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The Relationship of Testosterone, Appetite, Food Intake and Exercise in Male Adolescents

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The Relationship of Testosterone, Appetite, Food Intake and Exercise in Male Adolescents THE RELATIONSHIP OF TESTOSTERONE, APPETITE, FOOD INTAKE AND EXERCISE IN MALE ADOLESCENTS by Alexander Schwartz A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Nutritional Sciences University of Toronto © Copyright by Alexander Schwartz 2019 THE RELATIONSHIP OF TESTOSTERONE, APPETITE, FOOD INTAKE AND EXERCISE IN MALE ADOLESCENTS Alexander Schwartz Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Nutritional Sciences University of Toronto 2019 ABSTRACT The hypothesis that testosterone has an interactive relationship with food intake and high intensity exercise in adolescent males was explored in three experiments. Combined (Experiment 1) and separate (Experiment 2) effects of acute glucose and protein ingestion on testosterone were observed. In Experiment 1, testosterone decreased by 18.6 ± 3.1% (p < 0.01) after one hour of ingesting the combined glucose/protein beverage. In Experiment 2, testosterone decreased acutely 20 min after both protein and glucose ingestion with the decrease continuing after protein but not glucose after 65 minutes (p = 0.0382). No associations between testosterone and appetite or food intake were found. Experiment 3 aimed to define the effect of sustained bouts of high intensity exercise on testosterone. The effect of high intensity aerobic exercise (HIEX) on testosterone in adolescent males was measured through two sessions of either: 1) three 10-minute bouts of HIEX cycling at 75% VO2peak or 2) rest. Plasma testosterone concentrations increased by 21.5 ± 13.6% after three 10-minute bouts of HIEX when compared to rest (p = 0.0215) but testosterone was not correlated with appetite or appetite related hormones. Thus, the results of this research show the novel effects of acute nutrient intake and high intensity aerobic exercise on testosterone levels in adolescent males but no relationship with appetite and food intake regulation was established. Therefore, this research does not support the hypothesis that testosterone has a short-term interactive relationship with food intake. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I dedicate this thesis to my late parents who sacrificed their lives and left our birthplace and home to seek a better future for my brother and I. I am forever grateful for the unconditional love of both of them. My mother never lived to see me grow into the person I am today but would be proud. My father, in spite of losing his own battle with cancer during the preparation of this dissertation, has shown me strength, support and love throughout my graduate studies and made me appreciate life more every day. Loss would never be painful if weren’t for love and happiness. I also dedicate this to my life partner Dr. Shannon Vettor who has been there for me during the most difficult time in my life and given me strength when I felt my weakest. I feel fortunate every day to be waking up and knowing your love, intelligence, support and compassion can get me through anything. I’m excited to raise our soon to be born son Simon with you and begin this new chapter in our lives together. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................... x LIST OF PUBLICATIONS .......................................................................................................... xii 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................................................. 4 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Overweight and Obesity in Adolescence ............................................................................ 5 2.3 Puberty and Growth in Males and Normal Development ................................................... 6 2.3.1 Sex Hormones ....................................................................................................... 10 2.3.1.1 Physiology of Luteinizing Hormone and Role in Male Puberty ............ 10 2.3.1.2 Physiology of Follicle Stimulating Hormone and Role in Male Puberty .................................................................................................... 11 2.3.1.3 Physiology of Testosterone and Role in Male Puberty .......................... 11 2.3.1.4 Physiology of Estradiol and Role in Male Puberty ................................ 16 2.3.1.5 Physiology of Sex Hormone Binding Globulin and Role in Male Puberty .................................................................................................... 18 2.3.2 Measurement of Puberty in Males ........................................................................ 19 2.3.2.1 Clinical Staging ...................................................................................... 19 2.3.2.2 Biochemical Measures ............................................................................ 20 2.4 Hormonal Appetite and Food Intake Regulation .............................................................. 25 2.4.1 Central Appetite and Food Intake ......................................................................... 25 2.4.2 Ghrelin .................................................................................................................. 25 iv 2.4.3 Insulin.................................................................................................................... 26 2.4.4 Leptin .................................................................................................................... 26 2.4.5 Peptide YY ............................................................................................................ 27 2.4.6 Glucagon-like-peptide-1 ....................................................................................... 28 2.5 Appetite and Puberty ......................................................................................................... 28 2.5.1 Clinical Feeding Trials in Adolescents ................................................................. 28 2.5.2 Appetite Hormones and Puberty ........................................................................... 28 2.5.3 Appetite Hormones and Overweight/Obesity ....................................................... 30 2.5.4 Testosterone and Overweight/Obesity .................................................................. 31 2.5.5 Testosterone and Food Intake/Appetite ................................................................ 32 2.6 Testosterone and Exercise ................................................................................................. 35 2.6.1 Studies of testosterone change from exercise in males ......................................... 35 2.6.2 Physiology of testosterone in exercise .................................................................. 37 2.7 Summary and Research Rationale .................................................................................... 37 3 HYPOTHESES AND OBJECTIVES ................................................................................... 40 3.1 Overall Hypothesis and Objective .................................................................................... 40 3.2 Specific Hypotheses and Objectives ................................................................................. 40 4 ACUTE DECREASE IN SERUM TESTOSTERONE AFTER A MIXED GLUCOSE AND PROTEIN BEVERAGE IN OBESE PERIPUBERTAL BOYS .............................. 42 4.1 Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 44 4.2 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 45 4.3 Materials and Methods ...................................................................................................... 46 4.3.1 Subjects ................................................................................................................. 46 4.3.2 Protocol ................................................................................................................. 46 4.3.3 Biochemical Assays .............................................................................................. 48 4.3.4 Statistical Analyses ............................................................................................... 48 v 4.4 Results ............................................................................................................................... 49 4.5 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 50 4.6 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 52 5 ACUTE DECREASE IN PLASMA TESTOSTERONE
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