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Appendix 1: Inventions and Innovations - Britain c. 1700-1880 1709 Abraham Darby, coke smelting, slow diffusion, widely used in 1760s and 1770s 1720s Newcomen's pumping engine (first working 1712) 1730 Increased momentum to parliamentary enclosure 1733 Kay's 'Flying Shuttle' 1736--7 Ward's sulphuric acid process by combustions (patented 1749) 1746--9 John Roebuck's sulphuric acid plants in Birmingham and Prestonpans (bleaching), (lead chamber process) 1748 Lewis Paul's carding machine (cotton) patented 1749 Huntsman steel smelting 1750--70 Fivefold increase in turnpike road mileage 1759 John Harrison's chronometer (£20000 prize awarded) 1760 Bakewell's stockbreeding 1761 Bridgewater Canal (completion cost £250000) 1764 James Hargreaves' jenny (patented 1770) 1769 J ames Watt steam-engine (lower fuel costs, separate con­ denser) 1769 Richard Arkwright's waterframe 1770 Ramsden's screw-cutting lathe (Maudslay improvement 1797) 1771 First patent to obtain mineral alkali from common salt 1773 Manchester-Liverpool Canal 1774 John Wilkinson's device for boring cannon (applied to cylin­ ders) 1774 J ames Watt's improved steam engine (1776 applied to blast furnace) in Birmingham 1775 Boring mill (for Boulton and Watt cylinders) 304 INVENTIONS AND INNOVATIONS 1700--1300 305 1779 Samuel Crompton's mule 1779 Cast-iron bridge of Abraham Darby at Coalbrookdale 1780 Hornblower's compound engine (high pressure cylinder to Watt engine) first working 1782 Watt's 'parallel motion' (beam and piston-rod of steam engine) 1782 Jethro Tull's geared seed-drill (slow diffusion) 1784 Cart's puddling process (puddling achieved from 1779, not taken up until c.181O), for wrought-iron manufacture 1784 First mail coaches; I 780s stage-coaches generally. 1784 James Watt - patent rotary motion (invented 1781), and put in operation in cotton-spinning factory 1785 Edmund Cartwright's first power loom, first patents 1786-8, adoption deferred to investment booms of 1823-5, 1832-4. 1833 = 100000 power looms in UK, and 250000 hand loom weavers 1786(c.) Mechanical power introduced to calico printing in printworks of Liversey, Hargreaves & Co. 1786 William Murdoch's steam carriage (roads) 1787 Wilkinson's first iron boat 1788 Chlorine bleaching in Manchester 1788-95 Application of new techniques in road making (Macadam, Telford) 1780--90 Development of high-pressure engines 1790 First steam-rolling mill erected in England 1790 Cartwright's wool-combing machine 1793 Cotton-gin invented in USA 1795 Joseph Bramah's hydraulic press 1797 Hen Maudslay invents carriage lathe 1797-99 Tenant's process for bleaching (chlorine over lime) 1800 Richard Trevithick's high-pressure steam-engine 1800 Hen Maudslay screw-cutting lathe 1801 General Enclosure Act 1802 Bramah's rotary wood"planing machinery 1803 Woolfs compound/high-pressure engine 1803 Begin building Caledonian Canal 1804 Trevithick's first successful railway locomotive 1810 Development of food canning (tinplate, sealed by soldering) 1812 Central London Streets first lit by gas 1812 Chapman's invention of bogie-truck 1813 Hedley's steam locomotive on smooth rails at Wylam 1814 Power printing 1814 Stephenson's steam locomotive 1815 Humphry Davy's safety lamp 1815 First efficient colliery locomotive 1818 Blanchard's copying lathe 1819 Steamship crossing of Atlantic 1820 Patent for rolling wrought-iron bars into edge-rails 306 APPENDIX I 1824 Portland Cement, invented at Wakefield 1825 Stockton and Darlington Railway (horse-drawn) 1828 Neilson's hot air blast furnace (iron-smelting) 1828 BruneI's Thames tunnel 1830 Liverpool and Manchester Railway 1830 Richard Roberts automatic mule patented; £12000 spent on second patent; fully self-acting (one man could work 1600 spindles) Mid-1830s widely adopted 1831 Phillips' contact process (sulphuric acid) patented, Bristol 1836 Gossage's absorption towers (for hydrochloric acid in Leblanc process) 1837 First railway telegraph 1834-43 Commercialisation of superphosphate manufacture by J. B. Lawes, Rothamsted 1839 Application of electric telegraph to railway system 1839 Nasmyth's steam hammer 1840 Penny Post 1842 Ransomes' application of steam power to threshing 1842 Establishment of Rothamsted Experimental Station 1843 The Great Britain first screw-steamer to cross Atlantic 1845 First Agricultural College, Cirencester 1845 First successful compounding of Watt engine, McNaught of Bury 1840s Innovations for drainage of heavy land (cylindrical clay-pipe, pipe-making machines) 1848-78 Joseph Swan's development of carbon-filament lamp 1851 Great Exhibition 1851 Channel Cable 1855 Paris Universal Exhibition 1856 Perkin-aniline dye (first synthetic) 1856 Bessemer Converter 1861 Machine riveting patented 1864 Siemens-Martin open-hearth furnace 1865 Mushet's use of tungsten and vanadium in steel manufacture 1860s Steam-roller (roads) 1869 Suez Canal opened 1870 Deacon's catalytic oxidation of hydrochloric acid gas (to chlor­ ine), bleaching 1872 Mond's introduction of Solvay (ammonia-soda) process, by patent right 1875 Gilchrist-Thomas basic steel process 1876 Commercial working of contact process, W. S. Squire 1879 Automatic screw-making machine 1880 Frozen meat imports from Australia (canned from 1847) Appendix 2: Key to Patents Subject Typology 3.6 I. Includes fuel, and covers extraction and substitution processes. 2. Generation, conversion, new uses. 5. Includes substitution, dyeing, cleansing, all non-metals. 6. For example, reducing friction, boiler-improvement, heat conduction, levers, rollers, etc. 7. Including for canals, navigations, incorporating dredging, weighing, ropes and cordage, cranes, separating. 8. And some 'parts'. 10. and II. Including both chemical and non-chemical (e.g. metal) prod- ucts. 13. For example, brewing. 14. Non-motive and non-moving, including pumping, cutting etc. 17. Including watches, clocks, nautical. 20. Incorporates public building and includes furnishing, heating, etc. 21. Mostly design, decorative but some substitution of raw materials, cost reductions, etc. 22. Medicines, drugs, apparatus, including dental. 23. For instance, locks, musical instruments and doubtful categories. 24. Includes some civil engineering (minor), machinery, chemicals. 307 Notes 1. INTRODUCTION: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 1. D. Lardner, A Treatise on Silk (London, 1831); G. R. Porter, Treatise on the Origins, Progressive Improvement and Present State of the Silk Manufacture (London, 1831); F. Warner, The Silk Industry of the United Kingdom (London, 1921). 2. Francesca Bray, The Rice Economies, Technology and Development in Asian Societies (Oxford, 1986). 3. M. Abramovitz, 'Research and Output Trends in the United States Since 1870', American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, May 1956; R. Solow, 'Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function'. Review of Economics and Statistics, August 1957; S. C. Gilfillan, The Sociology of Invention (Cambridge, Mass., 1963); A. Fishlow, American Railroads and the Transformation of the Ante-Bellum Economy (Cambridge, Mass., 1965). 4. See essays by Enos, Mueller and others in National Bureau of Economic Research, The Rate and Direction qf Inventive Activiry: Economic and Social Factors (Princeton, 1962); S. Hollander, The Sources of Increased Ef­ ficiency: The Study of Du Pont Rayon Plants (Cambridge, Mass., 1965). 5. Robert M. Solow and Peter Temin, 'The Inputs of Growth', in Peter Mathias and M. M. Postan (eds), The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, Vol. VII, Pt I (Cambridge, 1978). 6. E. F. Denison, Why Growth Rates Differ (Washington, 1967); Accounting for Slower Economic Growth: The US in the 1970s (Washington, 1979). 7. Alexander J. Field, 'On the Unimportance of Machinery', Explora­ tions in Economic History, 22 (1985). 8. J. D. Gould, Economic Growth in History (London, 1972), Table p. 299. 9. For essays which consistently illustrate the importance of incremen­ tal changes see Nathan Rosenberg, Perspectives on Technology (Cambridge, 1966). 10. Denison, op. cit. (n. 6), pp. 299-301. 308 NOTES 309 11. Joel Mokyr, review of Paul David, in Economic Development and Cultural Change, 1977, p. 236. 12. G. Mensch, Stalemate in Technology: Innovations Overcome the Depression, English trans I. (Cambridge, Mass., 1979). 13. M. J. Peck, 'Inventions in the Post-War American Aluminium In­ dustry' in NBER, op. cit., (n. 4); D. Hamberg, Rand D: Essays on the Economics of Research and Development (New York 1966); J. Jewkes, D. Sawyers and R. Stillerman, The Sources of Invention (New York, 1969). 14. C. Freeman, The Economics of Industrial Innovation (Harmondsworth, 1974). 15. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Impact of Multinational Enterprises on National Scientific and Technical Capacities: Computer and Data Processing Industry, Directorate for Science, Technology and Indus­ try, Paris (Restricted) DSTIISPR/7739-MNE, Paris 27 December 1977. 16. Jacob Schmookler, Invention and Economic Growth (Cambridge, Mass., 1966), p. 173; C. F. Carter and B. R. Williams, Investment in Innovation (London, 1958), p. lO;J. A. Kregel, The Theory of Economic Growth (London, 1972), p. 50. 17. See especially op. cit., Gilfillan (n. 3) and Rosenberg (n. 9). 18. Kendall Birr, Pioneering in Industrial Research: The Story of the General Electric Research Laboratory (Washington, 1957). 19. S. Agurin and J. Edgren, New Factories: Job Design Through Factory Planning in Sweden (Stockholm, 1980). 20. C. Babbage, On the Economy ofMachinery and Manufactures (London, 1832). 21. E. Zaleski et aI., Science Policy in the
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