In Between Two Worlds: Colombian Migrants Negotiating Identity, Acculturation, and Settlement in Melbourne, Australia

Margarita Rosa Fierro Hernandez Christopher C. Sonn Victoria University

Latin American immigration experiences have been documented in terms of acculturation, settlement and belonging. While there is an increase in research interest, there is a need to recognise the diversity of the Latin American region, as well as within countries, in terms of culture, history, and histories of colonialism. This exploratory qualitative work examines the experiences of 15 Colombian immigrants living in Melbourne, Australia and considers implications for identity, acculturation and settlement. Thematic analysis of in depth-interviews generated three themes that represent their acculturation and settlement: identity negotiation between home and homeland, constructing Colombian identity in Australia and navigating barriers to settlement. Migration was mainly experienced as a loss and represented as a negotiation between home country and host country where the structures of support were crucial in making home in Australia. This has shed light on the meanings, expectations and challenges associated with the migration process to Australia. This analysis reveals how accents, cultural values, and discrimination play a role in the ways Colombians construct and negotiate identity and settlement in Australia.

This paper focuses on Colombian implies constant mobility and instability, an immigrants to Australia who comprise a often-endless search for belonging to the small but rapidly growing group. “The first constantly changing other, as well as having records of Colombians in Australia date back to cope with constantly shifting legal and to four people included in the 1911 bureaucratic requirements for social Census” (Department of Foreign Affairs and acceptance and divergent parameters for Trade, 2015, para. 24). The Department of recognition” (Krzyżanowski & Wodak, Social Services (2015, para. 5) reports that 2008, p. 98). Sonn and Lewis (2009, p. 116) “the latest census in 2011 recorded 11,318 note that: “the experiences of immigration Colombia-born people in Australia, an and settlement are ongoing, and often increase of 98.2 % from the 2006 census. involve dislocation and the loss of taken for Considering that Australia provides granted resources and systems of meaning. It opportunities for students and professionals, also means gaining new opportunities for recent Colombian migrants usually come participation and resources for living”. The under a student visa, skilled migration visa or challenges of immigration and settlement for partner visa. In view of the growing number migrant communities have often been of Colombian immigrants, the study explored understood using the notion acculturation the reasons for migration and the various (Sam & Berry, 2006). Acculturation is “the factors that would influence the acculturation process of cultural change that occurs when and settlement experiences for a sample of individuals from different cultural Colombian migrants to Melbourne, backgrounds come into prolonged, Australia. continuous, first-hand contact with each Migration, Acculturation, and Settlement other” (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, Migration, acculturation and settlement 1936, p. 146). Researchers in community are challenging processes. “Migration psychology have argued that acculturation is

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 30 No 1 June 2019 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 66

a contested process that involves relations of everyday settings, and opportunities for power between migrant and receiving belonging. communities which are typically reflected in Nevertheless, people do not simply experiences of exclusion, discrimination, as submit to cultural racism and othering, they well as the pursuit of a sense of community develop various psychosocial strategies of and wellbeing (e.g., Garcia- Ramírez, de la resistance, coping, and resilience. Sonn and Mata, Paloma, & Hernández-Plaza 2011; Fisher (2003) and more recently, Sonn, Ivey, Luque-Ribelles, Herrera-Sanchez, & García- Baker and Meyer (2017) have shown how Ramírez, 2017; Sonn & Lewis, 2009, Sonn South African immigrants to Australia & Stevens, 2017). respond in different ways to experiences of Some scholars have theorised racism including rejecting negative and acculturation as a process of identity and externally imposed identity labels, community making. The process involves constructing alternative identity categories, more than the simple negotiation of host and and constructing hyphenated identities and home culture; it is contested within and understandings of self. Racialised migrants between different communities and contexts are proactive in acculturation-settlement along various structural dimensions and experiences as they negotiate changing social group memberships based on race, social, political, and cultural landscapes ethnicity, migration status, class, gender and (Bhatia, 2018; Katsiaficas, Futch, Fine, & intersections among these dimensions Sirin 2011; Sonn et al., 2017). Communities (Andreouli, 2013; Buckingham et al., 2018). construct alternative settings away from Some researchers have shown how unreceptive dominant group spaces, and in cultural racism shapes the experiences of those settings they can deconstruct racialised various migrant communities who are made encounters and find support and strange and deemed as not belonging to communality. They also provide Australia because they are not white (e.g., opportunities for people to articulate Due & Riggs, 2010; Hage, 1999; Harris, memories from their home communities that 2009; Sonn & Lewis, 2009; Wise, 2010). For are vital to the acculturation-settlement example, Sonn and Lewis (2009) illustrate process and for crafting multi-layered selves how ideologies of race and ethnicity are and ways to belonging (Hall, 2000; prominent in how South African migrants Katsiaficas, et al., 2011; Sonn & Fisher, construct identities, and how memories of 1998). racism in their home country as well as When migrants arrive and try to settle experiences of being racialised based on in a new place, they carry traditions, appearance, hair, and skin colour in Australia memories and experiences of the places they influence how they define themselves and used to live. These memories and the extent to which they can claim belonging experiences play an important role in the in Australia. In a study with people of acculturation and settlement experience. For Cypriot-Turkish Muslim background, Ali example, in the United States Bhatia (2007) and Sonn (2010) reported that experiences of showed that Indian migrant’s memories of ethnicisation based on appearance, or visible home, colonial histories and the markers such as wearing a veil or a hijab accompanying nostalgia influence how they may mediate experiences of belonging and think about themselves in the host country exclusion. In other contexts, such as the UK and in the development of their identity and (Andreouli & Howarth, 2013) and Italy negotiation of their belonging. In Italy, (Cicognani, Sonn, Albanesi, & Zani, 2018) Barbieri, Zani, and Sonn (2014) have researchers have similarly shown how highlighted that migrant adaptation is a language, accent, dress, and other markers negotiation between and within cultures; can be used in processes of othering which migrants bring symbols, practices and rituals create borders to group membership and from their culture while at the same time impacts upon acculturation, participation in they appropriate new symbols from the new

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 30 No 1 June 2019 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 67

culture. For instance, for immigrants, the with different immigrant groups in Australia term community may have different (Ali & Sonn, 2010; Sonn & Lewis, 2009; meanings related mainly to religion, culture Sonn, Stevens, & Duncan, 2013), this study (language, food, music) and a common past. was guided by the assumptions that people Hence, in the process of acculturation, they and culture are intertwined and that realities relate community principally with their home are constructed socially through language country. and thereafter are maintained through Although, memories of home can be a narrative (Freedman & Combs, 1996). In this source of strength, recollecting experiences approach the stories that people tell about of oppression, violence, and stigmatisation themselves and others are constructed within can influence acculturation and identity social, cultural, historical and political construction in a new place (Collier & contexts (Rappaport, 2000) are in line with Gamarra, 2001; Guarnizo, Sánchez & Roach, an interpretivist epistemology (Willig, 2013), 1999; Moriah, Rodriguez, & Sotomayor, which claims that humans always negotiate 2004; Valderrama-Echavarria, 2014). For and give meaning to the dynamics of their example, in research with Colombian world, and focuses on the meanings that migrants in the United States, Moriah et al. interviewees attach to their experiences (2004), have suggested that, “a long history (Williamson, 2002). For this reason, of violence, distrust, narco-trafficking, armed adopting an interpretivist approach to this conflict, poverty, corruption, and social study allows consideration of the meanings exclusion has diminished Colombians migrants attach to their experiences. These abilities to accurately mobilise through stories provide a window into how networks, to coordinate efforts and to act for Colombians make sense of their identity and mutual benefit” (p. 11-12). Others have belonging; their words, voices, and the noted that dominant stereotypes that discourses that they navigate as part of their associate Colombia with drug trafficking acculturation process. have implications for identity construction of Participants people who migrate (Guarnizo et al., 1999). All participants were recruited through For example, Valderrama-Echavarria (2014) the networks of the first author, who is suggested that many Colombians reported Colombian and lives in Australia, by ‘word feeling shame with the notion of Colombia of mouth’. No rewards or payments were associated with drug cartels or violence. offered. All interested participants were These stereotypes of Colombia can manifest directed to contact the student researcher via in people’s acculturation dynamics in telephone, text message, email or messaging particular the process of identity via Facebook. Those who expressed interest construction. were given detailed information about the Given this review, the understanding research, its purpose, and the nature of the that acculturation and identity construction is question. Participants were informed that the process of meaning making in social potential emotional discomfort may occur, ecological context and the paucity of and that they can withdraw at any stage of research studies on Colombian migrants in the process, as well any additional time was Australia, this present exploratory study given for any questions or concerns. aimed to shed light on the experiences of A total of 15 Colombian immigrants in Colombians who have migrated to Australia. Melbourne participated in the study: nine The paper addresses the following questions: women and six men. The ages of the sample 1) why do Colombia people immigrate to ranged from 25 to 45 years old. The majority Australia and why do they choose to stay; of participants were born in Colombia, and 2) what factors influence acculturation except for one male participant, who moved experiences and social identity construction? to Colombia from Venezuela at the age of Methodology one and who is a Colombian citizen. Eleven Building on similar previous studies participants were from Bogotá, two from

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 30 No 1 June 2019 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 68

Medellin, and one from San Gil. All the Data Analysis participants identified themselves as With a focus on the reasons for Colombian. They have lived most of their migration and for staying in Australia, and lives in urban areas in Colombia, especially factors that influence acculturation Bogotá and Medellin. At the time of the experiences and social identity construction, study, all 15 participants were residing in data was analysed using thematic analysis as Melbourne. The participants had been in outlined by Braun and Clark (2006). Australia between one year and 16 years. In Verbatim transcripts were used for analysis: relation to migration status: five participants the first author of this manuscript who is were already Australian citizens; five were fluent in Spanish and English languages read permanent residents; one is in the process of the transcripts several times to familiarise gaining permanent residency; two currently with the responses and the content. hold a student visa; one is dependent on her Descriptive labels created emergent coding, partner’s student visa; and one holds a followed by categories refined by both temporary graduate visa. All but two authors. A final set of main themes were participants had tertiary education, and most generated and summaries of these were sent were employed in technical and professional to participants to gain additional input as part roles (Table 1). of the process of member checking. All the Data Collection participants agreed with themes and A semi-structured interview guide was accentuated that their status as immigrants developed based on previous studies (Ali & mean that they will continue to feel Sonn, 2010; Sonn et al., 2017) to guide one- “between” Colombia and Australia. to-one interviews that averaged 30 to 50 Findings and Interpretation minutes. The interview guide included open- The findings suggest that participants ended questions that were pilot tested with had similar motivations for leaving Colombia three Colombian people to ensure feasibility, and choosing to remain in Australia. The face validity, and efficient ordering. main themes generated from the interviews Fourteen interviews were conducted show that acculturation and settlement is a face-to-face and one was conducted using contested and challenging process and that Skype, as was the preference of one of the physical and cultural displacement creates a participants. While most of the participants sense of being “in-between worlds” for can communicate in English, Spanish is their migrants. This sense of being in between first language. Given this, participants had involves the process of cultural remooring the option to be interviewed in Spanish or and navigating various social and symbolic English, and information to participants and representations and mechanisms of structural consent forms were available in both exclusion. The themes identified are: 1) “I languages. All participants decided to be don’t feel from here, but I don’t feel interviewed in Spanish, except one person Colombian either”; 2) “I love my cultural who decided to respond in English. These identity”: Constructing Colombian identity in interviews were audio-recorded and Australia; and 3) Settlement: Accents, transcribed verbatim for analysis. At the cultural values, and discrimination. Verbatim completion of this process, the interviews in excerpts are used to illustrate themes. Spanish were professionally transcribed by a Participants’ real names are replaced by Colombian native Spanish speaker. To pseudonyms. ensure that the translation was functionally The socio-political factors that make equivalent, the first author checked that people leave a country for another country transcriptions against the original audio are diverse. Migration is the result of push recording (Brislin, 1970). A native English and press factors (Krishnakumar & speaker transcribed the interview that was Indumathi, 2014; Phizacklea, 2000). The conducted in English and the researchers reasons why Colombians migrate to checked it against the audio recording to Australia, as well as the reasons to stay in ensure accuracy. Australia are shown in Table 2. The findings

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 30 No 1 June 2019 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 69

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 30 No 1 June 2019 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 70

Table 2. Colombian migrants’ reasons for migrating to and remaining in Australia

Participant Time in Current Reason to leave Why Australia? Reason to stay Australia Visa Colombia in Australia Antonio 8 y Australian Lack of English Studies Opportunities, Citizen opportunities /Australian Australian Partner culture, economic stability. Australian partner Carmen 8 y Australian Social and English studies/ Australian Citizen political Clear migration values, equality, situation in policies safety Colombia José 10 y Australian English Studies English Studies/ Safety/Job Citizen friend in stability Australia Pilar 7 y Australian Social and Quality of life Safety, Society, Citizen political collaboration, situation in respect, freedom Colombia Manuel 11 y Permanent Social and English studies Safety, Residency political Australian situation culture Teresa 11 y Permanent Abusive English studies/ Easy to develop Residency relationship family in projects, Australia freedom, equality Francisco 6 y Temporar Develop as a Tertiary studies Safety/Australia y Graduate person n culture Visa-485 Carolina 1 time: Permanent English Studies English Studies Australian 10 m Residency partner 2 time: 2 y 2 m Susana 1 y 7 m Student Social and Quality of life/ Safety Visa political Migration situation in /Tertiary Colombia studies/weather Alberto 4 y Student English studies English Economic and Visa studies/family in social system Australia Sara 16 y Australian Threats of English studies/ Opportunities, Citizen violence weather economic stability, quality of life, equality.

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 30 No 1 June 2019 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 71

show that for five of the participants social culture. I know the streets, the and political factors propelled them to leave neighbourhoods, different places and I and that education made it possible to go to have friends, but I do not feel Australian. Australia. The majority of participants also I don’t feel part of the Australian culture. reported that they have no intention of I believe that it is a much longer process, returning to Colombia because of safety and and it will take a lot of time (Teresa). security and the freedoms offered to pursue Another participant highlighted a their life goals in Australia. This narrative is partial sense of belonging: consistent with the stories of many other I feel partial Australian, …well because voluntary and involuntary migrants in of my studies here I feel part of Australia Australia. and part of the world however, because I “I Don’t Feel From Here, But I Don’t don’t have permanent residency in a Feel Colombian Either” certain way, I don’t feel connected to The migration and settlement are Australia, but I believe it is just for rewarding, but it is also very demanding of bureaucratic hurdles (Francisco). people’s psychological, social and cultural The process of negotiating belonging resources. For many the process involves was not only from the position of settling in intense challenges generated by feeling torn Australia but also from how they are between a host and a home community. perceived in Colombia or by Colombians Participants described various tensions and once they return home to visit: challenges in Australia, including the notion When I visited Colombia, I went to buy of an ‘in between status’ (Sonn & Fisher, shoes, and somebody asked me: Where 1998). They feel in between the two worlds are you from? I answered I am from and that this is an ongoing process of Bogotá (Colombia’s capital city), then negotiating displacement. the person told me: but you have an The of sense of being in-between can accent. I just said I was born and raised be observed as a recognition of the slow three blocks from here… I think with process of adjustment and various these situations you realise your psychological, social and cultural aspects identity… At my parents’ neighbourhood that people need to negotiate. The excerpts and for my friends in Colombia, I am below illustrate that acculturation is a Australian…for them I am no longer negotiation process reflected in being “in- Colombian (Sara). between worlds”. The process for the The analysis identified various ways in participants revealed shared aspects such as which Colombians conveyed a sense of the deep sense of their cultural identities and being ‘in-between’ worlds, which included the slowness of acquiring ways of thinking place, culture, and structures. As Fortier and behavioural repertories. (2000) stated, “Immigrant populations As time goes by, I feel more vacillate between ‘national identity’ and Australian, obviously there would be ‘e’migre’ identity’, producing a cultural things that never change and that will citizenship that is grounded in be always part of my identity. As an multilocality” (p. 97). identity I feel Colombian, but I am “I Love my Cultural Identity”: very grateful to Australia and I have Constructing Colombian Identity in been adopting different ways of Australia thinking and adjust to their lifestyle The migration process involves (Antonio). renegotiating taken for granted identities and Teresa noted that: the range of symbolic and material resources My resettlement and adjustment that they draw upon in this process. The processes have been long, I believe I am various excerpts below include the reference still in these processes. At this stage I feel to cultural values and practice, language, and part of the place but not of the Australian shared history which are all central to a

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 30 No 1 June 2019 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 72

strong sense of Colombian cultural Colombian but in the eyes of others I am identification. For example, Alberto stated: less Colombian. For example, I don’t I love my cultural identity because it is follow the Colombian football team, I different, and Australian people like it, don’t have the Colombian team T-shirt, I we bring nice things here, the culture, the don’t use Colombian handicrafts, and I food, the music and we share our history, don’t use the sombrero vueltiao2. For me that Latino part, that Colombian part that that it is not related to being Colombian, I we have, we are proud to represent think I live my Colombianidad in a Colombia here (Alberto). different way (Manuel). Teresa made similar comments about Yet, while many embraced Colombian the role of culture contributing to the cultural identity, some participants also aliveness of countries, noting: referred to the aspects that they do not like I think about my identity as the identity of about Colombia nor of being from Colombia. any immigrant. It is an asset to Australia; Although most participants describe being it is what is building the country. In other proud of their Colombian heritage, one words, as a Colombian and as an participant reported feeling shame: immigrant I provide my culture, which Being Colombian is a birthmark, a bad makes this country alive. It is what gives birthmark in the forehead. I don’t identify colour to Australia. with the culture of Colombia. I don’t Sara mentioned that shared emotional catch up with Colombian people, I don’t connection amongst the Colombian diaspora celebrate Colombian festivities…and for around the world: me Colombia is a place far away, there is I think there is not a Colombian that will my mum, she is the only link that I have deny their identity, in spite of the violent with Colombia, the family that I have stories, our identity is deeply rooted, our over there (Pilar). sense of belonging is stronger than the Unlike other participants, Pilar Australians sense of belonging. We give distanced herself from Colombia. She uses our lives for Colombia and we cry every the metaphor of a stain, a bad birthmark. time we listen our national anthem, here Pilar feels out of place in both Australia and Australians barely know the lyrics of Colombia. Responses from other participants their anthem. Also, our sense of are also instructive about how people community is extremely strong… the negotiate negative stereotypes about sense of belonging is so strong that it Colombia. For instance, Manuel doesn’t matter where you are in this commented: world you will have it. People ask always the same question: One participant used the term where are you from? And when you say Colombianidad 1 to explain how, over time, Colombia they ask: Are you Mexican? Or there may be a ‘lessening’ of an ‘authentic’ they ask if Colombia is in Mexico or if we Colombian identity but a rearticulation of it speak Mexican. Being Colombian in in a different way in Australia. This is Australia means answering awkward captured in the excerpt from Manuel who questions related to drugs or Pablo speaks of loss and reclamation, and Escobar (Manuel). rearticulating ways of being Colombian, Valentina made similar remarks: never fixed, but always changing: When you say you are from Colombia I mean I see myself as a Colombian, and, more when you say that you are from but… because I have been here for a very Medellin everyone asks for cocaine or for long time, I have lost my Pablo Escobar. It’s just very annoying. I “Colombianidad”, and you always see can’t even deal with that situation I people very Colombian in Australia. I always get angry because I think it’s haven’t experienced enough that ignorance. I mean they can just google Colombian culture, therefore, I can feel Colombia (Valentina).

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 30 No 1 June 2019 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 73

Other comments referred to values Australia, we couldn’t read, write, speak, such as intolerance and corruption. For listen … consequently, we were more than instance, Carmen noted: “Colombian society an illiterate person, and that is very hard. is very intolerant. We don’t appreciate what This generates many social difficulties we have in Colombia, people love others just and limitations. Hence, we isolate for a moment and after they destroy them”. ourselves. Carolina had similar thoughts: “We are Like Rafael, Antonio stressed that narrow-minded; we need to open to new having limited English language competence things in order to take the next step”. can make one feel isolated and it can also These excerpts show that acculturation produce difficulties in communication: and identity-making involves dialogues At the beginning it was very difficult… I between both positive and negative felt isolated … I had many issues… representations of home culture. Participants learning English and communicating value what they have to offer to Australia effectively. There was a lot of frustration. while also making sense of negative Once I was hospitalised for an infection stereotypical representations of Colombia. and there was nobody who speaks Barriers to Settlement: Accents and Spanish, that was the first year when I Discrimination came here. This theme captures some of the The experiences of not being able to structural and symbolic factors that hamper communicate in English could result in the positive acculturation experience for situations that make people feel self- migrants. These factors included language conscious or lead to embarrassing situations. and accent, cultural practices such as how Pilar recollected: people greet one another, and institutional My son remembers when we arrived, he practices such as non-recognition of overseas didn’t know English at all. He always says qualifications. Despite the positive to me “Do you think it’s easy to be at opportunities for personal and social school and pee your pants?” because development brought about by migration, when he was 4 years old, he didn’t know almost all the participants reported obstacles how to ask for the toilet in English. He in adjusting to the Australian context and was very advanced, intelligent and experiences of a sense of alienation and articulated in Spanish, but he didn’t know isolation. how to speak English, it was so terrible Language, accents and borders. Language that he still remembers that feeling of not mastery appeared as an important factor in a being able to communicate. sense of belonging and, in the acculturation Communicating in the host society’s process for the Colombian migrants, English language is extremely important to be able to proficiency was the dominant issue. meet migrants’ needs in everyday life as well Interviewees described experiences of as to establish a sense of identity and alienation or discomfort generated by limited belonging. Susana relayed the significance of or perceived low levels of spoken English language in self-presentation and expression: proficiency in different areas of their life It has been a slow process of finding such as job hunting, social interactions or myself in a language that is not mine. It integration to the Australian community. took a lot of hard work, I can say that my Rafael communicated the complex level of English was good, but it was very significant personal, social and economic academic… therefore finding my way, my implications of limited English language personality in English has been a proficiency: struggle, and there are still situations I think the most difficult part is the where I don’t feel confident, I still have English …you can’t communicate… one difficulties being myself in a genuine way of the poverty indicators in a society is in English. illiteracy. However, when we arrived in Some participants have moved from

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 30 No 1 June 2019 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 74

being competent adults in Spanish language ourselves, or when we say goodbye. In to being immigrants with some limited Australia people become frightened with capacity to express their thoughts and that, I think the physical contact, hugging, feelings and to engage in social interactions kissing is very Colombian, and I feel very in English with native English speakers. Colombian in Australia when I do it, and Some participants suggested an accent was a more if I do it to my Australian or English synonym for a lack of language proficiency friends (José). and that this could result in discrimination. Feeling “the other” in the new Others have noted the role of language environment is associated with lack of and accents in shaping interpersonal familiarity (Furnham, 1990). In these interaction between people from different excerpts this sense of otherness is related to ethnic groups. In a US-based study, Latinos differences in lived experiences that are reported often feeling monitored by white evident when people compare themselves people when they speak English, and, if with the stereotypical Anglo Celtic some sign of a distinctive accent is detected, Australian (Zevallos, 2003). they risk being mocked (Cobas & Feagin, Labour market experiences. 2008). In the United States language Participants described experiences relegation of Latinos involves the assessment concerning difficulties getting a job and the of English as superior to Spanish (Santa Ana, significance of it in their lives in Australia. 2002) and takes place within a longer history Moreover, they found obtaining a job in their of racialized power relations. Tomic (2013) professions challenging, and more difficult at refers to the process of discursively creating the professional level for which they have a distinction between the native Self and non been trained in Colombia. Some of the -native Other as linguicism, which was participants have university degrees and evident in this study. some have also worked in their professions Cultural values: everyday experiences and before arriving in Australia. An important “otherness”. Some participants’ experiences barrier to obtaining a job are visa regulations: in Australia were expressed through different the participants for example who have a cultural values; in behaviour and patterns of student visa can work 20 hours per week or interaction. The excerpts below illustrate 40 per fortnight and can therefore only apply differences in which participants felt that for casual or part-time jobs. their cultural values influenced their lived Since I’m studying at the University the experiences. Sara emphasised family biggest difficulty has been to find an ideal closeness and expressions of physical job in something that I really want to do. I affection and how these are seemingly at have been working here but in other odds with “families in Australia”: areas. It’s tough, I have been looking for In Colombia, families are close-knit, and other jobs but there is a lot of competition you realise it when you compare them and it is necessary to have a certain level with the families here. Families in of English, a certain level of social skills. Australia are very strange, we tend to I think finding a job it’s the hardest to have more physical contact. It doesn’t achieve (Alberto). matter if you are 50 years old your mum still cuddles you, hugs you, even you take The hardest part has been finding a job. It a nap with her … Mums are always was a terrible shock because when I looking after you (Sara). arrived my plan was to organise my José also highlighted cultural differences in resume and in four months get a job. expressions of physical affection of physical However, I came across a different affection and how this influences his sense of outcome. I study Engineering in Colombia cultural identity: and I hope to find a job I feel comfortable We normally kiss each other’s cheeks with… and that I can give the best of me when we say hello, when we introduce (Carolina).

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 30 No 1 June 2019 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 75

At the beginning, it was very hard for me Australia, mainly related to the physical working as a cleaner; I remember that I safety experienced in Melbourne compared was working at the Crown casino with a to Colombia. friend, who is a Chemical Engineer, and The findings from this study are the only way to stop us from going crazy consistent with many other studies (e.g., was studying chemical formulas, to talk Andreouli, 2013; Cicognani et al., 2018) that about something different than cloths or show that acculturation is a challenging sponges… I didn’t spend all my life process of reconstructing lives within the studying to work as a cleaner (Sara). constraints and opportunities afforded by the As part of the migration process and receiving country as well as mobilising the the migrant condition, individuals build social and cultural resources of the home relationships with a wide group of different country. In this study participants social groups, and this promotes the constructed their identity by negotiating their development of a sense of identity and transnational identities while also situating belonging. As Aizpurúa (2008) stated, themselves in terms of the discourses and immigrants from Latin America can have practices in Australia that position them as difficulties finding suitable jobs that match migrants, newcomers and outsiders. their labour experiences and educational Australia’s policies of multiculturalism background and/or economic opportunities facilitate cultural inclusion, but as and they are often underemployed. participants indicated, they do not yet feel Participants associate the feeling of Australian. They are familiar with the otherness, loss of status and experiences of physical and natural place, but there are discrimination with language proficiency, the various symbolic and structural barriers at difference in values and getting a job that different levels that influence their meets their previous expectations. acculturation experiences and identity Discussion construction. The dynamism of acculturation This research explored the experiences is noted by Coronado (2014, p. 14): “we of migration, acculturation, barriers to transform our identities and cultural settlement and the role of social and other practices, and simultaneously keep, to some structures in the settlement process for 15 degree, a sense of cultural control over what Colombian immigrants in Melbourne, we adopt, change and transform”. Australia. The findings show that The findings showed that a strong participants in this study moved to Australia sense of Colombian cultural identification is (between 1-11 years ago) primarily to further advantageous to the acculturation process. their studies, suggesting that this is a unique Participants expressed their connectedness to sample compared to previous waves of cultural and national identities which was migrants from Latin American countries. central to their self-identification as Even though they chose to migrate, they still Colombian. Many participants also identified reported that there were strong economic and stigma and stereotypes that consistently political drivers for leaving Colombia. associate Colombians with drugs and Reasons for leaving Colombia were never violence, as factors that influence their singular, but instead related to the identity negotiation in Australia. Hence, expectation that they will have a better future acculturation experiences vary according to and opportunities in Australia combined with the migrant’s pre- and post- contextual the home country’s history of violence and circumstances as well as the host society corruption. Similar to other investigations the member’s attitudes towards immigrants as is main driver for migration for Colombians evident in the findings of this study. was therefore safety and economic stability English language competence, job (Madrigal, 2013; Wood, Gibson, Ribeiro, & satisfaction and the acceptance from others Hamsho-Diaz, 2010). In this study, safety were the main obstacles for Colombian and security were the main reasons to stay in migrants found in Australia. English

The Australian Community Psychologist Volume 30 No 1 June 2019 © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 76

competence entails a process of becoming, around memories of their country/cultures of learning and mastering the language. It origin and the broader histories of implies mastering a set of norms and shared colonialism that privilege some languages cultural conventions that have been and accents over others, in particular, constructed over time that is central to a English language which is also an index of sense of community and feeling settled. The white cultural capital (Sonn & Fisher, 1998). feeling of lack of language competence can The current research aimed to provide be a result of social and cultural exclusion, more insight into Colombian migrants’ which can be a major barrier to a sense of experiences of acculturation and settlement. belonging in Australia. Indeed, language is The importance of this exploratory study lies an expression of culture; it represents in the lack of information regarding the identity and cultural ties. experiences of Colombian migrants in Participants also expressed learning Melbourne, Australia through their own language as a process of “finding yourself” voices. Participants reported that migrating in the new context of meaning. It is not just has been a challenging process of negotiating about being functional, but about making multiple identities and belongings after sense as part of that new context. This issue migration, while trying to maintain has been reported by many other Colombian identity. The migration process communities for whom English is a second of Colombian immigrants, like other migrant or third language. Not speaking English, a groups, is a dynamic process of acculturation form of dominant cultural capital and between several structural and psychological proximity to whiteness, is a key site for forces (Bhatia, 2007): hence, this group understanding power relations. As noted by should not be viewed as homogenous. Colic-Peisker (2002), “English spoken with a This study has some limitations. The particular accent becomes a social marker. A study only reports the experiences of a non-Australian accent is perceived as a voluntary group of immigrants from symbol of otherness” (p. 152) as well as Colombia in Melbourne. Furthermore, the requiring reconstructions of identities to fit sample of this study does not include people the confines of the English language. from rural areas in Colombia. The next step Colombian migrants recognise that in this research is to expand the sample to English competence is a key for academic, examine the different experiences of professional and social integration. One way migration in a wider cross section which that migrants respond to the experience of include city of origin, city of settlement, age, stigma is through internalisation, which and gender and to identity the various “involves the devaluation and inferiorisation community settings that fosters positive of oneself and one’s group and diminished acculturation and opportunities for mutual self-esteem and self-efficacy” (Küey, 2015). transculturation. Doing so would give a It has been suggested that migrants support better understanding of the diversity of the idea that having an accent is inhibiting Colombian people and the multitude of ways marking individuals as different (Deaux, they negotiate displacement and 2000; Van Niele, 2014). Accents are acculturation. associated with positive or negative attributes This research has confirmed that and they build interactions, perceptions and migration experiences should be attitudes towards migrants. From the vantage conceptualised as a process of meaning point of migrant communities, accents and making through which migrants negotiate home language maintenance is also an act of their identity and settlement. Stuart Hall survival, of self-protection against (2000) has been central to this writing stereotypes and expression of identity highlighting that identity-making: “is a vitality. Language and accents are powerful matter of becoming rather than being. It is markers of identity. They are central in how produced in and through narratives of both ethnic groups go about making a home the past and present, a set of positions, within

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 77

broader arrangements of power through Bhatia, S. (2018). Social psychology and which people make sense of themselves and social justice: Citizenship and migrant their communities” (p. 4). From a identity in the post 9/11 era. In P. L. community psychology perspective, the Hammack (Ed), The Oxford Handbook of focus is often on understanding the histories Social Psychology and Social Justice, (pp. of those who migrate as well as the history of 1-35). Oxford: Oxford University Press. the receiving community and the context. Bhatia, S. (2007). Rethinking culture and Growth in Australia’s immigrant identity in psychology: Towards a population calls for a need to understand and transnational cultural psychology. Journal recognise the unique challenges they face. of Theoretical and Philosophical A better understanding of the immigration Psychology, 27-28(2-1), 301-321. experiences and factors that either promote DOI:10.1037/h0091298 or restrain the progress of immigrants is Bhatia, S. (2002). Acculturation, dialogical crucial to improving policies and programs voices and construction of the diasporic that are more equitable and inclusive. As self. Theory & Psychology, 12(1), 55-77. many have noted (e.g. Andreouli, 2013; Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using Bhatia, 2002; Sonn & Lewis, 2009) thematic analysis acculturation is usefully conceptualised as a in psychology. Qualitative Research process of meaning making that involves in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101, DOI: migrants negotiate their identities and 10.1191/1478088706qp063o. settlement through symbolic and cultural Brislin, R. W. (1970). Back-translation for resources within the constraints and cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross- opportunities provided by the new Cultural Psychology, 1(3), 185-216. environment. Buckingham, S. L., Brodsky, A. E., Rochira, A., Fedi, A., Mannarini, T., Emery, L., ... References & Gattino, S. (2018). Shared Aizpurúa, R. I. (2008). Through the women’ communities: A multinational qualitative eyes: Latin American women's experience study of immigrant and receiving of immigration to Australia (Unpublished community members. American Journal doctoral dissertation). Victoria University, of Community Psychology, 62(1-2), 23-40. Melbourne, Australia. Cicognani, E., Sonn, C. C., Albanesi, C., & Ali, L., & Sonn, C. (2010). Constructing Zani, B. (2018). Acculturation, social identity as a second-generation Cypriot exclusion and resistance: Experiences of Turkish in Australia: The multi- young Moroccans in Italy. International hyphenated other. Culture & Psychology, Journal of Intercultural Relations, 66, 108 16(3), 416-436. -118. Andreouli, E. (2013). Identity and Cobas, J. A., & Feagin, J. R. (2008). acculturation: The case of naturalised Language oppression and resistance: The citizens in Britain. Culture & case of middle class Latinos in the United Psychology, 19(2), 165-183. States. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(2), Andreouli, E., & Howarth, C. (2013). 390-410. National identity, citizenship and Colic-Peisker, V. (2002). Croatians in immigration: Putting identity in context. Western Australia: Migration, language Journal for the Theory of Social and class. Journal of Sociology, 38(2), Behaviour, 43(3), 361-382. 149-166. Barbieri, I., Zani, B., & Sonn, C. (2014). Meanings of community in contexts of multiculture: The role of citizenship, identity, and cultural changes. Journal of Community Psychology, 42(8), 980-996.

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 78

Collier, M. W., & Gamarra, E. (2001). The Guarnizo, L. E., Sánchez, A. I., & Roach, E. Colombian Diaspora in South Florida: A M. (1999). Mistrust, fragmented report of the Colombian studies institute’s solidarity, and transnational migration: Colombian Diaspora project. Miami, FL: Colombians in New York City and Los Latin American and Caribbean Center. Angeles. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(2), Retrieved from http:// 367-396. lasa.international.pitt.edu/Lasa2003/ Hage, G. (1999). White nation; fantasies of CollierMichael.pdf white supremacy in a multicultural Coronado S. G. (2014). Latin American society. Sydney: Pluto Press. migrants and the larrikin principles: Hall S. (2000). Who needs identity? In P. du Reflections on the convergence of cultural Gay, J. Evans, & P. Redman (Eds.), values. Institute for Culture and Society Identity: A Reader (pp. l5-30). London: Occasional Paper Series, 5(2). Sage. DOI:10.4225/35/57a9682b0f19f Harris, A., 2009. Shifting the boundaries of Deaux, K. (2000). Surveying the landscape cultural spaces: Young people and of immigration: Social psychological everyday multiculturalism. Social perspectives. Journal of Community & Identities, 15(2), 187- Applied Social Psychology, 10(5), 421- 205. DOI:10.1080/13504630902778602 431. Katsiaficas, D., Futch, V., A., Fine, M., & Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Sirin, S. R. (2011). Everyday hyphens: (2015). Colombia country brief. Retrieved Exploring youth identities with from http://dfat.gov.au/geo/colombia/ methodological and analytic pluralism. pages/colombia-country-brief.aspx Qualitative Research in Psychology, 8, Department of Social Services. (2015). The 120-139. Colombia-born community. Retrieved Krishnakumar, P., & Indumathi, T. (2014). from: https://www.dss.gov.au/sites/ Pull and push factors of migration. Global default/files/documents/02_2014/ Management Review, 8(4). colombia.pdf Krzyżanowski, M., & Wodak, R. (2008). Due, C., & Riggs, D. W. (2010). Playing at Multiple identities, migration and the edges: Use of playground spaces in belonging: ‘Voices of migrants’. In C.R. South Australian primary schools with Caldas-Coulthard (Ed.), Identity Trouble: new arrivals programmes. Social Critical Discourse and Contested Geography, 5(1), 25-37. Identities (pp. 95-119). UK: Palgrave Fortier, A-M.F. (2000). Migrant belongings: Macmillan. Memory, space, identity. Oxford: Berg Küey, L. (2015). Trauma and migration: The Publishers. role of stigma. In M. Schouler-Ocak (Ed.), Freedman, J., & Combs, G. (1996). Trauma and Migration (pp. 57-68). Narrative therapy: The social Berlin, Germany: Springer International construction of preferred realities. New Publishing. York: W.W Norton. Luque‐Ribelles, V., Herrera‐Sánchez, I. M., Furnham, A. (1990). On the move: The & García‐Ramírez, M. (2017). psychology of change and transition. In S. Experiences of oppression, liberation, and Fisher & C.L. Cooper (Eds.), Expatriate well‐being among Moroccans in Stress: The Problems of Living Abroad Andalusia. Journal of Community (pp. 275-304). Chichester, UK: Wiley. Psychology, 45(7), 831-845. García-Ramírez, M., De la Mata, M.L., Madrigal, C. (2013). Colombians in the Paloma, V., & Hernández-Plaza, S. United States: A study of their well-being. (2011). A liberation psychology approach Advances in Social Work, 14(1), 26-48. to acculturative integration of migrant populations. American Journal of Community Psychology, 47(1-2), 86-97.

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 79

Moriah, A., Rodriguez, L., & Sotomayor, L. Sonn, C. C., Ivey, G., Baker, A., & Meyer, (2004). Building housing through social K. (2017). Post-Apartheid South African networks: New Colombian immigrants in immigrants in Australia: Negotiating Toronto. Paper presented at the displacement, identity, and belonging. International Conference Adequate and Qualitative Psychology, 4(1), 41–54. Affordable Housing for All. Centre for DOI: 10.1037/qup0000039 Urban and Community Studies, Sonn, C. C., & Lewis, R. (2009) Immigration University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. and identity: The ongoing struggles for Retrieved from http:// liberation. In M. Montero, & C. C. Sonn www.urbancenter.utoronto.ca/pdfs/ (Eds.), Psychology of Liberation. Theory housingconference/ and Applications (pp. 115-133). New Moriah_Rodriguez_Sotomayor_.pdf8&gf York: Springer. e_rd=cr&ei=Ck_dWPuGCInr8weEyY_Q Sonn, C. C., & Stevens, G. (2017). Histórias Aw#q=Building+housing+through+social do apartheid, memória e pertencimento +networks:+New+Colombian+immigrants entre a população da diáspora sul-africana +in+Toronto.&start=10&* na Austrália. Revista USP, 114, 71-90. Phizacklea, A. (2000). Migration and Sonn, C. C., Stevens, G., & Duncan, N. globalisation: Looking back and looking (2013). Decolonisation, critical forward. In S. Westwood and A. methodologies and why stories matter. In Phizacklea (Ed.). Transnationalism and G. Stevens, N. Duncan & D, Hook the Politics of Belonging, (pp. 101-119). (Eds.), Race, Memory, and the Apartheid London: Routledge. 101-119. Archive (pp. 295-314). London: Palgrave/ Rappaport, J. (2000). Community narratives: Macmillan. Tales of terror and joy. American Journal Tomic, P. (2013). The colour of language: of Community Psychology, 28(1), 1-24. Accent, devaluation and resistance in Redfield, R., Linton, R., & Herskovits, M. J. Latin American immigrant lives in (1936). Memorandum for the study of Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 45(1), acculturation. American Anthropologist, 1-21. 38, 149-152. doi:10.1525/ Valderrama-Echavarria, C. (2014). aa.1936.38.1.02a00330 Fragmented ties: Colombian immigrant Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (Eds.). experiences (Unpublished doctoral (2006). The Cambridge handbook of dissertation). Boise, USA: Boise State acculturation psychology. Cambridge: University. Cambridge University Press. Van Niele, I. (2014). Wandering words: Santa Ana, O. (2002). Brown tide rising: Reflections on ambivalent cultural Metaphors of Latinos in contemporary belonging and the creative potential of American public discourse. Texas: linguistic multiplicity. In B. Geraghty & University of Texas Press. J.E. Conacher (Eds.), Intercultural Sonn, C. C., & Fisher, A. T. (1998). Sense of Contact, Language Learning and community: Community resilient Migration (pp. 207-221). London: responses to oppression and change. Bloomsbury Publishing. Journal of Community Psychology, 26(5), Williamson, K. (2002). Research methods 457–471. for students, academics and Sonn, C. C., & Fisher, A. T. (2003). Identity professionals: Information management and oppression: Differential responses to and systems. New York: Elsevier. an in-between status. American Journal Willig, C. (2013). Introducing qualitative of Community Psychology, 31(1-2), 117- research in psychology. London: 128. McGraw-Hill Education.

Colombian migrants in Melbourne, Australia 80

Wise, A. (2010) Sensuous multiculturalism: Melbourne, Australia. Her fields of interest Emotional landscapes of interethnic living include racism, stigma of social minorities, in Australian suburbia, Journal of Ethnic migration, cultural diversity and community and Migration Studies, 36(6), 917-937. psychology. Wood, C., Gibson, C., Ribeiro, L., & Hamsho -Diaz, P. (2010). Crime victimization in Christopher C. Sonn, PhD, is an Associate Latin America and intentions to migrate Professor in Community Psychology at to the United States. The International Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia on Migration Review, 44(1), 3-24. Retrieved the land of the Wurundjeri of the Kulin from http://0- nation. His research examines histories of www.jstor.org.library.vu.edu.au/ colonialism and oppression and its stable/20681743 continuities in various forms of structural Zevallos, Z. (2003). ‘That’s my Australian violence and its effects on social identities, side’. The ethnicity, gender and sexuality intergroup relations and belonging. He holds of young Australian women of South and a Visiting Professorship at the University of Central American origin. Journal of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. He is co- Sociology, 39(1), 81–98. editor of Creating Inclusive Knowledges and co-author of Social Psychology and Notes Everyday Life, and Associate Editor of the 1Colombianidad: Is it the feeling, the nature American Journal of Community Psychology and character of being Colombian. and Community Psychology in Global Perspective. 2 Sombrero vueltiao: The Colombian vueltiao hat is one of the best known, cultural and popular symbols of Colombia.

Address for Correspondence Margarita Rosa Fierro Hernandez [email protected]

Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Colombian immigrants living in Melbourne who were willing to participate in this research; they have given their time and generously shared their migration experiences. Without them this whole research would not be possible. We would like to gratefully acknowledge Shemana Cassiem and Luisa Fernanda Ramírez Rueda for their constructive comments on an earlier draft. Address for Correspondence [email protected]

Author Biographies Margarita Rosa Fierro Hernandez, Victoria University, is a psychologist. She holds a Bachelor of Psychology, Universidad de los Andes in Bogota., Colombia and a Master of Applied Psychology (Community psychology), from Victoria University