OCEAN EDUCATION

Whirlpool in Western Passage at the entrance to Passamaquoddy Bay, with Deer Island in the background.

Interdisciplinary Research Collaborative Trains Students to See Through Turbulent Systems

By Kristina Cammen, Gabriella Marafino, ABSTRACT. Despite the availability of interdisciplinary academic training pro- Sarah Burton, Jillian Dow, Emma Dullaert, grams, the practice of environmental science is often hampered by a lack of conver- Madalyn Jorge, Kate Macolini, gence across diverse disciplines. This gap is particularly salient in settings character- Louise McGarry, Christopher Tremblay, ized by complex environmental issues, such as multiple-use coastal ecosystems. In Jessica Jansujwicz, Tora Johnson, response, we developed and implemented a training, research, and communication framework to provide undergraduates with an authentic operative experience work- Lauren Ross, and Gayle Zydlewski ing at the interface of interdisciplinary science and public decision-​making within a case study of marine renewable energy. In our program, students gained hands-on experience with the scientific process and learned how to make information rele- vant, useful, and accessible to diverse stakeholder groups. Application of this frame- work demonstrates that the process of integrating data from biological (visual and acoustic monitoring of fish and marine mammals), physical (hydrodynamics), and social (local ecological knowledge) sciences can provide a more complete under- standing of complex and turbulent ecosystems for better informed decision- making. We offer several recommendations to facilitate the adaptation and imple- mentation of our interdisciplinary framework to diverse research contexts, with a focus on interdisciplinary training for the next generation of marine scientists.

254 Oceanography | Vol.34, No.1 INTRODUCTION energy in coastal areas and the associated room setting hampers efforts to translate Environmental science is inherently an need for environmental impact monitor- knowledge into action. interdisciplinary field, with academic ing. Traditional environmental monitor- In this paper, we first outline our train- training programs that include course- ing programs often fall short in settings ing, research, and communication frame- work in the physical, biological, and where environmental impacts are likely work and describe the case study that moti- social sciences. Yet, the practice of envi- to be highly complex and distributed vated the development of the WPSRC. ronmental science is often hampered by a across diverse components of an ecosys- We then share how undergraduates were lack of convergence among these diverse tem (Thomas, 1993; Maurer et al., 1999). engaged in an integrated approach to data disciplines. This gap exists despite sig- Effects of renewable energy develop- collection, analysis, and communication, nificant efforts to design training pro- ment in coastal systems can include, for and discuss the challenges we faced along grams in environmental and sustainabil- example, changes to the physical struc- the way. We conclude by offering several ity sciences that aim to prepare students ture of an environment, altered biology, recommendations to facilitate the adap- to “craft usable knowledge” through inter- and cascading effects on associated nat- tation and implementation of our inter­ disciplinary collaborations and stake- ural resource-dependent human com- disciplinary, student-focused​ framework holder partnerships (S.G. Roy et al., munities (Dadswell et al., 1986; Cullen-​ to diverse research contexts. 2019). Improvements to curriculum-​ Unsworth et al., 2013; McDowell and based training programs alone may not Ford, 2014). Policy development and AN INTERDISCIPLINARY be sufficient to produce environmental decision-​making in these systems are fur- TRAINING, RESEARCH, AND practitioners that are fluent in inter- ther complicated by multiple, compet- COMMUNICATION FRAMEWORK disciplinary research and communica- ing marine resource uses and uncertainty The University of Maine is one of many tion. These limitations are particularly surrounding cumulative impacts (Lester institutions nationwide that promote salient in settings that are characterized et al., 2010; Fox et al., 2017). interdisciplinary research to train under- by complex and dynamic environmental Although several frameworks for graduates in innovative and integra- and societal issues, such as coastal oceans. holistic monitoring and management tive ways of thinking (Davis et al., 2015; Here, we describe the development and of coastal ecosystems have been pro- S.G. Roy et al., 2019). Multidisciplinary implementation of a training, research, posed (Levin et al., 2009; Christie, 2011; and team-based approaches to under- and communication framework to provide Alexander et al., 2019), their implemen- graduate research have been shown to undergraduates with an authentic expe- tation is stymied by barriers to integra- promote students’ academic engage- rience working at the interface of inter- tion across different disciplines and dif- ment (Koch et al., 2017) and their acqui- disciplinary science and public decision- ferent types of knowledge (Cash, 2006). sition of skills important for employ- making within the context of marine In particular, synthesizing knowledge ability following graduation (Juhl et al., renewable energy. Students are increas- into a form that is practical for manag- 1997; Doerschuk et al., 2016). We ingly interested in professional paths ers to use in making day-to-day deci- approached these goals through a train- that offer active engagement in solving sions continues to be a significant chal- ing, research, and communication frame- sustainability problems. Recognition of lenge (Clark et al., 2016). Efforts to work that engaged students, alongside the benefits of using a sustainability sci- strengthen research collaborations that research mentors and diverse stakehold- ence problem, such as marine renew- transcend disciplinary approaches and ers (e.g., industry and community mem- able energy, as a focal point for student include input from various communities bers, policy- and decision-​makers), with training is emerging (Hart et al., 2016). of knowledge, including all relevant disci- the integration of physical, biological, By bringing together faculty and students plines and stakeholder groups, has gained and social science data relevant to a cur- from different disciplines to actively considerable momentum (e.g., Lang rent environmental and societal issue engage in solving a complex sustainability et al., 2012). However, while these previ- (Figure 1). The key tenets of our frame- science problem, we aim to “re-envision ous experiences offer guidance on what work include (1) a training program that the role of students” and build future should be considered when designing emphasizes experiential, bidirectional capacity (Hart et al., 2016). and conducting integrative collaborative learning across diverse epistemologies, We established the Western Passage research (e.g., Jansujwicz and Johnson, (2) an interdisciplinary research program Student Research Collaborative (WPSRC) 2015), student training opportunities that is intentionally open to iteratively in the spring of 2019 to engage under- are not explicitly considered. A lack of reconsidering objectives and method- graduates in a one-year training pro- such opportunities to provide upcoming ologies to ensure their continued rele- gram focused on research relevant to an marine scientists with practice in inter- vance, and (3) a communication plan area of growing interest and contention: disciplinary thinking outside of the more that emphasizes reflexive communication the development of marine renewable traditionally disciplinary-distinct class- among researchers and stakeholders.

Oceanography | March 2021 255 TRAINING. The research collaborative room into practice. Students engaged COMMUNICATION. Our stakeholder-​ intentionally included people from dif- with the scientific process from start to engaged approach to data collection and ferent disciplines (e.g., physical, bio- finish, including planning and executing sharing emphasizes the need for pro- logical, and social sciences), differ- fieldwork and data analyses as well as pre- active and transparent communica- ent career stages (e.g., undergraduate to senting research findings in written and tion throughout the interdisciplinary early career and tenured faculty), and dif- oral formats. Through turning data into research process. We committed to fre- ferent career tracks (e.g., academic and stories and stories into data, students quent meetings in person or via remote non-academic), who each brought their gained insight into how to make informa- conferencing to provide space and time own way of knowing or seeing the world tion relevant, useful, and accessible. for formal and informal discussions (i.e., unique epistemologies). The WPSRC and learning. Interdisciplinary discus- included five undergraduates who were RESEARCH. Drawing upon discrete dis- sions at full research collaborative meet- co-mentored by individuals from differ- ciplinary areas of expertise, our initial ings were fodder for “aha” moments ent disciplines, including one graduate approaches to the research were based that are harder to come by in isola- student, five faculty, two research asso- within the methods and practices of sin- tion. Communication with stakeholders ciates, and one marine extension asso- gular disciplines. However, the process of was key to ensuring research questions ciate. WPSRC members represented the troubleshooting challenges in data col- were informed by stakeholder needs and diverse fields of marine biology, coastal lection and interpretation required that research products were presented in a engineering, human dimensions of nat- we remain open to revisiting objectives usable and useful form that encouraged ural resources, and geospatial sciences. and methodological approaches, and to the uptake of information. Explicitly acknowledging the value of this bringing in new disciplinary experts as diversity encouraged bidirectional learn- questions arose that required additional As a result of the persistent and engaged ing, with students learning from faculty insights. In fact, the WPSRC was itself commitment of all team members to the and vice versa. As part of our one-year an outcome of such an iterative process, tenets of our training, research, and com- interdisciplinary research collaborative, being identified as a need when tradi- munication framework, the WPSRC suc- students gained hands-on experience that tional monitoring approaches fell short, cessfully integrated diverse data sources puts the training they receive in the class- as described further below. to contribute to a more complete under-

FIGURE 1. This training, research, and communication framework is designed to provide undergraduates with an authentic experience working at the interface of interdisciplinary science and public decision-making within the context of marine renewable energy.

256 Oceanography | Vol.34, No.1 standing of a complex, turbulent coastal energy sites in the United States (Kilcher current flow (Rao et al., 2016). ecosystem. By adopting a stakeholder-​ et al., 2016), but it is also a unique and Social turbulence in this system results engaged approach, we ensured that our valuable natural environment. It includes from past and ongoing changes to the research questions and outputs are rele- iconic physical (largest tidal whirlpool socio-​ecological system of Western Pas- vant, useful, and accessible to better sup- in the Western Hemisphere), biological sage and its surrounding communities. port informed decision-making around (habitat for endangered marine mam- For centuries, fish and other marine coastal development, using marine re- mals), and social (traditional and com- resources in this region have held signif- newable development as an exemplary mercial fishing grounds, ecotourism icant spiritual, cultural, and subsistence case. Students participating in this inter- attractions) features that require care- value for indigenous Passamaquoddy disciplinary work built a transferable skill ful consideration in coastal development. communities (Bassett, 2015). The herring set that will be broadly applicable and The combination of these factors cre- fishery was also central to the economic desirable as they progress along their ates a broadly defined “turbulent system,” vitality of this region until its decline, chosen career paths. with both physical and social contribu- and the loss of associated fish process- tions to turbulence. ing plants (canning, drying, and smok- A CASE STUDY OF MARINE The confluence of tides combined with ing) during the mid to late 1900s resulted RENEWABLE ENERGY complicated seafloor topography cre- in increased unemployment, poverty, Western Passage is located between ates a complex hydrodynamic environ- and outmigration (Johnson et al., 2014). Maine and New Brunswick, Canada, near ment dominated by strong current veloc- More recently, this area has witnessed the gateway to one of North America’s ities and physical turbulence, as well as additional natural resource declines and preeminent tidal energy (hydrokinetic) iconic eddies and whirlpools (Figure 2). subsequent regulations that have limited resources in the Bay of Fundy (Figure 2). Water moving through Western Passage, access to key fisheries, such as groundfish, This region has been the focus of pro- which ranges from 1.3 km to 2.8 km wide urchin, and scallops (Hall-Arber et al., posed renewable energy since the 1940s, and approximately 30 m to 120 m deep at 2001). To address social turbulence and with renewed interest over the past mid-channel​ (https://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/​ remain viable and resilient, these com- decade. Western Passage ranks as one of viewers/​bathymetry/), can reach veloci- munities rely on alternative economic the top five most promising hydrokinetic ties of approximately 3 m s–1 at peak tidal opportunities outside of fishing, such as

a b c

FIGURE 2. (a) Locations of biophysical surveys in Maine’s Western Passage, includ- ing a marine mammal visual observations site, deployed passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) units, fishing survey sites, starting positions for flood (F) and ebb (E) MicroCTD casts, and acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) and hydroacoustic transects. (b and c) Illustration of flood (b) and ebb (c) tidal currents (arrows indicate direction only). Flood tide illustrates the turning of the tidal flow into Western Passage and the reflec- tion of the incoming tidal currents from Indian River and Head Harbor Passage, induc- ing turbulence and the formation of the Old Sow Whirlpool. Within Western Passage during ebb tide, the tidal currents flow through the Passage without changing direction, and elevated turbulence and whirlpools do not result. This figure was adapted from Figure 4 presented in International Passamaquoddy Fisheries Board (1960).

Oceanography | March 2021 257 marine tourism and renewable energy In addition, a focus on student training Importantly, these studies have infre- development (Johnson et al., 2014). can attract new sources of funding for quently considered ecosystems as a whole Environmental monitoring and deci- such efforts. The WPSRC emerged as a and have often excluded the human com- sion-​making around tidal energy devel- strategy for overcoming barriers to inter- ponent (Bonar et al., 2015). opment is complicated by the physi- disciplinary science and problem solving Ironically, the impressive currents that cal and social turbulence that typifies by placing student training at the fore- are favorable to tidal energy develop-

The professional relationships that developed between students, research mentors,“ and diverse stakeholder groups during this year of study and the experiential learning gains achieved across all levels provide critical building blocks for further exploration of this system and others.”

coastal ecosystems like Western Passage. front of developing, implementing, and ment, such as those in Western Passage, Yet, with the growing interest in devel- evaluating an ecosystem-level monitor- pose one of the challenges to conducting oping marine energy technologies and ing program. Our research collaborative ecosystem-level studies (i.e., studies that other coastal infrastructure, managers are was funded through an internal institu- integrate across these traditionally siloed increasingly called upon to make timely tional grant for interdisciplinary student disciplines) (Melvin and Cochrane, decisions regarding the siting and permit- training programs. 2015). Many research approaches that are ting of new marine uses despite signifi- typically used to monitor marine species cant data gaps. Over the past 10–15 years, INTEGRATING DIVERSE DATA (e.g., hydroacoustics, trawling, passive tidal energy development and commer- SOURCES ILLUMINATES THE acoustic monitoring) have limited capa- cialization have been significantly ham- IMPORTANCE OF TIDES bility for collecting viable data through- pered by lack of data or data that are Demonstration and testing of new out such dramatic tidal cycles. To over- insufficient or not well integrated into marine renewable energy technologies come this challenge, the WPSRC drew a form that can be readily used (Leeney have thus far resulted in mostly singu- upon the expertise, tools, and theories et al., 2014; Copping, 2018). lar disciplinary knowledge of the poten- of diverse natural and social science dis- Key challenges that contribute to these tial effects of tidal power on marine ani- ciplines to study the fish, marine mam- critical data gaps were identified by the mals and hydrodynamics. For example, mals, humans, and hydrodynamics of Maine Tidal Power Initiative (MTPI) in our previous research, we discovered Western Passage (Figure 3). Our aim during an earlier effort to bring together that fish were commonly present in the was to engage students and stakeholders stakeholders and researchers from dif- wake of a test turbine, that schools of in the design and implementation of an ferent disciplines to address questions fish had a lower probability of entering interdisciplinary research program that related to tidal power development. a turbine than individual fish (Viehman would lead to a better understanding of Securing funding for large interdisciplin- and Zydlewski, 2015), and that fish baselines across multiple components of ary initiatives (~$1.5M annually, in this counts were not linked to current speed this complex ecosystem. case) and the high level of commitment (Viehman and Zydlewski, 2017). Studies Overall, our integrated approach to required to sustain and manage them of how tidal turbine farms impact hydro- data collection and analysis revealed a were two of the challenges identified. The dynamics elsewhere have found that common theme across all data types. MTPI also found that student involve- tidal turbines may locally reduce current Tidal dynamics were found to be a sig- ment can foster linkages between disci- velocities in estuaries and tidal channels, nificant factor affecting biological, phys- plinary teams and is critical to training the which can ultimately lead to a decrease ical, and social data, highlighting their next generation of scientists and decision- in sediment fluxes (Defne et al., 2011; importance to the Western Passage eco- makers (Jansujwicz and Johnson 2015). Fallon et al., 2014; Thiébot et al., 2015). system and future monitoring programs

258 Oceanography | Vol.34, No.1 FIGURE 3. Timeline and objectives for training, research, and communication elements that undergraduates participated in as part of the Western Passage Student Research Collaborative (WPSRC) from May 2019 to May 2020. Research included disciplinary and interdisciplinary physical (P), bio- logical (B), and social (S) science components. Preceding activities (dashed lines in the timelines) that informed WPSRC activities were conducted by research mentors and a graduate student research assistant.

for coastal development in this region. the tidal cycle in ways that would inform on biological data collection, biologists Recognizing this link enabled syner- biological data collection. This goal was and coastal engineers collaborated to gies between data streams that would intentionally envisioned to integrate concurrently collect hydroacoustic and not have been possible if each were con- physical and biological components of hydrodynamic data (turbulence and cur- sidered alone. Here, we provide an over- our research team. Hydroacoustic meth- rent velocities). Throughout a spring and view of the research methods employed ods, using sonar, are employed to increase a neap tidal cycle in Western Passage, by our student research collaborative understanding of many components of WPSRC students gained hands-on tech- and the preliminary findings that were aquatic ecosystems, including bathym- nical training while working alongside an outcome of our focus on integrating etry and the presence and distribution their research mentors during fieldwork disciplines to better understand a tidally of fish (Shen et al., 2016; Viehman et al., and subsequent analysis of data collected dynamic ecosystem. Further details on 2018; Staines et al., 2019). However, it is in Western Passage. individual methods are provided in the difficult to collect data using hydroacous- Integration of the concurrently col- online supplementary materials. tic methods in highly turbulent environ- lected hydrodynamic and hydroacoustic ments because the presence of velocity data was critical to documenting the Hydrodynamics Inform Biological shears and air entrained in the water can source (physical or biological) of the Data Collection obfuscate the backscatter from biological dominant backscatter signal observed in A primary goal of our research collabo- sources (Ross and Lueck, 2005; Lavery Western Passage throughout each tidal rative was to describe the currents and et al., 2007; Warren and Wiebe, 2008). To cycle. The concurrently collected hydro- turbulence of Western Passage across quantify the influence of physical forces acoustic, turbulence, and current veloc-

Oceanography | March 2021 259 ity data sets together showed that elevated Observing Across Trophic guided by decision-makers, including backscatter observed during the flood tide Levels Indicates the Importance federal and state regulators who incor- co-occurred with the period of strongest of the Flood Tide porate baseline information on marine mixing rates (Figure 4). Together, these With guidance from biological ocean- species when considering permitting of data suggest that the high level of back- ographers who provided knowledge of marine renewable energy projects. To scatter measured during the dynamic tidal influence on species biology, marine fulfill these needs, the WPSRC sought to flood-tide flow in Western Passage was not ecologists who considered the trophic describe the frequency and distribution solely from a biological source (i.e., fish) relationships among species, and social of species across trophic levels, includ- and precluded our ability to use hydro- scientists who focused on the human ing fish and the marine mammals that acoustics to observe the distribution and dimensions and value of local ecologi- feed on fish. abundance of fish. These findings confirm cal knowledge, the WPSRC developed Given that the fast-flowing and highly that traditional hydroacoustic approaches alternative monitoring approaches to turbulent conditions preclude safe and have limited capacity in this physically describe the frequency and distribu- effective net tows to ground truth hydro- turbulent system, necessitating alternative tion of fish and marine mammal species acoustic data, regulators who were monitoring approaches to observe biolog- in Western Passage. This component of engaged in decision-making​ around ical activity during the flood tide. our research was in part motivated and marine permitting in this region recom-

a b 0

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40 –34 Depth (m) –37 50 –40 –43 60 )

–1 –46 –49 70 –52 c d –55 0

Sv (dB re: 1 m (dB re: Sv –58 –61 10 –64 –67 20 –70 30

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70 10–7 10–5 10–3 –1 log10(TKE) (W kg )

FIGURE 4. Depth traces for MicroCTD profiles (black lines) overlaid on hydroacoustic echograms collected during the flood (a) and ebb (c) phases of the spring tide to provide a visual representation of the backscatter observed concurrent with the MicroCTD data collection. These time intervals were chosen to characterize the most extreme instance of hydroacoustic backscatter (during spring flood tide) and the most limited instance (during the sub- sequent ebb tide). MicroCTD turbulence profiles are provided for comparison with hydroacoustic backscatter (b,d). Measurements of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), a proxy for mixing, were three orders of magnitude greater during the flood than the ebb tide. Warmer colors (red) represent stronger observed backscatter (Sv) while cooler colors (blue) represent weaker backscatter. The color bar is provided in increments of 3 dB. An increase/ decrease of 3 dB indicates a doubling/halving of the observed backscatter. Every 10 dB is an increase/decrease by an order of magnitude. Bathymetry is indicated by the black region at the bottom of the echograms.

260 Oceanography | Vol.34, No.1 mended testing recreational fishing gear itive relationship between water level Expanding Understanding in as an alternative approach. WPSRC stu- and harbor porpoise detections but not Time and Space Through Local dents worked with a marine extension mackerel catch during the flood tide Ecological Knowledge associate to test fishing with sabiki rigs, (Figure 5), yet importantly, our fishing The WPSRC’s final research objective was which are equipped with several small efforts did not cover the full tidal range or to document local ecological knowledge hooks, as a method to characterize spe- target all prey species. We therefore pres- in the Western Passage region in order cies presence and size. In July and August ent these preliminary results primarily to expand the temporal and spatial reso- 2019, four boat-based sites and one land- as an example of the ecological hypoth- lution of the knowledge gained through based site were surveyed. Our diverse eses that students explored using a data biophysical surveys. Although partici- catch of both pelagic and ground fish sug- integration approach. patory methods and alternative sources gests that fishing with recreational gear can provide insights into fish biodiversity in the region. From May to October 2019, WPSRC students, research associates, and faculty 50 a with marine mammal expertise also used 40 a combination of visual surveys and pas- sive acoustic monitoring to study marine 30 mammals in Western Passage. Through 20 the iterative process of collaboratively kerel E kerel creating and testing survey protocols, stu- 10 dents learned firsthand about the logistics 0 and challenges associated with both land- 40 and boat-based marine mammal research b in a tidally dynamic system. The marine 30 mammal species we most commonly sighted in Western Passage was the har- 20 bor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). The students observed these small odonto- 10 cetes during almost every one of their ror porpoe ghtg twice weekly visual surveys, detecting 0 them during all hours of acoustic record- 8 c ings from July through October. The har- 6 bor porpoise were most frequently seen and heard during the flood tide, with 4 detections increasing as water levels 2 increased in Western Passage and declin- 0 ing as water levels ebbed (Figure 5). porpoe lk) log(hror o lood gh E o Students integrated data from fish- 0 2 4 6 4 2 0 ing and marine mammal surveys to test Tdl heght (m) hypotheses that may explain trends in biological activity in Western Passage; FIGURE 5. Integration of discrete data sets from fishing, marine mammal visual surveys, and pas- for example, does the increase in harbor sive acoustic monitoring to assess relationships between detections of prey and predators across porpoise detections during the flood tide the tidal cycle during a one-month period (September 9, 2019–August 8, 2019) in Western Passage. Fish and porpoise detections are compared to verified tidal heights extracted from NOAA Tide & correlate with increased prey/fish abun- Currents database (https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/) for the Eastport, Maine, station. (a) Catch dance in the Passage? Atlantic mack- per unit effort (CPUE by hour) of mackerel caught using recreational fishing gear at four boat-based erel (Scomber scombrus), the fish most sites in Western Passage (blue circles, Figure 2). (b) Number of harbor porpoise sighted per half- hour of visual land-based survey from Eastport (red diamond, Figure 2). (c) Harbor porpoise clicks frequently caught in Western Passage detected per half-hour from a passive acoustic recorder deployed in Western Passage (western with recreational fishing gear, is a com- yellow star, Figure 2). Significant linear models predicting detections from water level, with shaded 95% confidence interval, are shown for harbor porpoise sightings on flood (F1,40 = 19.61, p < 0.0001, mon prey species for harbor porpoise 2 2 r = 0.329) and ebb tides (F1,28 = 4.705, p < 0.05, r = 0.144), and for harbor porpoise clicks on flood (Smith and Gaskin, 1974). Our prelim- –7 2 8 2 (F1,357 = 30.83, p < 1 × 10 , r = 0.079) and ebb tides (F1,378 = 34.91, p < 1 × 10 , r = 0.085). Relationships inary analyses suggest a significant pos- between mackerel CPUE and tidal height were not significant during either tide.

Oceanography | March 2021 261 of knowledge are increasingly appreci- an understanding of how fish and fish- and marine mammal observation sites. ated for their contributions to design- ing are valued within the community. In Furthermore, engaging with the local ing more effective monitoring protocols addition to informal conversations at the community also led to other collaborative (Chambers, 2006), acknowledgment of pier, the WPSRC also convened a public efforts, including working with fishermen local communities as an important source meeting to engage community members, to collect fishing and phenology data that of place-based knowledge is often missing including local commercial and recre- will further expand our understanding of when researchers attempt to understand ational fishermen, in participatory map- the Western Passage ecosystem. We aim an ecosystem (Mackinson and Nottestad, ping exercises. This meeting built off an for these additional data to ultimately be 1998; Ames, 2003; Teixeira et al., 2013). earlier public meeting in the local com- incorporated into decision support tools, The WPSRC therefore used an engaged munity where community members such as those described in the following and participatory approach, as described shared personal connections to the adja- section, alongside the data collected by below and in the online supplementary cent Western Passage and recorded their the WPSRC students. materials, to gather and share data with knowledge of fish and other marine spe- local communities. A strong baseline of cies directly on hard-copy nautical charts Data Visualization Strengthens trust that emerged from earlier MTPI (Figure 6). This recorded knowledge Decision-Support Tools interactions between the research team included memories of observed changes Data visualization in space became a key and individual community members in the ecosystem over time, as well as how WPSRC tool for integrating, interpret- contributed significantly to critical long- species presence fluctuates daily with ing, and communicating different kinds term working relationships (Jansujwicz the tidal cycle. of knowledge. Maps constructed through and Johnson, 2015). Integration of local ecological knowl- participatory mapping activities formed Beyond its value for biological data edge regarding fish and marine mam- the foundation for a geospatially refer- collection, a secondary objective for fish- mal presence significantly expanded the enced collection of local ecological knowl- ing with recreational gear from one land- temporal and geographic scope of our edge. Adding our contemporary fish cap- based site (a local pier) was for students understanding of the ecological commu- ture and marine mammal sighting data to to engage with local fishermen, note their nity beyond our hydroacoustic transect these maps of recent and historical obser- observations of fish in the area, and gain lines and the limited scope of our fishing vations contributed to our understanding

FIGURE 6. Nautical chart used in the participatory mapping activity (left panel) with handwritten local ecological knowledge collected during a 2017 community meeting in Eastport. We intentionally did not zoom in to these handwritten notes for confidentiality purposes. These data were digitized using ArcGIS Pro to produce an interactive map (middle panel). A “notable event” on these maps is defined as an unusual or noteworthy occurrence, such as legislation, development, or other human impact. Clicking on a selected point opens a pop-up window with the attribute table (right panel).

262 Oceanography | Vol.34, No.1 of baselines and potential for change in with different individuals responsible training opportunity to a small number species presence and distribution. Finally, for coordinating research team meetings of students but suggest that some ele- a WPSRC student mentored by a geo- and the overall student training expe- ments of our program provide a scalable spatial scientist also worked to create a rience, fieldwork, and communication structure. These elements include co-​ three-dimensional base map of bathyme- with stakeholders. Faculty and students mentoring, clear roles and responsibili- try in Western Passage that provided crit- alike acknowledged and reflected upon ties, frequent meetings, and an emphasis ical context for interpreting how phys- the challenge and value of conducting on boundary objects as well as dedicated ical features affect biological and social interdisciplinary work regularly through- time and space to learn from different dynamics in this turbulent environment. out the process. As evident in this article, disciplinary perspectives. Overlaying the student-collected data maps often served as boundary objects on this three-dimensional bathymetric for the WPSRC to foster dialogue and RECOMMENDATION 2: RESEARCH model will ultimately form the basis of learning among this interdisciplinary Be open to an iterative research pro- a web-based, interactive map that will and diverse group of collaborators (Cutts cess. A process with multiple aims and be accessible to local community stake- et al., 2011; Luna-Reyes et al., 2018). multiple disciplines is inherently com- holders and managers to inform future To conclude, we reflect on the value plex, and this complexity often precludes decision-​making. We are continuing to of our training, research, and commu- defining a straight path to success at the add information from multiple sources to nication framework (Figure 1) and offer beginning of the process. Rather, remain- this map with feedback from stakeholders three general recommendations for facil- ing open to an iterative process of revis- about its utility and their data needs. We itating the broader implementation or iting objectives and methodological view tools and maps like this one as com- adaptation of the framework to other approaches was integral to our frame- ponents critical to an engaged, interdis- contexts in oceanography, marine ecol- work and allowed our research collabora- ciplinary, ecosystem-based monitoring ogy, coastal development, as well as non-​ tive to be flexible and responsive to shift- approach. It represents a clear shift from aquatic environments. ing needs. After recruiting students to the unidirectional information exchange our team, our first several meetings were that typifies traditional reporting of envi- RECOMMENDATION 1: TRAINING focused on revisiting and refining research ronmental monitoring data to a two-way Build a team that acknowledges the objectives and methodologies. Students exchange that determines how compiling value of diverse epistemologies and presented their research proposal to an all sources of information can be useful bidirectional learning in student train- external audience of regional stakehold- to communities (Cvitanovic et al., 2015). ing. Our interdisciplinary framework was ers at a local scientific meeting early in based on the equal involvement of peo- the project period. Following subsequent CHALLENGES AND ple from different disciplines and differ- field trials, methods were further refined RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ent career stages who each brought their and new synergies among disciplines were EFFECTIVE INTERDISCIPLINARY own way of knowing or seeing the world. discovered through this process. TRAINING, RESEARCH, AND As a training model, it was valuable for COMMUNICATION students to share the learning experience RECOMMENDATION 3: The experience of the WPSRC provides with their mentors, who were also learn- COMMUNICATION a striking example of what can be gained ing from new disciplines. When form- Adopt a reflexive approach to com- through the integration of diverse dis- ing our team, we considered the exist- munication within the research team ciplines. However, this approach is not ing knowledge gaps in our study system and with external stakeholders. In all without challenges. Similar to other stud- and identified individuals with discrete of our interactions, we remained open to ies of interdisciplinary science, the pri- areas of expertise who would approach adapting our approaches to how we con- mary challenges encountered by the data collection to fill these gaps in multi- duct research to ensure that the questions WPSRC included the time commitment ple, complementary ways. Students were we investigated fit the needs, values, and needed to coordinate with large and co-mentored by practitioners from dif- interests of diverse groups. Key to our diverse research teams (E.D. Roy et al., ferent disciplines. The inclusion of indi- ability to remain reflexive was a commit- 2013; Pischke et al., 2017) and the cog- viduals with training and prior experi- ment to frequent meetings and both elec- nitive load required to engage meaning- ence in collaborative research methods tronic and in-person communication. fully in conversations about unfamiliar and undergraduate research mentor- Students met weekly, or more frequently disciplines and different ways of know- ing, as well as the relatively small size of as needed, with their mentors. Our ing (MacLeod, 2018). To address these our collaborative, also contributed to our team held biweekly meetings of the full challenges, members of our research col- success. We acknowledge here the trade- research collaborative (all students and laborative shared coordination roles, offs inherent in offering an in-depth their mentors) and approximately quar-

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This is an open access article made available under international, interdisciplinary research proj- Warren, J.D., and P.H. Wiebe. 2008. Accounting for the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 ects. Environmental Management 60:1,011–1,021, biological and physical sources of acoustic back- International License (https://creativecommons.org/ https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-017-0939-8. scatter improves estimates of zooplankton bio- licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adap- Rao, S., H. Xue, M. Bao, and S. Funke. 2016. mass. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic tation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium Determining tidal turbine farm efficiency in the Sciences 65:1,321–1,333, https://doi.org/10.1139/ or format as long as users cite the materials appro- Western Passage using the disc actuator theory. F08-047. priately, provide a link to the Creative Commons Ocean Dynamics 66:41–57, https://doi.org/10.1007/ license, and indicate the changes that were made to the original content. s10236-015-0906-y. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Rehme, S.E., L.A. Powell, and C.R. Allen. We offer our sincere appreciation to Chris Bartlett, 2011. Multimodel inference and adap- Chris Johnson, Bob Lewis, Butch Harris, Pat Donahue, tive management. Journal of Environmental the Bishop family, and others of the Eastport com- Management 92:1,360–1,364, https://doi.org/​ munity who assisted, guided, advised, and partic- 10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.10.012. ipated in our study. The WPSRC was supported

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