Torch Magazine • Winter 2019 The Changing “Reality” of our Universe By Ernst Behrens

“What we call ‘reality’ consists shows the Earth, composed of the of an elaborate papier-mâché four Aristotelian elements—earth, construction of imagination and water, air, and fire—in the center. theory filled in between a few iron Surrounding it are eight spheres posts of observation” (Wheeler or “heavens” that are occupied by 358). This quotation from John the Moon, the Sun, the five known Archibald Wheeler, one of the planets, and the firmament of the foremost authorities on gravity and fixed stars. All these are objects general relativity, characterizes in of direct observation and part of After earning his doctorate in a nutshell his and other scientists’ Aristotle’s Physics or Wheeler’s physics in 1961 from the University understanding of “reality.” Careful “iron posts.” The “papier-mâché” of Göttingen in Germany, and a fellowship at the Nuclear Research observations and experiments of imagination starts in Book 8:4- Center in Grenoble, France, become a permanent record 6, where Aristotle postulates an Ernst Behrens became a nuclear of the knowledge base and are “unmoved mover” as the cause reactor physicist with the Siemens Corporation in Erlangen, Germany. seldom questioned. Controversies of all motion in the universe. As arise, however, over the way its name implies, it moves other Upon coming to the U.S. in 1966 as these “iron posts” are connected. things while remaining motionless a materials scientist, he worked first with the Lockheed-Georgia Company These controversies are usually itself. Book 12 of Metaphysics and then in 1969 with Armstrong accompanied by theories that continues to speculate about the World Industries in Lancaster, give rise to a “papier-mâché” divine, eternal, unchanging, and Pennsylvania, where he was a group leader and later a Research Fellow. of a frequently updated system immaterial nature of this “prime He has been pursuing an interest in of thought. Nowhere else is this unmoved mover” (“Unmoved astronomy and cosmology ever since situation more apparent than in the Mover”). It occupies the tenth his retirement in 1994. turbulent evolution of cosmology heaven in Apianus’ drawing, just His work has previously appeared from Aristotle through Copernicus above a ‘crystalline sphere’ on several times in The Torch, most to Einstein. heaven number nine. Finally, recently in the Spring 2015 issue, with “Paddling the Boundary Waters located on top of everything, is the Then and Now.” Cosmology before Copernicus “Empireum,” the “Habitation of (1543) God and all the Elect.” Other beliefs “The Changing ‘Reality’ of Our Universe” was presented to the imagine “only” the seventh heaven Lancaster club on November 6, 2017. Shortly before the Copernican to be the highest, representing a Revolution, Petrus Apianus (1495- state of great happiness. 1552), alias Peter Bienewitz, a well-known German humanist The ancient Greeks were very and cartographer, summarized the good at working with straight lines cosmology of his time in a book titled and circles. Claudius Ptolemy (90- Cosmographia (1524) by a famous 168 CE), the talented mathematician drawing (“Petrus Apianus”). It from Alexandria, described in 6 Torch Magazine • Winter 2019 his Almagest an elaborate system had precedents in ancient Greece word “revolution” acquired a of circles and epicycles, which (Aristarchos of Samos, about 310- second meaning as the overthrow enabled him to predict planetary 230 BCE) and were much simpler of an established order. In 1616 positions with an accuracy of one than Ptolemy’s, but they were the publication was placed on the degree. However, regarding the purely philosophical without any index of prohibited books, pending postulates of geocentricity and observational backing or “iron further revision. It took until 1758 uniform circular motion handed posts.” The Church allowed and for the original unrevised version down to him by Aristotle, Ptolemy even encouraged their discussion to be removed from that list. had to make compromises. The as long as they were presented center of the Universe was not as hypotheses only and not as The indisputable moment of exactly occupied by the Earth “reality.” truth for the two world models but by the center of the Deferent came as early as 1610. According adjacent to the Earth. The center to Ptolemy, Venus would never pass of the Epicycle moved uniformly The word behind the Sun, so it would always on the Deferent only from the be illuminated from behind or from vantage point of the Equant near “revolution” the side; therefore, it should appear the Earth on the opposite side of to us only as crescent-shaped. One the center. The Epicycle and any acquired morning in October 1610, Galileo inferior planet (Mercury or Venus) Galilei (1564-1642), professor at moving on its periphery remained a second the University of Pisa and court always between the Earth and the mathematician for the Grand Duke Sun. This complicated ancient meaning as the of Tuscany, was waiting with his analog computer represented, home-made telescope for Venus to almost incredibly, the accepted overthrow of rise. He had to look very carefully cosmological “reality” for 1,500 to see the gibbous phase of the years. Other astronomical analog an established planet, but he instantly knew that he computers existed that were was looking at a decisive argument even older, like the Antikythera order. against the Ptolemaic system. Mechanism (Schaefer 2), but their Galileo also knew that anyone else accuracy was not nearly as good as The new theory faced many with a telescope and the idea to Ptolemy’s. ideological obstacles, but one observe Venus could steal his show. purely scientific argument against By December 1610, Venus had Cosmology from Copernicus to a moving Earth was the absence waned to a half-lit phase. To gain Einstein (1543-1915) of visible star parallaxes (Seeds some extra observing time while 57-58). Of course, as we know protecting his priority of discovery, Western cosmology entered a today, stars are too far away for Galileo issued a Latin anagram new era with Nicolaus Copernicus their parallaxes to be noticed by the that he promised to unscramble (1473-1543). He was a church naked eye (Friedrich Bessel was the later: “Haec immatura a me iam official in the Kingdom of Poland first who measured a star parallax, frustra leguntur o.y.” (“These are with an interest in astronomy. in 1838-39). The enormous at present too young to be read After decades of hesitation for contrast between the vastness of by me”.) Finally, on New-Year’s fear of ridicule by the science the physical Universe and the Day 1611, he lifted the secret and community, he allowed his book De smallness of our own existence wrote to his fellow-astronomer revolutionibus orbium coelestium, must have been unthinkable in Johannes Kepler: “Cynthiae libri VI to be published shortly those days. Only much later figuras aemulatur mater amorum”; before his death. His ideas about were the radical consequences of in English, “The mother of loves the circular orbital movements Copernicus’ ideas fully appreciated emulates the phases of the Moon” of the planets around the Sun as “reality.” and from then on the (Maury 88-90).

7 Torch Magazine • Winter 2019 The discovery of the phases Saggiatore (“The Assayer”) laid the and instrumental in sentencing of Venus was Galileo’s greatest groundwork for modern research Giordano Bruno to die at the stake. triumph. It was the only scientific by emphasizing observation and He gave Galileo a stern warning in observation that directly experimentation as primary sources 1616 to stay in his field of science contradicted and thus invalidated for scientific truth rather than old and not to enter what he considered the Ptolemaic world model. Galileo wisdom handed down in scriptures. to be the Church’s exclusive domain wisely refrained from publicly This shift from religious to scientific of theological interpretation. His drawing this conclusion, but he “reality” in the Renaissance message was loud and clear: You shared his observations with his period has been appropriately do the observations—we draw the former student Benedetto Castelli called a “secularization of conclusions! Galileo complied and with Christopher Clavius, a thought” (Santillana vii). Based formally at first, but in 1624 the German Jesuit in charge of papal on telescopic observations of new Pope Urban VIII granted him astronomy (Palmieri 109-29). His sunspots, hills and valleys on the permission to describe the two observations were soon confirmed moon, Jupiter’s satellites, and the world systems in the form of a by the scientists of the Collegio phases of Venus, Galileo became a dialogue, provided his (the Pope’s) Romano, who awarded him an proponent of the heliocentric world views would be included. honorary degree. He was also a view while still remaining faithful guest of honor to cardinals and to the Church. In his 1615 Letter In the Dialogo sopra i due princes, had an audience with Pope to the Grand Duchess of Tuscany massimi sistemi del mondo Paul V, and was made a member of he argued at great length that the (“Dialogue Concerning the Two the prestigious Lincean Academy. “new astronomy” of Copernicus Chief World Systems”), which Only the year before, Galileo is compatible with the Holy was finally published in 1632, had written to Kepler: “My dear Scripture, including Joshua 10:1- the simple-minded Simplicio Kepler, what would you say of the 15. The manuscript was widely represents Ptolemy and appears to learned here, who, replete with circulated, but it did not convince be a caricature of the Pope and his the pertinacity of the asp, have the important personalities in arguments. This was a fatal mistake, steadfastly refused to cast a glance the Church hierarchy, who were because it unnecessarily alienated through the telescope? What shall already on the defensive against the many of Galileo’s former admirers, we make of all this? Shall we ongoing Reformation movement. including the Pope himself. The laugh, or shall we cry?” (Santillana hard-liners in the Vatican saw it 9). as an insult and a violation of the Galileo’s 1616 injunction against passing As a freethinking maverick, judgment in matters of religion. Galileo liked to mingle with the strong will and They promptly tried him for common people and learn from suspected heresy, forced him to hands-on experience. Instead of occasional recant, and placed him under house devoting his time like his peers arrest for the rest of his life. to studying and writing scholarly arrogance comments on ancient literature, he Even then, the stubborn would focus on practical matters made him more professor managed to issue and publish in his vernacular Italian Discorsi e Dimostrazioni rather than in Latin. His strong will enemies than Matematiche Intorno a Due Nuove and occasional arrogance made Scienze (“Dialogues Concerning him more enemies than friends, not friends. Two New Sciences”) in 1638, in only in the Church hierarchy but which he formulated the law that also in academia. One of them was Cardinal all objects take the same time to Robert Bellarmine, a leading fall to the ground in the absence Galileo’s 1623 book Il figure in the Counter-Reformation of air resistance and friction. In

8 Torch Magazine • Winter 2019 an earlier unpublished book titled Harmonices Mundi [1619]) using Principia Mathematica (1687). De Motu (On Motion), he had ellipses instead of the formerly The story goes that one of his presented an interesting logical sacrosanct circles to represent the famous “experiments” was sitting argument in support of his thesis: planetary orbits around the Sun. under an apple tree and watching Assume Aristotle is right by saying Kepler’s introduction of ellipses an apple fall to the ground, which that heavier bodies fall faster than must have been quite shocking gave him the brilliant idea that the lighter bodies. Now then, let’s tie to traditional astronomy, because planets are held in their orbits by the one of each together with a string it did away with the paradigm same force of gravity. Newton also and drop them to the ground. The that only perfect circles could conducted pendulum experiments lighter body should fall slower adequately describe the motion with a precision of one part in than the heavier one, so the string of heavenly bodies. Kepler also one thousand to demonstrate that will become taut and the heavier produced new “Rudolphine” the inertial and the gravitational body will be retarded. The two astronomical tables that were mass of a body are equal. Modern together should therefore take considerably more accurate than researchers confirmed this result more time than the heavier body the old “Alphonsine” tables of the with accuracies of better than alone to fall to the ground. On the Ptolemaic system, which had been one part in one trillion (Will 58- other hand, the combination of in use since 1252. By 1627, when 62). Nobody until Einstein could both bodies is heavier than each Kepler’s tables were published, account theoretically for this of its components and should fall the heliocentric view was already fact, which Galileo had already faster than either one—obviously catching on, while the Roman discovered with his falling-body a contradiction. In his subsequent inquisitors would be clinging to experiments and which also lies at experiments, Galileo used inclines their outdated “reality” for another the heart of Kepler’s third law of to slow down the process for two hundred years. planetary motion. accurate timing by a water clock, not the leaning tower of Pisa as is After Newton, generations of commonly believed (Maury 75). Kepler’s excellent mathematicians gave The manuscript was smuggled out rational mechanics its present of Italy and published in Holland, introduction of rigorous form, eventually replacing away from Roman control, because the geometry of the ancient Greeks it again contradicted Aristotle. ellipses must as the prototype of an exact science. Johannes Kepler (1571- have been Nevertheless, Albert 1630) was a German protestant Einstein (1879-1955) developed far removed from Rome, with a quite shocking reservations against classical strong background not only in mechanics, such as questioning mathematics, but also in astrology to traditional the artificial distinction between and mysticism. He was fortunate inertia and gravity (Clark 114- in becoming the assistant to the astronomy. 19). Their equivalence, while Danish nobleman Tycho Brahe having been established many (1546-1601) and gaining access Isaac Newton (1643-1727) times experimentally, still had no to his non-telescopic but high- synthesized isolated observations theoretical foundation. Einstein quality observational data. and principles from his predecessors gave it a more general form and After Tycho had died, Kepler into a comprehensive theory of made it a fundamental principle of succeeded him as the official mechanics that is still being taught his General Theory of Relativity astronomer for Emperor Rudolf II in schools today. It consists of three (1915). A famous illustration of in Prague. He then developed the Laws of Motion plus the Universal this principle imagines a closed three famous laws of planetary Law of Gravitation as described box in which the occupants motion (Astronomia Nova [1609], in his Philosophiae Naturalis experience weightlessness. They

9 Torch Magazine • Winter 2019 cannot tell whether their box is did not get that message. Works Cited and Consulted floating in outer space or falling freely in a gravitational field. In By the sea, at night by the Aristotle. Metaphysics. Trans. W. D. Ross. another illustration, the occupants wild sea Internet Classics Archive. classics.mit. edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.html of a rocket feel a force toward stands a young man, ---. Physics. Trans. R. P. Hardie and R. K. the back of the vehicle. They do his heart full of sadness, Gaye. Internet Classics Archive. classics. not know whether their rocket his head full of doubt. mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.html Clark, Ronald W. Einstein: The Life and accelerates in interstellar space or Times. New York and Cleveland: World stands motionless on the surface of With sober lips he asks the Publishing, 1971. the Earth. In relativistic mechanics, waves: Copernicus, Nicholas. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, libri VI. a simple coordinate transformation “O unravel the mystery of life geo.utexas.edu. between reference frames converts for me, Einstein, Albert. The Special and the inertia into gravity and vice versa the painful age-old mystery, General Theory of Relativity. 100th Anniversary Edition. Trans. Robert using only one type of mass that has been pondered by Lawson. Princeton U P, 2015. (Misner et al. 17). many brains, Galilei, Galileo. The Assayer. Trans. and brains covered by abridged by Stillman Drake. web.stanford.edu/~jsabol/certainty/ Summary and Conclusions hieroglyphic caps, readings/Galileo-Assayer.pdf brains covered by turbans ---. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Astronomy and cosmology and black berets, Systems. Internet Archive. ---. Dialogues Concerning Two New have been around since ancient brains under wigs and a Sciences. Trans. Henry Crew and Alfonso times, but new discoveries are still thousand other de Salvio. ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/g/ being made at an unprecedented unhappy, overworked human galileo/dialogues/complete.html ---. “Letter to the Grand Duchess of rate. What we understand about the brains! Tuscany.” Fordham University: Internet Universe today is certainly “more Tell me, what is the meaning Modern History Sourcebook. real” than what people believed in of man’s existence? sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/galileo- tuscany.asp the Middle Ages and before. Each From where did he come? Heine, Heinrich. “Fragen.” (“Questions.”) time we establish a new “iron post of Where does he go? Buch der Lieder / Die Nordsee. observation,” we look, as Aristotle Who resides up there on Hamburg: Hoffmann und Campe, 1827. Translated from the German by the did, for the “mover” behind it. those golden stars?” author. Not satisfied with just passive Maury, Jean-Pierre. Galilée, Le Messager observations, we want insight The waves are murmuring des Étoiles (“The Starry Messenger”). Paris: Gallimard, 1986. and knowledge that enable us to their eternal sound, Misner, Charles W., Kip S. Thorne, and control and change things. This is the wind is blowing, the John Archibald Wheeler. Gravitation. San the creative, man-made part of our clouds are passing, Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1973. Newton, Isaac. The Mathematical Principles “reality,” which is always in danger the stars are blinking, of Natural Philosophy. Trans. Andrew of losing touch with its “iron posts” indifferent and cold, Motte. Wikisource. en.wikisource.org/ and degenerating into dogmatism and a fool is waiting for an wiki/The_Mathematical_Principles_of_ Natural_Philosophy_(1846) or wishful thinking. Wheeler answer. Palmieri, Paolo. “Galileo and the Discovery thus leads us to the conclusion of the Phases of Venus.” Journal for the that there is no “reality out there” —Heinrich Heine, History of Astronomy, XXXII (2001), 109-129. independent of us. Instead, “Fragen” (“Questions”), “Petrus Apianus.” Wikipedia. “reality,” as we now understand translated by the author Ptolemy. Almagest. Trans. G. J. Toomer. it, owes its existence to human Internet Archive. Santillana, Giorgio de. The Crime of Galileo. participation. The anthropocentric U of Chicago P, 1955. Universe has thereby returned Schaefer, Karl R. “The Antikythera through the backdoor of human Mechanism.” The Torch, Vol 87. No. 2 (Winter 2014), 2-5. imagination. The naïve young man Seeds,Michael A. Foundations of Astronomy. in the following poem apparently 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1997. “Unmoved Mover.” Wikipedia. 10 Torch Magazine • Winter 2019

Wheeler, John Archibald. “Beyond the Will, Clifford M. “The Confrontation between Black Hole.” In Some Strangeness in General Relativity and Experiment.” the Proportion, in A Centennial Living Reviews in Relativity, Vol. 9 Symposium to Celebrate the (2006), 58-62. relativity.livingreviews Achievements of Albert Einstein. Ed. .org/Articles/Irr-2006-3. Harry Woolf. Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley, 1980.

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