DOCSLIB.ORG

Astrophysics I Problem Sheet 7

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Astrophysics I Problem Sheet 7 Astrophysics I HS 2016 Problem sheet 7 Prof. A. Refregier Due: 8. November 2016 Exercise 7.1 The galactic disk We can obtain a simplified model of the galactic disk by assuming it to be an infinite sheet of constant thickness with constant inner density ρ as shown in Fig. 1. 1. Show that a star displaced by an arbitrary distance z from the mid-plane of the Galaxy in the vertical direction undergoes simple harmonic oscillations around the mid-plane (assuming that the star always remains within the region of constant density). 6 −3 2. Assuming that the density of the galactic disk is about ρ ' 5 × 10 mH m , where mH is the mass of a hydrogen atom, estimate the period of oscillation of a star around the mid-plane of the Galaxy. 3. How does this oscillation period compare with the period of revolution of a star in the solar neighbourhood around the galactic centre (GC)? Hint: To determine the gravitational force on a particle inside an infinite sheet you can use Gauss' law for gravity. The period of revolution of a star in the solar neighbourhood −1 around the GC can be determined using v ' 220 km s for the velocity of the Sun around the GC and R = 8 kpc for the Sun's distance from the GC. Galactic disk z Mid-plane Figure 1: Simplified model of galactic disk Exercise 7.2 The relations between the Einstein coefficients The Einstein coefficients characterise the emission and absorbtion processes in atoms in the presence of a radiation field with specific energy density Uν. We will consider an atom with two energy levels, which are separated by an energy ∆E = hν. The subscript u denotes the upper while the subscript l denotes the lower energy level. Let the number of atoms per unit volume in the lower and upper levels be nl and nu. There are three processes which result in the transition between the two energy levels: 1. Spontaneous emission: the spontaneous transition probability per unit time is given by Aul, where Aul is the coefficient of spontaneous emission. 2. Stimulated emission: the stimulated transition probability per unit time is given by BulUν, where Bul is the coefficient of stimulated emission and Uν is the energy density of the radiation field at the transition frequency ν. 3. Absorption: the absorption probability per unit time is given by BluUν, where Blu is the absorption coefficient and Uν is the energy density of the radiation field at the transition frequency ν. We can derive the relations between the Einstein coefficients considering the special situa- tion in which these two-level atoms are in thermodynamic equilibrium with the radiation surrounding them. In this case, the number of upward transitions of the atoms per unit time per unit volume Tl!u has to equal the number of downward transitions per unit time per unit volume Tu!l. Furthermore if the two-level system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, then the occupation numbers of the two energy levels nl, nu will follow the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution at temperature T , such that their ratio is given by nl gl hν = e kBT (1) nu gu where gu and gl denote the statistical weights of the upper and lower states. Using these facts, derive an expression for the energy density of the radiation field at the transition frequency ν. By noting that the latter quantity has to equal the Planck distribution in thermodynamic equilibrium, conclude that the Einstein coefficients have to satisfy the relations 8πhν3 A = B (2) ul c3 ul guBul = glBlu: (3) Equations 2 and 3 connect fundamental atomic properties. This means that, even though we derived them assuming thermodynamic equilibrium, the relations between the Einstein coefficients will hold even if the system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Hint: You can assume the transition between the two energy levels to exactly occur at frequency ν, i.e. the line profile φ (∆ν) is thin..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Physics 305, Fall 2008 Problem Set 8 Due Thursday, December 3
    Physics 305, Fall 2008 Problem Set 8 due Thursday, December 3 1. Einstein A and B coefficients (25 pts): This problem is to make sure that you have read and understood Griffiths 9.3.1. Consider a system that consists of atoms with two energy levels E1 and E2 and a thermal gas of photons. There are N1 atoms with energy E1, N2 atoms with energy E2 and the energy density of photons with frequency ! = (E2 − E1)=~ is W (!). In thermal equilbrium at temperature T , W is given by the Planck distribution: ~!3 1 W (!) = 2 3 : π c exp(~!=kBT ) − 1 According to Einstein, this formula can be understood by assuming the following rules for the interaction between the atoms and the photons • Atoms with energy E1 can absorb a photon and make a transition to the excited state with energy E2; the probability per unit time for this transition to take place is proportional to W (!), and therefore given by Pabs = B12W (!) for some constant B12. • Atoms with energy E2 can make a transition to the lower energy state via stimulated emission of a photon. The probability per unit time for this to happen is Pstim = B21W (!) for some constant B21. • Atoms with energy E2 can also fall back into the lower energy state via spontaneous emission. The probability per unit time for spontaneous emission is independent of W (!). Let's call this probability Pspont = A21 : A21, B21, and B12 are known as Einstein coefficients. a. Write a differential equation for the time dependence of the occupation numbers N1 and N2.
    [Show full text]
  • Inis: Terminology Charts
    IAEA-INIS-13A(Rev.0) XA0400071 INIS: TERMINOLOGY CHARTS agree INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, VIENNA, AUGUST 1970 INISs TERMINOLOGY CHARTS TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD ... ......... *.* 1 PREFACE 2 INTRODUCTION ... .... *a ... oo 3 LIST OF SUBJECT FIELDS REPRESENTED BY THE CHARTS ........ 5 GENERAL DESCRIPTOR INDEX ................ 9*999.9o.ooo .... 7 FOREWORD This document is one in a series of publications known as the INIS Reference Series. It is to be used in conjunction with the indexing manual 1) and the thesaurus 2) for the preparation of INIS input by national and regional centrea. The thesaurus and terminology charts in their first edition (Rev.0) were produced as the result of an agreement between the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). Except for minor changesq the terminology and the interrela- tionships btween rms are those of the December 1969 edition of the Euratom Thesaurus 3) In all matters of subject indexing and ontrol, the IAEA followed the recommendations of Euratom for these charts. Credit and responsibility for the present version of these charts must go to Euratom. Suggestions for improvement from all interested parties. particularly those that are contributing to or utilizing the INIS magnetic-tape services are welcomed. These should be addressed to: The Thesaurus Speoialist/INIS Section Division of Scientific and Tohnioal Information International Atomic Energy Agency P.O. Box 590 A-1011 Vienna, Austria International Atomic Energy Agency Division of Sientific and Technical Information INIS Section June 1970 1) IAEA-INIS-12 (INIS: Manual for Indexing) 2) IAEA-INIS-13 (INIS: Thesaurus) 3) EURATOM Thesaurusq, Euratom Nuclear Documentation System.
    [Show full text]
  • Fundamentals of Radiative Transfer
    RADIATIVE PROCESSE S IN ASTROPHYSICS GEORGE B. RYBICKI, ALAN P. LIGHTMAN Copyright 0 2004 WY-VCHVerlag GmbH L Co. KCaA FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATIVE TRANSFER 1.1 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM; ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF RADIATION Electromagnetic radiation can be decomposed into a spectrum of con- stituent components by a prism, grating, or other devices, as was dis- covered quite early (Newton, 1672, with visible light). The spectrum corresponds to waves of various wavelengths and frequencies, related by Xv=c, where v is the frequency of the wave, h is its wavelength, and c-3.00~10" cm s-I is the free space velocity of light. (For waves not traveling in a vacuum, c is replaced by the appropriate velocity of the wave in the medium.) We can divide the spectrum up into various regions, as is done in Figure 1.1. For convenience we have given the energy E = hv and temperature T= E/k associated with each wavelength. Here h is Planck's constant = 6.625 X erg s, and k is Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 X erg K-I. This chart will prove to be quite useful in converting units or in getting a quick view of the relevant magnitude of quantities in a given portion of the spectrum. The boundaries between different regions are somewhat arbitrary, but conform to accepted usage. 1 2 Fundamentals of Radiatiw Transfer -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 1 I 1 I I I I 1 1 log A (cm) Wavelength I I I I I log Y IHr) Frequency 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 I I I I I I I log Elev) Energy 43 21 0-1 I I 1 I I I log T("K)Temperature Y ray X-ray UV Visible IR Radio Figum 1.1 The electromagnetic spctnun.
    [Show full text]
  • Acknowledgements Acknowl
    1277 Acknowledgements Acknowl. A.1 The Properties of Light by Helen Wächter, Markus W. Sigrist by Richard Haglund The authors thank a number of coworkers for their The author thanks Prof. Emil Wolf for helpful discus- valuable input, notably R. Bartlome, Dr. C. Fischer, sions, and gratefully acknowledges the financial support D. Marinov, Dr. J. Rey, M. Stahel, and Dr. D. Vogler. of a Senior Scientist Award from the Alexander von The financial support by the Swiss National Science Humboldt Foundation and of the Medical Free-Electron Foundation and ETH Zurich for the isotopomer studies Laser program of the Department of Defense (Con- is gratefully acknowledged. tract F49620-01-1-0429) during the preparation of this chapter. by Jürgen Helmcke In writing the chapter on frequency-stabilized lasers, A.4 Nonlinear Optics the author has greatly benefited from fruitful coopera- by Aleksei Zheltikov, Anne L’Huillier, Ferenc Krausz tion and helpful discussions with his colleagues at PTB, We acknowledge the support of the European Com- in particular with Drs. Fritz Riehle, Harald Schnatz, munity’s Human Potential Programme under contract Uwe Sterr, and Harald Telle. Special thanks belong to HPRN-CT-2000-00133 (ATTO) and the Swedish Sci- Dr. Fritz Riehle for his careful and critical reading of the ence Council. manuscript. Part of the work discussed in this chapter was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft A.5 Optical Materials and Their Properties (DFG) under SFB 407. by Klaus Bonrad The author of Sect. 5.9.2 is grateful to Dr. Thomas C.12 Femtosecond Laser Pulses: Däubler, Dr. Dirk Hertel, and Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • Astronomy 700: Radiation. 1 Basic Radiation Properties
    Astronomy 700: Radiation. 1 Basic Radiation Properties 1.1 Basic definitions Fundamental importance to Astronomy: Almost exclusive carrier of information Radiation: Energy transport by electromagnetic fields Other forms of energy transport: cosmic rays • stochastic transport (micro: conduction, macro: convection) • gravitational waves • bulk transport (organized flows) • plasma waves • ... • Transport time variability (see section of E&M) → 1.1.1 The spectrum The most natural description of electromagnetic radiation is through Fourier decomposition into waves: f(~r, t) f(~k,ν) (1.1) ↔ where E is some variable describing the radiation field. Question: Why is this so natural? As we will shortly see, electromagnetic radiation naturally decomposes into waves with wave- length λ and frequency ν 1 Often, it is convenient to write the wave vector ~k =2πk/λˆ and angular frequency ω =2πν. In vacuum, group and phase velocity of those waves are equal: 10 1 λν = ∂ω/∂k c 2.99792... 10 cms− (1.2) ≡ ≡ × Fourier decomposition allows us to describe the local spectrum of the radiation at a fixed point in space as the Fourier transform ∞ f f(ν)= dtei2πνtf(t) (1.3) F ≡ Z−∞ and the inverse Fourier transform 1 ∞ i2πνt − f f(t)= dνe− f(ν) (1.4) F ≡ Z−∞ Without going into any details on Lebesque integration, it is worth pointing out the following identity: The inverse Fourier transform of a delta function in frequency is ∞ 1 i2πνt i2πν0t − δ(ν ν )= dνe− δ(ν ν )= e− (1.5) F − 0 − 0 Z−∞ i2πν0 t Thus, the Fourier transform of e− is ∞ i2πν0t i2π(ν ν0)t e− = dte − = δ(ν ν ) (1.6) F − 0 Z−∞ as one would expect for a decomposition into a spectrum of different exponentials.
    [Show full text]
  • Fundamentals of Spectroscopy for Optical Remote Sensing Course
    Fundamentals of Spectroscopy for Optical Remote Sensing Course Outline 2013 (Draft) Part I. Introduction to Quantum Physics Chapter 1. Quantum Concepts and Experimental Facts 1.1. Blackbody Radiation and Planck’s Radiation Law [Textbook “Laser Spectroscopy” Sections 2.1 – 2.4, Corney’s book Section 1.1] 1.2. Photoelectric Effect and Quantized Energy [Textbook Section 4.5.4, Corney’s book Section 1.2] 1.3. Compton Effect and Quantized Momentum 1.4. Hydrogen Spectra and Discrete Energy Levels [Textbook Section 4.1, Corney’s book Section 1.3] 1.5. Bohr’s Model [Corney’s book Sections 1.4-1.8] Chapter 2. Wave-Particle Duality [Dirac’s The Principles of Quantum Mechanics, and Cohen-Tannoudji’s Quantum Mechanics, vol. I and II] 2.1. Wave Behavior of Light 2.2. Single Photon Experiment 2.3. Wave-Particle Duality of Light 2.4. Wave-Particle Duality of Material Particles 2.5. de Broglie Relationship Chapter 3. Basics of Quantum Mechanics (Postulates, Principles, and Mathematic Formalism) [Cohen-Tannoudji’s Quantum Mechanics, vol. I and II] 3.1. Postulates of Quantum Mechanics 3.2. Principle of Superposition of States 3.3. Principle of Motion – Schrödinger Equation 3.4. Principle of Uncertainty – Indeterminacy 3.5. Dirac Notation and Representations 3.6. Solutions to Eigenvalue Equation and Schrödinger Equation Part II. Fundamentals of Atomic Spectroscopy Chapter 4. Introduction to Atomic Structure and Atomic Spectra Chapter 5. Atomic Structure 5.1. Atomic Structure Overview 5.2. Atomic Structure for Hydrogen Atom and Hydrogen-like Ions 1. Hydrogen energy eigenvalues and eigenstate in Coulomb Potential 2.
    [Show full text]
  • Sitzungsberichte Der Leibniz-Sozietät, Jahrgang 2003, Band 61
    SITZUNGSBERICHTE DER LEIBNIZ-SOZIETÄT Band 61 • Jahrgang 2003 trafo Verlag Berlin ISSN 0947-5850 ISBN 3-89626-462-1 Inhalt Heinz Kautzleben Hans-Jürgen Treder, die kosmische Physik und die Geo- und Kosmoswissenschaften >>> Herbert Hörz Kosmische Rätsel in philosophischer Sicht >>> Karl-Heinz Schmidt Die Lokale Galaxiengruppe >>> Helmut Moritz Epicycles in Modern Physics >>> Armin Uhlmann Raum-Zeit und Quantenphysik >>> Rainer Schimming Über Gravitationsfeldgleichungen 4. Ordnung >>> Werner Holzmüller Energietransfer und Komplementarität im kosmischen Geschehen >>> Klaus Strobach Mach'sches Prinzip und die Natur von Trägheit und Zeit >>> Fritz Gackstatter Separation von Raum und Zeit beim eingeschränkten Dreikörperproblem mit Anwendung bei den Resonanzphänomenen im Saturnring und Planetoidengürtel >>> Gerald Ulrich Fallende Katzen >>> Rainer Burghardt New Embedding of the Schwarzschild Geometry. Exterior Solution >>> Holger Filling und Ralf Koneckis Die Goldpunkte auf der frühbronzezeitlichen Himmelsscheibe von Nebra >>> Joachim Auth Hans-Jürgen Treder und die Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin >>> Thomas Schalk Hans-Jürgen Treder und die Förderung des wissenschaftlichen Nachwuchses >>> Wilfried Schröder Hans-Jürgen Treder und die kosmische Physik >>> Dieter B. Herrmann Quantitative Methoden in der Astronomiegeschichte >>> Gottfried Anger und Helmut Moritz Inverse Problems and Uncertainties in Science and Medicine >>> Ernst Buschmann Geodäsie: die Raum+Zeit-Disziplin im Bereich des Planeten Erde >>> Hans Scheurich Quantengravitation auf der Grundlage eines stringkollektiven Fermionmodells >>> Hans Scheurich Ein mathematisches Modell der Subjektivität >>> Hans-Jürgen Treder Anstelle eines Schlußwortes >>> Leibniz-Sozietät/Sitzungsberichte 61(2003)5, 5–16 Heinz Kautzleben Hans-Jürgen Treder, die kosmische Physik und die Geo- und Kosmoswissenschaften Laudatio auf Hans-Jürgen Treder anläßlich des Festkolloquiums am 02.10.2003 Das Kolloquium ist ein Geburtstagsgeschenk der Leibniz-Sozietät an ihr Mit- glied Hans-Jürgen Treder.
    [Show full text]
  • Arxiv:2006.10084V3 [Quant-Ph] 7 Mar 2021
    Quantum time dilation in atomic spectra Piotr T. Grochowski ,1, ∗ Alexander R. H. Smith ,2, 3, y Andrzej Dragan ,4, 5, z and Kacper Dębski 4, x 1Center for Theoretical Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Aleja Lotników 32/46, 02-668 Warsaw, Poland 2Department of Physics, Saint Anselm College, Manchester, New Hampshire 03102, USA 3Department of Physics and Astronomy, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA 4Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 5, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland 5Centre for Quantum Technologies, National University of Singapore, 3 Science Drive 2, 117543 Singapore, Singapore (Dated: March 9, 2021) Quantum time dilation occurs when a clock moves in a superposition of relativistic momentum wave packets. The lifetime of an excited hydrogen-like atom can be used as a clock, which we use to demonstrate how quantum time dilation manifests in a spontaneous emission process. The resulting emission rate differs when compared to the emission rate of an atom prepared in a mixture of momentum wave packets at order v2=c2. This effect is accompanied by a quantum correction to the Doppler shift due to the coherence between momentum wave packets. This quantum Doppler shift affects the spectral line shape at order v=c. However, its effect on the decay rate is suppressed when compared to the effect of quantum time dilation. We argue that spectroscopic experiments offer a technologically feasible platform to explore the effects of quantum time dilation. I. INTRODUCTION The purpose of the present work is to provide evi- dence in support of the conjecture that quantum time The quintessential feature of quantum mechanics is dilation is universal.
    [Show full text]
  • PROGRAM and ABSTRACTS
    PROGRAM and ABSTRACTS Washington, DC skyline at night. © Shutterstock/fstockfoto Eighth International Conference on Atomic and Molecular Data and Their Applications: ICAMDATA-8 September 30 - October 4, 2012 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Gaithersburg, MD, USA Local Conference Committee John Gillaspy, NIST, Conference Chair Jim Babb, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics John Curry, NIST Jeff Fuhr, NIST Rodrigo Ibacache, NIST Timothy Kallman, NASA GSFC Karen Olsen, NIST Yuri Podpaly, NIST Glenn Wahlgren, NASA International Program Committee W. Wiese, USA, Chair A. Mueller, Germany S. Fritzsche, Germany, Vice Chair I. Murakami, Japan G. Zissis, France, Secretary Yu. Ralchenko, USA K. Bartschat, USA D. Reiter, Germany B. Braams, USA (IAEA) Y. Rhee, S. Korea S. Buckman, Australia E. Roueff, France R. Carman, Australia T. Ryabchika, Russia M.-L. Dubernet, France A. Ryabtsev, Russia J. Gillaspy, USA P. Scott, UK J. Horacek, Czech Rep. V. Shevelko, Russia R. Janev, Macedonia J. Wang, China C. Mendoza, Venezuela J.-S. Yoon, S. Korea 1 Important Information and Contact Numbers Please be aware that access to the NIST grounds is restricted. Registrants are cleared for access M-Th through the main gate on Route 117 (West Diamond Avenue, which is the extension of Clopper Road) by presenting a government-issued photo ID (passport or U.S. Driver's License, for example). After 5PM registrants will need a NIST escort to enter the grounds. Participants in the Satellite meetings on Friday, who have not already done so, must contact one of the Satellite Meeting Chairs in advance to have their gate pass extended through Friday.
    [Show full text]
  • Relations Between the Einstein Coefficients
    Relations between the Einstein coefficients • Additional reading: Böhm-Vitense Ch 13.1, 13.2 • In thermodynamic equilibrium, transition rate (per unit time per unit volume) from level 1 to level 2 must equal transition rate from level 2 to level 1. • If the number density of atoms in level 1 is n1, and that in level 2 is n2, then !"#"$&̅ = !$($" + !$#$"&̅ ( /# ⟹ &̅ = $" $" !"/!$ #"$/#$" − 1 Compare mean intensity with Planck function • Use Boltzmann’s law to obtain the relative populations n1 and n2 in levels with energies E1 and E2: $ /( "̅ = %& %& )&(&%/)%(%& exp ℎ.//0 − 1 • In TE, mean intensity equals the Planck function, "̅ = (3 2ℎ.5/6% where ( 0 = 3 exp ℎ.//0 − 1 Einstein relations • To make mean intensity = Planck function, Einstein coefficients must satisfy the Einstein relations, 2ℎ)* !"#"$ = !$#$" & = # $" +$ $" • The Einstein relations: – Connect properties of the atom. Must hold even out of thermodynamic equilibrium. – Are examples of detailed balance relations connecting absorption and emission. – Allow determination of all the coefficients given the value of one of them. • We can write the emission and absorption coefficients jn, an etc in terms of the Einstein coefficients. Emission coefficient • Assume that the frequency dependence of radiation from spontaneous emission is the same as the line profile function f (n) governing absorption. • There are n2 atoms per unit volume. • Each transition gives a photon of energy hn0 , which is emitted into 4p steradians of solid angle. • Energy emitted from volume dV in time dt, into solid angle dW and frequency range dn is then: ℎ) !" = $ !&!Ω!(!) = - / 1())!&!Ω!(!) % 4, . .0 ℎ) ⟹ Emission coef>icient, $ = - / 1()) % 4, .
    [Show full text]
  • The Einstein's Coefficients and the Nature of Thermal
    EINSTEIN’S COEFFICIENTS AND THE NATURE OF THERMAL RADIO EMISSION Fedor V.Prigara Institute of Microelectronics and Informatics , Russian Academy of Sciences , 21 Universitetskaya , 150007 Yaroslavl , Russia The relations between Einstein’s coefficients for spontaneous and induced emission of radiation with account for the natural linewidth are obtained . It is shown that thermal radio emission is stimulated one . Thermal radio emission of non-uniform gas is considered . PACS numbers : 95.30.Gv , 42.50.Ar , 42.52.+x . The analysis of observational data on thermal radio emission from various astrophysical objects leads to the condition of emission implying the induced emission of radiation [5]. Here we show that the stimulated character of thermal radio emission follows from the relations between Einstein’s coefficients for spontaneous and induced emission of radiation . Consider two level system (atom or molecule ) with energy levels E1 and E 2 > E1 wich is in equilibrium with thermal blackbody radiation . We denote as ν s = A21 the number of transitions from the upper energy level to the lower one per unit time caused by a spontaneous emission of radiation with the frequency ω=(EE21− )/h, where h is the Planck constant . The number of transitions from the energy level E2 to the energy level E1 per unit time caused by a stimulated emission of radiation may be written in the form νi = BB21 ν ∆ν, (1) where 322 Bcν =−hωπ/ (21)(exp(hω/ kT) ) (2) is a blackbody emissivity (Planck’s function ) , T is the temperature , k is the Boltzmann constant , c is the speed of light , and ∆ν is the linewidth .
    [Show full text]
  • Stimulated Emission, Solid-State Quantum Electronics and Photonics: Relation to Composition, Structure and Size
    Romanian Reports in Physics, Vol. 57, No. 4, P. 845–872, 2005 OPTICS AND QUANTUM ELECTRONICS STIMULATED EMISSION, SOLID-STATE QUANTUM ELECTRONICS AND PHOTONICS: RELATION TO COMPOSITION, STRUCTURE AND SIZE I. URSU, V. LUPEI Laboratory of Solid-State Quantum Electronics, National Institute of Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics Bucharest-Romania (Received July 22, 2005) Abstract. The paper discusses the relation of the radiation emission properties of the doped photonic materials with the composition, structure and size of these materials. It is shown that a proper use of this relation can extend or improve the performances of the photon sources and of their applications. Key words: quantum electronics, stimulated emission, solid state lasers. 1. INTRODUCTION A problem of major concern for Einstein was the nature and properties of radiation. The first of the major papers published by Einstein in annus mirabilis 1905 was “Uber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristichen Gesichtspunkt” (“On a heuristic point of view about the creation and conversion of light”), Ann. der Physik 17, 132 (1905). This paper, which is frequently referred to as the paper on the photoelectric effect, is a crucial contribution to the knowledge of the properties of radiation. It extends the work of Planck on the emission of energy quanta by showing that the electromagnetic field of light is in itself composed of energy quanta related to the frequency of light, which have been subsequently named photons; these quanta move without being divided and can be absorbed and emitted only as a whole. With this theory he could explain consistently the characteristics of the photoelectric effect, particularly the dependence of the number of released electrons, but not of their energy, on the intensity of the incident light, while the energy of released electrons is, above a given threshold, related to the frequency of the incident light.
    [Show full text]