperature profile to deter- The instrument consists of two sub- 50 m deep eventually failed, as did the mine ice thickness is limited by its reli- components, of which one is an electron- air-temperature sensor at a height of ance on a strong negative air temperature ics package consisting of a transmitter, a 0.5 m. But the system did operate for to provide a distinct discontinuity at the data interface, and a battery pack. The several months, and survived the transi- ice/water interface. As the air temperature second is a cable-connected sensor pack- tion from being “frozen in” to floating in increases, the discontinuity disappears, age which collects 2-metre-long tempera- open water without incident. making this method inappropriate for ture profiles from the air, ice, and water, Depth-corrected data (Prinsenberg et monitoring ice thickness during thaws. resulting in data similar to that shown in al., 1991) shows a thin layer of meltwater The IMP can operate effectively in ice up figure 3. The system is modular, permit- 2 m deep (fig. 5) which started to appear to 2 m thick and was deployed in the ting the attachment of different sensors above the cold surface-mixed layer by the Coordinated Eastern Arctic Experiment depending upon the application. This end of April (Julian days 119-122). The (CEAREX) in the winter of 1988-89. feature lends itself to economies in ice carrying the buoy moved southeast- The successful field operations of the production costs, making the collection ward parallel to the coast at 23 km/day IMP and miniature ice beacons has led to of data quite cost-effective. during the next 7 days before moving off- shore at up to 50 km/day over deeper and warmer water. By May 11 (day 132), the surface-mixed layer was above 0°C and had a negative vertical temperature gradi- ent. Surface cooling, caused either by the atmosphere or by ice melting, is noted. Between May 11 and the time the beacon dropped off the outer ice edge on May 27 (day 148), it moved parallel to the coast at 18 km/day in the area where the Labrador Current is located. Negative vertical tem- perature gradients continued to be present. Eventually, the surface water warmed to 2°C the open water condition outside the pack ice. The vertical profiles (fig. 5) show the different stages of the temperature field: the homogenous cold- Figure 3. Daily mean temperature profiles from the ice and upper water column for water conditions over the shelf before day every second day from Julian day 25 to 119 (the latter being April 28) 1988. 130.5; the rapid change to warmer

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and the data interface are capable of handling the extra data demands, but there is a penalty to pay when the cost of the extra sensors is considered. This addi- tional cost makes these instruments less useful in situations where the risk of losing them too quickly is high. At the present time we are able to make only the roughest estimates of oceanic forcing, but this can be accom- plished without adding more complex sensors. Beacons and buoys equipped with thermistor chains can give an approximation of the average shear between ice and water because the bottom of the chain will experience a vertical ex- cursion in response to flow-induced drag. By physically inverting a mooring Figure 4. A miniature ice beacon deployed on the Labrador pack ice off Cartwright. designed by a computer model (Hamilton, Temperature sensors mounted on the staff collect temperature profiles from the air, ice, 1989), it is possible to infer average water and upper portion of the water column. current from the shape of the suspended cable, which is defined by the vertical conditions over the slope on day 131; the prepared for use in the winter of 1992. excursion. offshore stratified conditions starting at Further analysis of the data indicates Data from beacons deployed to date day 132; and the less-stratified conditions that ice melted slowly over the shelf, at a have shown that, along the Labrador after day 137, when the surface water and rate of 4 cm/day, and much faster over the coast, the pack ice drifts in the direction of deeper water warmed up. Due to the shelf break, at up to 12 cm/day. In both the upper-air wind and at 1.8% of its success of the prototype buoy, beacons cases, most of the heat was provided by speed (Peterson and Prinsenberg, 1989). equipped with thermistor chains were the ocean. This translates to the ice edge Data obtained by beacons and the melting back at the remarkable rate of 18 prototype thermistor chain indicate that, km/day, caused by up to 700 watts/m2 of on average, the pack ice moves southward heat flux from the ocean (Prinsenberg at 16 km/day over the shelf and at et al., 1991). 45 km/day over the shelf break. The monthly mean drift caused by ocean Forces acting on the ice currents acting on the underside of the ice As noted above, the ice moves is 8 km/day over the shelf and 35 km/day primarily under the influence of wind and over the shelf break. water, although other factors such as the effects of waves and the earth’s rotation Future work do play a minor role. It is essential to A complete understanding of the life quantify the size of these effects to cycle of sea ice and its properties will assure that the numerical models under require the development of new sensors development have a solid basis upon and equipment. These will provide more which to generate their predictions. detailed information and thus will enable Obtaining an estimate of the wind is a scientists to study the physical processes fairly straightforward matter, accom- in the marginal ice zone and calibrate plished by fitting a commercial anemom- numerical models. In the short term, eter to an ice beacon, as shown in figure 6. buoys with the ability to provide real-time Wind direction is measured relative to the data on the ocean and atmosphere and beacon, and the beacon itself carries a some capability to survive deployment on compass so that the true wind direction the ice are being developed. These will can be recorded. In current practice, data operate next to the ice edge. Instruments are collected each hour and added to a to measure the internal stresses in the ice “stack” of five previous data sets, all of are being considered for inclusion with Figure 5. Ice and water temperature pro- which are transmitted to assure that there the remote-data recovery systems already files collected by the thermistor chain, the are no gaps in the hourly data. By modify- in place at BIO. In the longer term it may trajectory of which is shown in figure 1. ing the internal software, the transmitter be possible to deploy sensor systems from

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aircraft, have them set themselves by boring holes through the ice, and have unattended two-way communication with the sensors capable of returning data from the atmosphere, ice, and ocean. The technology for these systems is now in its development stage.

References Fowler, G. A., and G. Bugden. 1987. The develop- ment of thermistor chain buoys for use in ice-in- fested waters. Proceedings, Oceans 1987:220-224. Hamilton, J. M. 1989. The validation and practical applications of a sub-surface mooring model. Can. Tech. Rep. Hydrogr. Ocean Sci. 119:iv+45 p. Peterson, I. K., and S. Prinsenberg. 1989. Observa- tions of sea ice drift off Newfoundland using satel- lite imagery and ice beacons. Proceedings of the 12th Canadian Symposium on Remote Sens- ing:2359-2362. Peterson, I. K., S. D. Smith, S. Prinsenberg, and R. Orton. 1991. Remote monitoring of thermal struc- ture and growth of shore-fast ice off the Labrador coast. Cold Regions Science and Technology 19:123-130. Peterson, I. K., and G. Symonds. 1988. Ice floe trajectories off Labrador and Eastern Newfound- land: 1985-1987. Can. Tech. Rep. Hydrogr. Ocean Sci. 104:v+101 p. Prinsenberg, S. J., I. K. Peterson, and G. A. Fowler. 1991. Estimates of ice-edge melt rates off Labrador and Eastern Newfoundland, Canada. Annals of Glaciology 15: 163-170. Figure 6. An anemometer beacon.

95 Research Science and salmon management in the 1990s J. A. Ritter and R. E. Cutting

more are female and which, in many rivers, are responsible for depositing most of the eggs. Canadian salmon are also har- vested off the west coast of Greenland, but quota management since 1975 has served to reduce losses of Canadian fish to this foreign fishery. The Atlantic salmon divides its life between fresh water and the salt water of the Atlantic Ocean. Maturing fish enter the rivers and spawn in October and November. In the Scotia-Fundy Region, J. A. Ritter R. E. Cutting the juveniles produced by the spawning activity typically spend 2 or 3 years in the faster water sections of the rivers. After The Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, is Canadian catch is being taken in Native growing to about 15-18 cm long, eastern Canada’s premier anadromous food fisheries. juveniles undergo a physiological change fish species. It is found widely in coastal The current management regime, that permits them to make a springtime rivers from the Maine border to Ungava which was introduced in 1984, dramati- migration downstream to salt water. At Bay, and in tributaries of the St. Lawrence cally reduced both catches and effort in this stage they are called smolts. River upstream as far as Quebec City. The the licensed commercial fishery and made Once in the sea, most salmon under- presence of salmon in a river system is the by-catch of salmon illegal. As well, take a feeding migration that involves widely considered as indicative that the the recreational fisheries in the Maritime many hundreds of miles and lasts 1 or 2 quality of the river environment has not Provinces and on insular Newfoundland years. When fish reach a size in the range been significantly degraded, especially by have been restricted to harvesting salmon of 2-5 kg, many start maturing sexually water pollution. less than 63 cm long. The objective is to and begin to migrate back toward the river The species has also been economi- conserve further the larger and older where they spent their juvenile lives. cally and socially important because of its maturing salmon, of which two-thirds or Other fish spend a longer marine growth use for recreational, commercial, and Native food purposes and its widespread availability. Harvests of Atlantic salmon in Canada have declined since the turn of the century, as is the case with most fish resources that rely on the freshwater envi- ronment for part or all of their life cycle (fig. 1). Catches peaked about 1930, quite possibly as the result of the Great Depression, when “fishing down” of the stocks was probably common. In recent decades, resource utiliza- tion has altered as a result of changes both in resource allocation and in stock conser- vation measures. Management restric- tions have had a greater impact on commercial fisheries than on recreational fisheries, although the former has contin- ued to be the greatest user of the resource (fig. 1). In the past few years, aboriginal people have demonstrated a growing Figure 1. Canadian Atlantic salmon landingsfor commercialfisheries (from 1910-91). interest in fishing for salmon and, accord- recreational fisheries (from 1982-91), and Native food fisheries (from 1985-91). Com- ingly, an increasing portion of the mercial landings are shown for four provinces.

96 Research period. Adult fish stop feeding, and enter salmon resource. The provinces have a DFO’s Science Sector provides crucial the home river between May and October proprietary right to control access to the input, in the form of target numbers of in preparation for the fall spawning recreational use of the resource. In spawners, adult returns to rivers, and activity. Quebec, the federal administrative exploitation patterns for as many stocks Variations among stocks primarily responsibility for salmon management is as possible. involve differences in the size and age of delegated to that province. The main components of the Science smolts, in the location and timing of the The Department of Fisheries and program for salmon are service and marine migration, in the time at which the Oceans’ (DFO) management program for research. The service role provides up-to- adults enter the home river, and in the the Atlantic salmon resource has as its date technical and biological advice to the proportions of salmon of different sea principal goals: fisheries and habitat managers, and to the ages in the spawning runs. This last char- l to manage (that is, restore, develop, and public. The goal of the research is to acteristic can be attributed to variations in maintain) the resource for production improve the methods for preparing the the rate at which spawners survive to levels consistent with habitat capacities service advice and to improve the effec- spawn again, and in the length of time throughout the species’ range in Atlan- tiveness of the resource enhancement between when the fish enter the sea as tic Canada (that is, New Brunswick, initiatives, be they for fish or for habitat. smolts and when they return to the home Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Execution of the enhancement activities, river for the first time. Newfoundland); which may involve hatchery stocking and The opportunity for expressing l to generate optimum socioeconomic developing and improving fish passages, different characteristics, coupled with the benefits through balanced and appropri- is a further role for Science. reproductive isolation achieved by ate allocation among all authorized user Fisheries management: The main spawners separating into their home river groups; goal of the fisheries management effort is or tributary, have resulted in genetic l to foster cooperation among levels of the conservation of each stock. The defi- differences in stocks among and within government and with the private sector nition of conservation which was adopted rivers. Each stock since the Wisconsin Ice in managing the resource; by DFO for fisheries resources, and which Age has developed adaptations to its own l to conserve and protect the Atlantic is based on the “World Conservation environment with its perturbations, within salmon resource throughout its entire Strategy” produced in 1980 by the United the species’ limits of adaptability. In the Northwest Atlantic range. Nations Environment Program, is as Scotia-Fundy Region alone, 132 rivers In 1990, a fifth goal was added as a follows: have recorded angling catches (99 in result of the Supreme Court of Canada’s That aspect of renewable resource Nova Scotia and 22 in New Brunswick, ruling in the case of R. v. Sparrow: to management which ensures that utili- plus 11 tributaries of the Saint John River) uphold the aboriginal rights of Native zation is sustainable and which safe- and other smaller streams are known to peoples to fish for the Atlantic salmon for guards ecological processes and have spawning stocks. It is expected that food, social, and ceremonial purposes. genetic diversity for the maintenance future studies of behaviour and biochemi- The Court held that such rights are consti- of the resource concerned. Conserva- cal genetics will identify additional tutionally protected and that, after conser- tion ensures that the fullest sustain- partitioning of stocks, particularly in vation needs have been met, Native able advantage is derived from the some of the larger rivers, and this finding peoples exercising such rights have prior- resource base and that facilities are so will necessitate further stock-specific ity over other users of the resource. located and conducted that the management measures. DFO's management process is based resource base is maintained. The concept of the stock complicates on zones, whereby stocks are grouped This generalized definition of conser- management of the salmon resource. according to similarity and by geographic vation was translated by the Canadian Humans can exterminate various separate areas called salmon fishing areas (SFAS). Atlantic Fisheries Scientific Advisory salmon stocks - particularly the smaller Users have the opportunity to contribute Committee (CAFSAC) into an operational ones - through exploitation. The fact that to management decisions through SFA definition which prescribes that Atlantic the entire female component of the annual meetings. Annual fishing plans developed salmon eggs be deposited at a rate of 2.4 spawning stock migrates through a for the different SFAs are then reviewed eggs/m2 of fluvial rearing habitat and, in confined area, such as a river mouth or by the Atlantic Salmon Advisory Board, Newfoundland, an additional 368 eggs/ estuary, makes the salmon resource more an Atlantic-wide board consisting of hectare of lacustrine habitat. These levels vulnerable to exploitation than most government representatives and resource of egg deposition are intended as interim other fishes. Thus, the current salmon users; the advice is passed on to the targets until more appropriate river-spe- management regime strives to conserve Minister of Fisheries. cific levels are demonstrated. Optimum the multiple and diverse stocks. Main problems confronting the fish- egg deposition targets, aimed at maximiz- eries managers are the allocation of the ing yield, are expected to vary among and Management framework harvest among the various user groups, within rivers. CAFSAC cautioned that In Canada, the federal government and the availability of stock-specific adopting egg deposition levels that con- has the administrative and legislative information upon which to base manage- tinue to be lower than these targets (or mandate to manage the country’s Atlantic ment decisions. It is in the latter area that below more appropriate river-specific

97 Research levels that are expected to be defined in definitions of conservation for fluvial order to guide efforts to develop or restore the future) is not without risk to the integ- habitats (2.4 eggs/m2) and Newfoundland salmon habitat areas. rity and future capability of the stocks. lacustrine habitats (368 eggs/hectare) are Stock enhancement: The goal of The operational definition for conser- still used, even though it is known that the salmon enhancement is to produce more vation clearly identifies three areas actual conservation requirement varies salmon for greater individual and requiring input from Science. The first is with the stock, the river, and the habitat community benefit. More salmon are the quantification of the productive type. Pre-season forecast models are few, required in order to meet current and new capacity of individual rivers. Productive and those that do exist have generally per- fishery demands. capacity is generally based on the number formed poorly at providing predictions of Science is responsible for conducting of square metres of river bed capable of adult returns. Detailed stock-specific in- the salmon stock enhancement program, producing smolts, as is the egg deposition formation does not exist for most rivers whose two main activities are hatchery requirement. For Scotia-Fundy rivers, and, hence, stock status and biological stocking and providing fish passage for both capacity and the egg deposition characteristics can usually be inferred migrating salmon. All enhancement requirement are prorated according to a only from the performance of a neigh- activities are integrated into the resource habitat quality function described by bouring index stock or from existing har- management program. stream gradient. Stream pH is also of vest statistics. Recreational catches, In the Scotia-Fundy Region, at least major importance in defining productive which comprise the most broadly based, one-quarter of the adult salmon produced capacities and egg requirements for many long-term data series, now provide only outside of aquaculture originate from of the mainland Nova Scotia rivers, in general estimates of stock strength. hatchery stocking. The main stocking which salmon production is affected by Despite the problems with the use of activities aim to mitigate losses in produc- seasonally lethal pH conditions. Because both index rivers and recreational catches, tive capacity due to acid rain, in most of low pH levels, several rivers in the however, both systems have contributed rivers along the Atlantic coast of main- province no longer produce salmon, and to an understanding of the status of the land Nova Scotia, or to compensate for most rivers along the Atlantic coast of stocks. Because all significant stocks production losses caused by hydroelectric mainland Nova Scotia have reduced yield some form of recreational harvest, development, such as on the Saint John salmon productivities. recreational catch statistics seemingly River in New Brunswick. Most recently, A second Science requirement is for offer the most cost-effective opportunity stocking programs have been initiated to the biological characterization of the to monitor individual stock performance establish local recreational fisheries. individual stocks. Such information is in the future. This presumes, however, Comparable new stocking programs are required in order to convert egg deposi- that models can be developed that will now being sought that would create new tion requirements to numbers of adult enable stock strength to be estimated on Native food fisheries. spawners, identified both by age and by the basis of recreational catch. Maintaining Scotia-Fundy’s salmon sex, that are needed to seed the habitats Habitat management: The main resource depends heavily upon fish pas- used by the different stocks. As well, goal of DFO’s policy on managing fish sage being available (through fishways) harvest regimes are customized to the habitat is to achieve a “net gain”. Through or provided (through trapping and truck- biological characteristics of the stocks. the department’s regulatory and research ing); however, few opportunities exist for The third area of Science input functions, the policy’s objectives are the expanding the resource base by opening involves advising on the available conservation, development, and restora- up new habitats with fishways. Of those harvest; such information includes the tion of fish habitats. Fundamental to the few possibilities in Scotia-Fundy, only the numbers of fish by size and age, and conservation objective is the principle of development of fish passage facilities at where, when, and by what means return- “no net loss”. Grand Falls on the Saint John River offers ing adults might be harvested. The avail- Demands on Science in support of major stock enhancement potential, of able harvest, generally defined as the the objectives are for advice and support- more than 10,000 adult salmon. Develop- number of adult returns in excess of those ing research. For salmon, this support is ment of that $1-2 million facility awaits required for conservation, is calculated as aimed largely at providing guidelines for completion of an initial environmental the difference between a pre-season regulating developments that might assessment, and is dependent upon local forecast of adult returns and the target impact on freshwater habitats, or affect public interest groups raising the required spawning requirement. For certain stocks, instream migrations. In addition, the funding, or lobbying successfully for it. scarcity of information prohibits pre- Atlantic salmon is the primary species of Consultation and participation: season forecasting of adult returns, and concern in the acid rain research and DFO is committed to administering the therefore the available harvest is often monitoring program in the Scotia-Fundy management program for Atlantic salmon assumed to be equal to the current level Region. in cooperation with the provincial govern- of harvest. Currently absent from the Science ments, user groups, and other interested The process of providing advice arm of the habitat program is research parties. Science personnel spend increas- suffers from a lack of both existing aimed at defining the attributes of salmon ingly more time consulting with user information and stock forecasting habitat. Clear definition of what consti- groups, working with angling associa- capabilities. The common operational tutes good salmon habitat is required in tions, and, recently, talking and working

98 Research with Native communities, on a wide range enhancement, habitat improvement, and desirable, by opening up new areas of activities, including stock enhance- collection of biological information. (for example, above Grand Falls on the ment, habitat improvement, stock assess- Areas requiring increased emphasis in Saint John River) with fish passages ment, research, and public awareness and Scotia-Fundy Region’s Science program placed at man-made and natural education programs. To assist in these include: obstructions to migration; activities, angling associations provide l providing stock-specific advice for l increasing the involvement of biologi- volunteers and contribute funds that have more stocks, in support of the move cal and technical staff in public consul- been raised through their respective toward managing the salmon resource tation processes and in overseeing or associations, or secured from government on the basis of individual rivers, rather directing Science-oriented projects programs other than those at DFO. In than SFAs; undertaken by Native communities and program areas like stock enhancement l customizing the interim operational recreational fishing associations; and habitat improvement, the funds spent definition of conservation for fluvial l intensifying research on salmon stock- by or through salmon angler organiza- habitats to individual rivers or main recruitment in order to improve under- tions often exceed those contributed by tributaries in order to register the standing of environmental and density- DFO. For example, in the Scotia-Fundy variable productive capacity of the dependent effects on growth, survival, Region, public sponsorship of job crea- individual stocks, rivers, and habitats; age-at-maturity, and egg deposition tion programs funded by the Canada l developing improved pre-season and requirements for different habitats and Employment and Immigration Commis- multi-year forecasting models to stocks. This area is in greatest need of sion is contributing towards repairing and enhance flexibility and confidence in increased emphasis. upgrading government-owned facilities, negotiating stock allocations among Some of these areas are already such as hatcheries and fishways. user groups; part of the ongoing efforts by DFO’s Native community involvement with l developing and expanding in-season Freshwater and Anadromous Division. DFO in Science activities is in its infancy, forecasting techniques to enable However, implementing this enhanced but it should increase dramatically as DFO in-season changes to fishing activities; program will require extension of field moves forward into a new era of co-man- l modelling the effects of low pH condi- investigations to new rivers and stocks, aging the resource with Native bands. tions on the productive capacity, expansion of fundamental research into Science staff are also being asked to conservation requirement, and stock- the mechanisms affecting salmon recruit- provide biological and engineering advice enhancement potential of salmon ment, better usage of existing informa- on aquaculture projects being considered habitats in order to identify the options tion, and more staff time devoted toward by Native communities for economic for managing the Nova Scotia stocks working with Native peoples and anglers. development. affected by acid precipitation; As always, progress depends upon the The increased consultations and l developing models that utilize recrea- resources available to the program. expanding involvement of angling asso- tional catch data as an index of stock The contribution from Science will ciations and Native communities in Sci- abundance so such models can subse- move the salmon management program ence activities are resulting in both the quently be used to assess stock status toward a more stock-specific approach, delivery of a more comprehensive salmon and forecast run size; something which is desired by user management program, and in an enhanced l expanding ongoing investigations in groups and visualized by biologists but public understanding and awareness of order to identify the cause of the marine currently limited in application. The stock salmon conservation. At the same time, failure experienced in 5 of the last 6 assessment program will be driven by however, these increased demands years by the salmon stocks of the modelling exercises to identify new data consume much Science staff time, and 20-some rivers rimming the inner Bay and research requirements. The 1990s this pressure is diminishing necessary of Fundy; promise to be exciting for salmon supporting research. l improving understanding of the biologists, because never before have the attributes of salmon habitats and of the challenges been more clearly understood Future directions technology by which degraded and and the opportunities to make a difference DFO’s salmon management program poorer habitats can be improved or so great. requires increased scientific input for sev- restored: eral reasons. These include: the continu- l in accordance with the Environmental Authors’ note: Since the writing of ing depressed state of many of the stocks; Assessment and Review Process, this article, federal Fisheries Minister the heightened demands of Native peo- providing advice to enable the assess- John Crosbie has announced a five-year ples to exercise their right of access to the ment of an increasing number of devel- moratorium on insular Newfoundland’s resource; more rigid requirements for opment activities that may impact on commercial salmon fishery, along with environmental assessment of develop- species dependent on fresh water; the voluntary buy-back of associated ment activities; and the desire of user l developing new Native food fisheries licences. Despite this significant change, groups to be better informed and more through hatchery stocking; the Science direction discussed in this involved in resource program activities, l expanding access for natural produc- article is still consistent with current particularly those involving stock tion, where it is technically feasible and regional priorities for Atlantic salmon.

99 Research Impacts of nearshore sedimentary processes on hydrocarbon development in the Beaufort Sea S. Solomon

A hypothetical development option attempt to explain the present distribution might consist of a 50-km pipeline, of recent sediment properties and to make installed within a dredged trench in water predictions about how their future distri- depths as great as 30 m and as shallow as bution might be affected by natural causes those at the shoreline. Such a pipeline or human activities. would cross a broad coastal zone up to This paper summarizes a series of 20 km wide with water depths less than NOGAP-funded field programs designed 6 m, and the inner part of the zone (an to address some of the issues outlined area approximately 5 km wide) would be above. Although the Geological Survey of less than 2 m deep. Canada (GSC) program involves person- Some of the issues related to such a nel both from the Atlantic Geoscience development are the timing and methods Centre (AGC) based at the Bedford S. Solomon used to trench the seabed, and the stability Institute of Oceanography, and from the of the pipeline in the presence of shallow Terrain Sciences Division in Ottawa, this permafrost, rapid coastal erosion, active article will focus on activities undertaken The Canadian Beaufort Sea has been spit and bar development, variable in 1991 by AGC. Preliminary results the site of hydrocarbon exploration for the geotechnical properties, and pack-ice will be discussed in light of proposed past two decades, and has proven reserves processes. In order to gain a better under- development options. of oil and gas. However, development of standing of these phenomena, measure- these reserves has not yet taken place, due ments must be made of the properties and The study area in part to our lack of understanding of the distribution of sediments and the effects Surficial geology and thermal con- distinctive set of physical processes of oceanographic processes. Once ditions: The area in which AGC under- which control this environment. The modem processes are understood, we can took its studies is shown in figure 1. The Northern Oil and Gas Action Program (NOGAP) is a federal program charged Glossary sediment deposition which builds seaward with acquiring information for regulating aggradation Deposition of sediment from a point of land and is partially above hydrocarbon-related development in the upward rather than seaward (see the water. north. It involves numerous government “prograded spit complex”). shore-normal lines Survey lines which departments and includes work on issues fetch Uninterrupted distance over the run at right angles to the shoreline. as diverse as archaeological resources, water which allows the wind to blow and storm surges High (positive) or low socioeconomic impacts, and oceanogra- create waves. (negative) water levels, caused by winds phic processes. NOGAP focuses on the ground ice Ice particles found within the which drive the water onto or off the land, respectively. physical properties of materials and ground, sometimes coalesced to form large oceanographic processes occurring in the masses of almost pure ice. thermokarst A description of landforms which are caused by the melting of sub- coastal zone, particularly in the vicinity of heave Movement upward and downward while remaining essentially horizontal. surface ice. The landforms typically consist Richards Island, a location chosen as a of mounds of high ground with intervening hummocky Describes a surface consisting potential pipeline landing site for oil and hollows, often forming small lakes and of mounds and hollows. gas from the Amauligak field offshore. ponds. ice bonding A process by which panicles The nearshore and inner-shelf region transgressive deposit Sediment deposited are bound together by ice, as in ice-bonded of the Beaufort Sea is a particularly during a period of rising sea level. sediments. dynamic environment, and is therefore a unconsolidated coastal bluffs Steep isobath Line of equal water depth. critical area of concern in planning hydro- coastal cliffs which consist of loose sand lacustrine carbon production and pipeline facilities. Of, or pertaining to, lakes. and silt. The highly variable and rapidly changing lenses Lens-shaped masses within the visible ice Ice found in sediments and sediments. character of these extensive shallow- which can be seen with the naked eye. water regions is largely due to a combina- pack ice A large area of floating ice, wedges Masses found within the consisting of pieces of ice which have sediments, widest at the surface and then tion of unconsolidated ice-rich coastal rafted together. materials, abundant sediment supply tapering downward. permafrost Perennially frozen ground. from the Mackenzie River, and thermal yaw Rotational movement in the hori- prograded spit complex An area of zontal plane. stability of the seabed.

100 Research onshore surficial geology of the North progressively by melting at their edges, (with heights of less than 4 m and periods Head area consists of discontinuous till producing distinctive retrogressive thaw- of less than 8 seconds), and the extremely underlain by sands of the Kittigazuit and flow slides. Taliks (unfrozen zones) tens shallow slope of the nearshore zone Kidluit formations (Rampton, 1988). of metres thick form beneath the lakes as further reduces the effects of waves by Well within the zone of continuous a result of the permafrost’s thawing attenuating their energy over the permafrost, the area contains abundant underneath the accumulated water. The soft bottom. evidence of active thermal processes. coastline adjacent to thermokarst- In spite of this relatively mild wave Permafrost reaches thicknesses up to dominated areas is convoluted, attesting climate, coastal erosion is rapid, typically 700 m (Rampton, 1988). Ground ice (as to recent relative sea-level rise and 2 m/year with a maximum rate of up to ice bonding or visible ice) occurs in most consequent breaching and drowning of 20 m/year (Forbes and Frobel, 1985). of the sediments (Rampton, 1988), and the lakes. This occurs because of thermal instability massive ice is present in a variety of Climatology and coastal processes: of the ice-bonded coastal bluffs, the parti- lenses and wedges. In some locations ice Dominant storm winds, waves, and cles of which are not consolidated. may represent up to 13% by volume of sediment transport are from the west and Downdrift transport of the eroded the upper 8 m of ground (Wolfe, 1989); northwest. However, the ability of the material produces extravagant spits and ice wedges can be up to 1 m wide and 5 to wind to generate waves during the submerged nearshore platforms (for 8 m deep. 4-month open-water season is limited example, Pullen Island, shown in fig. 1). Degradation of massive ice results in by the presence of sea ice offshore. The Water levels are governed more by the development of thermokarst topogra- sea surface is invariably ice covered storm surges than tides. The tidal range is phy. On Richards Island and the Tuk- within 200 km of Richards Island, and less than 30 cm, whereas log debris lines toyaktuk Peninsula, the land surface is in poor ice years (such as 1991), pack ice show maximum storm surge levels of up mottled with thermokarst lakes (inset of is present within 20 km. The ice-limited to 2.4 m above mean sea level (Harper fig. 1, and fig. 2). The lakes enlarge fetch results in relatively small waves et al., 1988). In the Richards Island area,

Figure 1. AGC’s study area. Note the position of the Wavec directional wave buoy.

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and geotechnical properties. To date, investigations within these areas have been limited to borehole studies by the GSC (Kurfurst, 1984, 1986, 1988; Hill et al., 1986) and by industry. High-resolu- tion geophysical surveys are required to provide a framework for these studies, but they had not been undertaken before the 1991 survey because the water depths are too shallow for conventional survey ves- sels. The recent NOGAP field programs have been designed to address this prob- lem by using innovative technologies.

Methods and results Three complementary surveys were undertaken in the summer of 1991 to investigate NOGAP-related issues as outlined above. Arktos-91 consisted of a high-resolution geophysical survey which utilized a unique Canadian vehicle Figure 2. An aerial photograph of the study area showing the location of the S4 cur-rent for operations in extremely shallow water and wave meters, the Aanderaa current meter, and the geophysical lines illustrated in (0 to 4 m). The Arktos program was aimed figures 4, 5, and 6. Thermokarst lakes and embayments occupy much of the area of the at collecting data on shallow stratigraphy photograph. A thick accumulation of sediments is outlined within one of these in the coastal zone, with particular embayments and represents deposition from a combination of Mackenzie River emphasis on characterizing the onshore- sediments and lacustrine infill. to-offshore transition. Nahidik-91 com- prised high-resolution acoustic surveys in northwest winds cause positive surges prograded spit complex extending south- 3 to 9 m of water and an extensive and easterly winds cause negative surges. east from North Head (informally named vibracoring program on a number of A l-m variation in water level over the Wolfe Spit) encountered ice-bonded shore-normal lines. This survey was course of 12 hours is not unusual. sediments to a depth of more than 20 m designed to collect data on nearshore Offshore geology: Within the study (Dyke, in Dallimore et al., 1991). A third stratigraphy in order to provide a frame- area, silty clays are currently being depos- borehole in deeper water (1.7 m) was ice- work for detailed studies of pipeline ited on the inner shelf in water depths bonded to a depth of only 1.5 m. routes and coastal stability, while also greater than 5 m. The Mackenzie River The extensive distribution of onshore providing input into issues of sediment supplies copious quantities (about 35 to permafrost and ground ice, and its impact transport and onshore/offshore strati- 182 x 106 t/year (Hirst et al., 1987)) of on the regional geomorphology, suggest graphy. The Shorezone- program used suspended material to its delta during the that thermal conditions within the coastal a variety of current, wave, and suspended- summer months. Inshore of the 5 m and nearshore zones may play a signifi- sediment monitors, along with conven- isobath, sediment textures range from cant role in the distribution of sediments tional surveying techniques. Its object was muds to medium sands. Muddy sand is the dominant sedimentary material present in water between 1.0 and 2.5 m deep, as shown by a recent grab-sampling program within and adjacent to embay- ments on the northeast coast of Richards Island (Hill and Frobel, 1991). The inundation of permafrost-bear- ing coastal sediments by the sea results in increased annual mean seabed tempera- tures and gradual thawing when the water depth is greater than about 1.5 m (Taylor, 1991). Under these conditions, the seabed is separated from overlying ice by an insulating layer of water. Two boreholes Figure 3. The Arktos-91 after modification by the Geoloqical Ssurvey of Canada for in the vicinity of a large, recently high-resolution geophysical surveying.

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Figure 4. An acoustic line (acquired with a SeistecTM receiver) through a depression within the seabed about IO m deep. The depression is partially infilled with stratified sediments draped over a hummocky surface. In shallower water and along the edges of the basin, the seabed is acoustically very hard and produces numerous multiple reflections (multiples). The position, size, and shape of the basin suggest that it is a thermokarst feature which has been drowned by a rise in relative sea level. to investigate erosion and sediment trans- part of the 1991 field program in order to deployed using a 10 t crane on the port in the littoral and nearshore zones. improve the safety and efficiency of forward deck of the ship. The acoustic The logistics of working in remote Arktos during surveying operations. The equipment used for this survey was the locations add unavoidable and significant main changes were the fabrication and same as that used for the Arktos survey. complications to operations in the study mounting of decks and the raising of the The resistivity system was not available. area. For instance, approximately 15,000 mounting point of the forward boom. A GPS receiver was used for navigation. kg of equipment and 11 staff members High-resolution acoustic survey To achieve the objective of the had to be transported to the Beaufort Sea equipment was then deployed from the Nahidik survey, high-resolution acoustic for these surveys. After mobilization at forward boom. These instruments con- data were collected in a series of shore- the facilities of the Polar Continental sisted of a UniboomTM acoustic source, parallel and shore-normal lines from the Shelf Project in Tuktoyaktuk, the field SeistecTM and Nova Scotia Research west side of Pullen Island to Crumbling operation was moved to a camp on Foundation Corporation (NSRFC) receiv- Point (fig. 1). Vibracore transects were Richards Island, where we lived and ers, a sidescan unit, and an echosounder. undertaken along five of the shore- worked for 3 weeks. Both the Arktos and In addition, an electrical-resistivity orthogonal lines in order to ascertain Shorezone survey programs operated out sounding system was provided by the nearshore-to-offshore changes at sites ex- of the same camp. Following camp demo- Centre for Cold Oceans Resources Engi- posed to varying wind and wave climates. bilization, the Nahidik program was neering (C-CORE). The vehicle navigated Geophysical survey results: The mobilized in Inuvik at the Inuvik with a Global Positioning System (GPS) protected embayments along the east Research Centre and at the Coast Guard receiver which was connected to a coast of North Head contain a variety of wharf in East Channel. portable computer. acoustically defined environments. Geophysical survey methods: The Surveys were conducted in many of Where thermokarst lakes have been inun- Arktos (fig. 3) is an amphibious vehicle the protected bays and inlets within a few dated, well-stratified sediments are found which was designed and manufactured as hours’ steam of the Richards Island camp- draped over and conforming to the pre- an arctic escape-and-rescue craft by site. Efforts to survey in less-protected existing topography (fig. 4). Acoustic Watercraft Offshore Ltd. of Richmond, waters were thwarted by unanticipated penetration is excellent in these locations B.C. The vehicle is owned and operated problems with the method used to deploy where surface grab samples indicate a by the Canadian Coast Guard. It uses a the acoustic gear. soft, muddy substrate. combination of tracks and jets to propel The C.C.G.S. Nahidik is used to At the opposite extreme, in some itself through ice-infested waters and over maintain the navigation aids in the Mac- areas where water depths are less than pack ice, shoals, and land. Its rated speed kenzie River and much of the Beaufort 2 m, the seabed is acoustically very hard is 4 knots in the water and 20 knots on Sea. Custom-built laboratory and accom- and could not be penetrated; however, land using standard diesel fuel. Prelimi- modation modules are fitted on the vessel grab samples indicated that these nary sea trials in 1990 established the when they are needed for scientific pur- sediments are comprised of relatively soft ability of Arktos to carry out high-reso- poses. For Nahidik-91, acoustic equip- mud and sand. Thus, the absence of lution acoustic surveys in shallow water ment was deployed over the side of the acoustic penetration in these locations (Lewis, 1991). Refinements identified in vessel using a combination of booms, may be due to ice-bonded material being these initial trials were implemented as mounts, and cranes. A 3 m vibracorer was present near the surface.

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Figure 5. An acoustic line (acquired with an NSRFC receiver) offshore onto an exposed spit. The line illustrates an acoustic permafrost (APF) reflector rising through the sedimentary sequence toward the surface. Water depth decreases from about 3 m to I m. Gas within the seabed partially masks the subsurface stratigraphy in the offshore.

Finally, in water depths greater than stratigraphy further offshore and along high-amplitude, low-frequency reflector 2 m, acoustic records reveal a sequence of the Tuktoyaktuk coast, where the upper has been tentatively identified as acoustic relatively transparent to irregularly lay- unit is interpreted to be a transgressive permafrost (APF). The interpretation is ered material overlying an undulating, deposit and the lower unit represents an most unambiguous where the APF reflec- highly reflective surface. The layer below older sequence overlain by an uncon- tor is seen rising towards the seabed the surface contains discontinuous reflec- formity surface (Blasco et al., 1990; surface as land is encountered (fig. 5). tors which are truncated by the overlying Héquette and Hill, 1989). Although electrical resistivity measure- surface. This is similar to acoustic In many locations, a discontinuous, ments are not usually performed in marine

Figure 6. An acoustic line (also acquired with an NSRFC receiver, and similar to that in figure 5) which was run over an S4 deployment site onto the shore. Again, APF can be seen rising through the sequence, although it is not clear whether it cuts across lithologies. Water depth decreasesfrom left to right, from about 3.5 m to 1 m. Below the acoustic line, resistivity contours are shown in ohm-metres (depths are represented only relative to one another). Electrical resistivity at the seabed surface rises dramatically, from less than 2 Ohm.m to 15 Ohm.m. Resistivity at depth rises from 4 Ohm.m to more than 40 Ohm.m over the interval in which APF can be seen.

104 Research environments, in this case they proved to structure, which is very similar to that locations (see figure 2 for the locations of be a very useful adjunct to conventional observed in deeper water in the sheltered the current meters). Directional waves acoustic methods by corroborating inter- bays. Acoustic permafrost exists within were monitored in collaboration with the pretations of frozen sediments (fig. 6). some of these more exposed environ- Marine Environmental Data Service The resistivity of unfrozen surficial ments, but its distribution has not yet been (MEDS). They provided a Wavec direc- sediments in the offshore is typically in mapped. When compiled, it will provide tional wave buoy which was deployed in the range of 0.5-5 Ohm.m (ohm.metres). In critical information, both about the stabil- 7 m of water west of Pullen Island (fig. 1). contrast, the resistivity of onshore “cold” ity of the seabed for emplacing structures, The location was chosen so that exposure permafrost ranges from 1,000 to more and about the ability to dredge the materi- to northwest storms was maximized, and than 5,000 Ohm.m. As profiles were run als to allow pipeline construction. the potential for interaction with pack ice from unfrozen offshore areas toward (and The uppermost acoustic unit of was minimized. in one case, onto) the shore, intermediate sediments varies in thickness from less Unfortunately, during the year of the values of resistivity were measured as than 1 m to approximately 15 m (assum- study there was pack ice throughout the acoustic permafrost reflectors rose ing an acoustic velocity of 1,500 m/sec). field area, and the wave buoy was carried through the sediments. In several loca- It is interesting to note that the thickest by ice more than 30 km to the southeast tions, sediments with high resistivity were package of these sediments is found after approximately three weeks of data found without a corresponding acoustic within some of the smaller embayments acquisition. An Argo satellite transmitter permafrost signature. These locations will within the Reindeer Islands (fig. 2). These allowed us to track the buoy, and it was be the subject of modelling experiments accumulations may be due to infilling of retrieved by the C.C.G.S. Nahidik. Our in order to try to determine the cause of the embayments with lacustrine sedi- original plan called for the deployment of the excess resistivity. One possible expla- ments, before they were breached and two buoys, one on each side of Pullen nation is the presence of a relatively subsequently drowned by a rising sea Island in 10 m of water, but ice condi- high-resistivity lithology (that is, gravel) level. Alternatively, the infill may tions, and the lack of a functioning Argo within or beneath a lower resistivity unit. represent rapid sedimentation from the transmitter on the second buoy, precluded The depth to frozen material in the Mackenzie River plume. Dating and data collection at the eastern location. nearshore environment is largely depend- geochemical analysis of the sediments During the functioning lifetime of the ent on the water depth and the length of may provide some of the answers to these western buoy, data on pitch, heave, and time since thermal conditions were con- questions. yaw were collected and archived for 34 ducive to permafrost aggradation at that Shorezone survey methods: Sedi- minutes every hour. location. In some locations, the depth to ment transport and coastal oceanographic Further inshore, currents and waves frozen material may be out of equilibrium issues were addressed by measuring were measured using S4 electromagnetic with the existing thermal regime imposed waves and currents, suspended sediment current meters, Aanderaa current meters, by the overlying water depth, because it is concentrations, and beach profile changes and time-lapse video (fig. 2). These a relict of a previously existing topogra- in a variety of sheltered and exposed measurements will provide the data to phy. Recognizing the presence of these relicts and mapping them will help prevent expensive miscalculations in designing pipelines. and planning dredging operations. Outside the protected embayments, barred shorelines give way to extremely smooth inner shelf zones with very shal- low slopes (approximately 0.05%). Acoustic penetration is variable in these locations due to the presence of shallow gas. The gas rises through the sediments and, acting like an acoustic mirror, effec- tively masks any reflecting stratigraphic horizons which might be found below. In some cases the gas is seen to penetrate the interface between the sediment and the water and rise into the water column. Pockmarks have been identified on the seabed in some of the gas-bubble locali- ties. Gas appears to exist in the sediment column as pockets or lenses, so that inter- Figure 7. The S4 current meter (a 25-cm globe) and OBS units mounted on the stand and mittent “windows” reveal the acoustic ready for deployment. Lead weights are lowered over the 4 corners.

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Wave heights were generally low (less than 1 m). Video recordings suggest that the small wave heights may be a function of the instruments being located within the zone of wave breaking during the most severe weather. This occurs because waves lose energy when they break, resulting in lower wave heights when they form again. Optical backscatter detectors recorded time-averaged suspended sedi- ment concentrations within 20 cm of the seabed, some of which were up to 5 g/litre during storm conditions (fig. 9). Current velocity data collected from a channel inside one of the embayments illustrates the presence of a strong semi- Figure 8. AES wind data from Pelly Island showing the direction and speed for the diurnal tidal signal - a surprising result month of August 1991 (Julian days 213-243). Note the high-magnitude events on days given the very small tidal range in this 218 and 236 (August 5 and 23) and the prolonged period of northwest winds from day region. Storm surges superimposed upon 227 to 238 (August 14-25). the tidal cycles produced unidirectional construct models of wave shoaling over the extensive muddy shallow shoals that comprise much of the coastal and nearshore area. Suspended sediment con- centrations were measured with optical backscatter sensors (OBSs) and in one instance with streaming sediment traps. The S4 and OBS instruments were mounted on custom-designed and fabri- cated stands (fig. 7). The primary design considerations were that they be deploy- able and recoverable from rubber boats, and be stable under storm conditions. Shorezone survey results: Coastal and nearshore oceanographic measure- ments are currently being analyzed, but some information is already available. Hourly wind data were collected by the Atmospheric Environment Service (AES) at Pelly Island throughout the study pe- riod. In August, winds were predomi- nantly from the northwest; all of the strongest winds were from that quadrant (fig. 8). Mean and median hourly wind speeds were about 4 m/sec. Peak wind gusts during the most severe storms ex- ceeded 12 m/sec. Directional wave data from west of Pullen Island were logged via computer and checked occasionally in the field. Maximum wave heights of about 1.5 m were recorded during field data checks on August 4. The maximum hourly wind Figure 9. The wave heights and the OBS-derived suspended-sediment concentration for speed that day was about 9 m/sec. Further the month of August 1991. Wave data are shown only for times of significant wave inshore, currents measured by S4 current height. Several wave events (for example, on August 5, 7, and 18) are accompanied by meters occasionally exceeded 1 m/sec. elevated sediment concentrations.

106 Research currents within the embayments of The distribution of ice-bonded mate- Arctic 41: 48-52. more than 0.5 m/sec. Currents of this rials in the nearshore zone will be a Héquette, A., and P. R. Hill. 1989. Late Quaternary magnitude are capable of transporting significant factor in determining both the seismic stratigraphy of the inner shelf seaward of the Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula, Can. J. Earth Sci. 26: 1990- fine-grained sediment (for example, see methods and costs of development. For 2002. Blatt, Middleton, and Murray, 1972, the first time, geophysical surveys have Hill, P. R., and D. Frobel. 1991. Documentation of p. 93), indicating that the perennial been performed in the extensive shallow- Summer NOGAP Activities, July 22-Aug. 25, 1990. o channels found in these embayments are water region surrounding potential Geological Survey of Canada Open File Report N likely to be active sediment conduits. development sites. These data permit the 2451: 84 p. These are the first measurements of this mapping of acoustically defined perma- Hill, P. R., K. Moran, P. Kurfurst, and S. Pullen. 1986. Geotechnical, geophysical, and sedimen- kind inside the protected embayments of frost and the continuity of acoustic tological properties of seabottom sediments near the region. The fate of these channels, and units where considerable variation is Richards Island, southern Beaufort Sea. 3rd Cana- the formation of new ones as the oceano- anticipated. Before engineering design dian Marine Geotechnical Workshop, St. John’s, Nfld.: 301-327. graphic regime is modified by coastal parameters can be evaluated, core Hirst, S. M., M. Miles, S. P. Blachut, L. A. Goulet, erosion, are issues of concern for the samples must be collected in typical and R. E. Taylor. 1987. Quantitative synthesis of the building and maintenance of pipelines. sedimentary and thermal regimes in order Mackenzie Delta ecosystems. Unpublished contract to verify the geophysical interpretation report prepared for the Inland Waters Directorate, o Discussion and future directions and to provide quantitative information Environment Canada. Contract N 62SS Kn107-5- 4370 (UP-B-477). Data from recent NOGAP projects on physical properties. These data will be Kurfurst, P. J. 1984. Geotechnical investigations in provide new insights into the magnitude collected within the next year and the southern Beaufort Sea, Spring 1984. Geological of coastal and nearshore processes in incorporated into the final NOGAP report. Survey of Canada Open File Report No 1078. areas of the Beaufort Sea which are cur- Kurfurst, P. J. 1986. Geotechnical investigations of rently being considered for development. References the nearshore zone, North Head, Richards Island, The data provide quantitative evidence Blasco, S. M., G. Fortin, P. R. Hill, M. J. O’Connor, NWT. Geological Survey of Canada Open File Re- port No 1376: 82 p. that the sediment transport regime is very and J. Brigham-Grette. 1990. The late Neogene and Quaternary stratigraphy of the Canadian Beaufort Kurfurst, P. J. 1988. Geotechnical investigations of active and that rapid changes are possible continental shelf. In: A. Grantz, L. Johnson, and J. F. northern Richards Island, NWT, Spring 1987. Geo- within the design lifetime of a pipeline, Sweeney (eds.), The Arctic Ocean Region (Geology logical Survey of Canada Open File Report No even in relatively protected embayments. of North America, v. L). Geological Society of 1707: 137 p. Further data analysis will concentrate on America, Boulder, CO:491-502. Lewis, J. 1991. Operations report on Arktos beta the modelling of wave transformation as Blatt, H., G. Middleton, and R. Murray. 1972. Origin amphibious vehicle high resolution geophysical sur- of sedimentary rocks. Prentice-Hall, Englewood, vey test trials, August 1990, Tuktoyaktuk, NWT. shoaling occurs and on changes in coastal NJ:634 p. Unpublished contract report prepared for the Geo- o morphology due to erosion. This informa- Dallimore, S., L. Dyke, P. Kurfurst, K. Jenner, D. logical Survey of Canada. Contract N 23420-0- tion can then be used by the appropriate Gillespie, S. Blasco, and P. Hill. 1991. Geological, M088/01-OSC:103 p. regulatory agencies to evaluate new and geotechnical, and geophysical studies along the on- Rampton, V. N. 1988. Quaternary geology of the shore-offshore transect of the Beaufort Shelf. Geo- Tuktoyaktuk coastlands, NWT. Geological Survey existing development proposals. The o logical Survey of Canada Open File Report N of Canada, Memoir 423: 98 p. information collected also provides an 2408: 264 p. Taylor, A. E. 1991. Marine transgression, shoreline opportunity to study the spatial distribu- Forbes, D. L., and D. Frobel. 1985. Coastal erosion emergence: evidence in seabed and terrestrial tion of materials in, and the morphology and sedimentation in the Canadian Beaufort Sea. In: ground temperatures of changing relative sealevel, and stratigraphy of, a modem, transgres- Current Research, Part B, Geological Survey of Arctic Canada. J. Geophys. Res. 96, B4: 6893-6909. Canada, paper 85-1B:69-80. sive, ice-dominated, delta-margin envi- Wolfe, S. A. 1989. Investigation of nearshore condi- Harper, J. R., R. F. Henry, and G. G. Stewart. 1988. tions across an aggrading coastal shoreline in perma- ronment and to use the formation as an Maximum storm surge elevations in the frost, Richards Island, NWT. Unpublished M.Sc. analog for ancient deposits. Tuktoyaktuk region of the Canadian Beaufort Sea. thesis, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ont.: 188 p.

107 Research The effect of flow on the suspension feeding of molluscs D. J. Wildish

from three major physical forces: tidal circulation, various types of nontidal circulation (for example, reaction currents), and wind stress on the surface of seawater. With regard to a feeding mollusc, two characteristics of seawater movement are important: direction and velocity near the inhalant opening. Kirby- Smith (1972) was the first to show that individual bay scallops were inhibited in D. J. Wildish feeding at higher velocities; thus this work initiated physiological paradigm studies of flow. Wildish (1977) and Suspension-feeding molluscs include Wildish and Kristmanson (1979) initiated the familiar and commercially important studies of the effect of velocity on giant scallops, blue mussels, and soft- population growth, and hence the shell clams. All of these molluscs feed by ecological paradigm, of suspension- capturing microscopic particulates, or feeding molluscs. seston, present in seawater in small amounts. Seston may include resus- The physiological paradigm pended sediment, detritus, bacteria; The inhibited filtering and/or feeding microalgae, and small zooplankters. The which Kirby-Smith (1972) found that the precise ciliary mechanism by which bay scallop exhibits at higher velocities seston is removed from seawater by has been confirmed in other species such molluscs is not fully understood, although the process involves an active ciliary pump and the capture of seston on the gills, followed by the exhalation of filtered seawater. Because of the heterogeneous nature of the food of suspension-feeding molluscs, it is difficult to devise a single biochemical indicator of seston quality. Yet, the quality and quantity of the ingested seston determine the extent to which a mollusc, such as the giant scallop, is able to maintain its body condition and grow. Measures such as the amount of chlorophyll a and the cell densities of the dominant microalgae (fig. 1) do not pro- vide a very good indication of natural Figure 1. Measurements taken near the growth potential in the giant scallop St. Andrews Biological Station in 1989. (fig. 2). The growth as shell and whole the top graph shows seawater tempera- wet weight increments of juvenile ture; the middle graph shows chlorophyll scallops correlate best with temperature, a concentration in µg/litre; and the lower graph shows microalgal density as cells/ although in the adult this relationship is Figure 2. Specific daily mean growth litre. The types of microalgae represented rates represented as shell height not apparent, due to the loss of growth in the bottom graph are: (a) Mesodinium increments (top graph) and wet weight potential associated with spawning. rubrum; (b) Leptocylindrus minimus; increments (lower graph). The horizontal The seawater movements that affect (c) Nitzschia pseudodelicatissima; and bars indicate the growth period, and the suspension feeding by molluscs result (d) Nitzschia closterium. vertical bars indicate the growth range.

108 Research as the giant scallop (Wildish et al., 1987) inhibition is primarily due to valve decrease of velocity within the BBL is and the blue mussel (Wildish and closure controlled by velocity; these were logarithmic, field flows near the mussel Miyares, 1990). These results can be made in a new flow-simulation laboratory inhalant are probably similar to the generalized as shown in figure 3. In a1, at the St. Andrews Biological Station, inhibiting velocities determined in the very low velocities around the mollusc with a video camera focused on the scal- laboratory. may cause localized depletion, thereby lop inhalant and exhalant opening during A conceptualization of the effect of limiting feeding because the bivalve flume experiments. However, this type of velocity on population growth within a pump is processing partially depleted evidence does not preclude the possibility mussel bed is shown in figure 4. The bed seawater. In b1, however, feeding is of a shunt flow also occurring. has a specified path length aligned along unaffected by velocity. In c1, velocity has Many molluscs are bilaterally sym- the major flow axis and consists of a a marked inverse effect on inhibiting metrical, and some of their locomotory given density and size range of mussels feeding and growth. activity serves to orient them so that their which are feeding at specific rates. In the inhalant siphon is opposed to the major earliest model (Wildish and Kristmanson, tidal currents. Giant scallops, if forcibly 1979), turbulent flow within the BBL was oriented with their exhalant to the flow considered with estimates of seston flux axis (achieved by gluing them to the rates (seston concentration times velocity)

flume floor), grow more slowly than those and the amount of seston consumed (C0 - glued with the inhalant facing the flow C1) by the population. The downstream (Wildish and Saulnier, 1992). These and “seston depletion effect” was considered similar results demonstrate the impor- a factor limiting mussel bed growth and tance of flow direction in mollusc spatial extent. Studies have confirmed feeding. these effects in small laboratory popu- Figure 3. The effect of velocity on the lations (Wildish and Kristmanson, 1984, suspension feeding or growth rate of The ecological paradigm 1985). Within the ecological paradigm, individual molluscs. The dashed lines Field observational data collected density can be adjusted by increases indicate the range of effects which are from the Bay of Fundy show that a popu- (through immigration and spat settlement) dependent on seston concentration. lation of suspension-feeding molluscs - or decreases (through competition and such as horse mussels - increases mortality) according to the seston flux Recently, it has been shown that the logarithmically as a positive function of rates in the particular area. If the seston concentration itself influences the averaged velocity in the water column seston concentration is sufficiently high, response of the giant scallop to increased (Wildish and Peer, 1983). Because of velocity-inhibited mussels may grow at a velocities (Wildish et al., 1992). Thus, methodological problems in the field rate equal to or greater than optimally there is an optimum seston concentration measurement of velocities within the feeding mussels growing in conditions for achieving the maximum feeding rates benthic boundary layer (BBL), the data where the seston concentration is lower. at b1, and the steepness of the c1 slope currently available do not allow these Recently, more realistic ecological depends on the seston concentration. If field results to be directly compared with models have considered the availability of the seston concentration is low, the veloc- the results of the flume experiments advective/diffusive contributions of ity at which the giant scallop will cease to mentioned above. However, because the seston (fig. 4) to the mussel bed (Frechette feed will be lower than if the seston con- centration is high. The high velocities in d1 are considered to be beyond the capac- ity of the mollusc to continue feeding. Because the effect velocity has on feeding is so important to the unanswered question of the ciliary pump mechanism in suspension-feeding molluscs, the hypotheses being considered in order to explain velocity-inhibited feeding have special interest. The most likely ones (Wildish et al., 1987) are that molluscs simply close their valves, thereby reduc- ing pallial volume and reducing pump efficiency (Jorgensen, 1990), or that they shunt inhalant water past the gill ciliary filter so that the seston is exhaled unfiltered (Famme and Kofoed, 1983). Figure 4. A conceptual view of the effect of velocity and seston concentration

Recent observations suggest that feeding (CO = initial, C1 = final) on the population growth of suspension-feeding molluscs.

109 Research et al., 1989). Whether resuspension was Feeding by suspension-feeding Jorgensen, C. B. 1990. Bivalve filter feeding: Hy- an important factor in the population molluscs is one way in which the red-tide drodynamics, bioenergetics, physiology and ecol- ogy. Olsen and Olsen, Fredensborg, Denmark: 140 p. growth of an intertidal bed of blue toxins produced by microalgae enter the Kirby-Smith, W. W. 1972. Growth of the bay scal- mussels was considered by Frechette and food chain. A current research objective is lop: The influence of experimental water currents. Grant (1991). In the particular locality to determine whether toxic microalgae J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 8: 7-18. studied, resuspension was found not to inhibit mollusc feeding. It has been Wildish, D. J. 1977. Factors controlling marine and contribute to the trophic resource of the claimed that ectocrines produced by some estuarine sublittoral macrofauna. Helg. wiss. mussels. microalgae are able to do this, although Meeresunters. 30: 445-454. the issue is still controversial. The Wildish, D. J., and D. D. Kristmanson. 1979. Tidal Conclusions energy and sublittoral macrobenthic animals in estu- demonstration that seston concentration aries. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 36: 1197-1206. The flow of seawater affects many influences the filtering and feeding rates Wildish, D. J., and D. D. Kristmanson. 1984. Impor- levels of biological organization and, in of molluscs means that seston levels must tance to mussels of the benthic boundary layer. Can. particular, the way in which some species be kept constant during mollusc feeding J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 41: 1618-1625. of molluscs feed. Although an under- bioassays. However, current feeding Wildish, D. J., and D. D. Kristmanson. 1985. Con- standing of suspension feeding in bioassays involve seston depletion, trol of suspension-feeding bivalve production by current speed. Helg. wiss. Meeresunters. 39: 237- molluscs is still incomplete, such knowl- and the technology required to keep 243. edge has many practical applications. One seston concentration constant is not yet Wildish, D. J., D. D. Kristmanson, R. L. Hoar, A. M. example is the selection of sites for available. DeCoste, S. D. McCormick, and A. W. White. 1987. mussel and scallop aquaculture. It is clear Giant scallop feeding and growth responses to flow. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 113: 207-220. that extrapolations from the physiological Wildish, D. J., D. D. Kristmanson, and A. M. paradigm will not give accurate predic- Saulnier. 1992. Interactive effect of flow and seston tions about the ability of a site to support a References concentration on giant scallop feeding inhibition. J. particular level of mollusc production. In Famme, P., and L. H. Kofoed. 1983. Shunt water Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 155: 161-168. regard to ecological models, which are flow through the mantle cavity in Mytilus edulis (L.) Wildish, D. J., and M. P. Miyares. 1990. Filtration better for this purpose, further work is and its influence on particle retention. Mar. Biol. rate of blue mussels as a function of flow velocity: Lett. 4: 207-218. Preliminary experiments. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. needed in order to determine the growth Frechette, M., C. A. Butman, and W. R. Geyer. 142: 213-219. responses of individual molluscs when 1989. The importance of boundary-layer flows in Wildish, D. J., and D. Peer. 1983. Tidal current density and seston flux rates are varied. supplying phytoplankton to the benthic suspension speed and production of benthic macrofauna in the Physical oceanographic field measure- feeder, Mytilus edulis L. Limnol. Oceanogr. 34: 19- lower Bay of Fundy. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 40 ments of velocity within the BBL near 36. (Suppl. 1): 309-321. mollusc beds are also required in order to Frechette, M., and J. Grant. 1991. An in situ estima- Wildish, D. J., and A. M. Saulnier. 1992. The effect tion of the effect of wind-driven resuspension on the of flow and orientation on the growth of juvenile and determine whether field and laboratory growth of the mussel Mytilus edulis L. J. Exp. Mar. adult giant scallops. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. results agree. Biol. Ecol. 148: 201-214. 155: 133-143.

110 Research Understanding oil and gas distribution in offshore sedimentary basins: A research strategy for the 1990s M. A. Williamson and K. D. McAlpine

Hibernia oil field on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland in 1979. So far, the petro- leum industry has drilled almost 300 off- shore wells, and acquired over a million line-kilometres of multichannel seismic data. This multibillion-dollar venture has led to 48 oil and gas discoveries (table 1). It has also generated an enormous data- base of geological, geophysical, geo- chemical, and engineering information. Thanks to favourable government regula- tions, this vast body of industry data, M. A. Williamson and K. D. McAlpine which is curated by the Canada-Nova

Virtually all the world’s non- renewable fuel resources are found in sedimentary basins, and Canada’s east coast is not without its share. Eastern Canada’s oil and gas potential became apparent over the course of its exploration history. During Canada’s year of Confed- eration, 1867, and just nine years after North America’s first “deliberate” oil discovery at Oil Springs, Ontario, an oil well was drilled at Parsons Pond in north- west Newfoundland. In 1909, oil was discovered at Stony Creek, a field in southern New Brunswick that is still producing today. Both these onshore areas contain oil that accumulated in Paleozoic sedimentary rocks deposited more than 250 million years ago. Since the early 1900s technological advances have broadened the frontiers of oil and gas exploration. In the 1950s and ‘60s, systematic marine geophysical surveys by government and university research institutions in the United States and Canada began to reveal the presence of deep Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary basins lying offshore, containing a rock record of the last 245 million years (fig. 1). This stimulated the interest of the petroleum industry, and in 1966 the first offshore exploration well was drilled. Exploration during the ensuing years was punctuated by the discovery of gas on the Scotian Shelf in 1969, gas on the Lab- Figure 1. Principal Mesozoic--Cenozoic sedimentary basins and the nearly 300 rador Shelf in 1974, and the giant well locations represented by small black dots offshore of eastern Canada.

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Table 1 Chronological listing of hydrocarbon discoveries Offshore eastern Canada Discovery well Year Area Product

Onondaga E-84 1969 Scotian Shelf gas Sable Island E-48 1971 Scotian Shelf condensate, gas Sable Island O-47 1971 Scotian Shelf gas Primrose N-50 1972 Scotian Shelf oil, condensate Eagle D-21 1972 Scotian Shelf gas Thebaud P-84 1972 Scotian Shelf gas Cohasset D-42 1973 Scotian Shelf oil Bjami H-81 1973 Labrador Shelf gas Citnalta I-59 1974 Scotian Shelf gas, condensate Intrepid L-80 1974 Scotian Shelf gas, condensate Gudrid H-55 1974 Labrador Shelf gas Snorri J-70 1975 Labrador Shelf gas Hopedale E-33 1978 Labrador Shelf gas Venture D-23 1978 Scotian Shelf gas, condensate Hibernia P-15 1979 Grand Banks oil Hekja A-72 1979 SE Baffin Shelf gas Ben Nevis I-45 1980 Grand Banks oil, gas South Tempest G-88 1980 Grand Banks oil, gas North Bjami F-06 1980 Labrador Shelf gas Hebron I-13 1981 Grand Banks oil Nautilus C-92 1981 Grand Banks oil Banquereau C-21 1981 Scotian Shelf gas Olympia A-12 1982 Scotian Shelf gas South Venture O-59 1982 Scotian Shelf gas North Dana I-43 1982 Grand Banks gas Bluenose 2G-47 1982 Scotian Shelf gas Arcadia J-16 1983 Scotian Shelf gas Glenelg J-48 1983 Scotian Shelf gas Uniacke G-72 1983 Scotian Shelf gas Terra Nova K-08 1983 Grand Banks oil Trave E-87 1983 Grand Banks condensate, gas Scotia and the Canada-Newfoundland offshore boards, Alma F-67 1983 Scotian Shelf gas underpinned several research syntheses during the late Chebucto K-90 1984 Scotian Shelf gas 1970s and ’80s. Examples of these are: a series on the South Mara C-13 1984 Grand Banks condensate, gas geology of Canada’s eastern continental margin (Keen and Williams, 1990), and the ongoing East Coast Basin West Venture C-62 1984 Scotian Shelf gas Atlas Series (Bell, 1989, Labrador Shelf; Cant, 1991, Whiterose N-22 1984 Grand Banks gas, oil Scotian Shelf). oil West Ben Nevis B-75 1984 Grand Banks Work on some aspects of the data available from the Mara M-54 1984 Grand Banks oil area has allowed fundamental advances to be made re- North Ben Nevis P-93 1984 Grand Banks oil garding continent breakup, rifting processes, and basin Beothuk M-05 1985 Grand Banks oil creation and fill (for example, Beaumont et al., 1982; West Olympia O-51 1985 Scotian Shelf gas Mackenzie et al., 1985; Keen, 1979; Keen and North Triumph G-43 1985 Scotian Shelf gas Beaumont, 1990). An inherent difficulty facing tradi- Whiterose L-61 1986 Grand Banks condensate, gas tional subsurface studies is that a complete understanding Fortune G-57 1986 Grand Banks condensate, gas of an area develops only gradually; a basin is really well Panuke B-90 1986 Scotian Shelf oil known only when most of its petroleum potential has South Sable B-44 1988 Scotian Shelf gas been determined. Such comprehension is achieved only through the continuous gathering and processing of new Springdale M-29 1989 Grand Banks oil data and the compilation of more complete and reliable Balmoral M-32 1991 Scotian Shelf oil syntheses.

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physical and chemical properties of the rock column and the basic stratigraphic and structural characteristics of the basins.

Petroleum geoscience Over the years, cooperative efforts to gather, interpret, and assimilate geophysi- cal, geological, and engineering data gathered in Canada’s eastern offshore regions have produced a comprehensive knowledge base. Whether databases or interpretive basin atlases, this knowledge underpins our petroleum geoscience research strategy. The process of interdis- ciplinary integration is represented in figure 4, which shows a network of disci- plines and/or databases linked by power- ful data interpretation, processing, and simulation workstations. Many of the Figure 3. Detail of drilling activity and petroleum discoveries in the Sable Subbasin projects contributing to the broader objec- Area, including the Panuke-Cohasset, Sable, Venture, and Glenelg discoveries. tives of the research reside under the umbrella project (hydrocarbon charge On Canada’s east coast, AGC has (see Best and Mudford, 1991). That is, modelling), which has a four-fold division initiated a new research strategy, the numerical simulation techniques, such as of scientific tasks. These tasks are geared Hydrocarbon Charge Modelling Project, pore pressure and fluid flow modelling to develop the following: to develop a quantitative understanding of (Mudford and Best, 1989), must be l quantitative descriptions of source rock the chemical, physical and geologic merged with information on the measured systems; phenomena that have controlled oil and gas distribution in the region’s subsiding sedimentary basins. Our research, there- fore, has evolved from the initial phase of gathering and interpreting data through to the fully comprehensive syntheses mentioned above; it continues into the next stage, applying new and emerging quantitative basin-simulation techno- logies, as well as data processing and interpretation tools (at small, fast, power- ful workstations), to previously derived interpretations and data. The research does not aim merely to provide a sophisti- cated description of currently observed hydrocarbon distributions, but will develop predictive tools to assist explora- tion and production strategies, basin prioritization, resource assessment, and resource management. Although the ulti- mate output of the project is clearly pragmatic, it will require scientific inno- vation to successfully solve hitherto intractable problems of hydrocarbon generation, expulsion, and accumulation. The challenge in putting together and executing this strategy is, and will be, to provide the balance that was referred to in Figure 4. A conceptualization of the integration of disciplines and data required for the previous issue of the Science Review comprehensive petroleum geosciencelbasin analysis.

113 Research l quantitative descriptions of reservoir pore-pressure evolution. ted here as being separate, a comprehen- and trapping systems; Reservoir and trapping systems: sive hydrocarbon-charging history can be l a dynamic description of the structural Reservoir systems are characterized by developed only when they are placed in evolution and connectivity of these sys- greater porosities, permeabilities, and frameworks that describe their dynamic tems; and pore-storage capacity than are source sys- interaction and connectivity through time. l quantitative descriptions of hydrocar- tems. Understanding such systems In general terms, the source system pro- bon fluid movement within these involves the reconstruction of their duces the hydrocarbons and expels them systems. compaction, thermal, pore-pressure, and into the reservoir and trapping systems. Source rock systems: Research into diagenetic histories. Of particular impor- What we want to know more specifically source rock systems is directed at an tance is understanding the influence of is what the controls are on this transfer. understanding of the physical, chemical, this history on the ability of the reservoir Are the reservoirs and source system and geological controls on the deposition system to allow hydrocarbon migration. interbedded lithologically, or do they rely and preservation of hydrocarbon-prone For example, we are currently able to on vertical conduits (faults or fractures) organic matter. (Table 2 summarizes measure such parameters as porosity, for connectivity? What is the fluid trans- some of these controls.) It is important, permeability, tortuosity, and formation mission history of these vertical conduits? for example, to understand how these factors - all of which affect the hydraulic These questions are being addressed by controls have influenced the development conductivity of the system. What we then resolving the geometric and dynamic of the Egret Member source rock within need to determine is how these parameters evolution of source and reservoir systems the Jeanne d’Arc Basin (McAlpine, developed through time. What were their through detailed structural and paleo- 1990). characteristics during peak periods of structural mapping, producing, for Table 2 hydrocarbon generation? Within reservoir example, maps of paleo-hydrocarbon Some factors controlling the deposition and trapping systems, it is just as impor- flow and drainage. and preservation of source rocks: tant to understand the nature and distri- Fluid movement: The two systems bution of barriers to flow as it is to (source and reservoir) described above, Sedimentation rate understand the controls on unrestrained together with their geometric, dynamic Water depth buoyancy-driven flow. The geometrical framework, will be used to trace hydro- Distance from clastic source and mechanical evolution of these barri- carbon flow and charging history, from Mixed-layer depth ers is what controls the final distribution the initial deposition of organic-rich Organic loading and accumulation of hydrocarbons within source rocks, through the creation of Surface mixing the basins. hydrocarbons, to their migration and final Physiographic restriction System dynamics: Although source entrapment. This will be achieved through Deep-water oxygen input and reservoir systems have been presen- numerically simulating fluid movement Terrestrial organic input

By considering these causal mecha- Glossary hydraulic conductivity The ability of a body of rock or unconsolidated sediment to nisms in the context of measured param- biomarkers Biological markers are or- transmit fluids. eters of organic geochemistry and a ganic compounds present in the geosphere. They can be linked to the structures of pre- permeability The degree to which a rock petrophysical characterization of the cursor compounds occurring in original can transmit fluid. source rock, we aim to determine the source material. These compounds were porosity The ratio of the volume of void efficiency of fluid generation and move- originally termed chemical fossils. spaces in a rock or sediment to its total ment within the source system. This will biostratigraphy The division of rock units volume. often control the timing, volume, and through the study of their contained fossils. reservoir A subsurface volume of porous composition of produced hydrocarbons; diagenetic history The sequence of events and permeable rock in which oil or gas has for example, source rocks with interbed- that results in physical and chemical accumulated. ded sandy or silty layers will often gener- changes to a sediment following initial trap A volume of rock sealed by low- ate hydrocarbons earlier, and thus at deposition (exclusive of weathering and permeability barriers (rock or fault) and lower maturity, than source rocks which metamorphism). containing accumulations of fluids. are entirely encased in shales with little Egret Member A package of rock that is source rock An organic carbon-rick rock permeability or porosity. Biomarker stud- the source of hydrocarbons for the Jeanne from which hydrocarbons will be expulsed D’Arc Basin. (See source rock.) ies of trapped hydrocarbons (Fowler and given certain physical and/or chemical facies The aspect, appearance, and charac- conditions. Brooks, 1990) will help recognize such teristics of a rock unit, usually reflecting differences in maturity and composition. tortuosity Reflects the path directions of the environment that existed during fluids within a rock body -that is, tortuous A quantitative description of source rock deposition of the unit. as opposed to direct. Specifically, the systems on Canada’s east coast will formation factor The ratio of the conduc- inverse ratio of the length of a rock to reconstruct their deposition and preser- tivity of an electrolyte to the conductivity the length of the equivalent path of fluid vation history and will track their of a rock saturated with that electrolyte. within it. compaction, thermal, diagenetic and

114 Research within them. The basic physical driving underway are generally able to fit into one understanding of system interactions forces that control fluid movement within of the boxes. (box C). At any point in the overall source systems differ from those within Research into physical and chemical science plan it may be necessary to adjust, reservoir systems, which are predomi- properties (box A2) is providing basic redefine, or correct models based on new nantly buoyancy-driven. A major chal- data regarding the rock column and its information from type A projects. lenge is the coupling of fluid-flow models fluid content - for example, permea- Finally, the output of box D will to link the two systems. bilities, porosities, water, gas and oil represent integrated hydrocarbon charge The integrated frameworks described saturations and compositions, relative models, to trace and predict hydrocarbon above will provide predictive models to permeabilities of the fluids, fission track movement throughout the dynamic source test against observations - that is, do our age and temperatures, basic mineral and/or reservoir and trapping system. models satisfactorily explain the current- components, biostratigraphies and litho- These will be at a variety of scales, rang- ly observed hydrocarbon distribution stratigraphies, kerogen typing, and kinet- ing from explanations of the charging (figs. 2, 3) throughout the basin of inter- ics. It is important to understand how history of individual pools (within an oil est? This will afford confidence in the these properties have been affected or gas field) to charging histories of model’s capacity to quantify risk associ- through time by compaction, temperature, regions or basins. ated with undiscovered resources. and pressure changes. An example: Figures 6 and 7 illus- We have provided here only a brief Geological and geophysical mapping trate the research involved in the project. glimpse of the major research elements of projects (box A3) allow the recon- The maps (fig. 6) show computer- the project. Each of these elements is struction of the geometric, dynamic, and predicted levels of the organic maturity of made up of many individual subprojects structural evolution of the systems. Basic the Egret Member source rock in the that draw upon a wide range of specific research on how we numerically simulate Jeanne d’Arc Basin some 120, 100, 80, expertise and abilities. For example, some such processes as fluid transmission 60, and 0 million years before the present, are investigating the assumptions through faults, or the flow of fluid through with Egret Member having been depos- made during routine geological basin media with high or low porosities and ited approximately 152 million years ago. analysis; others are addressing significant permeabilities, is also being conducted (Organic maturity levels indicate how knowledge or gaps in data. One ongoing (box A4). Box A1 covers the efforts to advanced an organic-rich sediment is important task is the assimilation of the place the other projects into a dynamic toward a thermal state that allows the results of contributory research into the framework. expulsion of hydrocarbons.) The map is broader science plan. Merging information from type A derived from the consideration and syn- projects provides the quantitative descrip- theses of a broad variety of data types. The science plan tions of the source rock and of reservoir The subsidence, compaction, Our vision of how the specific and trapping systems and, importantly, thermal, and maturation history is calcu- research within the described elements defines the temporal and spatial evolution lated for each data point (representing will combine during the life of the project of these systems through time (box B). exploration wells) within the basin. The is shown in figure 5, which depicts our Combining results from box B with those calculations are based on biostratigraphic science plan. All the projects currently from box A3 aims to provide the dynamic data (that is, age-depths), lithostra- tigraphic data (the components of the rock), petrophysical data (assumptions about porosity reduction and decom- paction, and estimates of thermal conductivity in order to determine thermal histories), and chemical reaction kinetics (gauging the rate at which chemical bonds break down in organic matter, a process which governs maturation and hydrocarbon expulsion processes). From this information, the programs compute the compaction, ther- mal, and maturation state of the source rock for any time throughout its geologi- cal history. The ability of these models to predict measured, present-day conditions in a particular well is used to give confi- dence in the model-predicted maturity, compaction, and thermal histories. Figure 5. A science plan for the coordination of petroleum geoscience activities As an example, figure 7 compares contributing to the Hydrocarbon Charge Modelling Project. model-predicted (solid and dashed lines),

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Figure 6. The evolution of source rock maturity within the Jeanne d’Arc Basin off Newfoundland, as extrapolated by computer. The maps show organic maturity levels at 120, 100, 80, 60, and 0 million years before the present. The shading, which corresponds to a VRE level of 0.6 to 1.2, represents the potential to generate and expulse oil. ( “VRE” stands for Vitrinite reflectance equivalence and is a microscope-based measure of organic maturity.) present-day, maturity-at-depth and fig. 8), will contribute to the quantitative industry, and with Dalhousie University’s temperature-at-depth (asterisks and description of the source rock system Department of Earth Sciences. Some of crosses) profiles with direct observations (box B, fig. 5). the companies involved are providing of these parameters from well information Research collaborators: With such a research funds through Dalhousie for and analyses. Repeating these computa- broad, interdisciplinary approach as graduate student theses applying to tions for all wells in the basin allowed the described above, it is important to projects under the umbrella of hydrocar- mapping of maturity levels at any time in recognize significant gaps in the data bon charge modelling. the basin’s history (fig. 6). This example and knowledge and to have access to In addition to AGC, other Geological of type A research (fig. 5) provides a motivated experts who are interested in Survey of Canada divisions involved temporal and spatial framework which, contributing to the broad project. In order include the Mineral Resources Division in when merged with detailed petrophysical, to expand resources available to the Ottawa, which provides a rock mechan- geochemical, and facies information project, AGC has initiated links with the ics/petrophysics focus, and the Institute of about the actual source rock (shown in petroleum exploration and production Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology in

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seismic surveys, and person-years) in the unconventional sources of oil, primary area during the past 25 years or more. and secondary/tertiary recovery schemes, This large investment is only recently domestic and foreign exploration, frontier being translated into production activity, oil and gas, and western Canadian oil and represented by the Hibernia and Panuke- gas. The federal government’s policy on Cohasset oil field projects offshore energy issues is very broad-reaching. Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, respec- However, one goal in terms of future tively. These projects are bringing the energy sources will likely be to ensure not history of hydrocarbon exploration and only the availability to Canadians of a production on the east coast into a new number of energy options (for example, phase. oil, gas, coal, hydro-electric and nuclear During the remainder of the 1990s power, as well as power from renewable and into the 21st century, both the oil and sources) but also the availability of the gas industry and the federal government maximum amount of information to help will continue to be faced with difficult Canadians make the right choices, given policy and investment choices. For indus- prevailing economic conditions and envi- try, these will generally involve the ronmental considerations. Both industry consideration of the comparative econom- and government will only make correct ics of, for example, conventional and choices on the basis of accurate and

Figure 7. Computer-modelled, present- day profiles of maturity-at-depth (solid line) and temperature-at-depth (dashed line), in comparison with maturity-at- depth and temperature-at-depth profiles based on actual measurements ( +). The closeness of the fits allows confidence in the extrapolation of computer-modelled data back through time.

Calgary, which brings to the project considerable organic geochemical exper- tise. At AGC the project draws upon petro- leum geology research from the Basin Analysis Subdivision, but it also benefits from collaboration with the deep-crustal studies group in the Regional Recon- naissance Subdivision. Summary The distribution of discovered oil and gas accumulations within offshore sedimentary basins of eastern Canada is shown in figure 1. Research in these and other basins around the world has shown that hydrocarbon distribution within sedimentary basins is the result of the interaction, through geologic time, of a complex series of physical, chemical, and geologic phenomena. Our understanding Figure 8. A digital log response pattern (showing both sonic and density responses) of this distribution off eastern Canada is typical of the Egret Member source rock in the Jeanne d’Arc Basin. Also shown are the the result of billions of dollars worth of geochemical characteristics of the source interval derived through Rock-Eval analysis exploration activity (exploration wells, of well samples.

117 Research comprehensive information on the nature tion, and testing of new ideas about d’Arc Basin, offshore eastern Canada. Org. of the options available. hydrocarbon generation, migration, and Geochem. 16(1-3): 461-475. The research strategy outlined in this entrapment within Canada’s east coast Keen, C. E. 1979. Thermal history and subsidence of rifted continental margins - evidence from wells on document intends to provide such infor- frontier basins. This information will the Nova Scotian and Labrador Shelves. Can. J. mation for at least one of Canada’s future secure for Canadians a more complete Earth Sci. 16(3): 505-522. energy-investment options: that of east geoscientific understanding of potential Keen, C.E., and C. Beaumont. 1990. Geodynamics coast frontier oil and gas. The strategy is and existing energy options. of rifted continental margins. In: M. J. Keen and designed to build upon some of the geo- G. L. Williams (eds.), Geology of the Continental Margin of Eastern Canada. Geological Survey of scientific achievements of AGC, particu- Canada, No 2. larly with respect to understanding basin Keen, M. J., and Williams, G. L. (eds.). 1990. Geol- tectonic and stratigraphic frameworks and References ogy of the Continental Margin of Eastern Canada. o petroleum geology. These achievements, Beaumont, C., C. E. Keen, and R. Boutilier. 1982. Geological Survey of Canada, N 2. Evolution of rifted continental margins. Geophys, J. which are most recently manifest in the Mackenzie, A. S., C. Beaumont, R. Boutilier, and of the R. Astronom. Soc. 70: 667-715. J. Rullkotter. 1985. The aromatization and isomeri- East Coast Basin Atlas Series (Bell, 1989; Bell, J. S. (coordinator). 1989. Labrador Sea. Fron- zation of hydrocarbons and the thermal and subsid- Cant, 1991), provide the framework to tier Geoscience Project, East Coast Basin Atlas Se- ence history of the Nova Scotia margin. Phil. Trans. develop quantitative models of the hydro- ries. Geological Survey of Canada, Dartmouth, N.S. R. Soc. Lond., Series A 315: 203-232. carbon charge histories of east coast Best, M. E., and B. S. Mudford. 1991. Fluid rock McAlpine, K. D. 1990. Mesozoic stratigraphy, sedi- frontier basins. interactions in sedimentary basins: A new research mentary evolution, and petroleum potential of the direction for the Atlantic Geoscience Centre. In: Jeanne d’Arc Basin, Grand Banks of Newfoundland. The results of the project will interest T. E. Smith (ed.), Science Review 1988 & ‘89. De- Geological Survey of Canada paper: 89-17. petroleum explorers, producers, regula- partment of Fisheries and Oceans, Dartmouth, N.S. Mudford, B., and M. Best. 1989. Venture gas field, tors, and policy-makers. The numerical Cant, D. J. (coordinator). 1991. Scotian Shelf. Fron- offshore Nova Scotia: Case study of overpressuring modelling of basin charge histories will tier Geoscience Project, East Coast Basin Atlas Se- in region of low sedimentation rate. Amer. Assoc. facilitate more accurate predictions of ries. Geological Survey of Canada, Dartmouth, N.S. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 73: 1383-1396. the resource potential of basins and, Fowler, M. G., and P. W. Brooks. 1990. Organic Snowdon, L. R., and M. G. Fowler. 1986. Rock- geochemistry as an aid in the interpretation of the Eval/TOC data from seven wells located within the importantly, will provide a quantitative history of oil migration into different reservoirs at Jeanne d’Arc Basin offshore Newfoundland. Geo- platform for the development, examina- the Hibernia K-18 and Ben Nevis I-45 wells, Jeanne logical Survey of Canada, Open File.

118 Organization and Staff

The Bedford Institute of Oceanography (BIO), the Wildlife Service; and the Regional Laboratory of the Atlantic Halifax Fisheries Research Laboratory (HFRL), and the St. Region’s Environmental Protection organization. In leased Andrews Biological Station (SABS) are research establish- accommodation at BIO are the following private companies, ments of the Government of Canada and are operated by the which do work related to the marine sciences: ASA Consult- Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), both on its ing Ltd. and Brooke Ocean Technology Ltd. own behalf and, in the case of BIO, for the other federal departments that maintain laboratories and groups at the Presented below are the major groups at BIO, and their institute. There are two such departments: the Department of managers, as at December 1, 1991. In addition to the three Energy, Mines and Resources (DEMR); and Environment research establishments, several staff are located in an office Canada. The former maintains a major unit at BIO, the building in Halifax called the Hollis Building (HB). Atlantic Geoscience Centre of the Geological Survey of Telephone numbers are included. Note that all numbers at Canada. Environment Canada maintains two units at BIO: BIO, the Halifax Laboratory and the Hollis Building should the Marine Wildlife Conservation Division of the Canadian be preceded by 902-426.

DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES AND OCEANS Scotia-Fundy Region Regional Director-General Physical and Chemical Sciences Management Services Branch N.A. Bellefontaine HB/2581 Branch E.J. Maher, Director BIO/7433 J.A. Elliott, Director BIO/8478 Regional Science Director Marine Services S.B. MacPhee BIO/3492 Marine Chemistry Division J. Wheelhouse, Chief BIO/7292 J.M. Bewers, Head BIO/2371 Marine Assessment and Liaison Division Engineering and Technical Services H.B. Nicholls, Head BIO/3246 Coastal Oceanography Division D.F. Dinn, Chief BIO/3700 C.S. Mason, Head BIO/3857 Scientific Computing Services Facilities Management D. Porteous, Head BIO/2452 Metrology Division A. Medynski, Chief BIO/7449 D.L. McKeown, Head BIO/3489 Biological Sciences Branch Materiel Management M. Sinclair, Director BIO/3130 Ocean Circulation Division J.M. Broussard, A/Chief BIO/5226 R.E. Lavoie, Asst. Director BIO/2147 R.A. Clarke, Head BIO/2502 Information Systems Services Marine Fish Division Hydrography Branch C.B. Crowe, Chief HB/9315 R.N. O’Boyle, Chief BIO/4890 Canadian Hydrographic Service (Atlantic) Library Services A. Fiander, Chief BIO/3675 Benthic Fisheries and Aquaculture P. Bellemare, Director BIO/3497 Division (and Director, Halifax Administrative Services Fisheries Research Laboratory) Field Surveys Division H.S. Leonard, A/Chief BIO/7037 J.D. Pringle, Chief HFRL/6138 R.C. Lewis, Manager BIO/2432 Comptroller Branch Biological Oceanography Division Nautical Publications G.C. Bowdridge, Director HB/6166 T.C. Platt, Chief BIO/3793 S.L. Weston, Manager BIO/7286 Accounting and Treasury Operations Freshwater and Anadromous Division Hydrographic Development S. Lucas, Chief HB/3552 J.A. Ritter, Chief HB/3573 R.G. Burke, Manager BIO/3657 Financial Planning and Analysis Habitat Ecology Division Data Management and Planning L.Y.N. Seto, Chief HB/7060 D.C. Gordon, Chief BIO/3278 S.T. Grant, Manager BIO/2411 Communications Branch Aquaculture and Invertebrate Tides, Currents and Water Levels J. Gough, Director HB/3550 Fisheries Division (and Director, C. O’Reilly, Manager BIO/3846 St. Andrews Biological Station) Science Communications R.H. Cook, Chief SABS/(506)529-8854 M. MacDonald BIO/6414

119 Organization and Staff

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT CANADA MINES AND RESOURCES Atlantic Region Geological Survey of Canada Marine Wildlife Atlantic Geoscience Centre Regional Reconnaissance Conservation Division D.I. Ross, Director BIO/3448 J. Verhoef, Head BIO/5687 (Canadian Wildlife Service) E.H.J. Hiscock, Chief BIO/6314 Basin Analysis Program Support K.D. McAlpine, Head BIO/2730 K.S. Manchester, Head BIO/3411 Regional Laboratory (Environmental Protection) Environmental Marine Geology Administration K.G. Doe, A/Chief BIO/3284 D.B. Prior, Head BIO/7730 G. McCormack, Head BIO/2111

120 Projects

Presented below is a list of the projects and individual For more information on these projects, many of which investigations being undertaken by the Department of are continuing, please write to the: Regional Director of Fisheries and Oceans’ laboratories in the Scotia-Fundy Science, Scotia-Fundy Region, Department of Fisheries and Region, by the Atlantic Geoscience Centre of the Oceans, Bedford Institute of Oceanography, P.O. Box 1006, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, and by Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B2Y 4A2. Environment Canada units at BIO, during the review period.

DEPARTMENT OF 12. Redfish Assessment and 29. Otolith Studies FISHERIES AND OCEANS Associated Research S. Campana K. Zwanenburg 30. Finfish Tagging Studies SCOTIA-FUNDY REGION 13. Flatfish Assessment and W. Stobo Associated Research BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 31. Ecosystem Size Process J. Neilson L. Dickie BRANCH 14. Continental Shelf Margin Studies, 32. Large Pelagics Assessment and A. MARINE FISH AND MARINE Including Argentine Assessment Associated Research MAMMAL STOCK ASSESS- R. Halliday J. Porter MENTS AND ASSOCIATED 15. Seal Diet and Energetics 33. Pelagic Acoustics Surveys RESEARCH W.D. Bowen U. Buerkle 1. Herring Assessment and 16. Population Ecology of Sealworm 34. Oceanography and Fish Distribution Associated Research (Subarea 4) G. McClelland I. Perry R. Stephenson 17. Seal Population Monitoring 35. Juvenile Fish Ecology and Surveys 2. Herring Assessment and W. Stobo J. Neilson Associated Research (Subarea 5) 18. Population Ecology and 36. Pelagic Fisheries Management G. Melvin Assessment of Seals Studies 3. 4TVW Haddock Assessment and W. D. Bowen T. Iles Associated Research 19. Seal Research Infrastructure 37. Reproductive Strategies of K. Zwanenhurg W.D. Bowen Marine Fish 4. 4X Haddock Assessments and 20. Grey Seal Research - T. Lambert Associated Research Dalhousie University 38. EDP Support P. Hurley R. O’Boyle R. Branton 5. 5Ze Haddock Assessments and 21. Groundfisheries Management 39. Statistical Research and Associated Research Research Collaborative Studies S. Gavaris R. Halliday S. Smith 6. 4Vn Cod Assessments and 22. Stock Assessment Methods 40. Cooperative Science-Industry Associated Research R. O’Boyle Groundfish Research and T. Lambert 23. National Sampling Program Communication 7. 4VsW Cod Assessments and (Groundfish) P. Hurley Associated Research K. Zwanenburg 41. Dynamics of Recruitment Processes P. Fanning 24. International Observer Program (IOP) for Gulf of Maine Gadids 8. 4X Cod Assessment and Management Research E. Trippel Associated Research D. Waldron 42. Groundfish Ecosystems: S. Campana 25. Groundfish Trawl Surveys Harvesting Data 9. 5Ze Cod Assessments and J. Hunt R. O’Boyle Associated Research 26. Groundfish Age Determination 43. Groundfish Ecosystems: Research J. Hunt J. Hunt Information - Survey Data 10. Pollock Assessment and 27. Ichthyoplankton Studies S. Gavaris Associated Research P. Hurley 44. Groundfish Ecosystems: Research C. Annand 28. Fisheries Recruitment Variability Information - Geographic 11. Silver Hake Assessment and K. Frank Distribution Associated Research R. O’Boyle D. Waldron 121 Projects

45. Longliner Project 17. Bay of Fundy Scallop Population 7. Invertebrate Fisheries Research and R. Halliday Dynamics and Assessment Aquaculture 46. Communications with Fishermen S. Robinson D. Aiken R. O’Boyle 18. Lobster Stock Assessment (LFAs 35, 8. Invertebrate Nutrition 47. Stock Structure Studies 36, and 38) J. Castell K. Zwanenburg P. Lawton 9. Fish Nutrition 19. Population Dynamics and Ecology S. La11 B. INVERTEBRATE AND of Bay of Fundy Lobsters 10. Fish Disease Research MARINE PLANT STOCK P. Lawton G. Olivier ASSESSMENTS AND 20. Invertebrate Biology 11. Parasitology ASSOCIATED RESEARCH S. Waddy C. Morrison 1. Informatics 21. Resource Potential of Underutilized 12. Molluscan Culture and D. Swetnam Invertebrate Species Phytotoxin Research 2. Larval Ecology and Lobster S. Robinson, P. Lawton D. Scarratt Assessment in LFA 33 13. Fish Health Services Unit M. Tremblay C. ANADROMOUS SPECIES STOCK ASSESSMENTS, J. Cornick 3. Scallop Assessment and Research SALMON ENHANCEMENT, G. Robert E. BIOLOGICAL AND ASSOCIATED OCEANOGRAPHY 4. Offshore Clam Assessment and RESEARCH Research 1. Bio-Optical Properties of D. Roddick 1. Salmon Assessment Research Pelagic Oceans T. Marshall 5. Scallop Research T. Platt E. Kenchington 2. Non-Salmonid Assessment Research 2. Respiration, Nutrient Uptake, and B. Jessop 6. Cape Breton Crustacean Assessment Regeneration of Natural Plankton and Research 3. Salmon Enhancement Research Populations R. Elner R. Cutting W. Harrison 7. Marine Plants Assessment and 4. Enhancement and Fish Passage 3. Physical Oceanography of Selected Research Engineering Features in Connection with Marine G. Sharp H. Jansen Ecological Studies E. Horne 8. Lobster Stock Assessment 5. Fish Culture Engineering (LFAs 40 and 41) and Related H. Jansen 4. Physiology of Marine Research, Including Offshore 6. Finfish and Invertebrate Microorganisms Scotian Shelf Lobster Stocks Introductions and Transfers W. Li D. Pezzack R. Cutting 5. Carbon Dioxide and Climate: 9. Lobster Habitat Research and 7. Hatchery Operations and Production Biogeochemical Cycles in the Ocean Assessment Methodology G. Robbins T. Platt R.J. Miller 8. Fish Culture Research 6. Analysis of Pelagic Ecosystem 10. Lobster Resource Science G. Farmer Structure A. Longhurst C. Hudon 9. Anadromous Species Statistical Data 11. Lobster Resource Science - Collection and Analysis 7. Carbon and Nitrogen Utilization by Larval Biology S. O’Neil Zooplankton and Factors Controlling G.C. Harding, J. Pringle Secondary Production R. Conover 12. Lobster Resource Science and D. AQUACULTURE RESEARCH Assessment - LFAs 31 and 32 1. Salmon Genetics Research Program 8. Secondary Production and the J. Pringle R.H. Cook Dynamic Distribution of Micronekton on the Scotian Shelf 13. Lobster Assessment and Related 2. Salmonid Growth, Smolting, and D. Sameoto Research in Southwest Nova Scotia R.L. Saunders 9. Biological Stratification in the Ocean (LFAs 33 and 34) 3. Phytotoxin Research and Global Carbon Flux D. Pezzack, J. Tremblay D. Wildish A. Longhurst 14. Wild Mussel Resource Assessment 4. Marine Finfish Aquaculture 10. Nutrition and Biochemistry in and Research K. Waiwood G. Sharp Marine Zooplankton 5. Aquaculture Ecology Research E. Head 15. Resource Mapping and Special D. Wildish Projects 11. Feeding Dynamics of Zooplankton 6. Environmental Requirements for G. Black and Micronekton of the Eastern Early Fish Development Arctic 16. Soft-Shell Clam Fishery Research R. Peterson D. Sameoto S. Robinson

122 Projects

12. Year Round Plankton Research in 17. Size-Dependent and Bioenergetic 8. Modelling of the Labrador Sea the Arctic Processes in Fish Production Habitats C. Quon R. Conover S.R. Kerr 9. Labrador Current Variability 13. Shore-Based Studies of Under-Ice 18. Interactions between Physical and R.A. Clarke Epontic and Pelagic Plankton Biological Processes in Marine 10. Moored Measurements of Gulf Communities Habitats Stream Variability: A Statistical and R. Conover K.H. Mann Mapping Experiment 14. Summertime Shipboard Studies in 19. Evaluation of Estuarine and R.M. Hendry the Eastern Canadian Arctic Continental Shelf Habitats 11. Newfoundland Basin Experiment E. Head W.L. Silvert R.A. Clarke, R.M. Hendry 15. Dynamics of Microbial Metabolism 20. Contaminant Fluxes in Marine Food 12. Problems in Geophysical Fluid and Particle Flux Webs Dynamics P. Kepkay B.T. Hargrave C. Quon 16. Mathematical Models of Marine 21. Long-Range Transport of Airborne 13. Norwegian/Greenland Sea Pelagic Communities Pollutants (LRTAP) Organic Studies Experiment G. White B.T. Hargrave R.A. Clarke, P. Jones 22. Instrumentation Support 14. Studies of the North Atlantic Current F. HABITAT RESEARCH D.P. Reimer and the Seaward Flow of Labrador 1. Fish Habitat Assessment Advice 23. Acid Rain Research (Nova Scotia) Current Waters D.C. Gordon W. Watt J.R.N. Lazier 2. Microbial Ecology 24. Freshwater Fish Habitat Assessment 15. North Atlantic Upper Ocean J.E. Stewart and Related Research Climatology 3. Microbial-Marine Toxin Interactions W. Watt F.W. Dobson J.E. Stewart 25. Effects of Low pH on Salmonid 16. Thermodynamics of Ocean Structure 4. Physiological Ecology of Toxic Development and Circulation Algae R. Peterson E.B. Bennett S.R.V. Durvasula 26. Impacts of Acid Rain on Salmonid 17. Shelf Dynamics - Avalon Channel 5. Kelp and Seagrass Habitat Studies Ecology Experiment K.H. Mann G.L. Lacroix B.D. Petrie, C. Anderson 6. Inshore Clam Stock Assessment and 18. Batfish Internal Waves Related Research PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL A.S. Bennett T.W. Rowe11 SCIENCES BRANCH 19. Data Management 7. Inshore Molluscan Habitat Studies D.N. Gregory A. OCEAN CLIMATE T.W. Rowe11 SERVICES 20. Eastern Arctic Physical 8. Scallop Habitat Research Oceanography P. Cranford 1. Humidity Exchange over the Sea C.K. Ross (HEXOS) Program 21. Water Transport through and in the 9. Zooplankton Habitat Studies S.D. Smith, R. Anderson G.C. Harding Northwest Passage 2. Microstructure Studies in the Ocean S.J. Prinsenberg, E.B. Bennett 10. Benthic Habitat Studies N.S. Oakey D.L. Peer 22. Seasonal and Interannual Variability 3. Near-Surface Velocity Measurements in the Gulf of St. Lawrence 11. Coastal Phytoplankton Dynamics and N.S. Oakey Phytoplankton Monitoring Program - G.L. Bugden Nova Scotia 4. Investigations of Air-Sea Fluxes of 23. Tidal and Residual Currents - P.D. Keizer Heat and Momentum on Large Space 3-D Modelling Studies and Time Scales using Newly K. Tee 12. Evaluation of Ships’ Ballast Waters Calibrated Bulk Formulae 24. Circulation and Air/Sea Fluxes of as a Potential Source of Algal F.W. Dobson, S.D. Smith Blooms in Eastern Canada Hudson Bay and James Bay S.R.V. Durvasula 5. The Spin-Down and Mixing of S.J. Prinsenberg Mediterranean Salt Lenses 25. Developing an Efficient Method for 13. Effect of Fishing Activity on Fish N.S. Oakey Habitat Modelling Three-Dimensional Shelf W.P. Vass 6. Laboratory Measurements of and Slope Circulations Velocity Microstructure in a K. Tee 14. Benthic/Pelagic Exchanges Convective System using P.D. Keizer Photographic Techniques 26. CTDs and Associated Sensors A.S. Bennett 15. Fish and Habitat Interactions J.M. Hamilton 27. Handling and Operational Tech- S.N. Messieh 7. Labrador Sea Water Formation 16. Bioenergetics of Marine Mammals R.A. Clarke, N.S. Oakey niques for Instrument/Cable Systems P.F. Brodie J.-G. Dessureault, R.F. Reiniger 123 Projects

28. Climate Variability Recorded in 4. Wind Sea Dynamics 23. Horizontal and Vertical Exchange on Marine Sediments W. Perrie, B. Toulany Georges Bank J. Smith 5. Current Measurements near the J.W. Loder, K. Drinkwater, 29. The Carbonate System and Nutrients Ocean Surface E. Horne, N.S. Oakey in Arctic Regions P.C. Smith, D.J. Lawrence, 24. Oceanic CO, E.P. Jones J.A. Elliott, D.L. McKeown E.P. Jones 30. Distribution of Sea Ice Meltwater in 6. Modelling of Ice and Icebergs 25. Tainting of Scallops by Oil-Based the Arctic Flowing along the Labrador and Drilling Mud Cuttings F.C. Tan, P. Strain Baffin Island Coasts R.F. Addison 31. Intergyre Exchange: Flow Across M. Ikeda 26. Oil Volatilities 50°W South of the Grand Banks 7. A Large-Scale Circulation in the E. Levy R.M. Hendry Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay 27. Wave-Wind Field Interactions 32. CO, Exchange at the Air-Sea M. Ikeda F.W. Dobson, S.D. Smith, W. Perrie Interface 8. Labrador Ice Studies - Field Program 28. Oceanographic Data Management S.D. Smith, B. Anderson, I. Peterson, S.J. Prinsenberg System F.W. Dobson, P. Jones 9. Dynamical Origins of D.N. Gregory, G. Boudreau 33. CTD System for Ship-of-Opportunity Low-Frequency Motions over 29. Wave and Ice Dynamics Programs the Labrador/Newfoundland Shelf W. Perrie, B. Toulany J.-G. Dessureault, R.A. Clarke, D. Wright, J.R.N. Lazier, B.D. Petrie 30. Ocean Currents over Atlantic Canada B. Beanlands, S. Young 10. Labrador Ice Margin Studies Waters Using Satellite Altimeters and 34. Turbulent Mixing Studies during the C.L. Tang, M. Ikeda Models North Atlantic Trace Release Experi- 11. Oceanography of the Newfoundland M. Ikeda ment (NATRE) Continental Shelf 31. Pollution from the Offshore Oil N.S. Oakey B.D. Petrie, D.A. Greenberg Industry: Putting It Into Perspective 35. Oxygen Isotopes and Mixing on the 12. Study of Current Variability and E.M. Levy Scotian Shelf Mixed Layer Dynamics on the 32. Development of an Ice-Resistant P. Strain, F. Tan, P. Smith Northeastern Grand Banks Mooring Assembly (IRMA) 36. WOCE Studies C.L. Tang, B.D. Petrie G.A. Fowler, D. Belliveau, R.A. Clarke, R. Hendry, J.R.N. Lazier 13. Anemometers for Drifting Buoys J.M. Hamilton J.-G. Dessureault, D. Harvey B. MARINE DEVELOPMENTS 33. Development of Continuous Ocean Data Acquisition Systems (CODA) AND TRANSPORTATION 14. Ship-Referenced Acoustic Positioning Systems D. Belliveau, J.M. Hamilton, 1. Oil Trajectory Analysis D.L. McKeown G.A. Fowler D.J. Lawrence 15. Development of a Lagrangian 34. Development of a Platform for 2. Winter Processes in the Gulf of Surface Drifter Atmospheric Data in Real Time St. Lawrence D.L. McKeown, G.A. Fowler (PADIRT) G.L. Bugden 16. Bottom-Mounted Acoustic Current J.M. Hamilton, G.A. Fowler, 3. Point Lepreau Environmental Profiler D. Belliveau Monitoring Program D. Belliveau, N.A. Cochrane 35. Sea-Ice Flux onto Newfoundland J. Smith 17. Petroleum Hydrocarbon Components Shelves 4. Marine Emergencies E.M. Levy S.J. Prinsenberg E.M. Levy 18. Enhanced Biodegradation of Petro- 36. CASP II Oceanography 5. A Novel Vibracorer for Surface, leum in the Marine Environment P.C. Smith, M. Ikeda Subsurface Remote, or ROV Support E. Levy, K. Lee 37. Modelling Wind-Generated Waves Operation 19. Petroleum Hydrocarbon Stress to W. Perrie, B. Toulany G.A. Fowler Juvenile Fish 38. Development of Low Cost Ice C. OFFSHORE ENERGY J.H. Vandermeulen Beacon/Instrumentation G.A. Fowler, S.J. Prinsenberg, RESOURCES 20. Contaminant Cycling in Estuarine Waters J.M. Hamilton 1. Studies of the Growth of Wind J.H. Vandermeulen 39. 3-D Circulation Model Waves in the Open Seas J.W. Loder, D. Greenberg F.W. Dobson 21. Measurement of Ocean Waves During CASP 40. Data Assimilation and 2. Labrador Coast Ice F.W. Dobson Oceanographic Applications S.J. Prinsenberg, I. Peterson 22. A Trawl-Proof Bottom Mount for W. Perrie 3. Gulf of St. Lawrence Ice Studies Oceanographic Instruments 41. Sea-Ice Thickness G.L. Bugden J.-G. Dessureault S.J. Prinsenberg

124 Projects

D. LIVING RESOURCES 18. Baffin Island Fjords 35. The Temporal and Spatial Scales of 1. Circulation off Southwest Nova R.W. Trites Current Variability on Western Bank Scotia: The Cape Sable Experiment 19. Variability and Origin of the Cold K. Drinkwater, J.W. Loder P.C. Smith, K. Tee, R.W. Trites Intermediate Layer on the Labrador 36. Climate Variability in the Water 2. The Shelf Break Experiment: A and Newfoundland Shelves Mass Characteristics of the Shelf Study of Low-Frequency Dynamics S.A. Akenhead, J.R.N. Lazier, Waters in the Scotia-Fundy Region and Mixing at the Edge of the J.W. Loder, B.D. Petrie K. Drinkwater, J.W. Loder, Scotian Shelf 20. Mapping Particle Distributions B.D. Petrie, P.C. Smith P.C. Smith, B.D. Petrie with a ROV 37. Fiber Optic Fluorometer 3. Long-Term Monitoring of the D.L. McKeown, D. Sameoto, M. Mitchell, A. Herman, S. Young Labrador Current at Hamilton Bank N.S. Oakey, G. Steeves 38. Benthic Survey System - J.R.N. Lazier 21. Ocean Feature Identification via The Platform 4. Long-Term Temperature Monitoring Multi-Spectral In-Situ and D.L. McKeown D.N. Gregory, B.D. Petrie, E. Verge Remote-Sensing Techniques B. Topliss E. BIOGEOCHEMISTRY 5. Development of a Remote-Sensing Facility 22. TLC (Temperature, Light, Current) 1. Estuarine and Coastal Trace Metal C.S. Mason, B. Topliss, Recorder Geochemistry L. Payzant J.-G. Dessureault, B. Beanlands P. Yeats, D.H. Loring 6. Horizontal and Vertical Exchange on 23. Exchange between Offshore Waters 2. Sediment Geochronology and the Southeast Shoal of the Grand and the Estuaries, Inlets, and Coastal Geochemistry in the Saguenay Fjord Bank Embayments of the Scotia-Fundy J. Smith J.W. Loder, C.K. Ross Region 3. Trace Metal Geochemistry in G.L. Bugden 7. Towed Biological Sensors Estuarine Mixing Zones A. Herman 24. Physical Oceanography in P. Yeats, J. Dalziel Conjunction with the 8. Optical Properties of Canadian 4. Trace Metal Geochemistry in the Phytoplankton Profiling Program North Atlantic Waters G.L. Bugden B. Topliss P. Yeats, J. Dalziel 25. Classification of Estuaries, Inlets, 5. Radionuclide Measurements in the 9. Biological Arctic Instrumentation and Coastal Embayments A. Herman, D. Knox Arctic R.W. Trites, B.D. Petrie J. Smith 10. Automatic Winch Control for Towed 26. Quoddy Region Oceanography 6. Carbon Isotope Studies on Particulate Plankton Samplers R.W. Trites M. Mitchell, J.-G. Dessureault, and Dissolved Organic Carbon in A. Herman, S. Young, D. Harvey 27. Halifax Harbour Studies Deep Sea and Coastal Environments D.J. Lawrence, B.D. Petrie F.C. Tan, P. Strain 11. Multi-Frequency Acoustic Scanning of the Water Column 28. Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler 7. Joint Canadian/German Caisson N.A. Cochrane Sidelobe Deflectors Experiments D. Belliveau D.H. Loring, F. Prosi 12. Fish Aging from Pb210/Ra226 Meas- urements in Otoliths 29. Advanced Technology Multi- 8. Development of Methods for Studies J.N. Smith frequency Sonar of the Atmospheric Input of N.A. Cochrane Organochlorines to the Northwest 13. Growth Rates of the Sea Scallop Atlantic and Arctic [Placopecten Magellanicus] Using 30. Development of Finite Element Models for Coastal and Shelf R.F. Addison, G.C. Harding, the Oxygen Isotope Record B.T. Hargrave F.C. Tan, D. Roddick Circulation D. Greenberg 9. Trace Metal Transport into the 14. Effects of Hudson Bay Outflow on 31. Laser Particle Counter Western North Atlantic the Labrador Shelf P. Yeats K. Drinkwater A. Herman, E.F. Phillips, D. Knox, M. Mitchell, S. Young 10 Low Molecular Weight 15. Larval Transport and Diffusion 32. Optical Microzooplankton Detector Hydrocarbons: Potential Studies Contributions to the Carbon R.W. Trites, T.W. Rowell, A. Herman, E.F. Phillips, D. Knox, M. Mitchell, S. Young and Energy Requirements of E.G. Dawe Offshore Scallops and Prey of 16. Climatic Variability in the NAFO 33. Diagnosis of Current Measurement Juvenile Galoids on Georges Bank Problems with Aanderaa Area E.M. Levy, F.C. Tan, K. Lee R.W. Trites, K. Drinkwater Paddle-Wheel Current Meters in High Flows 11 The Contribution of Natural Seepage 17. Environmental Variability - J.M. Hamilton, G.A. Fowler to Benthic Productivity on the Correlations, Patterns, and Continental Shelf off Baffin Island 34. Three-Dimensional Lagrangian Drift Response Scales E.M. Levy, F.C. Tan, K. Lee K. Drinkwater. R.W. Trites Studies off Southwest Nova Scotia K. Tee, P.C. Smith

125 Projects

12. Defining Depositional Conditions 12. Investigations into Amino Acid 5. Revisory Surveys: from the Grain-Size Spectra of Shellfish Toxins Fredericton, N.E. Bottom Sediments R. Pocklington Belle Isle Bay, N.B. K. Kranck 13. Molluscan Toxins, Techniques, Saint John River, N.B. 13. The Role of Flocculation in the Flux and Improvements Lunenburg, N.S. of Particulate Matter in the Marine V. Zitko Caribou, N.S. Environment Graham’s Pond, P.E.I. K. Kranck HYDROGRAPHY BRANCH Cardigan, P.E.I. 14. Chemical Reactivity in the R. Hasse Surface Ocean A. HYDROGRAPHY P. Strain 1. Coastal and Harbour Surveys B. TIDES, CURRENTS, AND WATER LEVELS 15. Composition and Reactions of (Atlantic Provinces): Marine Colloidal Matter Port de Grave, Nfld. 1. Ongoing support to CHS Field S. Niven Twillingate to Fogo Island, Nfld. Surveys and Chart Production Black Island to Twillingate, Nfld. C.T. O’Reilly, C.P. McGinn, F. TOXICOLOGY, Botwood, Nfld. G. Lutwick, F. Carmichael, R. Palmer CONTAMINANTS, Island Run Harbour, Nfld. 2. Operation of the Permanent AND HABITAT Approaches to Twillingate, Nfld. Water-Level Network 1. Marine Analytical Chemistry J. Goodyear C.T. O’Reilly, C.P. McGinn, Standards Program Bonavista Bay, Nfld. G. Lutwick, F. Carmichael, R. Palmer J.M. Bewers, J. Uthe, P. Yeats, G. Rockwell, D. Blaney 3. Review and Update of Tide Tables D.H. Loring Liscomb, N.S. and Sailing Directions 2. International Activities Halifax Harbour, N.S. C.T. O’Reilly, R. Palmer J.M. Bewers, P.A. Yeats, W. Burke 4. Scientific and Engineering Project D.H. Loring, J. Uthe, R. Mist-a, Petty Harbour, Nfld. support R.F. Addison Southern Harbour, Nfld. C.T. O’Reilly, C.P. McGinn, 3. Heavy-Metal Contamination of Cape Farewell, Nfld. G. Lutwick, F. Carmichael, R. Palmer Sediments and Suspended Matter Change Island Tickle, Nfld. on the Greenland Shelf South Twillingate Island to C. NAUTICAL PUBLICATION D.H. Loring, G. Asmund Black Island, Nfld. PRODUCTION 4. Risk Assessment of Toxic Chemicals St. Margarets Bay, N.S. 1. Chart Production J. Uthe, R. Misra, C.L. Chou, J. Goodyear 16 New Charts N. Prouse Coastal and Harbour Surveys 6 New Editions 5. Habitat Assessment and Related (Labrador): 10 Chart Correction Patches Research - Acid Rain Smokey, Punch Bowl, Fox Harbour 125 Notices to Mariners J. Uthe, P. Yeats, G.B. Sangalang J. Goodyear S. Weston, F. Miller, A. Huntzis, E. Lischenski 6. Risk Assessment of Organic Offshore Multi-Disciplinary Surveys: Chemicals to Fisheries Scotian Shelf, N.S. 2. Publication of Sailing Directions, V. Zitko G. Rockwell Nova Scotia (Atlantic Coast) and Bay of Fundy Biochemical Indicators of Health Sweep Surveys - Ports and Harbours 7. S. Weston, R. Pietrzak of Aquatic Animals on the Atlantic Coast: K. Haya, B.A. Waiwood, Sydney Harbour, N.S. D. DATA MANAGEMENT AND L.E. But-ridge Cheticamp, N.S. PLANNING 8. MFO Enzyme Induction by PCBs Comer Brook, Nfld. Port aux Choix, Nfld. 1. Long-range Hydrographic Survey and PCB Replacements and Chart Production Plans R.F. Addison Port Saunders, Nfld. Meteghan, N.S. S. Grant, G. Henderson, 9. Organochlorines in Seals G. Rockwell R.F. Addison St. John’s, Nfld. Saint John, N.B. 2. Hydrographic Data Centre: Update 10. Sub-Lethal Contaminants: Conception Bay, Nfld. and Maintenance of the Source Long-Term Fate and Effects of Stephenville, Nfld. Directory Files Management System Petroleum Hydrocarbon Pollution Halifax Harbour, N.S. K. MacDonald, S. Nickerson, in Aquatic Systems J. Ferguson J. Lockhart J.H. Vandermeulen Point Tupper, N.S. Interaction with the Validation Unit 11. Aquatic Toxicology of Marine Neils Harbour, N.S. K. MacDonald, S. Nickerson, Phytotoxins Cow Head, Nfld. J. Lockhart K. Haya, L. But-ridge, Port aux Basques, Nfld. Development of a National Files B.A. Waiwood Sydney Harbour, N.S. Management System B. MacGowan K. MacDonald

126 Projects

Renumbering Project (International 2. COMS (Coastal Ocean Mapping C. GEOLOGY OF THE SDS compatible numbers) System) Program SOUTHEASTERN C. Day-Power, J. Lockhart, R.G. Burke, G. Costello CANADIAN MARGIN J. Griffin 3. Large Data Set Processing 1. Surficial and Shallow Bedrock 3. Validation of New Charts and S. Forbes, G. Costello Geology of Grand Banks and Editions 4. Implementation of a CHS LAN (Local Scotian Shelf New Charts: Area Network) G. Fader 4209 Shelburne and Lockport S. Forbes 2. Computer-based Map Series - Harbours 5. Enhancing Computer-Assisted Chart Offshore Eastern Canada 7482 Winter Island to Cape Germain Production Techniques G. Fader 4170 Glace Bay S. Forbes, K. White 3. Engineering Geology of the Atlantic 7489 Longstaff Bluff to Navy 6. Informatics Support and Shelf Channel Coordination R. Parrott 4116 Black’s Harbour to Saint John R.G. Burke, S. Forbes 4. Quaternary Geological Processes on 7481 Foxe Channel the Continental Margin D. Fleming, B. McCorriston, M. Jay, DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY, D. Piper D. Nicholson MINES AND RESOURCES 5. Ice Scouring of Continental Shelves New Editions: M. Lewis 4391 Conquerall Bank to ATLANTIC GEOSCIENCE 6. Physical Property Studies of Bridgewater CENTRE Canadian Eastern and Arctic 4395 Riverport to Conquerall Bank Continental Shelves and Slopes A. COASTAL GEOLOGY 4145 Mactaquac Dam to Newburg K. Moran Junction PROGRAM 7. Quaternary Geological Processes on 4141 St. John to Evandale 1. Beaufort Sea Coastal Zone W. Burke, F. Burgess, P. Parks, Continental Slopes Geotechnics D. Piper D. Nicholson S. Solomon 8. Stability and Transport of Sediments Validation of Sailing Directions 2. Geological Mapping of the Diagrams, Chart Patches, on Continental Shelves Coastal Zone C. Amos Notices to Mariners; R. Taylor D. McCarthy, F. Burgess, D. EASTERN ARCTIC AND B. McCorriston, J. Ferguson, 3. Sediment Dynamics and Depositional W. Burke, P. Parks, K. MacDonald, Processes in the Coastal Zone SUB-ARCTIC GEOLOGY D. Forbes D. Nicholson 1. Eastern Baffin Island Shelf and 4. Navigation: 4. Relative Sea-level Changes and Hudson Strait: Bedrock and Surficial Coastal Response Geological Mapping Program BIONAV Maintenance and User J. Shaw B. MacLean support H. Boudreau 5. Nearshore Sediments and Non-Fuel 2. Ice Island Sampling and Investigation Minerals - Nova Scotia MDA 2 of Sediments Loran-C Chart Latticing G. Fader P. Mudie N. Stuifbergen 6. Inner Shelf Sediments and Minerals 3. Quantitative Quaternary Navigation - User Support and off Newfoundland Paleoecology, Eastern Canada Training D. Forbes P. Mudie H. Boudreau, N. Stuifbergen 4. Quaternary Biostratigraphic Methods B. GEOLOGY OF COASTAL 5. Data Base Management Systems: for Marine Sediments INLETS Development and Testing of G. Vilks Hydrographic Hyperspatial Code 1. Littoral Investigation of Sediment 5. Surficial Geology, Geomorphology (HH Code) Concept Properties (LISP) in the Bay of Fundy and Glaciology of the Gulf of St. H. Varma, H. Boudreau C. Amos Lawrence, Labrador Shelf and Transfer of HH Code to ORACLE 2. SEDFLUX: On Transfer of Sediments Hudson Bay Canada Ltd. from Landmass to Continental Shelf H. Josenhans P. Bellemare, S. Grant J. Syvitski 6. Temporal and Spatial Variations 3. Temperature Response of Nearshore E. HYDROGRAPHIC of Deep Ocean Currents in the Benthonic Foraminifera Experiment Western Labrador Sea DEVELOPMENT C. Schafer C. Schafer 1. Research Coordination and 7 20th Century Pollution Chronologies: Development Lower St. Lawrence Estuary R.G. Burke C. Schafer

127 Projects

E. WESTERN ARCTIC J. GEOLOGICAL 6. Seismic Refraction - Labrador Sea GEOLOGY DATABASES and Baffin Bay R. Jackson 1. Surficial Geology and 1. Sample and Data Curation Seismic Studies of Continental Geomorphology, Beaufort Sea I. Hardy 7. Margins and Ocean Basins - Continental Shelf 2. Palynological Data Base S. Blasco North Atlantic G. Williams I. Reid Information Data Base - Offshore F. GEOCHEMISTRY 3. 8. Dynamic Modelling of Canadian East Coast Wells Cratonic Basins -Western Canada 1. Diagenesis and Geochemical Cycling G. Williams R. Cranston and Hudson Basins R. Courtney 2. Early Diagenesis in Quaternary K. GEOLOGICAL Marine Sediments of Eastern and TECHNOLOGY 9. Ocean Drilling Program in the Arctic Canada DEVELOPMENT Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay S. Srivastava D. Buckley 1. Large Diameter Piston Corer 3. Environmental Marine Geology Development N. THEORETICAL of Halifax Inlet and Approaches, W. McKinnon GEOPHYSICAL Nova Scotia 2. Development and Implementation of MODELLING D. Buckley Remotely Operated Vehicle 1. Rift Processes and the Development Technology G. REGIONAL GEOPHYSICAL of Passive Continental Margins K. Manchester SURVEYS C. Keen 3. Systems Development 1. Interpretation of Potential Field Data D. Hefler O. BASIN ANALYSIS AND J. Verhoef PETROLEUM GEOLOGY 2. Magnetic and Gravity Anomalies L. SPECIAL GEOLOGICAL 1. Compilation of Geoscientific Data over Sedimentary Basins PROJECTS in Upper Paleozoic Basins of B. Loncarevic 1. Basin Atlases - Offshore Eastern Southwestern Canada 3. Magnetic Data Compilations Canada R. Howie R. Macnab D. Ross 2. Lithologic Evolution and Fluid 4. Regional Geophysics of Mesozoic- 2. Bedrock Geology of Hudson Bay and Migration in Offshore Basins of Cenozoic of Newfoundland Margin Gulf of St. Lawrence Eastern Canada K. Coflin A. Grant A. Fricker 3. Ocean Drilling Program (Planning) H. HYDROCARBON 3. Palynostratigraphic Atlases D. Ross RESOURCE APPRAISAL R. Fensome 4. Provision of Scientific Advice to 4. Regional Geology of the Mesozoic 1. Hydrocarbon Inventory of Developing Countries and Cenozoic Rocks of the Atlantic Sedimentary Basins of Eastern D. Ross Continental Margins Canada J. Wade D. McAlpine M. INVESTIGATION OF 5. Stratigraphy and Sedimentology of 2. Maturation Studies DEEP GEOLOGICAL the Mesozoic and Tertiary Rocks of D. McAlpine STRUCTURES Atlantic Continental Margin 3. Overpressure Studies of the 1. Arctic Ocean: Seismic Refraction and L. Jansa Offshore Sedimentary Basins of Related Geophysical Measurements 6. Sedimentary Basin Evolution of the Eastern Canada R. Jackson Continental Margin of Newfound- D. McAlpine 2. Evolution of Deep Ocean and land, Labrador and Baffin Bay I. BIOSTRATIGRAPHY Adjoining Sedimentary Basins D. McAlpine off Eastern Canada and Hydrocarbon Charge Modelling 1. Biostratigraphic Zonation of the 7. Western Greenland Offshore Eastern Canada Mesozoic and Cenozoic Rocks S. Srivastava of the Atlantic Shelf M. Williamson 3. Crustal Properties P. Ascoli M. Salisbury 2. DSDP Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic Dinoflagellates 4. Geophysical Study of the Gulf of St. Lawrence Region G. Williams F. Marillier 3. Quantitative Stratigraphy in Marine Deep Seismic Reflection Paleoceanography and Petroleum 5. Basin Analysis Studies - Eastern Canada C. Keen F. Gradstein

128 Projects

ENVIRONMENTCANADA 9. Seabirds as Monitors of Changing Development of a Volunteer Marine Environments Loon Population Survey in the ATLANTIC REGION D.N. Nettleship Atlantic Provinces 10. Seabirds and Commercial Fisheries J. Kerekes MARINE WILDLIFE Interactions Effects of Fertilization on CONSERVATION DIVISION D.N. Nettleship Acidic Wetlands (CANADIAN WILDLIFE 11. Thick-Billed Murres Uria lomvia in J. Kerekes, M. Brylinsky SERVICE) Arctic Canada & Greenland: Status, Habitat Use of Winter Populations of Recent Changes, and Management Aquatic Birds in Coastal Lagoons in A. DISTRIBUTION AND D.N. Nettleship Mexico ECOLOGY OF SEABIRDS 12. Modelling the Effects of Hunting on J. Kerekes, F. Contreras, R. Acuna IN ATLANTIC CANADA AND Thick-Billed Murres Uria lomvia THE EASTERN CANADIAN Breeding in Eastern Canada and REGIONAL LABORATORY ARCTIC West Greenland (ENVIRONMENTAL 1. Distribution and Population Trends D.N. Nettleship, J.W. Chardine PROTECTION) of Coastal Seabirds in Atlantic 13. Reintroduction of the Atlantic Puffin Canada (Gulls, Terns and Fratercula arctica to Former 1 Sublethal Toxicity of Chlorothalonil Cormorants) Breeding Sites in Maine and its Major Metabolite A.R. Lock D.N. Nettleship, S. Kress K.G. Doe, J.D.A. Vaughan 2. Studies of Tern Reproduction and 14. Monitoring Alcid Populations at 2. Influence of pH, Temperature and Survival, and Management for Machias Seal Island, N.B. Dissolved Oxygen on Toxicity of Population Enhancement D.N. Nettleship Trichlopyr J.D.A. Vaughan A.R. Lock 15. Education and Seabird Conservation: 3. Habitat Use and Winter Populations A Conceptual Framework for Action 3. Toxicity Test Methods Development of Birds Using Wetlands on the D.N. Nettleship, K.A. Blanchard K.G. Doe, S.J. Wade Pacific Coast of Mexico 16. A Gazetteer of the Principal Sites for 4. Mussel Watch, Chemical Analysis A.R. Lock Breeding and Non-Breeding Seabirds P.A. Hennigar 4. Marine Pollution Impacts on in Atlantic Canada 5. Improved Oil Match Analysis Seabirds R.G.B. Brown Methodology Using GC/MS A.R. Lock 17. Investigations of Recent Changes in Biomarkers 5. Seabird Colony Registry - the Fall Migration Patterns of Red P.A. Hennigar Computerized Database Management and Red-necked Phalaropes 6. Analysis of Thiophanate-Methyl System for Colonially Breeding Phalaropus fulicarius and P. lobatus in Environmental Samples Seabirds in Eastern Canada through the Bay of Fundy P.A. Hennigar D.N. Nettleship, G.N. Glenn R.G.B. Brown 7. Analysis of Lead in Sediments, 6. Seabird Gazetteers of Northeastern 18. Reduction of Losses of Cultured Water, and Tissues of Ducks North America: I. Seabird Colonies Mussels to Sea Ducks O.C. Vaidya in Labrador E.H.J. Hiscock 8. Industrial Emissions Compliance D.N. Nettleship, G.N. Glenn (Fisheries Act and CEPA). 7. Distribution and Abundance of B. LIMNOLOGICAL STUDIES Analyses for Inorganic, Organic, Breeding Seabirds in Northeastern OF WATERBIRD HABITATS and Toxicity Parameters North America 1. Kejimkujik LRTAP Studies O.C. Vaidya, P.A. Hennigar, D.N. Nettleship (Integrated Monitoring) Coordination K.G. Doe 8. Development of Management J. Kerekes 9. PCB Congener Identification Methods for Populations of 2. Monitoring of Piscivorous Birds in Paint Pigments Threatened Seabirds in the Kejimkujik Watersheds P.A. Hennigar D.N. Nettleship J. Kerekes

129 Voyages

This section describes the vessels that the federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), Scotia-Fundy Region, operates for the purpose of scientific research and hydrographic surveys. It also lists the voyages that these vessels made during 1990 and ‘91 and the types of research that were conducted. Cruises on vessels not operated by the department but which involved scientific personnel from DFO’s Scotia-Fundy Region and DEMR’s Atlantic Geoscience Centre are included as well. In the following pages, these abbreviations are used: AGC Atlantic Geoscience Centre BSB Biological Sciences Branch CHS Hydrography Branch, Canadian Hydrographic Service FHM Fisheries and Habitat Management INRS Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique MALD Marine Assessment and Liaison Divison MSD Marine Services Division NCSP Northern Cod Science Program PCS Physical and Chemical Sciences Branch

130 Voyages

C.S.S. BAFFIN, a diesel-driven ship, was designed for hydrographic surveying but was also used for general oceanography. The ship was owned by DFO and was operated by the department’s Scotia-Fundy Region. The Baffin was retired from service in 1991. Hull ...... Lloyds Ice Class I Built ...... 1956 Length ...... 86.9 m Breadth . . . . . 15.1 m Draft ...... 5.7 m Freeboard to working deck ..3.3 m Displacement ...... 4,987 tonnes Gross tonnage ...... 35 1 1 tonnes Full speed ...... 15.5 knots Service speed ...... 10 knots Endurance ...... 76 days Range at service speed ...... 18,000 naut. mi. Complement ...... 29 hydrographic staff Twin screws Bow thruster for holding position Micro-VAX computer Heliport and hangar Drafting, plotting, and laboratory space Six survey launches 1990 Time at sea: 201 days Distance steamed: 20,705 naut. mi. 1991 Decommissioned.

YEAR & VOYAGE OFFICER AREA OF OBJECTIVES NUMBER DATES IN CHARGE OPERATION OF VOYAGE

1990 89-41 Mar. 25 - Apr. 14 C. Tang, PCS Eastern Newfoundland, LIMEX ice-sea interactions ice margin 90-04 Apr. 24 - 28 B. Loncarevic, AGC Grand Banks Geology 90-04b Apr. 29 - May 8 B. DeYoung, Conception Bay COPE physical oceanography Memorial University 90-06 May 9 - July 6 C. Rockwell, CHS Bonavista Bay Hydrographic charting 90-17 July 23 - Oct. 4 E. Thompson, CHS Hudson Bay Hydrographic charting 90-24 Oct. 4 - 20 H. Josenhans, AGC Hudson Bay, Geophysics: seafloor processes at river mouth, Great Whale River baseline environmental data collection 90-29 Oct. 31 - Dec. 5 G. Rockwell, CHS Scotian Shelf Joint AGC/CHS geophysical survey and offshore Hydrographic charting

131 Voyages

C.S.S. DAWSON, a diesel-driven ship, was designed and used for multi-disciplinary oceanographic research, hydrographic surveying, and handling of moorings in deep and shallow water. The ship was owned by DFO and was operated by the department’s Scotia-Fundy Region. The Dawson was retired from service in 1991. Hull ...... steel Built ...... 1967 Length ...... 64.5 m Breadth . . . . . 12.2 m Draft ...... 4.6 m Freeboard to working deck . . 1.5 m Displacement ...... 2,007 tonnes Gross tonnage ...... 1,311 tonnes Full speed ...... 14 knots Service speed ...... 10 knots Endurance ...... 45 days Range at service speed ...... 11,000 naut. mi. Complement ...... 13 scientific staff Twin screws Bow thruster for holding position Computer suite Heliport and hangar 87 m2 working space in four laboratories One survey launch 1990 Time at sea . . . 172 days Distance steamed . . 22,037 naut. mi. 1991 Time at sea . . . 192 days Distance steamed . . 24,296 naut. mi. Decommissioned 15 December 1991.

YEAR & VOYAGE OFFICER AREA OF OBJECTIVES NUMBER DATES IN CHARGE OPERATION OF VOYAGE

1990

89-36 Jan. 2 - 7 R. Lively, PCS Gulf of St. Lawrence Physical oceanography (CTD profiles) in support of ice-forecast studies 90-02 Apr.5- 12 D. Piper. AGC SW Scotian Slope Geophysics; seismics and coring between Shelf edge and Continental Rise 90-03 Apr. 25 - 27 D. Lawrence, PCS Grand Banks, Physical oceanography; mooring, Scotian Shelf CTD profiles 90-05 May 3- 15 A. Herman, PCS Scotian Shelf Basins Secondary Production in deep basins: zooplankton abundance and distribution

90-08 May 28 - June 8 S. Narayanan, PCS, NE Newfoundland Shelf Physical Oceanography: current meter moor- Newfoundland Region ings, CTD transects. This cruise was effec- tively cancelled due to mechanical problems.

90-12 June 29 - July 11 J. Lazier, PCS Labrador Sea Physical Oceanography: CTD and current meter moorings

90-16 July 12 - 25 S. Narayanan, PCS, NE Newfoundland Shelf Annual oceanographic survey Newfoundland Region 90-14a Pt. Aug. 2; N. Oakey, PCS Scotian Shelf Instrument and Remotely Operated Vehicle Aug. 7 - 19 D. McKeown, PCS (ROV) trials 90-21 Aug. 22 - Sept. 10 R. Parrott, AGC Grand Banks Geophysics: sidescan sonar mapping of iceberg scour; seismostratigraphy

90-25 Sept. 13 - 21 E. Levy, PCS Georges Bank, Methane distribution and uptake of Scotian Shelf particulates by scallops; deployment of oceanographic mooring 132 Voyages

C.S.S. DAWSON continued...

90-26 Sept. 25 - Oct. 5 D. Sameoto, BSB Scotian Shelf Secondary Production in deep basins: zooplankton abundance and distribution

90-14b Oct. 9 - 16; N. Oakey, PCS Scotian Shelf Instrument trials (BUD probe); Physical Oct. 22 - 24 D. Lawrence, PCS Oceanography: moorings for various instruments deployed

90-27 Oct. 26 - Nov. 9 S. Narayanan, PCS Trinity Bay, Physical and biological oceanography Newfoundland Region NE Newfoundland Shelf 90-30 Nov. 16 - 26 R. Lively, PCS Gulf of St. Lawrence Annual “ice-forecast” physical oceanographic observations

90-32 Nov. 27 - Dec. 9 J. Plourde, BSB St. Lawrence estuary Chemical oceanography: petroleum pollution Quebec Region 1991 90-41 Feb. 18-22 D. Beliveau, PCS Scotian Shelf, Physical oceanography: moorings and CTD Western Bank

91-03 Apr. 11 - May 2 K. Drinkwater, PCS Scotian Shelf, Physical oceanography associated with Western Bank OPEN program 91-11 May 7 - 21 S. Narayanan, PCS NE Newfoundland Shelf Deploy, retrieve current meter moorings, Newfoundland Region CTD survey, cod acoustic tags 91-16 May 24-31 D. Peer, BSB Grand Banks, Baseline benthic sampling for trawl Scotian Shelf impact study 91-18 June 4-21 G. Fader, AGC Nova Scotia nearshore Geology: mineral and aggregate potential, surficial sampling 91-26 June 24 - July 8 J. Shaw, AGC Newfoundland Shelf Nearshore surficial geology 91-29 July 10 - 19 A. Aksu, Orphan Knoll, Geology: seismics, piston cores and Memorial University Cape Freels gravity cores 91-30 July 20 - Aug. 7 S. Narayanan, PCS NE Newfoundland Shelf, Physical oceanography: CTD, Newfoundland Region Hamilton Bank current meter moorings

91-35 Aug. 26 - 29 D. Muschenheim, BSB Georges Bank Particulate and microbial studies over scallop grounds

91-38 Sept. 3-18 A. Herman, PCS Scotian Shelf Zooplankton studies: production, abundance and distribution in deep basins

91-41 Sept. 24 - 27; N. Oakey, PCS Scotian Shelf Instrumentation: BUD, EPSONDE; moorings Sept. 30 - Oct 4

91-46 Oct. 8 - 22 J. Anderson, BSB Conception and Trinity O-group cod and capelin; Newfoundland Region bays, NAFO Div. 3KL oceanographic survey 91-42 Oct. 25 - 28 J. Wrobleski, Newfoundland Shelf, Cod inshore-offshore migration Memorial University Bonavista Bay with telemetry

91-52 Nov. 1 - 20 S. Narayanan, PCS NE Newfoundland Shelf. Physical Oceanography: current meter Newfoundland Region Hamilton Bank moorings, CTD transects

91-58 Nov. 23 - Dec. 5 R. Lively, PCS Gulf of St. Lawrence Annual “ice forecast” oceanographic survey 91-60 Dec. 9 - 11; A. Herman, PCS Scotian Shelf, Recovery of moored OPC; gear trials for Dec. 12 T. Rowell, BSB Emerald Basin, AFAP trawl impact study and Halifax Harbour

133 Voyages

M.V. LADY HAMMOND is a converted fishing trawler owned by Northlakes Shipping Limited and is chartered by DFO specifically for fisheries research. The ship is operated by the department’s Scotia-Fundy Region; its main user is the Biological Sciences Branch which has components at BIO, in Halifax, and in St. Andrews, New Brunswick. Hull ...... steel Built ...... 1972 Length ...... 57.9 m Breadth . . . . . 1 1 .0 m Draft ...... 4.8 m Freeboard to working deck . . 2.5 m Displacement ...... 930 tonnes Gross tonnage ...... 897 tons Full speed ...... 15.0 knots Service speed ...... 12.5 knots Endurance ...... 30 days Range at service speed ...... 8,000 naut. mi. Complement ...... 9 scientific staff 1990 Time at sea: 177 days Distance steamed: n/a 1991 Time at sea: 151 days Distance steamed: n/a

YEAR & VOYAGE OFFICER AREA OF OBJECTIVES NUMBER DATES IN CHARGE OPERATION OF VOYAGE

1990

90-H210 May 6- 13 B. Nakashima, BSB Conception Bay Capelin tagging Newfoundland Region 90-H211 May 14 - 22 E. Dawe, BSB Conception Bay Snow crab survey and survey gear tests; Newfoundland Region recruitment studies

90-H212 May 23 - 31 D. Taylor, BSB NAFO Div. 3K Snow crab survey; distribution study Newfoundland Region 90-H213 June 1 - 6 E. Dalley, BSB East Newfoundland, Capelin tagging Newfoundland Region NAFO Div. 3KL, Conception Bay 90-H214 June 11 - 25 J. McRuer, BSB SW Nova Scotia Abundance of juvenile haddock

90-H215 June 27 - Juy 7 R. Tallman, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence Seasonal survey to determine distribution and Gulf Region movements of cod at various times of year

90-H216 July 26 - Aug. 3 W. Hickey, FHM Scotian Shelf Gear trials with shrimp separator trawl; gear/fish behaviour using underwater video and SCANMAR 90-H217 Aug. 6 - 17 J. Martell, BSB E. Scotian Shelf Distribution of sealworm in groundfish species, trend monitoring 90-H218 Aug. 20-31 D. Gascon, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence, Comparative fishing with AIfred Needler Quebec Region NAFO Div. 4RST during 4RST Redfish/shrimp survey

90-H219 Sept. 3-21 D. Swain, BSB S. Gulf of St. Lawrence Annual NAFO Div. 4T groundfish survey Gulf Region

134 Voyages

M.V. LADY HAMMOND continued...

90-H220 Sept. 24 - Oct. 12 W. Hickey, FHM Scotian Shelf Evaluate trawls equipped with separator panels and grates for sorting shrimp and fish; underwater video viewing of lost gill nets. 90-H221 Oct. 15 - 23 G. McClelland, BSB Scotian Shelf Distribution of sealworm in groundfish species, trend monitoring 90-222 Oct. 27 - Nov. 15 M. Power, BSB Georges Bank Monitor resurgence of Georges Bank herring stock with larval survey and trawling

90-223 Nov. 19 - 30 M. Hansen, BSB S. Gulf of St. Lawrence Seasonal groundfish survey 1991 91-224 Apr. 1 - 7 D. Taylor, BSB Grand Banks Snow crab survey Newfoundland Region

91-225 Apr. 10 - 17, 25 P. Pepin, NCSP Newfoundland Shelf Northern Cod Science Program: Newfoundland Region Ichthyoplankton survey

91-226 May 3 J. Anderson, NCSP Newfoundland Shelf Northern Cod Science Program: Newfoundland Region Ichthyoplankton survey 91-227 May 12-29 G. Rose, NCSP, Newfoundland Shelf Feasibility of obtaining acoustic biomass Newfoundland Region estimates for northern cod 91-228 June 1 - 15 P. Pepin, NCSP Newfoundland Shelf Northern Cod Science Program: Newfoundland Region Ichthyoplankton survey 91-229 June 18-29 J. Anderson, NCSP Newfoundland Shelf Northern Cod Science Program: Newfoundland Region Ichthyoplankton survey 91-230 July 1 - 8 J. Anderson, NCSP Newfoundland Shelf Not-them Cod Science Program: Newfoundland Region Ichthyoplankton survey

91-230a July 17 - 28 P. Koeller, MALD Eastern Scotian Shelf Alfred Needler summer groundfish survey conducted on this vessel due to mechanical problems with the regular vessel 91-231 Sept. 1 - 23 D. Swain, BSB S. Gulf of St. Lawrence Annual groundfish abundance survey Gulf Region 91-232 Sept. 25 - Oct. 6 B. Nakashima, BSB Newfoundland Shelf, Capelin tagging Newfoundland Region NAFO Div. 2J, 3K, 3L

91-233 Oct. 9 - 20 L. Dickie, BSB Scotian Shelf, Western Acoustic survey for adult cod and haddock, and Sable Island Banks OPEN program 91-234 Oct. 22 - 25 G. McClelland, BSB E. Scotian Shelf Sealworm survey

91-235 Oct. 27 - Nov. 11 G. Melvin, BSB Georges Bank Study of Georges Bank herring stock resurgence, including larval survey

135 Voyages

C.S.S. J. L. HART.IS a stem trawler used for fisheries research, including light trawling operations (bottom and midwater), ichthyoplankton surveys, oceanographic sampling, and scientific gear testing. The ship is owned by DFO and is operated by the department’s Scotia-Fundy Region. It is stationed at the St. Andrews Biological Station in St. Andrews, New Brunswick, and conducts most of its work locally, in Passamaquoddy Bay and the Bay of Fundy. Hull ...... steel Built ...... 1974 Length ...... 19.8 m Breadth . . . .6.1 m Draft ...... 3.65 m Freeboard to working deck . . 0.5 m Displacement ...... 109 tonnes Gross tonnage ...... 89.5 tonnes Full speed ...... 10 knots Service speed ...... 8.5 knots Endurance ...... 7.5 days Range at service speed ...... 2,000 naut. mi. Complement ...... 3 scientific staff 1990 Time at sea . . . 107 days Distance steamed . . . 6,486 naut. mi. 1991 Time at sea . . . 79 days Distance steamed . . . 5,129 naut. mi.

YEAR & VOYAGE OFFICER AREA OF OBJECTIVES NUMBER DATES IN CHARGE OPERATION OF VOYAGE

1990

90-79 Apr. 17 - 19 G. Fawkes, BSB Passamaquoddy Bay BRUTIV trials Newfoundland Region

90-80 Apr. 25 - May 18 K. Howes, BSB Bay of Fundy Collection of live fish for aquaculture development

90-81 June 11 - 14 H. Sampson, BSB Passamaquoddy Bay Collection of food fish for aquaculture facilities

90-82 June 18-29 M. Lundy, BSB Bay of Fundy Scallop assessment survey 90-83 July 3 - 19 S. Robinson, BSB Upper Bay of Fundy Scallop assessment survey 90-84 July 23 - 27 J. L. Martin, BSB Bay of Fundy Toxic phytoplankton blooms 90-85 July 30 - Aug. 11 G. Chouinard, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence Juvenile cod survey Gulf Region 90-86 Aug. 13 - 25 R. Stephenson, BSB Gulf of Maine, Juvenile herring; herring acoustics, U. Buerkle, BSB Bay of Fundy stock structure

90-87 Aug. 27 - 30 J. L. Martin, BSB Bay of Fundy Toxic phytoplankton blooms 90-88 Sept. 4 - 14 S. Robinson, BSB Bay of Fundy Scallop assessment survey 90-89 cancelled 90-90 Sept. 24 - 25 J. L. Martin, BSB Bay of Fundy Toxic phytoplankton blooms

90-91 Oct. 1 - 5 S. Robinson, BSB Bay of Fundy Scallop gear trials 90-92 Oct. 8 - 12 M. Lundy, BSB Bay of Fundy Scallop assessment survey

136 Voyages

C.S.S. J. L. HART continued...

90-93 Oct. 15 - 19 M. Strong, BSB Passamaquoddy Bay Gear trials with rockhopper trawl 94, 95, 96 numbers not used 1991

91-97 May 13-Jun7 K. Howes, BSB Bay of Fundy Collection of live haddock and halibut for aquaculture 91-98 June 10 - 14 P. Hurley, BSB SW Nova Scotia Inshore groundfish abundance surveys 91-99 June 17-28 E. Kenchington, BSB Bay of Fundy Scallop assessment survey 91-100 July 2 - 12 K. Frank, BSB SW Nova Scotia Inshore juvenile gadoid survey 91-101 July 16-26 S. Robinson, BSB Passamaquoddy Bay Scallop assessment survey 91-102 July 29 - Aug. 1 J.L. Martin, BSB Bay of Fundy Phytotoxin survey 91-103 Aug. 6 - 8 P. Lawton, BSB Bay of Fundy Lobster trawling/diving survey 91-104 Aug. 12 - 15 P. Hurley, BSB St. Mary’s Bay Inshore juvenile gadoid survey 91-105 Aug. 25 - 29 E. Kenchington, BSB Bay of Fundy Scallop assessment survey 91-106 Sept. 3 - 10 S. Robinson, BSB Grand Manan Scallop assessment survey

137 Voyages

C.S.S. HUDSON is a diesel-electric-driven ship designed and used for multi-disciplinary marine science research. The ship is owned by DFO and is operated by the department’s Scotia-Fundy Region. The Atlantic Geoscience Centre of the Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources is a major user of this vessel. Hull ...... Lloyds Ice Class I Built ...... 1962 Length ...... 90.4 m Breadth . . . . . 15.2 m Draft ...... 6.3 m Freeboard to working deck . . 3.2 m Displacement ...... 4,847 tonnes Gross tonnage ...... 3,721 tonnes Full speed ...... 17 knots Service speed ...... 13 knots Endurance ...... 80 days Range at service speed ...... 23,000 naut. mi. Complement ...... 31 scientific staff Twin screws Bow thruster for holding position Computer system Heliport and hangar 205 m2 of laboratory space Four survey launches 1990 Time at sea . . . 206 days Distance steamed . . 30,008 naut. mi. 1991 Time at sea . . . 238 days Distance steamed . . 32,424 naut. mi.

YEAR & VOYAGE OFFICER AREA OF OBJECTIVES NUMBER DATES IN CHARGE OPERATION OF VOYAGE

1990 This was the vessel’s first field season after her mid-life refit. 89-37 Jan. 2 - 29 R. Hendry, PCS Grand Banks, Southern Physical oceanography: to determine water Newfoundland Basin, transport in the Gulf Stream, Labrador Labrador Current Current, and North Atlantic Current 89-38 Feb. 19 - Mar. 9 K. Moran, AGC Bermuda Rise and Sedimentation study: Baltimore Canyon Long coring and seismics 90-39 Mar. 18-30 C. Amos, AGC Georges Bank Sediment transport study 90-01 Apr. 5 - 28 T. Platt, BSB Northwest Atlantic JGOFS Plankton production and carbon flux studies at two stations 90-07 May 7 - 27 P. Mudie, AGC Grand Banks, Orphan Geophysics: bathymetry, seismics Knoll, Milne Seamount, and Long coring for pollution and N. Newfoundland Basin, paleo-oceanographic studies Newfoundland Slope 90-13 May 29 - June 22 C. Hillaire-Marcel, SW Greenland, Geophysics: seismic reflection, Université du Québec NE Labrador sedimentology, geochemistry, biostratigraphy à Montreal 90-15 July 10 - 31 D. Piper, AGC St. Pierre, Geophysics: instability of continental slopes; SE Scotian Slope sedimentary processes 90-19 Aug. 10 - 29 I. Reid, AGC Labrador Geophysics: Deep crustal structure continental margin and heat flow

138 Voyages

C.S.S. HUDSON continued...

90-22 Aug. 31 - Sep. 18 C. Ross, PCS Davis Strait, Physical oceanography: current meter Baffin Bay moorings, CTD survey

90-23 Sept. 18 - Oct. 22 B. MacLean, ABC Hudson Strait Geophysics: glacial and climatic history, sediment transfer and accumulation rates

90-28 Oct. 30 - Nov. 17 H. Josenhans, AGC Gulf of St. Lawrence Geophysics: Quaternary geology

90-31 Nov. 19 - Dec. 5 G. Vilkes, AGC Gulf of St. Lawrence Geophysics: glacial and postglacial sedimentary and oceanographic history 1991

91-01 Apr. 3 - 20 T. Platt, BSB Northwest Atlantic JGOFS investigation of the development of the spring bloom 91-07 Apr. 24 - June 4 R. Hendry, PCS North Atlantic Physical and biological oceanography in support of JGOFS and WOCE objectives 91-20 June 11 - July 4 D. Piper, AGC Flemish Cap, Geophysics: seismics and coring; investigation Scotian Slope of gas hydrates; dinoflagellate distribution

91-27 July 6 - 26 F. Marillier, AGC Strait of Canso, Geophysics: deep seismics on Grand Banks Appalachian structures 91-39 Aug. 15 - Sept. 20 R. Jackson, AGC Baffin Bay, Geophysics: seismic refraction survey Labrador Shelf of continental margins and deep ocean 91-33 Sept. 22 - Oct. 12 R. Syvitski, AGC Lake Melville Geophysics: Arctic Delta Failure Experiment (ADFEX) 91-45 Oct. 14 - Nov. 7 A. de Vernal, Davis Strait, Geophysics: sedimentology Université du Quebéc Labrador Slope, along inshore/offshore transects à Montreal SW Greenland, Labrador Sea 91-55 Nov. 10 - 25 F. Dobson, PCS Grand Banks Calibration/validation of ERS-1 satellite’s synthetic aperture radar (SAR) 91-59 Nov. 28 - Dec. 10 P. Smith, PCS Grand Banks Physical oceanographic observations for CASP II

139 Voyages

C.S.S. MATTHEW is a multi-disciplinary science vessel primarily used by the Canadian Hydrographic Service. The vessel was constructed at Versatile Pacific Shipyards in 1990 and arrived in Scotia-Fundy Region in May of 1991, after being transferred from the Newfoundland Region. The ship is owned by DFO and operated by Scotia-Fundy Region. Hull ...... steel Built ...... 1990 Length ...... 51.2 m Breadth . . . . . 10.5 m Draft ...... 3.2 m Freeboard to working deck . . 1.1 m Displacement ...... 745 tonnes Gross tonnage ...... 857 tonnes Full speed ...... 12 knots Service speed ...... 10 knots Endurance ...... 20 days Range at service speed ...... 4,000 naut. mi. Complement ...... 7 scientific staff EM100 Auto pilot Various positioning systems 1991 Time at sea . . . 103 days Distance steamed . . . 5,662 naut. mi.

YEAR & VOYAGE OFFICER AREA OF OBJECTIVES NUMBER DATES IN CHARGE OPERATION OF VOYAGE

This was the vessel’s first field season. 1991 91-08 June 22 - July 29; J. Goodyear, CHS Nova Scotia and Hydrographic charting, Aug. 9 - Oct. 28 Newfoundland coasts ISAH Questar Tangent trials 91-31 Nov. 1 - 18 G. Costello, CHS Conception Bay DOLPHIN trials

140 Voyages

C.S.S. F.C.G. SMITH made its maiden voyage in 1986. The ship is owned by DFO and is operated by the department’s Scotia-Fundy Region. The vessel is primarily used by the Canadian Hydrographic Service as an acoustic sweep vessel in the coastal areas of the maritime provinces. Hull ...... steel Built ...... 1985 Length ...... 34.8 m Breadth . . . . . overall 14 m Breadth . . . . . single hull 4 m Draft ...... 2.1 m Freeboard to working deck . . 1.3 m Displacement ...... 370 tonnes Gross tonnage ...... 438 tonnes Full speed ...... 12 knots Service speed ...... 10 knots Endurance ...... 7 days Complement ...... 4 scientific staff Integrated sweep transducers Auto-pilot Laser-ranging positioning system Onboard data processing Up to 500,000 depth measurements daily 1990 Time at sea . . . 92 days Distance steamed . . . 3.685 naut. mi. 1991 Time at sea . . . 66 days Distance steamed . . . 766 naut. mi.

YEAR & VOYAGE OFFICER AREA OF OBJECTIVES NUMBER DATES IN CHARGE OPERATION OF VOYAGE

1990 90-09 Apr. 30 - June 28 J. Ferguson, CHS Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia Hydrographic sweep surveys and Bay of Fundy, including Halifax Harbour, La Have River area, Meteghan, N.S., and Saint John, N.B.

90-20 July 16 - Oct. 31 J. Ferguson, CHS Newfoundland Coast, Hydrographic sweep surveys including Conception Bay, St. John’s, Stephenville, Corner Brook, Port aux Choix, and Port Saunders: Georgetown, P.E.I.; Halifax Harbour, Cheticamp, and Sydney, N.S. 1991 91-10 May 8 - July 28 G. Henderson, CHS Maritimes, including Hydrographic sweep surveys Point Tupper, Neils Harbour, Mulgrave, and Port Hawkesbury, N.S.; Souris, and Cardigan Bay, P.E.I.

91-32 Sept. 9 - Oct. 2.5 B. MacGowan, CHS Newfoundland coast, Hydrographic sweep surveys including Cow Head, Port aux Basques and Burgeo Village

141 Voyages

C.S.S. NAVICULA is a fishing vessel owned by DFO. It is operated by the department’s Scotia-Fundy Region and is used for research in biological oceanography.

Hull ...... wood Built ...... 1968 Length ...... 19.8 m Breadth . . . . . 5.85 m Draft ...... 3.25 m Freeboard to working deck . . 2.5 m Displacement ...... 104 tonnes Gross tonnage ...... 78 tonnes Full speed ...... 10 knots Service speed ...... 9 knots Endurance ...... 8- 10 hours Range at service speed ...... 1,000 naut. mi. Complement ...... 3 scientific staff 1990 Time at sea . . . 116 days Distance steamed . . . 6.590 naut. mi. 1991 Time at sea . . . 138 days Distance steamed . . . 7,766 naut. mi.

YEAR & VOYAGE OFFICER AREA OF OBJECTIVES NUMBER DATES IN CHARGE OPERATION OF VOYAGE

1990 From January 29 to April 8, the Navicula was on fisheries patrol, replacing F.P.V. Cobequid Bay in Southwest Nova Scotia. 90-10 May 23 - June 6 G. Fader, AGC Halifax Harbour Seismic survey 90-34 July 11 - 17 P. Vass, BSB St. Margarets Bay Plankton and benthic survey for lobsters 90-35 July 23 - Aug. 20 J. Shaw, AGC E. Newfoundland coast Nearshore geophysical survey 90-36 Aug. 26 - Sept. 21 R. Tallman, BSB Southern Gulf Gulf Region Northumberland Strait, Herring spawn survey; flatfish behaviour Fisherman’s Bank on herring spawning grounds 90-37 Sept. 24 - 27 D. Willis, PCS Sydney Harbour Interaction of enzyme systems and hydrocarbon load 90-38 Oct. 9 - 25 R. Miller, AGC Nova Scotia Surficial geology, potential for aggregate Eastern Shore recovery 90-39 Oct. 30 - Nov. 9 J. Smith, BSB Eastern P.E.I. area Toxic algal blooms in relation to Gulf Region environmental conditions 90-40 Nov. 14 - 15 J. Buckland-Nicks, St. Margarets Bay Benthic collections for embryological studies St. Francis-Xavier University 1991 91-06 Apr. 29 - May 11 T. Lambert, BSB Nova Scotia Eastern Eastern Shelf Program: Plankton survey Shore, Bras d’Or Lakes 91-09 May 14 - 16, G. Fowler, PCS Halifax Harbour Testing weather buoy, acoustic doppler 24, 28, 30 current meter, thermistor chains, etc.

142 Voyages

C.S.S. NAVICULA continued...

91-12 May 21 - 23; 27 D. Mossman, PCS Halifax Harbour Collection of benthos, fish and water samples for hydrocarbon analysis

91-17 May 30 - June 7 T. Lambert, BSB Nova Scotia Eastern Shelf Program: Plankton survey Eastern Shore 91-19 June 10 - 11; D. Willis, PCS St. Georges Bay Collection of hydrocarbon, 18 - 19 winter flounder samples 91-21 June 20 - 25 J. Smith, BSB Ballantyne Cove, Collection of phytoplankton for toxin studies Gulf Region St. Georges Bay 91-25 June 27 - 28; T. Lambert, BSB Nova Scotia Eastern Shelf Program: Plankton survey July 3 - 6 Eastern Shore 91-28 July 29 - 30 D. Mossman, PCS Halifax Harbour Collection of hydrocarbon, winter flounder samples

91-31 July 31 -Aug. 18 J. Shaw, AGC NE Newfoundland Inshore surficial geology coast

91-37 Aug. 26 - Sept. 19 F. Gallant, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence, Winter flounder behaviour during Gulf Region Fisherman’s Bank herring spawning in the area 91-40 Sept. 20 - 27 J. Smith, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence, Collection of phytoplankton for toxin studies Gulf Region Cardigan Bay, and Georges Bay

91-44 Sept. 30 - Oct. 10 T. Lambert, BSB Sydney Bight Eastern Shelf Program: Ichthyoplankton survey J. McRuer 91-51 Oct. 16 - Nov. 1 T. Lambert, BSB Sydney Bight Eastern Shelf Program: Ichthyoplankton survey 91-53 Nov. 5- 11 J. Smith, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence, Collection of phytoplankton for toxin studies Gulf Region Cardigan Bay 91-57 Nov. 15 - 28 T. Lambert, BSB Sydney Bight Eastern Shelf Program: Ichthyoplankton survey

143 Voyages

C.S.S. ALFRED NEEDLER is a diesel-driven stern trawler owned by DFO. It is operated by the department’s Scotia-Fundy Region and is used for fisheries research including acoustics, juvenile fish ecology, and recruitment studies. Hull ...... steel Built ...... 1982 Length ...... 50.3 m Breadth . . . . . 11.0 m Draft ...... 4.9 m Freeboard to working deck . . 2.5 m Displacement ...... 877 tonnes Gross tonnage ...... 925 tonnes Full speed ...... 13.5 knots Service speed ...... 12 knots Endurance ...... 30 days Range at service speed ...... 3,000 naut. mi. Complement ...... 10 scientific staff 1990 Time at sea . . . 188 days Distance steamed . . . 25.419 naut. mi. 1991 Time at sea . . . 215 days Distance steamed . . . 29,071 naut. mi.

YEAR & VOYAGE OFFICER AREA OF OBJECTIVES NUMBER DATES IN CHARGE OPERATION OF VOYAGE

1990 89-N131 Jan. 5 - 26 U. Buerkle, BSB Chedabucto Bay Acoustic herring survey 89-N132 Feb. 1 - 14 G. McClelland, BSB Scotian Shelf Sealworm survey 89-N133 Feb. 19 - Mar. 9 J. Hunt, BSB Georges Bank Groundfish trawl survey 89-N134 Mar. 13 - 22 P. Fanning, BSB Eastern Scotian Shelf Groundfish trawl survey 89-N135 Mar. 26 - 30 M. Showell, BSB Scotian Shelf International Observer training 90-N136 Apr. 9 - 12 M. Showell, BSB Scotian Shelf International Observer training 90-N137 Apr. 18 - 26 I. Perry, BSB Georges Bank Ichthyoplankton; hydrography 90-N138 May - June W. Cottle, MSD Halifax Installation of maintenance-free engine room 90-N139 July 3 - 19 P. Fanning, BSB Bay of Fundy, S. Shelf Groundfish trawl survey 90-N140 July 23 - Aug. 1 S. Smith, BSB Eastern Scotian Shelf Groundfish trawl survey 90-N141 Aug. 20 - Sept. 14 E. Laberge, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence Redfish and shrimp trawl survey Quebec Region 90-N142 Sept. 19 - 24; M. Showell, BSB Scotian Shelf International Observer training; Sept. 25 V. Marriatt, BSB live fish collections 90-N143 Oct. 1 - 11 U. Buerkle, BSB Georges Bank Groundfish/herring acoustics 90-N144 Oct. 23 - Nov. 18 D. Cairns, BSB Southern Herring acoustic survey Gulf Region Gulf of St. Lawrence 90-N145 Nov. 19 - Dec. 5 I. McQuinn, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence, Herring acoustics, juvenile cod Quebec Region east Newfoundland

144 Voyages

C.S.S. ALFRED NEEDLER continued...

90-N146 Dec. 8 - 16 C. Annand, BSB Gulf of Maine Pollock tagging 1991 90-N147 Jan. 4 - 29 C. Dickson, BSB Chedabucto Bay Herring acoustic survey 90-N148 Feb. 12 - 28 M. Strong, BSB Georges Bank Groundfish trawl survey 90-N149 Mar. 4 - 18 P. Fanning, BSB Eastern Scotian Shelf Groundfish trawl survey 91-N150 Apr. 2 - 12 E. Dawe, BSB Conception Bay Crab survey Newfoundland Region

91-N151 Apr. 16 - 30 T. Hurlbut, BSB Southern Groundfish trawl survey Gulf Region Gulf of St. Lawrence 91-N152 May 3 - 8 B. Nakashima, Grand Banks, Capelin tagging Newfoundland Region St. Pierre Banks 91-N153 May 9 - 17 R. Tizzard, BSB NAFO Divs. 2GH, Exploratory fishing Newfoundland Region Hamilton Bank 91-N153b May 20, J. Morgan, BSB Grand Banks, AFAP cod spawning survey May 24 - 30 Newfoundland Region NAFO Div. 3L 91-N154 July 3 - 13 J. Hunt. BSB Bay of Fundy, Groundfish trawl survey Western Scotian Shelf

91-N155 July 15 - 26 P. Koeller, MALD Eastern Scotian Shelf Groundfish trawl survey cancelled due to mechanical problems; conducted on M.V. Lady Hammond

91-N156 Aug. 2 - 16 W. Hickey, FHM Scotian Shelf and slope Deep-sea exploratory fishing and gear trials 91-N157 Aug. 24 - Sept. 20 D. Gascon, L. Savard, Northern Groundfish trawl survey BSB, Quebec Region Gulf of St. Lawrence 91-N158 Sept. 23 - Oct. 3 P. Vass, BSB Scotian Shelf, AFAP project, distribution of ghost gill nets Georges Bank

91-N159 Oct. 8 - 25 H. Dupuis, BSB Southern Herring acoustics Gulf Region Gulf of St. Lawrence 91-N160 Nov. 5 - 7 J. Spry, BSB Scotian Shelf Basins Basin zooplankton sampling 91-N161 Nov. 12 - Dec. 3 C. Bishop, BSB NAFO Div. 2GH Groundfish trawl survey Newfoundland Region 91-N162 Dec. 6 - 15 C. Dickson, BSB Chedabucto Bay Acoustic herring surveys

145 Voyages

C.S.S. E.E. PRINCE is a stem trawler used for fisheries research including experimental and exploratory fishing and resource surveys. The ship is owned by DFO and is operated by the department’s Scotia-Fundy Region.

Hull ...... steel Built ...... 1966 Length ...... 39.6 m Breadth . . . . . 8.2 m Draft ...... 3.65 m Freeboard to working deck . . 0.7 m Displacement ...... 580 tonnes Gross tonnage ...... 406 tonnes Full speed ...... 10.5 knots Service speed ...... 10 knots Endurance ...... 14 days Range at service speed ...... 3,000 naut. mi. Complement ...... 6 scientific staff 1990 Time at sea . . . 185 days Distance steamed . . . 23.599 naut. mi. 1991 Time at sea . . . 172 days Distance steamed . . . 20.535 naut. mi.

YEAR & VOYAGE OFFICER AREA OF OBJECTIVES NUMBER DATES IN CHARGE OPERATION OF VOYAGE

1990 89-P394 Mar. 23 - 30 L. Dickie, BSB Scotian Shelf Groundfish acoustics with dual beam system 90-P395 Apr. 5 - 12 D. Robicheau, BSB Bay of Fundy and Abundance and distribution survey of lobsters Grand Manan Basin in deep water; lobster tagging

90-P396 Apr. 18 - 19 D. Heffler, AGC Emerald Basin Gear trials for OBS to be used under polar ice pack 90-P397 Apr. 25 - May 3 G. Thouzeau, BSB Georges Bank Collection of live scallops for eco-physiological studies 90-P398 May 7 - 17; M. Lundy, BSB Scotian Shelf Scallop abundance survey; May 22 - 23 D. Lawrence, PCS MINIMET mooring; live fish collections C. Morrison, BSB 90-P399 May 25 - 30 D. Marcogliese, BSB Scotian Shelf Benthic survey for invertebrate Quebec Region sealworm intermediate hosts 90-P400 June 5 - 30 M. Castonguay, Gulf of St. Lawrence Annual mackerel egg survey for determining M. Peloquin, spawning stock biomass; collection of live fish J.-M. Sevigny, BSB, for aquaculture studies; fish sampling for Quebec Region biochemical, genetic, and pathological studies 90-P401 July 1 - 8 M. Lanteigne, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence, Juvenile scallop survey and underwater Quebec Region Northumberland Strait observations 90-P402 July 11 - 20 H. Dupuis, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence, Distribution and abundance of juvenile herring Gulf Region Chaleur Bay, Northumberland Strait 90-P403 Aug. 7 - 17 G. Robert, BSB Georges Bank Annual scallop abundance survey

146 Voyages

C.S.S. E.E. PRINCE continued...

90-P404 Aug. 17 - 31 G. Thouzeau, BSB Georges Bank Juvenile scallop survey 90-P405 Sept. 2 - 14 J. Porter, BSB Browns Bank Swordfish age, growth, fecundity, metabolism, and population structure

90-P406 Sept. 18 - Oct. 5 D. Marcogliese, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence Incidence of sealworm larvae in groundfish Quebec Region and benthic invertebrates; live fish collections for aquaculture

90-P407 Oct. 10 - 19 W. Hickey, FHM Scotian Shelf Shrimp/fish separator trawl gear trials 90-P408 Oct. 25 - Nov. 6 J. Sochasky, BSB Bay of Fundy Annual larval herring abundance survey 90-P409 Nov. 14 - 22 C. Bourque, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence, Acoustic herring survey for biomass Gulf Region Baie des Chaleurs and distribution 90-P410 Nov. 26 - Dec. 19 H. Dupuis, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence, Juvenile herring survey Gulf Region Baie des Chaleurs 1991 91-P411 Apr. 24 - 26 C. Morrison, BSB Scotian Shelf, Live fish collections for pathological studies Chebucto Head 91-P412 Apr. 30 - May 9 W. Hickey, FHM Scotian Shelf Gear trials with silver hake trawls and separator panels; mesh selectivity studies 91-P413 May 13 - 24 G. Robert, BSB Scotian Shelf, Browns Annual scallop abundance survey Bank, Georges Bank

91-P414 May 28 - Jun. 9 M. Castonguay, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence Acoustic mackerel survey and CTD transects Quebec Region during annual migration into the Gulf 91-P415 May 10 - 14 M. Measures, BSB St. Lawrence estuary, Collection of live fish for aquaculture research Quebec Region Cabot Strait 91-P416 May 16 - 28 F. Gregoire, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence Mackerel egg survey Quebec Region 91-417 July 25 - Aug 2 U. Buerkle, BSB Bay of Fundy Herring acoustic survey 91-418 Aug. 7 - 23 G. Robert, BSB Georges Bank Annual scallop survey 91-419a Aug. 27 - Sept. 1 J. Porter, BSB Browns Bank Tuna tagging 91-419b Sept. 4 - 14 R. Stephenson, BSB SW Nova Scotia Herring acoustic survey 91-420 Sept. 24 - Oct. 2; J. Porter, BSB Scotian Shelf, Swordfish and tuna tagging Oct. 3 - Oct 7 Browns Bank 91-421 Oct. 12 - 24 R. Bradford, BSB SW Newfoundland, Demersal/pelagic survey of Quebec Region Anticosti Island juvenile cod and haddock 91-422 Oct. 31 - Nov. 15 J. Sochasky, BSB Bay of Fundy Larval herring survey 91-423 Nov. 18 - Dec. 3 I. McQuinn, BSB Gulf of St. Lawrence, Herring acoustics Quebec Region NE Newfoundland coast 91-424 Dec. 7 - 17 H. Dupuis, BSB Southern Juvenile herring survey Gulf Region Gulf of St. Lawrence

147 Voyages PARTICIPATION IN OTHER RESEARCH CRUISES

VESSEL / VOYAGE CANADIAN AREA OF OBJECTIVES COUNTRY DATES PARTICIPANTS OPERATION OF VOYAGE 1990 M.V. Skogaloss Jan., Apr., F. Dobson, PCS Northern North Atlantic, Line of XBT profiles to estimate (Iceland) July, Dec. Cape Race to Reykjavik heat content in area of operation F.C.G. Creed Jan. - Aug. J. Goodyear, Northeast Newfoundland Evaluation of SWATH vessel for (Canada) M. Lamplugh, CHS hydrographic and oceanographic surveys Alcor Apr. 7 - 12 A. Herman, PCS Bornholm Basin, Cod egg survey with (West Germany) Baltic Sea Optical Plankton Counter Meteor Apr. 13 - May 15 P. Yeats, Eastern South Atlantic IOC open ocean baseline study (West Germany) J. Dalziel, PCS of chemical contaminants Evrika May 14 - July 6 C. Bourbonnaise, Browns Bank to Distribution of silver hake (U.S.S.R) D. Waldron, BSB Sable Island Bank relative to oceanographic conditions Maltsevo Oct. 17 - Nov. 31 C. Bourbonnaise, Scotian Shelf Juvenile silver hake survey (U.S.S.R) W. MacEachern, M. Showell, BSB Meetpost Nov. 12 -Dec. 7 S. Smith, North Sea VIERS-1 Program, wind stress, heat flux, Noordivijk R. Anderson, PCS evaporation and wave state (The Netherlands) measurements, CO, flux at sea surface 1991 M.V. Skogaloss Jan., Apr., F. Dobson, PCS Northern North Atlantic, Line of XBT profiles to estimate (Iceland) July, Dec. Cape Race to Reykjavik heat content in area of operation Scotian Surf Mar. 30 - Apr. 8 D. Roddick, BSB E. Scotian Shelf Exploratory survey for small (Canada) commercial-sized offshore clams Arctic May 3 - 20 R. Conover, Northern Baffin Bay Zooplankton grazing study (Canada) J. Spry, BSB Laurentian Aug. 18 - Sept. 7 C. Lewis, AGC Lake Huron and Seismostratigraphy and sedimentary (U.S.A.) Georgian Bay, record of Late Quaternary-Holocene Great Lakes climate change Oden Aug. 1 - Oct. 14 E. Jones, Arctic Ocean, Origin and circulation of water masses (Sweden) F. Zemlyak, PCS Nansen Basin, in the Arctic Ocean in relation to global Amundsen Basin, climate change Makarov Basin Polarstern Aug. 1 - Oct. 14 K. Moran, Arctic Ocean, Study of seafloor spreading (Germany) K. Manchester, Nansen Basin, within the Arctic Ocean basin F. Jodrey, AGC Amundsen Basin, Makarov Basin Lady Eileen Sept. 30 - Oct. 24 C. Dale, Scotian Shelf Gear selectivity, (Canada) M. Showell, BSB longline versus otter trawl Lady Sharrel Sept. 30 - Oct. 24 D. Lyon, Scotian Shelf Gear selectivity, (Canada) W. MacEachern, BSB longline versus otter trawl Minerva Oct. 22 - Nov. 11 B. Topliss, PCS Tyrrhenian Sea Collection and groundtruthing of (Italy) remotely sensed data Maltsevo Oct. 15 - Nov. 28 S. Bond, Scotian Shelf Juvenile silver hake survey (U.S.S.R.) M. Showell, BSB Grenfell November G. Costello, CHS Conception Bay, Evaluation of Coastal Ocean Mapping (Canada) Newfoundland System and DOLPHIN handling system Cape Hatteras Dec. 14 - 21 A. Herman, PCS Cape Hatteras Menhaden egg survey with (U.S.A.) Optical Plankton Counter

148 Charts and Publications

Chart production The Scotia-Fundy Region of the Canadian Hydro- issue of an existing chart showing new navigational graphic Service (CHS) has a cartographic staff of 23 and information and including amendments previously issued responsibility for 400 nautical charts covering Canada’s in Notices to Mariners. A Reprint is a new print of a current east coast from Georges Bank to Prince of Wales Strait in edition that incorporates amendments previously issued in the Arctic. Notices to Mariners. Reprints for the Scotia-Fundy Region The charts produced by CHS are divided into three types. are produced by CHS headquarters in Ottawa. A New Chart is the first chart to show an area at that scale In addition to the New Charts and New Editions listed or to cover an area different from any existing chart. These below, about one hundred chart amendments and fifteen charts are constructed to the metric contour style in paste-on patches are issued through Notices to Mariners bilingual form using new formats. A New Edition is a new each year.

1990 1991 New Charts New Charts 4230 Little Hope Island to Cape St. Mary’s 4210 Cape Sable to Pubnico Harbour 4255 Georges Bank-Eastern Portion 4227 Country Harbour to Ship Harbour 4850 Cape St. Francis to Baccalieu Island and Heart’s Content 4233 Cape Canso to Country Island 5023 Cape Harrison to Nunaksaluk Island 4851 Trinity Bay-Southern Portion 7566 Cape Jameson to Cape Fanshawe 5030 Green Bay to Double Island New Editions 5031 St. Lewis Sound and Inlet 4394 LaHave River, West Ironbound Island to Riverport 7488 Air Force Island to Longstaff Bluff 4395 LaHave River, Riverport to Conquerall Bank New Editions 4448 Port Hood, Mabou Harbour and Havre Boucher 4145 Mactaquac Dam to Newburg Island 4211 Cape LaHave to Liverpool Bay 4340 Grand Manan 4437 Pictou Harbour 4466 Hillsborough Bay 4616 Burin Harbours

Publications We present below alphabetical listings by author of proceedings, and various series of technical reports are publications produced in 1990 and 1991 by the staffs at BIO included. The style and format of these references are as from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO), the supplied by each unit. For further information on any Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, and publication listed here, contact: Marine Assessment and Environment Canada, and by DFO science staff at the Liaison Division, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Halifax Fisheries Research Laboratory and the St. Bedford Institute of Oceanography, P.O. Box 1006, Andrews Biological Station. Articles published in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada B2Y 4A2; or call (902) scientific and hydrographic journals, books, conference 426-3559.

DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES 1990/B: 3:24 p. Koeller, P.A. 1991. Report on Canadian AND OCEANS Koeller, P.A. 1990. Fish Capture Committee research to the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries SCOTIA-FUNDY REGION report of 1989 activities to the International Organization. Section I. Scotia-Fundy Committee for the Exploration of the Sea. Region. In: Canadian Research Report, 1990, OFFICE OF THE REGIONAL Canadian Report. C.M. 1990/B: 1. NAFO SCS Doc. 91/06: 1-4. DIRECTOR, SCIENCE Koeller, P.A. 1990. Report on Canadian Koeller, P.A. 1991. Approaches to improving research to the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries groundfish survey abundance estimates by 1990 and 1991 Organization. Section III. Scotia-Fundy controlling the variability of survey gear Koeller, P.A. 1990. Controlling the variabil- Region. In: Canadian Research Report, 1989, geometry and performance. J. Northw. Atl. ity of survey gear performance. ICES C.M. NAFO SCS Doc. 90/07: 17-21. Fish. Sci. 11: 51-58.

149 Charts and Publications

Koeller, P.A. 1991. Fish Capture Committee estimate populations of juvenile Atlantic report of 1990 activities to the International Note: The Hydrography Branch 1991 salmon in enclosed areas of streams. In: I.G. Committee for the Exploration of the Sea. publications list was not available when Cowx (ed.), Developments in Electric Canadian Report. C.M. 1991/B:l. this document was prepared; it will be Fishing. Fishing News Books, Cambridge: McKone, D., S. Walsh, and P. Koeller. 1990. included in the 1992 & ‘93 edition. 174-185. Improving the performance of groundfish Amiro, P.G. 1990. Recruitment variation in survey trawls - a discussion paper on possible Atlantic salmon stocks of the inner Bay of research directions. DFO internal report to the BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Fundy. CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90/41: 19 p. Assistant Deputy Minister, Science. BRANCH Amiro, P.G. 1990. Remote surveying for Nicholls, H.B. 1990. Halifax Harbour clean derivation of stream habitat for Atlantic up - a research perspective. In: D. Lapointe et 1990 salmon. In: CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90/77: al. (eds.), Proc. 13th Int. Symp. on Waste- Ackman, R.G., S.M. Polvi, R.L. Saunders, 325-341. water Treatment and 2nd Workshop on and S.P. Lall. 1990. Human health implica- Amiro, P.G. 1990. Status of Atlantic salmon Drinking Water. Environment Canada, tions of Atlantic salmon fed different fats. of the Stewiacke River, 1989. CAFSAC Res. Ottawa: 141-150. Bull. Aquacult. Assoc. Can. 90-4: 45-49. Doc. 90/6: 19 p. Nicholls, H.B. 1991. Halifax Harbour clean Ackman, R.G., S. Polvi, R.L. Saunders, and Amiro, P.G. 1990. Variation in Atlantic up - a research perspective. In: O.T. Magoon, S.P. Lall. 1990. Human health implications of salmon juvenile densities with stream H. Converse, V. Tippie, L.T. Tobin, and D. Atlantic salmon fed different fats. World gradient. In: CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90/77: Clark (eds.), Coastal Zone ‘91: Proc. 7th Aquaculture 90, Halifax, World Aquacult. 79-99. Symp. on Coastal and Ocean Management. Soc: 99 (Abstract). Amiro, P.G. 1990. Variation in juvenile American Soc. Civil Engineers, New York: Aiken, D.E. 1990. Aquaculture and the Atlantic salmon population densities between 1874-1889. influenza virus. World Aquacult. 21(1): 2. consecutive closed sections of streams. In: Smith, P.C., P.C.F. Hurley, K.T. Frank, S.E. Aiken, D.E. 1990. Commercial aquaculture in I.G. Cowx (ed.), Developments in Electric Campana, P.A. Koeller, R.I. Perry, and R.N. Canada and a glance at some prospects for the Fishing. Fishing News Books, Cambridge: O’Boyle. 1990. The Fisheries Ecology future. World Aquacult. 21(2): 66-75. 96-101. Program. In: T.E. Smith (ed.), Science Aiken, D.E. 1990. Global warming. World Amiro, P.G., and D.A. Longard. 1990. Status Review 1988 & ‘89. Dept. of Fisheries and Aquacult. 21(3): 4-5. of Atlantic salmon of Grand River, Richmond Oceans, Dartmouth, N.S. Aiken, D.E. 1990. Mariculture in Ontario? Co., N.S., 1988. In: CAFSAC Res. Doc. Walsh, S., P. Koeller, and D. McKone. 1991. World Aquacult. 21(2): 98-100. 90/3: 18 p. Survey Trawl Mensuration Workshop, St. Aiken, D.E. 1990. Opening shots. World Amiro, P.G., and T.L. Marshall. 1990. The John’s, Nfld, Mar. 18-19 - summary of Aquacult. 21(2): 2. Atlantic salmon resource of the North River, discussions. ICES FTFB Working Group Aiken, D.E. 1990. Shrimp farming in Victoria County, N.S., to 1984. Can. MS Rep. Working Paper, presented by P. Koeller, Ecuador - an aquaculture success story. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2075: 34 p. April 23, Ancona, Italy. World Aquacult. 21(1): 7-16. Annand, C., D. Beanlands, and J. McMillan. Aiken, D.E. 1990. Shrimp farming in 1990. Assessment of pollock (Pollachius Ecuador - as you sow, so shall you reap. virens) in Divisions 4VWX and Subdivision HYDROGRAPHYBRANCH World Aquacult. 21(3): 48-55. 5Zc for 1989. CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90/42. Aiken, D.E. 1990. Shrimp farming in Anon. 1990. 1990 silver hake fishery. IOP 1990 Ecuador - whither the future? World Series Management/Industry Report. Eaton, R.M., H. Astle, S.J. Glavin, S.T. Aquacult. 21(4): 26-30. Anon. 1990. Report on the activities of the Grant, and S.E. Masry. 1990. Learning from Aiken, D.E. 1990. The otter’s roar: a trip Faeroese porbeagle shark longliner Bakur. an electronic chart testbed. Internat. Hydro- through British Columbia’s “Aquazone” via IOP Series Management/Industry Report. graphic Rev. LXVII(2), July: 31-43. floatplane. World Aquacult. 21(4): 6-10. Anon. 1990. 1989 Japanese tuna fishery. IOP Goodyear, J.E., D.J. Hussey, CD. Roushom, Aiken, D.E. (ed.) 1990. World Aquacult. Series Management/Industry Report. A. Hayes, and D. Nicholson. 1990. An eval- 21(1): 104 p. Beamish, F.W.H., and E.A. Trippel. 1990. uation of the SWATH vessel Frederick G. Aiken, D.E. (ed.) 1990. World Aquacult. Heat increment: a static or dynamic dimen- Creed in the Canadian North Atlantic. Proc. 21(2): 128 p. sion in bioenergetic models? Trans. Amer. 4th Biennial National Ocean Service Int. Aiken, D.E. (ed.) 1990. World Aquacult. Fish. Soc. 119: 649-661. Hydrographic Conf., Norfolk, VA: 108-115. 21(3): 112 p. Bedo, A.W.,E.J.H. Head,R.J. Conover, Grant, S.T., M. Casey, T. Evangelatos, and Aiken, D.E. (ed.) 1990. World Aquacult. E.P.W. Home, and L.R. Harris. 1990. H. Hecht. 1990. The management and 21(4): 108 p. Physiological adaptations of an under-ice dissemination of electronic navigational chart Aiken, D.E., and S.L. Waddy. 1990. Color- population of Pseudocalanus in Barrow Strait data in the 1990s. Internat. Hydrographic morphs as biological tags. In: I. Kornfield (N.W.T.) to increasing food supply in spring. Rev. 67(2), July: 17-30. (ed.), Life history of the American lobster. Polar Biol. 10: 561-570. Varma, H.P. and H. Boudreau. 1990. A data Proc. of workshop, Nov. 29-30, 1989, Orono, Benoit, D., and W.D. Bowen. 1990. Summer structure for spatio-temporal databases. Lobster Institute, Univ. of Maine, Orono: 2. diet of grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) at Internat. Hydrogr. Rev. 67(l), July: 71-920. Aiken, D.E., and S.L. Waddy. 1990. Winter Anticosti Island, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Varma, H.P., H. Boudreau, and A. Piccott. temperature and spring photoperiod require- Canada. In: W.D. Bowen (ed.), Population 1990. Probability of detecting errors in dense ments for spawning in American lobster (Ho- biology of sealworm (Pseudoterranova digital bathymetric data sets by using 3D marus americanus). J. Shellf. Res. 9: 41-43. decipiens) in relation to its intermediate and graphics combined with statistical techniques. Amiro, P.G. 1990. Accuracy of removal seal hosts. Can. Bull. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. Proc. 4th Biennial National Ocean Service population estimates of juvenile Atlantic 222: 227-242. Int. Hydrographic Conf., Norfolk, VA: salmon electric fished in wadeable streams. Benoit, D., and W.D. Bowen. 1990. Seasonal 40-46. In: I.G. Cowx (ed.), Developments in Electric and geographic variation in the diet of grey Varma, H.P., and M. Jay. 1990. Hysterics in Fishing. Fishing News Books, Cambridge: seals (Halichoerus grypus) in eastern Canada. hydrography. Proc. 4th Biennial National 186-190. In: W.D. Bowen (ed.), Population biology of Ocean Service Int. Hydrographic Conf., Amiro, P.G. 1990. Evaluation of some sealwormn (Pseudoterranova decipiens) in Norfolk, VA: 159-164. electrofishing capture techniques used to relation to its intermediate and seal hosts.

150 Charts and Publications

Can. Bull. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 222: 215-226. Whale (D. leucas). Can. Bull. J. Fish. Aquat. Claytor, R.R., and S.F. O’Neil. 1990. Bidleman, T.F., G.W. Patton, D.A. Hinckley, Sci. 224: 141-148 Interpreting Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) M.D. Walla, W.E. Cotham, and B.T. Buerkle, U. 1990. Results of the 1990 winter angling statistics in the Margaree River, N.S. Hargrave. 1990. Chlorinated pesticides and acoustic surveys of NAFO Div. 4WX herring CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90/24: 33 p. polychlorinated biphenyls in the atmosphere stocks. CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90167. Conan, G.Y., R.W. Elner, and M. Moriyasu. of the Canadian Arctic. In: D.A. Kurtz (ed.), Burt, M.D.B., J.W. Smith, A. Jarecka, A.W. 1990. Review of literature on life histories in Long Range Transport of Pesticides. Lewis Pike, R. Wootten, and G. McClelland. 1990. the genus Chionoecetes in light of the recent Publ., New York: 347-372. Pseudoterranova decipiens (Nematoda: As- findings of C. opilio in eastern Canada. In: Bird,C.J.,E.L. Rice, C.A. Murphy,Q.Y.Liu, caridoidea): time of development to hatching Proc. Int. Symp. on King and Tanner Crabs. and M.A. Ragan. 1990. Nucleotide sequences at different temperatures and salinities. Can. Lowell Wakefield Fisheries Symposia Series, of the 18s ribosomal RNA genes from the red Bull. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 222: 41-45. Univ. of Alaska, Alaska Sea Grant Report algae Gracilaria tikvahiae McLachlan, Butler-Connolly, M.A.E., and G. Robert. 90-04: 163-179. Gracilaria verrucosa (Hudson) Papenfuss, 1990. Update of the Scotian Shelf Shrimp - Conklin, D.E., N. Baum, J.D. Castell, and and Gracilariopsis sp. Nucleic Acids Res. 1989. CAFSAC Res. Doc 90/12: 14 p. L.D. Boston. 1990. Nutritionally induced 18: 4023-4024. Cai, D., F.C. Tan, and D.L. Roddick. 1990. molt death in aquatic crustaceans: I. Introduc- Bird, C.J., W. Nelson, E.L. Rice, K. Ryan, Oxygen isotope studies on the growth rate of tion to the problem. World Aquaculture ‘90 and R. Villemur. 1990. A critical comparison sea scallop, Placopecten magellanicus from Abstract T12.5: 2 (Abstract). of Gracilaria chilensis and G. sordida Browns Bank, Canada. Oceanologia et Conklin, D.E., N. Baum, J.D. Castell, and (Rhodophyta, Gracilariales). J. Applied Limnologia Sinica 21 (6): 550-558. L.D. Boston. 1990. Nutritionally induced Phycol. 2(4): 301-309. Cameron, J.D. 1990. Assessment of the molt death in aquatic crustaceans: III. The Bird, C.J., and E. Kenchington. 1990. Recent Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) habitat in effect of varying levels of calcium in the approaches to the taxonomy of Gracilaria- the Sackville River, N.S. 1986. Can. MS Rep. standard reference diet, BML 81 S in juvenile ceae and the Gracilaria verrucosa problem. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2039: 39 p. Homarus americanus. World Aquaculture Hydrobiologia 204/205: 111-118. Campana, S. 1990. A fish story. Equinox ‘90 Abstract T12.11: 63 (Abstract). Boudreau, P.R., and S.R. Kerr. 1990. 54: 10-13. Conover, R.J., G.F. Cota, W.G. Harrison, Decision-making model for assessment of Campana, S.E. 1990. How reliable are E.P.W. Home, and R.E.H. Smith. 1990. Ice/ habitat production capacity. Can. Atl. Fish. growth back-calculations based on otoliths? water interactions and their effect on biologi- Sci. Adv. Comm. Res. Doc. 90/77. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47: 2219-2227. cal oceanography in the Arctic Archipelago. Bowen, W.D. 1990. Behavioural ecology of Campana, S., and J. Hamel. 1990. Assess- In: C.R. Harington (ed.), Canada’s Missing pinniped neonates. In: D. Renouf (ed.), ment of the 1989 4X cod fishery. CAFSAC Dimension: Science and History in the Behaviour of Pinnipeds. Chapman Hall, Res. Doc. 90/44. Canadian Arctic Islands, Vol. I. Canadian London: 66-127. Campana, S.E., K.C.T. Zwanenburg, and Museum of Nature, Ottawa: 204-228. Bowen, W.D. (ed.). 1990. Population biology J.N. Smith. 1990. 210Pb/226Ra determination Cook, R.H. 1990. Canada. In: H. Rosenthal of sealworm (Pseudoterranova decipiens) in of longevity in redfish. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. (ed.), Activity Report 1989/90 Mariculture relation to its intermediate and seal hosts. Sci. 47: 163-165. Committee. ICES C.M. 1990/F: 3-18. Can. Bull. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 222: 306 p. Castell, J.D. 1990. Report on the formation of Cook, R.H. 1990. Salmon farming in the Bay Bradford, B. World Aquaculture: subject the International Working Group on Crusta- of Fundy - the challenge for the future. World index for vols. 20, 21. World Aquacult. 21 cean Nutrition. Crustacean Nutrition Newslet- Aquacult. 21(2): 46-53. (4): 106-108. ter 6(1): 4-7. Cornick, J.W. 1990. Canadian fish health Bradshaw, V., D. Waldron, M. Showell, Castell, J.D. 1990. Bibliography on feed protection regulations and policies - an K. Spencer, P. Noseworthy, J. Raymond, attractants in aquaculture. Crustacean overview. Presented at Aquaculture Assoc. of G. Scott, and D. Lemon. 1990. The 1989 Nutrition Newsletter 6(1): 25-32. Canada meeting, June 10-17, Halifax, N.S. Canadian fishery for silver hake. Can. Ind. Castell, J.D. 1990. Bibliography on crusta- Cornick, J.W., B.M. Zwicker, G. Olivier, and Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. No 203: viii+37 p.+ cean protein and amino acid requirements. J. O’Halloran. 1990. Isolation and identifica- 5 appendices. Crustacean Nutrition Newsletter 6(1): 65-67. tion of Vibrio salmonicida, the causeway Branton, R. 1990. VMS for VAX and Cyber Castell, J.D. 1990. Reference diets for agent of Hitra Disease, in farmed Atlantic Users; EDT for VAX and Cyber Users; MFD Crustaceans: principles of experimentation. salmon in the Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, Connects to the World Communication In: J. Barret (ed.), Advances in Tropical Canada. Eastern Fish Health Workshop, Guide; Prologues for NOS/VE article for BIO Aquaculture. Advances in Tropical Aqua- Charlottetown, P.E.I., June: 21 (Abstract). HOT NEWS; How to Prepare BSB Confer- culture: Workshop held in Tahiti, French Cota, G.F., J.L. Anning, L.R. Harris, W.G. ence Plan. Polynesia, Feb. 20 - Mar. 4, 1989. Actes Harrison, and R.E.H. Smith. 1990. Impact of Brattey, J., and W.T. Stobo. 1990. Group Colloq. IFREMER 9: 339-354. ice algae on inorganic nutrients in seawater report 2: infection of definitive hosts. In: Castell J.D., Boston, L.D., Conklin, D.E., and sea ice in Barrow Strait, NWT, Canada, W.D. Bowen (ed.), Population biology of and Baum, N. 1990. Nutritionally induced during spring. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. sealworm (Pseudoterranova decipiens) in molt death in aquatic crustaceans: II. The 47: 1402-1415. relation to its intermediate and seal hosts. effect of B vitamin and manganese deficien- Couturier, C. 1990. Scallop aquaculture in Can. Bull. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 222: 139-145. cies in lobster (Homarus americanus). World Canada: fact or fantasy? World Aquacult. Brêfthes, J.-C., et R.N. O’Boyle (eds.) 1990. Aquaculture ‘90 T12.8: 62 (Abstract). 21(2): 54-62. Méthodes d’évaluation des stocks halieu- Chang, B.D. (ed.). 1990. Scientific research Cranford, P.J., and J. Grant. 1990. Particle tiques. Project CIEO-860060, Centre activities at the St. Andrews Biological clearance and absorption of phytoplankton international d’exploitation des oceans, Station. Can. MS Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. and detritus by the sea scallop Plucopecten Halifax (Nouvelle-Écosse, Canada): 963 p. 2054: v+47 p. magellanicus. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. Brodie, P.F., J.R. Geraci, and D.J. St. Aubin. Cho, C.Y., A. Castledine, and S.P. Lall. 1990. 137: 105-121. 1990. The effectiveness of tetracycline as a The status of Canadian aquaculture with Crawford, R., and C. Hudon. 1990. The marker in the teeth of beluga whales Delphin- emphasis on formulation, quality and biology of the Iceland scallop (Chlamys apterus leucas for age determinations. In: production of fish feeds. Proc. Int. Symp. on islandica) and its implications for the T.G. Smith, D.J. St. Aubin, and J.R. Geraci Feeding and Nutr. in Fish, Aug 28 - Sept. 1, management of an arctic fishery. AFSAC (eds.), Advances in Research on the Beluga Toba, Japan, 1989: 67-82. background document: 12 p.

151 Charts and Publications

Cunjak, R.A., R.L. Saunders, and E.M.P. Neth. J. Sea Res. 27(1): 109-118. Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Genome Chadwick. 1990. Seasonal variations in the Fanning, L.P., and W.J. MacEachern. 1990. 32: 1105-1112. smolt characteristics of juvenile Atlantic Stock status of 4VsW cod in 1989. CAFSAC Hargrave, B.T., and S. MacKnight. 1990. A salmon (Salmo salar) from estuarine and Res. Doc. 90/88. method to measure sediment-water trace riverine environments. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Farmer, G.J. 1990. Hatchery rearing metal fluxes: a field evaluation in Halifax Sci. 47: 813-820. practices which optimize the growth and Harbour. Ocean Dumping Rep. 7, Environ- D’Abramo, L.R., and J.D. Castell. 1990. quality of juvenile Atlantic salmon. In: Proc. ment Canada, Atl. Reg.: 43 p. Bibliography on lipids in crustacean nutrition. Stress in Salmonid Aquaculture Workshop, Harrison, W.G. 1990. The Canadian western Crustacean Nutrition Newsletter 6(1): 33-41. May 22-23, Univ. of New Brunswick, N.B. Atlantic experiment. In: Joint Global Ocean D’Amours, D., J.G. Landry, and T.C. Dept. of Fisheries and Aquaculture, New Flux Study North Atlantic Bloom Experi- Lambert. 1990. Growth of juvenile (O-group) Brunswick Research and Productivity ment, Int. Scientific Symp., SCOR, Washing- Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) in the Council: 23-25. ton, DC, Nov. 26-28. Gulf of St. Lawrence. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Farmer, G.J., and D. Ashfield. 1990. Harrison, W.G. 1990. Nitrogen utilization in Sci. 47(11): 2212-2218. Relations among various dissolved substances ice algal communities of Barrow Strait, des Clers, S., and R. Mohn. 1990. Group in the Big Falls headpond, Mersey River, Northwest Territories, Canada. Mar. Ecol. report 4: models. In: W.D. Bowen (ed.), Nova Scotia. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Prog. Ser. 67: 275-283. Population biology of sealworm (Pseudo- Sci. No 1755: v+11 p. Horne, E.P.W., J.W. Loder, W.G. Harrison, terranova decipiens) in relation to its Farmer, G.J., P.D. Hubley, H. Jansen, J.W. R. Mohn, M.R. Lewis, B. Irwin, and T. Platt. intermediate and seal hosts. Can. J. Fish. McAskill, and G.B. Robbins. 1990. Produc- 1990. Nitrate supply and demand at the Aquat. Sci. 222: 255-260. tion of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) Georges Bank tidal front. Scient. Mar. 53 Dickie, L.M., and B.L. Bandurski. 1990. at the Mactaquac Accelerated Rearing (2-3): 145-158. Integrity and surprise in the Great Lakes Facility, New Brunswick, Canada. In: R.L. Hudon, C. 1990. Meeting review: Interna- Basin ecosystem: implications for theory and Saunders (ed.), Proc. Canada-Norway finfish tional Council for the Exploration of the Sea testing. In: C.J. Edwards and H.A. Reiger aquaculture workshop, Sept. 11-14, 1989. Symp.: Shellfish life histories and shell- (eds.), An Ecosystem Approach to the Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. No 1761: fisheries models. Lobster Newsletter 3:6-7. Integrity of the Great Lakes in Turbulent 107-118. Hudon, C. 1990. 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Platt. 1990. of smoking in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Gordon, D.C., Jr. 1990. Experience from the Primary production in the Northern Sargasso Can. J. Zool. 68: 707-715. Bay of Fundy and recommendations for the Sea in September 1988. Can. Data Rep. Fish. Elner, R.W., R.E. Semple, and M. Gillis. Gulf Region. In: E.M.P. Chadwick (ed.), Aquat. Sci. No 798. 1990. Assessment 1989: Snow crab off the Proc. Gulf Habitat Science Workshop. Can. Irwin, B., J. Anning, C. Caverhill, A. Atlantic Coast of Cape Breton Island. Ind. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 206: 45-48. Macdonald, and T. Platt. 1990. Primary CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90/9: 41 p. Gordon, D.C., Jr. 1990. Habitat loss in the production on Georges Bank -August 1988. Emerson, C.W. 1990. The effects of bedload Gulf of Maine. In: V. Konrad, S. Ballard, R. Can. Data Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. No 785. sediment transport on benthic recruitment and Erb, and A. Morin (eds.), The Gulf of Maine: Irwin, B., J. Anning, C. Caverhill, and T. production with emphasis on the soft-shell Sustaining Our Common Heritage. Maine Platt. 1990. Primary production on the clam, Myu arenaria L. Ph.D. Thesis, Dal- State Planning Office and the Canadian- Labrador Shelf and in the Strait of Belle Isle housie Univ., Halifax, N.S. American Center of the Univ. of Maine: in May 1988. Can. Data Rep. Fish. Aquat. Emerson, C.W. 1990. Influence of sediment 106-119. Sci. No 784. disturbance and water flow on the growth of Halliday, R.G., and A.T. Pinhorn. 1990. The Jackson, D.L., J D. Castell, and K.E. the soft-shell clam, Mya arenaria L. Can. J. delimitation of fishing areas in the Northwest Harrison. 1990. Effect of storage conditions Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47: 1655-1663. Atlantic. J. Northw. Atl. Fish. Sci. 10: 5-51. on the fatty acid composition of Artemia cysts Emerson, C.W., J. Grant, and T.W. Rowell. Hanke, A.R., G.W. Friars, R.L. Saunders, and nauplii. World Aquaculture ‘90 CN 11: 1990. 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length composition, and feeding activity of Lacroix, G.L., D.J. Hood, C.S. Belfry, and MacEachern, W.J., and L.P. Fanning. 1990. juvenile alewife, Alosa pseudoharengus T.G. Rand. 1990. Plasma electrolytes, gill Reconstruction of the 4VsW cod catch-at-age Wilson, and blueback herring, A. aestivalis aluminum content, and gill morphology of on a half-year basis (197 1- 1989). CAFSAC Mitchill, at near-surface depths in a hydro- juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and Res. Doc. 90/87. electric dam impoundment. J. Fish. Biol. 37. brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) indigenous MacPhail, D.K. 1990. Age of the salmon Jessop, B.M. 1990. Passage and harvest of to acidic streams of Nova Scotia. Can. J. broodstock collected in the Scotia-Fundy river herring at the Mactaquac Dam, Saint Zool. 68: 1270-1280. Region during 1989. Internal Document John River: an attempt at active fishery Lall, S.P. 1990. Nutritional value of fish 90-01: 62 p. management. NAJFM 10: 33-38. silage in salmonid diets. Bull. Aquacult. Mallet, A.L., C.E.A. Carver, and K.R. Jessop, B.M. 1990. The status of striped bass Assoc. Can. 91-1: 63-74. Freeman. 1990. Summer mortality of the blue in the Scotia-Fundy Region. CAFSAC Res. Lall, S.P. 1990. Digestibility, metabolism and mussel in eastern Canada: spatial, temporal, Doc. 90/36: 22 p. excretion of dietary phosphorus in fish. Int. stock and age variation. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. Jessop, B.M. 1990. Stock-recruitment Symp. on Feeding Fish in Our Water, 67: 35-41. relationships of alewives and blueback Nutritional strategies in management of Marshall, T.L. 1990. Assessment of Atlantic herring returning to the Mactaquac Dam, aquaculture waste. Guelph, Ont., June 5-9, salmon of the Saint John River, N.B., above Saint John River, New Brunswick. NAJFM No 6 (Abstract) Mactaquac, 1989. CAFSAC Res. Doc. 10: 19-32. Lall, S.P., and G. Olivier. 1990. Role of 90/79: 23 p. Jessop, B.M., and C.J. Harvie. 1990. specific nutrients in defence mechanisms of Marshall, T.L. 1990. Estimates of harvest Evaluation of designs of periodic count fish and mammals. Proc. 14th Int. Cong. of and exploitation rates for Saint John River surveys for the estimation of escapement at a Nutrition, Vol. II, Aug 20-25, 1989, Seoul, Atlantic salmon in homewater and distant fishway. NAJFM 10: 39-45. Korea: 287-288. fisheries. CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90/85: 33 p. Johnson, B.D., K. Kranck, and D.K. Lall, S.P., and D.E.M. Weerakoon. 1990. Martin, J.L. 1990. Red tides. Underwater Muschenheim. 1990. Physico-chemical Vitamin B, requirement of Atlantic salmon World factsheet series, Communications factors in particle aggregation. In: R.S. (Salmo salar). Fed. Amer. Soc. Exp. Biol. J. Directorate, Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans, Wotton (ed.), Biology of Particles in Aquatic 4: A912 (Abstract). Ottawa: 12 p. Systems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL: 57-81. Lambert, T.C., and S.J. Smith. 1990.4Vn Martin, J.L., K. Haya, L.E. Burridge, and Kean-Howie, J.C., J. Grant, R.K. O’Dor, and cod (May to December): status review for the D.J. Wildish. 1990. Nitzschia pseudo- J.D. Castell. 1990. The effects of current 1989 fishing year. CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90/47. delicatissima - a source of domoic acid in the speed and food concentration on the ingestion Lambert, T.C. 1990. The effect of population Bay of Fundy, eastern Canada. Mar. Ecol. of a microparticulate diet by juvenile sea structure on recruitment in herring. J. Conseil Prog. Ser. 67: 177- 182. scallops, Placopecten magellanicus. In: S. 47. Martin, J.L., and D.J. Wildish. 1990. Algal Shumway (ed.), An International Compen- Lavoie, R.E., et T. Djama. 1990. Plan de blooms in the Bay of Fundy salmon aqua- dium on Scallop Biology and Culture, a recherches halieutiques - République culture region. Bull. Aquacult. Assoc. Can. tribute to Jim Mason. WAS Special Publica- Démocratique de Sao Tome e Principe. 90-4: 19-21. tion: 347-352. Consultant report (Project #890309) to the Martin, J.L., and D.J. Wildish. 1990. Algal Kepkay, P.E., W.G. Harrison, and B. Irwin. International Centre for Ocean Development, blooms in the Bay of Fundy. In: R.L. 1990. Surface coagulation, microbial Halifax, N.S.: 30 p. Saunders (ed.), Proc. Canada-Norway finfish respiration and primary production in the Lawton, P., and D.A. Robichaud. 1990. Use aquaculture workshop, Sept. 11-14, 1989, St. Sargasso Sea. Deep Sea Res. 37: 145-155. of shallow water inshore habitats off Grand Andrews, N.B. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Kepkay, P.E., D.K. Muschenheim, and B.D. Manan, Bay of Fundy, Canada, by mature Sci. 1761: 1-6. Johnson. 1990. Surface coagulation and American lobsters, Homarus americanus. Martin-Robichaud, D.J., and R.H. Peterson. microbial respiration at a tidal front on J. Shellf. Res. 8: 485-486 (Abstract). 1990. Water chemistry and fish population Georges Bank. Cont. Shelf Res. 10(6): Leggett, W.C., and K.T. Frank. 1990. 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153 Charts and Publications on fish habitat with emphasis on salmonids. body shrinkage: information available from CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90/115:12 p. CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90/77: 309-314. otoliths.” Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47:2401- Peterson, R.H., and L. van Eeckhaute. 1990. McLean, E.J. 1990. Quality evaluation of 2403. Distributions of stonefly (Plecoptera) and hatchery-reared 1+ Atlantic salmon smolts. Neilson, J.D., and R.I. Perry. 1990. Die1 caddisfly (Trichoptera) species in three Internal Document 90-07: 150 p. vertical migrations of marine fishes: an stream systems in New Brunswick and Nova McLean, E.J. 1990. Quality evaluation of obligate or facultative process? Adv. Mar. Scotia, Canada, with reference to stream hatchery-reared 2+ Atlantic salmon smolts. Biol. 26: 115-168. acidity. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. Internal Document 90-08: 63 p. Nolan, SC., and R.J. Miller. 1990. A bow- 1720: iii+42 p. McMillan, J., and R. Branton. 1990. Proposal mounted pushnet for measuring the fine scale Peterson, R.H., A. Sreedharan, and S. Ray. for inter-regional sharing of catch/effort data. distribution of lobster larvae (Homarus 1990. Accumulation of trace metals in three Messieh, S.N., and M. El-Sabh. 1990. The americanus). CAFSAC Res Doc 90123. species of fish from lakes in New Brunswick marine killers: dinoflagellates in estuarine and O’Boyle. 1990. Report of the Scotia-Fundy and Nova Scotia (Canada): influence of pH coastal waters. Nat. Haz. 3: 69-86. Groundfish Task Force. Dec. 1989. and other chemical parameters. Water Pollut. Miller, R.J. 1990. Catchability coefficients O’Neil, S.F. 1990. High-technology salmon Res. J. Can. 24: 100-117. for American lobster. ICES Symp. “Shellfish enhancement techniques. In A.T. Bielak (ed.), Pezzack, D.S. 1990. Offshore lobsters: an life history and shellfishery models”, Proc. 1988 Northeast Atlantic Salmon examination adult movements, distribution Moncton, N.B., June 25-29 (Abstract). Workshop. Special Publication Series No 11, and ecology. Proc. Workshop on the Life Miller, R.J. 1990. Comment on Jellett et al. Atlantic Salmon Federation, St. Andrews, History of the American Lobster, Nov. 29-30, (1989). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 63: 306-306. N.B.: 45-54. 1989, Orono, ME. Published by Maine Miller, R.J. 1990. Effectiveness of crab and O’Neil, SF. 1990. Research summary, Lobster Institute (Abstract). lobster traps. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. Freshwater and Anadromous Division, Pezzack, D.S. 1990. Size frequency of trap 47: 1228-1251. Scotia-Fundy Region. In A.T. Bielak (ed.), caught offshore lobsters (Homarus ameri- Miller, R.J. 1990. Properties of a well- Proc. 1988 Northeast Atlantic Salmon canus) on the Scotian Shelf and an examina- managed nearshore fishery. Fisheries 15: 7-12. Workshop. Special Publication Series No 16, tion of the underlying population size Mohn, R. 1990. Stability and sustainability of Atlantic Salmon Federation, St. Andrews, structure. Symp. on Shellfish Life History and harvesting strategies in a modelled fishery. N.B.: 74-78. Shellfishery Models, Moncton, N.B., June NAFO SCR Doc. 90/113. Olivier, G. 1990. Virulence of Aeromonas 25-29 (Abstract). Mohn, R.K. 1990. A synthesis to explore salmonicida: lack of relationship with Pezzack, D.S. 1990. The use of size fre- internal consistency and sensitivity of phenotypic characteristics. J. Aquat. Anim. quency data in lobster assessment: an sealworm dynamics. In: W.D. Bowen (ed.), Health 2: 119-127. examination of offshore lobster (Homarus Population biology of sealworm (Pseudo- Pena, M.A., M.R. Lewis, and W.G. Harrison. americanus) trap caught size composition. terranova decipiens) in relation to its 1990. Primary productivity and size structure Proc. Int. Lobster Workshop on Ecology and intermediate and seal hosts. Can. Bull. J. Fish. of phytoplankton biomass on a transect of the Fisheries, Havana, Cuba, June 12- 16 (Ab- Aquat. Sci. 222: 261-272. equator at 135°W in the Pacific Ocean. Deep stract). Mohn, R., R.G. Halliday, and C. Annand. Sea Res. 37: 293-315. Pezzack, D.S., and D. R. Duggan. 1990. 1990. A review of the cod-haddock-pollock Perry, R.I., G.C. Harding, J.W. Loder, K.F. Growth rate and preliminary Y/R values for combined quota system for the under 65’ Drinkwater, J. Tremblay, C. Taggart, and M. lobsters in the offshore regions of the Gulf of mobile gear sector in the Western Scotia- Sinclair. 1990. The Georges Bank frontal Maine and Southern Scotian Shelf. CAFSAC Fundy Region. CAFSAC Res. Doc. 90/62. system: mechanisms of plankton retention on Res. Doc. 90/78. Moksness, E., and S.E. Campana. 1990. The dispersal. ICES C.M. 1990/L: 8. Pinhorn, A.T., and R.G. Halliday. 1990. intercalibration exercise on otolith micro- Perry, R.I., G. Harding, J. Loder, K. Drink- Canadian versus international regulation of structure. Report to the ICES Recruitment water, J. Tremblay, C. Taggart, and M. northwest Atlantic fisheries: management Processes Working Group: 40 p. Sinclair. 1990. The Georges Bank frontal practices, fishery yields, and resource trends, Moore, A. R., G. Olivier, and J. Fildes. 1990. system: mechanisms of plankton retention or 1960-1986. Nor. Amer. J. Fish. Man. 10: Toxicity of live Aeromonas salmonicida dispersal. ICES C.M. 1990/L 8: 21 p. 154-174: bacteria for Atlantic salmon macrophages: an Perry, R.I, G.C. Harding, J.W. Loder, K.F. Platt, T., P. Jauhari, and S. Sathyendranath. as yet undescribed virulence factor. Eastern Drinkwater, M.J. Tremblay, C.L. Taggart, and 1990. Oceanic microflora and the global Fish Health Workshop, Charlottetown, P.E.I. M. Sinclair. 1990. The Georges Bank frontal carbon cycle. CO, Climate Report. Environ- June: 11 (Abstract). system: mechanisms of plankton retention or ment Canada, Ottawa. Morrison, C.M. 1990. Anatomy. In: M. K. dispersal. ICES Biol. Oceanogr. Comm., Ref. Platt, T., S. Sathyendranath, and P. Stoskopfi (ed.), Fish Medicine. C (Hydrogr. Comm.). Ravindran. 1990. Primary production by Morrison, C.M. 1990. Fixatives for ultra- Perry, R.I., G. Harding, J. Tremblay, and C. phytoplankton: analytic solutions for daily structural preservation of oyster tissues. Proc. Taggart. 1990. Zooplankton distributions rates per unit area of water surface. Proc. R. 17th Annual Meeting of the Microscopical across the Georges Bank tidal front: relation- Soc. Lond. B 241: 101-111. Society of Canada: 52-53. ships with the physical dynamics. American Porter, J.M. 1990. Patterns of recruitment to Morrison, C.M., and Marryatt, V.M. 1990. Society of Limnology and Oceanography. the breeding group in kittiwake Rissa Coccidia found in some marine finfish off Winter meeting, Feb. (Abstract). tridactyla. Anim. Behav. 40: 350-360. Nova Scotia. In: F.O. Perkins and T.C. Cheng Peterson, R.H. 1990. Influence of stream Potter, D.C., R.G. Lough, R.I. Perry, and J.D. (eds.), Pathology in Marine Science. Aca- physico-chemical parameters on fish species Neilson. 1990. Comparison of the MOCNESS demic Press: 165-174. associations. CAFSAC Res. Doc. and IGYPT pelagic samplers for the capture Morrison, C.M., and Marryatt, V. 1990. 90/114: 14 p. of O-group cod (Gadus morhua) on Georges Further observations on Eimeria sardinae, a Peterson, R.H. 1990. Optimal physical and Bank. J. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer 46: 121-128. coccidian infecting the testis of clupeidae or chemical conditions during hatchery growth. Power, M.J., and R.L. Stephenson. 1990. herrings. 4th Int. Colloquium on Pathology in In: T.J. Benfey (ed.), Stress in Aquaculture Logbook analysis for the 4WX herring purse Marine Aquaculture. Vigo, Spain, 17-21 Workshop. May 22-23, St. Andrews, N.B.: seine fishery, 1985-89. Can. Atl. Fish. Sci. Sept.: 80-81. 26-27. Advis. Comm. Res. Doc. 90/53: 34 p. Neilson, J.D., and S.E. Campana. 1990. Peterson, R.H. 1990. Physico-chemical Poynton, S.L., and C.M. Morrison. 1990. 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Spironucleus torosa N. Sp. from Atlantic cod ment project summary. 1990. Presentation Influence of photoperiod on growth of Gadus morhua L., and haddock Melanogram- and written report to the Scotia-Fundy Soft- juvenile Atlantic salmon and development of mus aeglejinus and Hexamita salmonis Moore Shell Clam Adv. Comm., Feb. 8, Saint John, salinity tolerance during winter-spring. Trans. from brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis N.B.: 7 p. Am. Fish. Soc. 119: 689-697. (Mitchill). J. Protozool. 37: 369-383. Rowell, T.W., D.R. Chaisson, and J.T. Schweigert, F.J., W.T. Stobo, and H. Zucker. Pringle, J.D. 1990. Assessment of the IDRC McLane. 1990. Size and age of sexual 1990. Vitamin E and fatty acids in the grey (Philippines) Seaweed Project: 15 p.+appen- maturity and annual reproductive cycle in the seal (Halichoerus grypus). J. Comp. Physiol. dices+figs. ocean quahaug, Arctica islandica Linné, from B 159: 649-654. Pringle, J.D. 1990. Lobster Newsletter. coastal waters in Nova Scotia, Canada. 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156 Charts and Publications mental research and monitoring of organic Anderson, J.S., S.P. Lall, D.M. Anderson, Campana, S., and J. Hamel. 1991. Status of pollution caused by salmonid mariculture in and M. McNiven. 1991. Lysine requirement the 1990 cod fishery in 4X. CAFSAC Res. the Bay of Fundy. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. of Atlantic salmon. 4th Int. Symp. Fish Doc. 91/48. Aquat. Sci. 1724: iii+24 p. Nutrition and Feeding, Biarritz, France, June Campana, S.E., and E. Moksness. 1991. Wildish, D.J., J.L. Martin, A.J. Wilson, and 24-27: 8-01 (Abstract). Accuracy and precision of age and hatch date M. Ringuette. 1990. Environmental monitor- Annand, C., and D. Beanlands. 1991. estimates from otolith microstructure ing of the Bay of Fundy salmonid mariculture Assessment of Pollock (Pollachius virens) in examination. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 48: industry during 1988-89. Can. Tech. Rep. Divisions 4VWX and Subdivision 5Zc for Campana, S.E., and E. Moksness. 1991. The Fish. Aquat. 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Local-scale versus large-scale phase influences the metamorphic molt in and revised results of the 1990 surveys. factors affecting recruitment. Can. J. Fish. lobsters. Bull. Aquacult. Assoc. Can. 91-3: CAFSAC Res. Doc. 91157. Aquat. Sci. 48: 1003-1006. 36-38. Buerkle, U., and R.L. Stephenson. 1991. Conklin, D.E., N. Baum, J.D. Castell, L.D. Amiro, P.G., R.E. Cutting, B.M. Jessop, T.L. Herring school dynamics and its impact on Boston, and Li Hafung. 1991. Nutritionally Marshall, and S.F. O’Neil. 1991. Status of acoustic abundance estimates. In: V. induced molt death syndrome in aquatic Atlantic salmon stocks of Scotia-Fundy Wespestad, J. Collie, and E. Collie (eds.), crustaceans: I. Introduction to the problem. Region, 1990. CAFSAC Res. Doc. 91/5: 24 p. Proc. Int. Herring Symp., Anchorage, AK, Crustacean Nutrition Newslet. 7( 1): 102-107. Anderson, J.S., D.M. Anderson, S.P. Lall, Oct. 23-25, 1990 (9th Lowell Wakefield Conover, R.J., L.R. Harris, and A.W. Bedo. and M. McNiven. 1991. 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Report of the study group biomass structure associated with benthic In: E.F. Edwards and B.A. Megrey (eds.), on the potential for culture of species. ICES photosynthesis and detritus decomposition. Trans. American Fisheries Soc. 120: 669-670. C.M.1991/E: 4: 4 p.+4 tables. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 147: 9-35. Smith, S.J., R.I. Perry, and L.P. Fanning. Stewart, J.E., and J.F. Jellett. 1991. A review Scott, S.A. 1991. Genetics plays key role in 1991. Relationships between water mass of marine and freshwater biotoxins of 1990 returns to the SGRP. Atlantic Salmon characteristics and estimates of fish popula- importance to human health. In: D.C. Gordon J. 40(1): 14. tion abundance from trawl surveys. Environ. (ed.), Proc. 2nd Canadian Workshop on Scott, S.A. 1991. Workshop on broodstock Monitoring and Assessment 17: 227-245. Harmful Marine Algae. Bedford Institute of development. Salar, May. Smith, S.J., and G. Robert. 1991. Scallops, Oceanography, Dartmouth, N.S. Oct. 2-4, Semple, J.R. 1991. Atlantic salmon habitat sampling, and the law. Proc. American 1990. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. survey: enhancement opportunities and Statistical Assoc. Ann. Meet., Atlanta, GA. 1799: 26. problems in the Dunbar Stream, Nashwaak Soto, C.G. 1991. Fertilization and mortality Subba Rao, D.V. 1991. Phytoplankton River, New Brunswick. Can. MS Rep. Fish. rate of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) eggs monitoring program around Nova Scotia. In: Aquat. Sci. 2076: 35 p. during incubation. SGRP Rep. Ser. No 134. D.C. Gordon (ed.), Proc. 2nd Canadian Sharp, G. Report on the “Development of red Stefansson, S.O., B.Th. Björnsson, T. Workshop on Harmful Marine Algae. seaweeds in Senegal” in collaboration with A. Hansen, C. Haux, G.L. Taranger, and R.L. Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Dart- Tamba and T. Chopin. Prepared for the Saunders. 1991. Growth, parr-smolt transfor- mouth, N.S. Oct. 2-4, 1990. Can. Tech. Rep. International Development Research Centre. mation, and changes in growth hormone of Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1799: 27. Sharp, G., and R. Semple. 1991. An assess- Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) reared under Subba Rao, D.V. 1991. Phytoplankton ment of Ascophyllum nodosum resources in different photoperiods. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. monitoring program interim reports for: 1) Scotia-Fundy. CAFSAC Res. Doc. 91/52: 30 p. Sci. 48: 2100-2108. Torbay, 2) Ship Harbour, 3) St. Margarets Sharp, G., and R. Semple. Information sheets Stephenson, R.L. 1991. Comparisons of Bay, 4) Woods Harbour, and 5) Digby. DFO for public meetings on the biology of tuning methods used in herring stock Internal Rep. (Two sets of reports issued: one Ascophyllum nodosum. assessments in the northeast and northwest in May and one in Oct. 1991.) Silvert, W.L. 1991. The BSIM cookbook. Atlantic. ICES C.M. 1991/H:39 (Sess U):E p. Subba Rao, D.V., F. Partensky, G. BSIM-Central. DFO Internal Rep.: 23 p. Stephenson, R.L. 1991. Competition in the Wohlgeschaffen, and W.K.W. Li. 1991. Silvert, W.L. 1991. BSIM cookbook Bay of Fundy. National Fisherman 72: 1: Gametogensis in Nitzschia pungens, a toxic, supplement for MS-DOS. DFO Internal 24-25. bloom forming, marine diatom. In: D.C. Rep.: 12 p. Stephenson, R.L. 1991. Stock discreteness of Gordon (ed.), Proc. 2nd Canadian Workshop Silvert, W.L. 1991. BSIM cookbook Atlantic herring: a review of arguments for on Harmful Marine Algae. Bedford Institute supplement for Unix. DFO Internal Rep.: 5 p. and against. In: V. Wespestad, J. Collie, and of Oceanography, Dartmouth, N.S. Oct. 2-4, Silvert, W.L. 1991. BSIM programmers’ E. Collie (eds.), Proc. Int. Herring Symp., 1990. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. manual. DFO Internal Rep.: 20 p. Anchorage, AK, Oct. 23-25, 1990 (Lowell 1799: 26. Silvert, W.L. 1991. Experiments in benthic Wakefield Fisheries Symp.). Univ. of Alaska, Subba Rao, D.V., F. Partensky, G. modelling. In: P.M.J. Herman and C.H.R. Fairbanks: 659-666. Wohlgeschaffen, and W.K.W. Li. 1991. Flow Heip (eds.), Report of the Workshop, Stephenson, R.L., and D.J. Gordon. 1991. cytometric and microscopic study of gameto- Modelling the Benthos (Mar. 20-22, Yerseke, Comparison of meristic and morphometric genesis in Nitzschia pungens (Bacillario- The Netherlands). Delta Inst. for Hydrobiol. characters among spawning aggregations of physeae) a toxic, bloom-forming, marine Res., Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and northwest Atlantic herring, Clupea harengus diatom. J. Phycol. 27: 21-26. Sciences, Comm. 538: 175-188. L. In: V. Wespestad, J. Collie, and E. Collie Sushko, H., and K.R. Freeman. 1991. The use Silvert, W.L. 1991. The role of habitat (eds.), Proc. Int. Herring Symp., Anchorage, of laser diffraction in measuring the effect of changes during the early life stages of fish. AK, Oct. 23-25, 1990 (Lowell Wakefield suspended sediment on the shell growth of ICES C.M.1991/Mini: 7: 8 p. Fisheries Symp.). Univ. of Alaska, Fair- mussels Mytilus edulis. Can. Manuscr. Rep. Silvert, W.L., and D.V. Subba Rao. 1991. banks: 279-297. Fish. Aquat. Sci. No 2121: 28 p. Dynamic model of the flux of domoic acid Stephenson, R.L., and M.J. Power. 1991. Suthers, I.M., and K.T. Frank. 1991. through the Cardigan Bay Mytilus population, Die1 vertical movements of Atlantic herring in Comparative persistence of marine fish larvae In: D.C. Gordon (ed.), Proc. 2nd Canadian relation to food availability and abundance. from demersal versus pelagic eggs off Workshop on Harmful Marine Algae. In: W. Wespestad, J. Collie, and E. Collie southwestern Nova Scotia. Mar. Biol. Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Dart- (eds.), Proc. Int. Herring Symp., Anchorage, 108: 175-184. mouth, N.S. Oct. 2-4, 1990. Can. Tech. Rep. AK, Oct. 23-25, 1990 (Lowell Wakefield Takeuchi, T., R.G. Ackman, and S.P. Lall. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1799: 24. Fisheries Symp.). Univ. of Alaska, Fair- 1991. Differences in fatty acid composition of Sinclair, A., D. Gascon, R. O’Boyle, D. banks: 73-83. fish faeces as determined by two extraction Rivard, and S. Gavaris. 1991. Consistency of Stephenson, R.L., M. J. Power, U. Buerkle, methods. J. Sci. Food Agric. 56: 259-264. some Northwest Atlantic groundfish stock W.H. Dougherty, D.J. Gordon, J.B. Sochasky, Thouzeau, G., and G. Robert. 1991. Spatial assessments. NAFO Sci. Coun. Studies. and G.D. Melvin. 1991. Assessment of the variability of the distribution and growth of 16: 59-77. 1990 4WX herring fishery. CAFSAC Res. juvenile sea scallops in relation to environ- Smith, J.N., R. Nelson, and S.E. Campana. Doc. 91/58: 49 p. mental conditions on eastern Georges Bank. 1991. The use of Pb-210/Ra-226 and Th-228/ Stephenson, R.L., and J.B. Sochasky. 1991. 8th Int. Pectinid Workshop, Cherbourg, Ra-228 dis-equilibria in the ageing of otoliths Epibenthic occurrence of Atlantic herring France (Abstract). of marine fish. In: P.J. 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162 Charts and Publications growth of juvenile sea scallops, Placopecten Aquaculture Assoc. of Canada. Bull. Doc. 90/92. magellanicus (Gmelin), on eastern Georges Aquacult. Assoc. Can. 90-4:100 p. Zwanenburg, K., and P. Comeau. 1991. Bank (Northwest Atlantic). Mar. Ecol., Prog.’ Waddy, S.L. (ed.). 1991. Proc. 1991 Annual Haddock on the Eastern Scotian Shelf 1991. Ser. 74: 205-218. Meeting, St. Andrews, N.B. Bull. Aquacult. CAFSAC Res. Doc. 91/47. Thouzeau, G., G. Robert, and R. Ugarte. Assoc. Can. 91-3: 128 p. 1991. Faunal assemblages of benthic megain- Waddy, S.L. 1991. Seasonal variation in vertebrates inhabiting sea scallop grounds spawning response by lobsters (Homarus PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL from eastern Georges Bank, in relation to americanus) to temperature and photoperiod SCIENCES BRANCH environmental factors. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. manipulation. Amer. Zool.: 31: 23A (Abstract) 74: 61-82. Waddy, S.L. 1991. The view from here. Bull. 1990 Thouzeau, G., and D. Vine. 1991. 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Office and the Canadian-American Center of of the 2nd Meeting, CP1-3. WOC Report, Soc. 119: 353-365. the Univ. of Maine: 177-202. Sept. 1989, WOCE Int. Project Office, Garrett, C., T. Jackson, R. Pocklington, and Bewers, J.M. 1990. Strategic Plan for the Wormley, U.K.: 18 p. J. Woodley. 1990. A review of the needs of Marine Analytical Chemistry Standards Crocker, G., and K. Tuff. 1990. Measure- the Univ. of the West Indies and the Program 1990-95 and Beyond. National ment of ice bottom melt in the Labrador CARICOM Region for marine science Research Council, Appendix H-J in Commit- marginal ice zone: Baffin Cruise March 5-30, expertise and information. ICOD (Project tee on Marine Analytical Chemistry: 56 p. 1990. C-Core Contract Number 90-C7. 880261): 19 p. Bewers, J.M., A. Clarke, and B. Petrie. 1990. Dessureault, J.-G., D.J. Belliveau, and S.W. Gearing, J.N., and R. Pocklington. 1990. Strategy for monitoring the east coast Young. 1990. 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Under-ice physical oceanographic processes. circulation and variability on the Eastern Tang, C.L. 1991. Small-scale thermohaline J. Mar. Syst. 2: 143-152. Canadian Continental Shelf. Cont. Shelf Res. structure in the boundary regions of the Prinsenberg, S.J., I.K. Peterson, and G.A. 11(8-10): 977-1012. Labrador Pack Ice. 20th General Assembly of Fowler. 1991. Estimates of ice-edge melt Smith, S.D. 1991. (ed.) HEXOS Newsl. 13, IUGG (Abstract). rates off Labrador and Eastern Newfound- Oct. Bedford Institute of Oceanography: 9 p. Tang, C.L., D.J. Belliveau, J.-G. Dessureault, land, Canada. Ann. Glacial. 15: 257-263. Smith, S.D. 1991. Humidity Exchange Over and T.-Y.D. Tang. 1991. Determination of R.H. Loucks Oceanology Limited, Discov- the Sea: the HEXOS program. In: T.E. Smith vertical current structure on the Newfound- ery Consultants Limited, and B. Petrie. 1991. (ed.), Science Review 1988 & ‘89. 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AASP Grant, A.C., and K.D. McAlpine. 1990. Jackson, H.R. 1990. Evolution and Regional Contributions Series No 25, Amer. Assoc. Chap. 6: La Marge Continentale autour de Stratigraphy of the Northeastern Canadian Stratigraphic Palynologists Foundation, 1 Terre-Neuve. Dans: Géologie de la Marge Polar Margin: Arctic Geoscience. Mar. Geol. Vol. (Looseleaf). Continentale de l’Est du Canada. Geological 93(1/4): 179-192. Forsyth, D.A., T. Cote, J. Craven, M. Argyle, Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada Series Jansa, L.F., M.P. Aubry, and F.M. Gradstein. R.A. Stephenson, H.R. Jackson, L. Johnson, No 00002: 253-309. 1990. Comets and Extinctions: Cause and J. Deamley-Davison, M. Wright, and R.C. Grant, A.C., and K.D. McAlpine. 1990. Effect? In: Global Catastrophes in Earth Chieman. 1990. 1990 Ice Island Refraction Chap. 6: the Continental Margin Around History; an Interdisciplinary Conf. on Survey, Ellef Rignes and Meighen Islands Newfoundland. 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Geological Survey of Canada, Obtained During ODP Leg 112. Proc. of the Keen, M.J., E.M. Klein, and W.G. Melson. Geology of Canada Series No 00002: 797-883. Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 1990. Ocean-Ridge Basalt Compositions Lewis, C.F.M., and M.J. Keen. 1990. Chap. 112: 633-638. Correlated with Palaeobathymetry. Nature 14: Constraints to Development. In: Geology McAlpine, K.D. 1990. Mesozoic Strati- 345(6274): 423-426. of the Continental Margin of Eastern Canada. graphy, Sedimentary Evolution, and Petro- Keen, M.J., and D.J.W. Piper. 1990. Chap. 1: Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of leum Potential of the Jeanne d’Arc Basin, Considerations Génerales. Dans: Géologie de Canada Series No 00002: 743-823. Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Geological la Marge Continentale de l’Est du Canada. Loncarevic, B.D., T. Feininger, and D. Survey of Canada, Paper No 89-17: 50 p. Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Lefebvre. 1990. The Sept-Iles Layered Mafic McMillan, N.J., B. 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Geological Survey of Canada, Open File No Pe-Piper, G., D.J.W. Piper, M.J. Keen, and Reid, I., and C. Keen. 1990. Deep Coastal 02242: 56 p. N.J. McMillan. 1990. Igneous Rocks of the Structure beneath a Rifted Basin: Results Miller, R.O., and G.B.J. Fader. 1990. Cruise Continental Margin (Chap. 2: Tectonic and from Seismic Refracture Measurements Report 89-009, Phase C - Sand Wave Field - Geophysical Overview). In: Geology of the Across the Jeanne d’Arc Basin, Offshore Scots Bay, F.R.V. Navicula. Geological Continental Margin of Eastern Canada. Eastern Canada. Can. J. Earth Sci. 27(11): Survey of Canada, Open File No 02298: 28 p., Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of 1462-1471. 1 Map; Geophysical, Lithological Interpreta- Canada Series No 00002: 75-85. Sanford, B.V., and A.C. Grant. 1990. Bed- tions (1:20,000). Piper, D.J.W., G.D.M. Cameron, and M.A. rock Geological Mapping and Basin Studies Miller, R.O., G.B.J. Fader, and M. Douma. Best. 1990. 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In: Current Research Part B, Research Part D, Interior Plains and Arctic Report 88401: Hibernia Area, Grand Banks of Eastern and Atlantic Canada. Dans: Canada. Dans: Recherches en Cours Partie D, Newfoundland, M.V. Pholas. Geological Recherches en Cours Partie B, Est et Région Plaines Interieures et Région Arctique du Survey of Canada, Open File No 02297: 64 p. Atlantique du Canada. Geological Survey of Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper Moran, K., and P. Potter. 1990. Physical Canada, Paper No 90-01B: 29-32. No 90-01D: 17-30. Properties of Core Samples Collected on Piper, D.J.W., N. Kontopoulos, C. Savoye, B., P. Cochonat, and D.J.W. Piper. Cruise 88024. Geological Survey of Canada, Anagnostou, G. Chronis, and A.G. Panagos. 1990. Seismic Evidence for a Complex Slide Open File No 02302: 15 p. 1990. Modem Fan Deltas in the Western Gulf Near the Wreck of the Titanic: Model of an Mosher, D.C., P.J. Mudie, S.A. Thibaudeau, of Corinth, Greece. Geo-Marine Lett. 10(1): Instability Corridor for Non-Channeled and D. Frobel. 1990. Ice Island Sampling and 5-12. Gravity Events. Mar. Geol. 91(4): 281-298. Investigation of Sediments: an Environmental Piper, D.J.W.,P.J. Mudie,G.B. Fader,H.W. Schafer, C.T. 1990. The China Harbours Marine Geology Program. Geological Survey Josenhans, B. MacLean, and G. Vilks. 1990. Siltation Project/Projet d’Étude Portant sur of Canada, Open File No 02261, 16 Min. Chap. 10: Géologie du Quaternaire. Dans: l’Ensablement de Deux Ports de Chine. Geos Videotape. Géologie de la Marge Continentale de l’Est 19(4): 20-25. Mudford, B.J. 1990. A One-Dimensional, du Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, Schafer, C.T., D. Heffler, F.M. Caimi, and Two Phase Model of Overpressure Genera- Geology of Canada Series No 00002: 511-652, R.F. Tusting. 1990. The Hysub 5000 as an tion in the Venture Gas Field, Offshore Nova 1 Map; Hydrographic, Bathymetric Underwater Survey Camera Platform. In: Scotia. Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol. 38(2): (1:5,000,000). Proc. “Intervention 90” Conf., Vancouver: 246-258. Piper, D.J.W., P.J. Mudie, G.B. Fader, H.W. 345-351. Mudie, P.J., A. de Vernal, and M.J. Head. Josenhans, B. MacLean, and G. Vilks. 1990. Schroder-Adams, C.J., P.J. Mudie, F.E. 1990. Neogene to Recent Palynostratigraphy Chap. 10: Quaternary Geology. In: Geology Cole, and F.S. Medioli. 1990. Late Holocene of Circum-Attic Basins: Results of ODP Leg of the Continental Margin of Eastern Canada. Benthic Foraminifera beneath Perennial Sea 104, Norwegian Sea, Leg 105, Baffin Bay and Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Ice on Antarctic Continental Shelf: Arctic DSDP Site 611, Irminger Sea. Proc. Int. Canada Series No 00002: 475-607, 1 Map; Geoscience. Mar. Geol. 93(1-4): 225-242. Workshop on Geologic History of the Polar Hydrographic, Bathymetric (1:5,000,000). Shaw, J., and D.L. Forbes. 1990. Long- and Oceans: Arctic vs. Antarctic; NATO ASI Piper, D.J.W., and R. Sparkes. 1990. Short-Term Trends of Relative Sea Level, Series C. Reidel Pub.: 609-646. Bathymetry of the Continental Slope and Rise Atlantic Canada. In: Proc. Canadian Coastal Mukhopadhyay, P.K., and J.A. Wade. 1990. Off the Southern Grand Banks of Newfound- Conf., Kingston. National Research Council Organic Facies and Maturation of Sediments land. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File of Canada: 291-305. from Three Scotian Shelf Wells. Bull. Can. No 02232: 1 p.. 1 Map; Hydrographic, Shaw, J., and D.L. Forbes. 1990. Relative Petrol. Geol. 38(4): 407-425. Bathymetry (1: 1,000,000). Sea-Level Change and Coastal Response, Parrott, D.R., C.F.M. Lewis, E. Banke, Piper, D.J.W., and R. Sparkes. 1990. Northeast Newfoundland. J. Coastal Res. B.G.J. Fader, and G.V. Sonnichsen. 1990. Pliocene-Quaternary Geology Central Scotian 6(3): 641-660. Seabed Disturbance by a Recent (1989) Slope. Geological Survey of Canada, Open Shaw, J., and D.L. Forbes. 1990. Late Iceberg Grounding on the Grand Banks of File No 02233: 5 p., 12 Maps; Geological, Quaternary Sedimentation in St. George’s Newfoundland. In: Current Research Part B, Facies, Isopachs (1:250,000). Bay, Southwest Newfoundland: Acoustic Eastern and Atlantic Canada. Dans: Praeg, D.B., C.T. and Schafer. 1990. Seabed Stratigraphy and Seabed Deposits. Can. J. Recherches en Cours Partie B, Est et Région Features of the Labrador Slope and Rise Near Earth Sci. 27(7): 964-983. Atlantique du Canada. Geological Survey of 55N Revealed by Seamarc I Sidescan Sonar Shaw, J., S.M. Solomon, M. Emory-Moore, Canada, Paper No 90-01B: 43-48. Imagery. Geological Survey of Canada, Open D.L. Forbes, and D.N. Proudfoot. 1990. Pecore, S.S., and G.B.J. Fader. 1990. File No 02028: 72 p., 4 Maps; Location, Geochemical Data and Gold Assay Results Surficial Geology, Pockmarks, and Associ- Survey Location (1:150,000). Geophysical, for Seabed Samples from Inner-Shelf Sites ated Neotectonic Features of Passamaquoddy Sidescan Sonar Surveys (1: 150,000). Off Northeast Newfoundland. Geological Bay, New Brunswick, Canada. Geological Prior, D.B., and B.D. Bornhold. 1990. The Survey of Canada, Open File No 02294: 5 p., Survey of Canada, Open File No 02213: 45 p. Underwater Development of Holocene Fan 1 Map; Location, Sample Locations Pe-Piper, G., D.J.W. Piper, M.J. Keen, and Deltas. In: A. Colella and D.B. Prior (eds.), (1:250,000). N.J. McMillan. 1990. Roches Ignées de la Fan Deltas. IAS - Special Publication: 75-90. Shaw, J., R.B. Taylor, and D.L. Forbes. 1990. Marge Continentale (Chap. 2: Tectonique et Reid, I., and C.E. Keen. 1990. High Seismic Coarse Clastic Barriers in Eastern Canada: Geophysique Regionales). Dans: Géologie de Velocities Associated with Reflections from Patterns of Glaciogenic Sediment with Rising la Marge Continentale de l’Est du Canada. within the Lower Oceanic Crust Near the Sea Levels. Special Issue No 9, Proc. of the Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Continental Margin of Eastern Canada. Skagen Symp. J. Coast. Res.: 160-200. Canada Series No 00002: 80-90. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 99(1-2): 118-126. Shaw, J., and B. Wile. 1990. Marine Geologi-

174 Charts and Publications cal Surveys in the Nearshore of Northeast 02312: 86 p. of Canada, Geology of Canada Series No Newfoundland: White Bay, Baie Verte, Green Syvitski, J.P.M. 1990. Modelling the Sedi- 00002: 190-238. Bay and Halls Bay. Geological Survey of mentary Fill of Basins. In: Statistical Applica- Wade, J.A., and B.C. Maclean. 1990. Canada, Open File No 02311: 32 p., 3 Maps; tions in the Earth Sciences. Geological Considerations sur la Géologie du Bassin Location, Survey Locations (1:286,000). Survey of Canada, Paper No 89-09: 505-515. Néo-Ecossais d’après de Recentes Données Location, Survey Locations (1:6,000). Syvitski, J.P.M., K.W.G. Leblanc, and R.E. Sismiques et Données de Puits (Chap. 5: Sherin, A.G., and P.N. Moir. 1990. Building Cranston. 1990. The Flux and Preservation of Géologie de la Marge Continentale du Sud- a GIS for the Atlantic Geoscience Centre: Organic Carbon in Baffin Island Fjords. In: Est du Canada). Dans: Géologie de la Marge Which Direction? In: Statistical Applications Glacimarine Environments: Processes and Continentale de l’Est du Canada. Geological in the Earth Sciences. Geological Survey of Sediments. Geological Society Special Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada Series Canada, Paper No 89-09: 215. Publication 53: 177-199. No 00002: 200-252. Shih, K.G., W. Kay, J. Woodside, R. Jackson, Taylor, R.B., and D. Frobel. 1990. Ap- J. Adams, J. Drysdale, J.S. Bell, and A.J. proaches and Results of a Coastal Dune 1991 Podrousek. 1990. Epaisseur de la Croute, Restoration Program on Sable Island, Nova Anastasakis, G., and D.J.W. Piper. 1991. Sismicité et Orientation des Contraintessur la Scotia. In: Proc. Symp. on Coastal Sand Character of Seismo-Turbidites Deposited Marge Continentale de l’Est du Canada. Dunes, Sept., Guelph, Ont. National Research during Sapropel S-I, Zakinthos and Stro- Geological Survey of Canada, “A” Series Council of Canada: 405-430. fadhes Basins. Sedimentology 38: 717-733. 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Usow, Lines Location (1: 10,000). Location, Seismic Shor, A.N., D.J.W. Piper, J.E. Hughes and P. Hull. 1990. A Technique for Catalogu- Lines Location (1:300,000). Location, Sample Clarke, and L.A. Mayer. 1990. Giant Flute- ing and Retrieving Large Sets of Marine Locations (1:300,000). Geological, Surficial Like Scour and Other Erosional Features Magnetic and Aeromagnetic Data. In: Current Geological (1:300,000). Formed by the 1929 Grand Banks Turbidity Research Part A, National and General Anonymous. 1991. Magnetic Anomaly Map, Current. Sedimentology 37(4): 631-645. Programs. Dans: Recherches en Cours Partie Labrador Sea Northwest. Carte Anomalies Srivastava, S.P., H. Schouten, W.R. Roest, A, Programmes Nationaux et Generaux. Magnetiques, Mer du Labrador Nord-Ouest. K.D. Klitgord, L.C. Kovacs, J. Verhoef, and Geological Survey of Canada, Paper No Geological Survey of Canada, National Earth R. Macnab. 1990. Iberian Plate Kinematics: a 90-01A: 21-25. Science Series, Magnetic Anomaly Map No Jumping Plate Boundary between Eurasia and Vilks, G., and D. Buckley. 1990. Evidence No-21-M1 Map(s); Geophysical, Magnetic Africa. Nature 344 (6268): 756-759. for Dissolution and Sorting of Planktonic Anomaly ( 1: 1,000,000). Srivastava, S.P., W.R. Roest, L.C. Kovacs, Foraminifers in Pleistocene Sediments at Anonymous. 1991. Magnetic Anomaly Map, G. Oakey, S. Levesque, J. Verhoef, and Hole 708A. In: Proc. of the Ocean Drilling Labrador Sea South. Carte Anomalies R. Macnab. 1990. Motion of Iberia since Program, Scientific Results 115: 621-625. Magnétiques, Mer du Labrador Sud. Geologi- the Late Jurassic: Results from Detailed Vilks, G., B. MacLean, and C. Rodrigues. cal Survey of Canada, National Earth Science Aeromagnetic Measurements in the New- 1990. Late Quaternary High Resolution Series, Magnetic Anomaly Map No Nn-22- foundland Basin. In: G. 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des Atlas des Bassins de la Côte Est: Plate- and Related Studies. In: Geology of the Forme Néo-Écossaise. Atlantic Geoscience Continental Margin of Eastern Canada. ENVIRONMENT CANADA Centre, Centre Géoscientifique de Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of l’Atlantique, Geological Survey of Canada, Canada Series No 00002: 87-138. MARINE WILDLIFE Commission Géologique du Canada: 61. Winters, G.V., D.E. Buckley, R.A. CONSERVATION DIVISION Wade, J.A. 1991. Lithostratigraphy 7: Fitzgerald, and K.W.G. Leblanc. 1991. Dawson Canyon and Wyandot Formations. Organic Geochemical Data for Surface 1990 and 1991 Lithostratigraphie 7: Formation de Dawson Sediments from Halifax Inlet. Geological Brown, R.G.B. 1991. The natural history of Canyon Formation de Wyandot. In: East Survey of Canada, Open File No 02389: 65 p. oil spills. In: J. White (ed.), Effects of Oil on Coast Basin Atlas Series: Scotian Shelf. Zarkhidze, V.S., R.J. Fulton, P.J. Mudie, Wildlife: Research, Rehabilitation and Dans: Série des Atlas des Bassins de la Côte D.J.W. Piper, E.E. Musatov, G.D. Naryshkin, General Concerns. Sheridan Press, Hanover, Est: Plate-Forme Néo-Écossaise. Atlantic and D.S. Yashin. (Compilers) 1991. PA: 121-124. Geoscience Centre, Centre Géoscientifique de Circumpolar Map of Quaternary Deposits of Furness, R.W., and D.N. Nettleship. 1991. l’Atlantique, Geological Survey of Canada, the Arctic. Geological Survey of Canada, Introductory remarks: seabirds as monitors of Commission Géologique du Canada: 63. Map 1818A, Scale 1:6,000,000. changing marine environments. Internat. Wade, J.A. 1991. Lithostratigraphy 11: Zevenhuizen, J., and H. Josenhans. 1990. Ornithol. Cong. 20: 2239-2240. Overpressure 1. Lithostratigraphie 11: Digital Maps of Surficial Geology of Hudson Furness, R.W., and D.N. Nettleship (eds.). Surpression 1. In: East Coast Basin Atlas Bay. Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 1991. Seabirds as monitors of changing Series: Scotian Shelf. Dans: Série des Atlas No 02215, 5 Maps; Location, Sample marine environments. Internat. Ornithol. des Bassins de la Côte Est: Plate-Forme Néo- Location (1:2,000,000). Surficial Geology, Cong. 20: 2237-2279. Écossaise. Atlantic Geoscience Centre, Centre Lithology (1:2,000,000). Physiographic, Kerekes, J. 1990. Possible correlation of Géoscientifique de l’Atlantique, Geological Seafloor Relief (1:2,000,000). common loon population with the trophic Survey of Canada, Commission Géologique Zevenhuizen, J., and K. Moran. 1991. state of a water body. Internat. Ver. Limnol. du Canada: 71. Surficial Geology and Physical Properties 17: Verh. 24: 349-353. Wade, J.A. 1991. Lithostratigraphy 12: Outer Shelf: Georges Bank. Géologie des Kerekes, J. 1990. Western Brook Pond. In: Overpressure 2. Lithostratigraphie 12: Formations en Surface et Propriétés Phy- T. Kira (ed.), Data Book of World Lake Surpression 2. In: East Coast Basin Atlas siques 17: Plate-Forme Externe: Banc de Environments. Vol. 3. A survey of the state of Series: Scotian Shelf. Dans: Série des Atlas Georges. In: East Coast Basin Atlas Series: world lakes. Int. Lake Environment Corn. des Bassins de la Côte Est: Plate-Forme Néo- Scotian Shelf. Dans: Serie des Atlas des (ILEC) & UNEP. Otsu, Japan: NAM-1-10. Écossaise. Atlantic Geoscience Centre, Centre Bassins de la Côte Est: Plate-Forme Néo- Kerekes, J., A. Blouin, and S. Beauchamp. Géoscientifique de l’Atlantique, Geological Écossaise. Atlantic Geoscience Centre, Centre 1990. Trophic response to phosphorus in Survey of Canada, Commission Géologique Géoscientifique de l’Atlantique, Geological acidic and non-acidic lakes in Nova Scotia, du Canada: 73. Survey of Canada, Commission Géologique Canada. Hydrobiol. 191: 105-110. Wade, J.A. 1991. Oil and Gas Occurrences du Canada: 143. Nettleship, D.N. 1990. CWS-SCR “Access to and Geochemistry. Gisements de Pétrole et de Zonenshain, L.P., J. Verhoef, R. Macnab, Seabird Colony Data”. CWS “Studies on Gaz et Geochimie. In: East Coast Basin Atlas and H. Meyers. 1991. Magnetic Imprints of northern seabirds” Report No 245: 1-8. Series: Scotian Shelf. Dans: Série des Atlas Continental Accretion in U.S.S.R. EOS Nettleship, D.N. 1990. Are counts of des Bassins de la Côte Est: Plate-Forme Néo- 72(29): 305, 310. standing adult Atlantic Puffins useful for Écossaise. Atlantic Geoscience Centre, Centre assessing population status? Colonial Géoscientifique de l’Atlantique, Geological Waterbird Society Newsletter 14: 22. Survey of Canada, Commission Géologique Nettleship, D.N. 1990. Book review of du Canada: 109. “Newfoundland birds: exploitation, study, Wade, J.A., and P.N. Moir. 1991. Introduc- conservation” by W.A. Montevecchi and tion 3: Well Locations. Emplacements des L.M. Tuck. Ibis 132: 137-138. Puits. In: East Coast Basin Atlas Series: Nettleship, D.N. 1991. The diet of Atlantic Scotian Shelf. Dans: Série des Atlas des Puffin chicks in Newfoundland before and Bassins de la Côte Est: Plate-Forme Néo- after the initiation of an international capelin Écossaise. Atlantic Geoscience Centre, Centre fishery, 1967-1984. Internat. Ornithol. Cong. Géoscientifique de l’Atlantique, Geological 20: 2263-2271. Survey of Canada, Commission Géologique Nettleship, D.N. 1991. Guest Editorial: du Canada: 5. Seabird management and future research. Williams, G.L., P. Ascoli, M.S. Barss, J.P. Colonial Waterbirds 14: 77-84. Bujak, E. Davies, C.L. Amos, K.T. Tee, and Nettleship, D.N. 1991. Report of the B.A. Tuin. 1991. The Vast-Glacial Evolution Standing Committee for the Coordination of of Chignecto Bay, Bay of Fundy and its Seabird Research. Internat. Ornithol. Cong. Modem Environment of Deposition. In: Tidal 20: 87-90. Clastic Sedimentology. Can. Soc. Petroleum Nettleship, D.N. 1990. Seabirds on islands: Geologists Memoir 16: 59-90. threats, case studies, and action plans. Int. Williams, G.L., P. Ascoli, M.S. Barss, J.P. Council for Bird Preservation World Conf. Bujak, E. Davies, R.A. Fensome, and M.A. Seabird Workshop, Hamilton, New Zea- Williamson. 1990. Chap. 3: Biostratigraphic land: 65 p. et Etudes Connexes. In: Géeologie de la Marge Nettleship, D.N., J.W. Chardine, E.P. Huyck, Continentale de 1’Est du Canada. Geological and W.W. Lidster. 1990. Field investigation Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada Series of seabirds at Prince Leopold Island, Lancas- No 00002: 91-144. ter Sound, Northwest Territories, 1988. Williams, G.L., P. Ascoli, M.S. Barss, J.P. Canadian Wildlife Service Technical Report Bujak, E. Davies, R.A. Fensome, and M.A. Series No 97: 184. Williamson. 1990. Chap. 3: Biostratigraphy Nettleship, D.N., and G.N. Glenn. 1991.

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CWS Seabird Colony Registry Progress organisms of off-target deposition of endo- Shellfish Area Sector 4-020-002, Report Input Specifications for a Seabird sulfan applied by aircraft. Environ. Toxicol. Burnt Church. Environment Canada, Colony Database: July 1991. CWS “Studies Chem. 10: 103-114. Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. on northern seabirds” Manuscript Report, Ernst, W., G. Julien, and P. Hennigar. 1991. EP-AR-91-8. Dartmouth, N.S.: 48 p. Contamination of ponds by fenitrothion Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and C.G. Roberts. Piatt, J.F., H.R. Carter, and D.N. Nettleship. during forest spraying. Bull. Environ. 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick 1991. Effects of oil pollution on marine bird Contam. Toxicol. 46: 815-821. Shellfish Area Sector 04-030-001 & 002, populations. In: J. White (ed.), The Effects of Jonczyk, E., K.G. Doe, P.G. Wells, and S.G. Miramichi River Estuary. Environment Oil on Wildlife: Research, Rehabilitation, and Yee. 1991. Technical evaluation of the sea Canada, Environmental Protection, Atlantic General Concerns. Sheridan Press, Hanover, urchin fertilization test: proceedings of a Region. EP-AR-91-9. PA: 125-141. workshop in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. In: P. Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Chapman, F. Bishay, E. Power, K. Hall, L. 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Harding, D. McLeay, M. Nassichuk, and W. Shellfish Area Sector 4-040-001, Bay du Vin. REGIONAL LABORATORY Knapp (eds.), Proc. 17th Annual Aquatic Environment Canada, Environmental (ENVIRONMENTAL Toxicity Workshop, Nov. 5-7, 1990, Vancou- Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-10. PROTECTION) ver, B.C. Vol. 1. Fisheries and Oceans Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Canada. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick 1990 1(1774): 323-330. Shellfish Area Sector 4-040-002, Bay du Vin, Ernst, W.R., and K.G. Doe. 1990. A Parker, W.R., K.G. Doe, and P.G. Wells. Egg and Fox Islands. Environment Canada, comparison of the aquatic toxicity of 1991. Application of marine biological tests Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. fenitrothion flowable and fenitrothion liquid in assessing and controlling the acute and EP-AR-91-11. technical formulations. Water Pollut. Res. J. chronic toxicities of effluents. In: P. Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Can. 24(4): 553-568. Chapman, F. Bishay, E. Power, K. Hall, L. 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Harding, D. McLeay, M. Nassichuk, and W. Shellfish Area Sector 4-040-003, 1990. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Knapp (eds.), Proc. 17th Annual Aquatic Baie Ste-Anne. Environment Canada, Shellfish Area Sector 3-010, Baie de Caraquet Toxicity Workshop, Nov. 5-7, 1990, Vancou- Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. to Bas Caraquet. Environment Canada, ver, B.C. Vol. 1. Fisheries and Oceans EP-AR-91-12. Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. Canada. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. EP-AR-90-#I. 1(1774): 135-151. 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Shellfish Area Sector 4-040-004, Escuminac. 1990. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Environment Canada, Environmental Shellfish Area Sector 3-020, Pokesudie Shellfish Area Sector 3-010-003, Bas Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-13. Island, Baie St-Simon & Shippegan Harbour. Caraquet. Environment Canada, Environmen- Richard, B.J., and D.B. Walter. 1991. Environment Canada, Environmental tal Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-1. Appraisal Report, Nova Scotia Shellfish Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-90-#2. Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Growing Area Sector 4-020-003, Tracadie Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick West Arm. Environment Canada, Environ- 1990. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Shellfish Area Sector 3-020-001, Pokesudie mental Protection, Atlantic Region. Shellfish Area Sector 3-030, Ile Lameque and Island. Environment Canada, Environmental EP-AR-91-16. Miscou Harbour. Environment Canada, Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-2. Richard, B.J., and D.B. Walter. 1991. Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Reappraisal Report, Nova Scotia Shellfish EP-AR-90-#3. 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Growing Area Sector 6-010-001, North Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Shellfish Area Sector 3-020-003, Baie Brule. Harbour. Environment Canada, Environmen- 1990. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Environment Canada, Environmental tal Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-18. Shellfish Area Sector 3-040, Baie de Petit- Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-3. Richard, B.J., and D.B. Walter. 1991. Pokemouche and Rivière & Baie de Poke- Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Reappraisal Report, Nova Scotia Shellfish mouche. Environment Canada, Environmen- 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Growing Area Sector 6-010-002, South tal Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-90-#4. Shellfish Area Sector 3-030-002, Baie de Harbour. Environment Canada, Environmen- Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Petite Lameque. Environment Canada, tal Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-19. 1990. Sanitary and Water Quality Survey, Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. Richard, B.J., and D.B. Walter. 1991. New Brunswick Shellfish Area Sector 3-030- EP-AR-91-4. Reappraisal Report, Nova Scotia Shellfish 003, Grande Batture. Environment Canada, Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Growing Area Sector 7-010-003, Great Bras Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick D’Or (Middle). Environment Canada, EP-AR-90-#3. Shellfish Area Sector 3-030-003, Grande Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. Samant, H.S., K.G. Doe, and O.C. Vaidya. Batture. Environment Canada, Environmental EP-AR-91-20. 1990. An integrated chemical and biological Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-5. Richard, B.J., and D.B. Walter. 1991. study of the bioavailability of metals in Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Reappraisal Report, Nova Scotia Shellfish sediments from two contaminated harbours in 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Growing Area Sector 7-010-004, Great Bras New Brunswick, Canada. Sci. of the Total Shellfish Area Sector 4-010-001, Tabusintac D’Or (West). Environment Canada, Environ- Environ. 96: 253-268. Bay and River. Environment Canada, mental Protection, Atlantic Region. Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-21. 1991 EP-AR-91-6. Richard, B.J., and D.B. Walter. 1991. Ernst, W.R, K. Doe, P. Jonah, J. Young, G. Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Reappraisal Report, Nova Scotia Shellfish Julien, and P. Hennigar. 1991. The toxicity of 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Growing Area Sector 7-010-005, Baddeck chlorothalonil to aquatic fauna and the impact Shellfish Area Sector 4-020-001, Neguac Bay & St. Patrick’s Channel (East). Environ- of its operational use on a pond ecosystem. Bay. Environment Canada, Environmental ment Canada, Environmental Protection, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 21: 1-9. Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-7. Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-22. Ernst, W.R., P. Jonah, K. Doe, G. Julien, and Richard, B.J., G.R. Long, and J.R. Machell. Richard, B.J., and D.B. Walter. 1991. P. Hennigar. 1991. Toxicity to aquatic 1991. Reappraisal Report, New Brunswick Reappraisal Report, Nova Scotia Shellfish

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Growing Area Sector 7-010-006, Nyanza Bay EP-AR-91-25. Wood Protection Facilities in the Atlantic & St. Patrick’s Channel. Environment Richard, B.J., and D.B. Walter. 1991. Region in 1989. Environment Canada, Canada, Environmental Protection, Atlantic Appraisal Report, Nova Scotia Shellfish Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. Region. EP-AR-91-23. Growing Area Sector 7-020-013, Malaga- EP-AR-91-5. Richard, B.J., and D.B. Walter. 1991. watch Harbour. Environment Canada, Tay, K.L., K.G. Doe, S.J. Wade, J.D.A. Reappraisal Report, Nova Scotia Shellfish Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. Vaughan, R.E. Berrigan, and M.J. Moore. Growing Area Sector 7-010-007, Little EP-AR-91-26. 1991. Biological effects of contaminants in Narrows. Environment Canada, Environmen- Richard, B.J., and D.B. Walter. 1991. Halifax Harbour sediments. In: P. Chapman, tal Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-24. Reappraisal Report, Nova Scotia Shellfish F. Bishay, E. Power, K. Hall, L. Harding, D. Richard, B.J., and D.B. Walter. 1991. Growing Area Sector 7-040-005, Eskasoni. McLeay, M. Nassichuk, and W. Knapp (eds.), Reappraisal Report, Nova Scotia Shellfish Environment Canada, Environmental Proc. 17th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Work- Growing Area Sector 7-010-008, Protection, Atlantic Region. EP-AR-91-27. shop, Nov. 5-7, 1990, Vancouver, B.C. Vol. Wycocomagh Bay. Environment Canada, Rutherford, L.A., P.A. Hennigar, and W.H. 1. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Can. Tech. Environmental Protection, Atlantic Region. Home. 1991. Soil Contamination at Eleven Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1(1774): 383-426.

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