Torch Magazine • Winter 2019 The Changing “Reality” of our Universe By Ernst Behrens “What we call ‘reality’ consists shows the Earth, composed of the of an elaborate papier-mâché four Aristotelian elements—earth, construction of imagination and water, air, and fire—in the center. theory filled in between a few iron Surrounding it are eight spheres posts of observation” (Wheeler or “heavens” that are occupied by 358). This quotation from John the Moon, the Sun, the five known Archibald Wheeler, one of the planets, and the firmament of the foremost authorities on gravity and fixed stars. All these are objects general relativity, characterizes in of direct observation and part of After earning his doctorate in a nutshell his and other scientists’ Aristotle’s Physics or Wheeler’s physics in 1961 from the University understanding of “reality.” Careful “iron posts.” The “papier-mâché” of Göttingen in Germany, and a fellowship at the Nuclear Research observations and experiments of imagination starts in Book 8:4- Center in Grenoble, France, become a permanent record 6, where Aristotle postulates an Ernst Behrens became a nuclear of the knowledge base and are “unmoved mover” as the cause reactor physicist with the Siemens Corporation in Erlangen, Germany. seldom questioned. Controversies of all motion in the universe. As arise, however, over the way its name implies, it moves other Upon coming to the U.S. in 1966 as these “iron posts” are connected. things while remaining motionless a materials scientist, he worked first with the Lockheed-Georgia Company These controversies are usually itself. Book 12 of Metaphysics and then in 1969 with Armstrong accompanied by theories that continues to speculate about the World Industries in Lancaster, give rise to a “papier-mâché” divine, eternal, unchanging, and Pennsylvania, where he was a group leader and later a Research Fellow. of a frequently updated system immaterial nature of this “prime He has been pursuing an interest in of thought. Nowhere else is this unmoved mover” (“Unmoved astronomy and cosmology ever since situation more apparent than in the Mover”). It occupies the tenth his retirement in 1994. turbulent evolution of cosmology heaven in Apianus’ drawing, just His work has previously appeared from Aristotle through Copernicus above a ‘crystalline sphere’ on several times in The Torch, most to Einstein. heaven number nine. Finally, recently in the Spring 2015 issue, with “Paddling the Boundary Waters located on top of everything, is the Then and Now.” Cosmology before Copernicus “Empireum,” the “Habitation of (1543) God and all the Elect.” Other beliefs “The Changing ‘Reality’ of Our Universe” was presented to the imagine “only” the seventh heaven Lancaster club on November 6, 2017. Shortly before the Copernican to be the highest, representing a Revolution, Petrus Apianus (1495- state of great happiness. 1552), alias Peter Bienewitz, a well-known German humanist The ancient Greeks were very and cartographer, summarized the good at working with straight lines cosmology of his time in a book titled and circles. Claudius Ptolemy (90- Cosmographia (1524) by a famous 168 CE), the talented mathematician drawing (“Petrus Apianus”). It from Alexandria, described in 6 Torch Magazine • Winter 2019 his Almagest an elaborate system had precedents in ancient Greece word “revolution” acquired a of circles and epicycles, which (Aristarchos of Samos, about 310- second meaning as the overthrow enabled him to predict planetary 230 BCE) and were much simpler of an established order. In 1616 positions with an accuracy of one than Ptolemy’s, but they were the publication was placed on the degree. However, regarding the purely philosophical without any index of prohibited books, pending postulates of geocentricity and observational backing or “iron further revision. It took until 1758 uniform circular motion handed posts.” The Church allowed and for the original unrevised version down to him by Aristotle, Ptolemy even encouraged their discussion to be removed from that list. had to make compromises. The as long as they were presented center of the Universe was not as hypotheses only and not as The indisputable moment of exactly occupied by the Earth “reality.” truth for the two world models but by the center of the Deferent came as early as 1610. According adjacent to the Earth. The center to Ptolemy, Venus would never pass of the Epicycle moved uniformly The word behind the Sun, so it would always on the Deferent only from the be illuminated from behind or from vantage point of the Equant near “revolution” the side; therefore, it should appear the Earth on the opposite side of to us only as crescent-shaped. One the center. The Epicycle and any acquired morning in October 1610, Galileo inferior planet (Mercury or Venus) Galilei (1564-1642), professor at moving on its periphery remained a second the University of Pisa and court always between the Earth and the mathematician for the Grand Duke Sun. This complicated ancient meaning as the of Tuscany, was waiting with his analog computer represented, home-made telescope for Venus to almost incredibly, the accepted overthrow of rise. He had to look very carefully cosmological “reality” for 1,500 to see the gibbous phase of the years. Other astronomical analog an established planet, but he instantly knew that he computers existed that were was looking at a decisive argument even older, like the Antikythera order. against the Ptolemaic system. Mechanism (Schaefer 2), but their Galileo also knew that anyone else accuracy was not nearly as good as The new theory faced many with a telescope and the idea to Ptolemy’s. ideological obstacles, but one observe Venus could steal his show. purely scientific argument against By December 1610, Venus had Cosmology from Copernicus to a moving Earth was the absence waned to a half-lit phase. To gain Einstein (1543-1915) of visible star parallaxes (Seeds some extra observing time while 57-58). Of course, as we know protecting his priority of discovery, Western cosmology entered a today, stars are too far away for Galileo issued a Latin anagram new era with Nicolaus Copernicus their parallaxes to be noticed by the that he promised to unscramble (1473-1543). He was a church naked eye (Friedrich Bessel was the later: “Haec immatura a me iam official in the Kingdom of Poland first who measured a star parallax, frustra leguntur o.y.” (“These are with an interest in astronomy. in 1838-39). The enormous at present too young to be read After decades of hesitation for contrast between the vastness of by me”.) Finally, on New-Year’s fear of ridicule by the science the physical Universe and the Day 1611, he lifted the secret and community, he allowed his book De smallness of our own existence wrote to his fellow-astronomer revolutionibus orbium coelestium, must have been unthinkable in Johannes Kepler: “Cynthiae libri VI to be published shortly those days. Only much later figuras aemulatur mater amorum”; before his death. His ideas about were the radical consequences of in English, “The mother of loves the circular orbital movements Copernicus’ ideas fully appreciated emulates the phases of the Moon” of the planets around the Sun as “reality.” and from then on the (Maury 88-90). 7 Torch Magazine • Winter 2019 The discovery of the phases Saggiatore (“The Assayer”) laid the and instrumental in sentencing of Venus was Galileo’s greatest groundwork for modern research Giordano Bruno to die at the stake. triumph. It was the only scientific by emphasizing observation and He gave Galileo a stern warning in observation that directly experimentation as primary sources 1616 to stay in his field of science contradicted and thus invalidated for scientific truth rather than old and not to enter what he considered the Ptolemaic world model. Galileo wisdom handed down in scriptures. to be the Church’s exclusive domain wisely refrained from publicly This shift from religious to scientific of theological interpretation. His drawing this conclusion, but he “reality” in the Renaissance message was loud and clear: You shared his observations with his period has been appropriately do the observations—we draw the former student Benedetto Castelli called a “secularization of conclusions! Galileo complied and with Christopher Clavius, a thought” (Santillana vii). Based formally at first, but in 1624 the German Jesuit in charge of papal on telescopic observations of new Pope Urban VIII granted him astronomy (Palmieri 109-29). His sunspots, hills and valleys on the permission to describe the two observations were soon confirmed moon, Jupiter’s satellites, and the world systems in the form of a by the scientists of the Collegio phases of Venus, Galileo became a dialogue, provided his (the Pope’s) Romano, who awarded him an proponent of the heliocentric world views would be included. honorary degree. He was also a view while still remaining faithful guest of honor to cardinals and to the Church. In his 1615 Letter In the Dialogo sopra i due princes, had an audience with Pope to the Grand Duchess of Tuscany massimi sistemi del mondo Paul V, and was made a member of he argued at great length that the (“Dialogue Concerning the Two the prestigious Lincean Academy. “new astronomy” of Copernicus Chief World Systems”), which Only the year before, Galileo is compatible with the Holy was finally published in 1632, had written to Kepler: “My dear Scripture, including Joshua 10:1- the simple-minded Simplicio Kepler, what would you say of the 15. The manuscript was widely represents Ptolemy and appears to learned here, who, replete with circulated, but it did not convince be a caricature of the Pope and his the pertinacity of the asp, have the important personalities in arguments. This was a fatal mistake, steadfastly refused to cast a glance the Church hierarchy, who were because it unnecessarily alienated through the telescope? What shall already on the defensive against the many of Galileo’s former admirers, we make of all this? Shall we ongoing Reformation movement.