BRUSSELS RURAL DEVELOPMENT BRIEFINGS A SERIES OF MEETINGS ON ACP-EU DEVELOPMENT ISSUES

Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

This Reader was prepared by ,VROLQD%RWR0DQDJHU&7$%UXVVHOV2I´FH 6X]DQQH3KLOOLSVDQG0DULDHOHRQRUD'­$QGUHD5HVHDUFK$VVLVWDQWV&7$ Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

Briefing n. 32 This Reader was prepared by Isolina Boto, Manager, CTA Brussels Office Fish-farming: the Suzanne Phillips and Mariaeleonora new driver of the D’Andrea, Research Assistants, CTA blue economy The information in this document was compiled as background reading material for the 32 Brussels Development Briefing on Fish- Brussels, July 2013 farming: the new driver of the blue economy? The Reader and most of the resources are available at http:// brusselsbriefings.net Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

Table of content

1. Context

International frameworks in support of aquaculture

2. Overview of the significance of the aquaculture sector

2.1. Aquaculture production systems

2.1.1. Main farmed species

2.2 Overview of production and trade in aquaculture globally

2.3 The significance of aquaculture sector in ACP countries

3. Food and nutrition security and poverty reduction: potential benefits deriving from aquaculture development

3.1 Empirical evidence of impact

4. Challenges for the development of sustainable aquaculture

4.1 Challenges to economic sustainability

4.2 Challenges to social sustainability

4.3 Challenges to environmental sustainability

5. Opportunities for aquaculture sustainable development

5.1. The drivers of sustainability

5.2. New niches and standards

5.3. Collective actions - Aquaculture producers organizations

5.4. Recognition of the role of women in aquaculture

6. The way forward

Annexes

Glossary

Acronyms

Resources

Websites

3 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

Context

Millions of people around the world sectors and, in the next decade, seas, some aquaculture products find a source of income and livelihood total production from both capture found strong niche markets and in the fisheries sector. The most recent and aquaculture will exceed that of became important commodities in estimates indicate that in 2010 there beef, pork or poultry. Much of this aquatic food trade. Traceability and were 54.8 million people engaged development has occurred in Asia, improved and value-added products in the primary sector of capture which also has the greatest variety entered into the market. Although fisheries and aquaculture. Of these, of cultured species and systems. it fluctuates, all in all, the price of an estimated 7 million people were Asia is also perceived as the ‘home’ cultured fish has declined over occasional fishers and fish farmers (of of aquaculture, as aquaculture has the past ten years, making fish an whom 2.5 million in India, 1.4 million a long history in several areas of the affordable food commodity to many. in China, 0.9 million in Myanmar, and region and knowledge of traditional 0.4 million each in Bangladesh and systems is most widespread. However, the vital contributions Indonesia). More than 87 percent of from fisheries and aquaculture to all people employed in the fisheries Its systems can range from an global food security and economic sector in 2010 were in Asia, followed intensive indoor system monitored growth remain constrained by an by Africa (more than 7 percent), and with high-tech equipment through array of problems. These include Latin America and the Caribbean (3.6 to the simplest production systems poor governance, weak fisheries percent). Approximately 16.6 million such as small family ponds in tropical management regimes, conflicts over (about 30 percent of all people countries. At the other end of the the use of natural resources, the employed in the fisheries sector) scale are high technology systems, persistent use of poor fishery and were engaged in fish farming, and such as the intensive indoor closed aquaculture practices, a failure to they were even more concentrated units used in North America for the incorporate the priorities and rights in Asia (97 percent), followed by rearing of striped bass or the sea of small-scale fishing communities, Latin America and the Caribbean (1.5 cages used in Chile and Europe for and injustices relating to gender percent), and Africa (about 1 percent). growing salmon and bream. discrimination and child labour. Over and above, the impacts of The LDCs, mostly in sub-Saharan With capture fisheries becoming climate change are also posing Africa and in Asia, and home to 20 increasingly unsustainable due to threats to sustainable aquaculture percent of the world’s population overfishing, aquaculture is expected development thus requiring focused (1.4 billion people), remain very to overtake capture fisheries in implementation of mitigation and small in terms of their share of world supplying the world’s protein adaptation strategies. aquaculture production (4.1 percent requirements in the future (FAO 2012). by quantity and 3.6 percent by value). In the recent past, some developing International frameworks in support countries in Asia and the Pacific of aquaculture Aquaculture, otherwise known as fish (Myanmar and Papua New Guinea), farming, is the controlled cultivation sub-Saharan Africa (Nigeria, Uganda, Since 2003, the FAO Committee on of freshwater and saltwater Kenya, Zambia and Ghana) and South Fisheries (COFI) has recommended animals or plants. The aquaculture America (Ecuador, Peru and Brazil) the development of international sector overall is highly diverse have made rapid progress to become voluntary guidelines to complement and fragmented, ranging from significant or major aquaculture the Code of Conduct for Responsible smallholder ponds in Africa providing producers in their regions. Fisheries (the Code) to promote a few kilos of fish per year to good governance, participation and international companies with annual Aquatic products are increasingly inclusiveness, social responsibility turnover in excess of US$1 billion. traded globally, the volume having and solidarity. The 2011 FAO While capture fisheries production increased significantly over the Technical Guidelines on Aquaculture remains stable, aquaculture past ten years. New markets have Certification constitute an additional production keeps on expanding and emerged, and new products have important tool for good governance is set to remain one of the fastest- appeared in the market. With of the sector. By setting minimum growing animal food-producing restrictions on fishing in certain substantive criteria for developing

4 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

aquaculture certification standards, mechanism through which States measures. Several countries have these guidelines provide direction for work together to ensure the long- adequate national aquaculture the development, organization and term sustainability of shared fishery development policies, strategies, plans implementation of credible aquaculture resources. The term RFB also embraces and laws, and use “best management certification schemes towards orderly regional fisheries management practices” and manuals on farming and sustainable development of organizations (RFMOs), which have techniques that have been promoted the sector.1 Regional fishery bodies the competence to establish binding by industry organizations and (RFBs) are the primary organizational conservation and management development agencies.

The FAO Technical Guidelines on Aquaculture certification

In 2011 FAO developed in cooperation with the Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia-Pacific (NACA) guidelines for the development, organization and implementation of credible aquaculture certification schemes. The guidelines specify how credible aquaculture certification scheme consist in three main components: standards, accreditation and certification. Standard setting process are meant to develop and review certification standards. Accreditation systems needed to provide formal recognition to a qualified body to carry out certification. Additionally certification body, required to verify compliance with certification standards. The guidelines cover four range of issues which are considered as relevant for certification In aquaculture, and an aquaculture certification scheme may address one or all of these issues: i) Animal health and welfare; ii) Food safety and quality; iii) Environmental integrity; iv) Social responsibility. For each of the issues, minimum substantive criteria are specified. For example, regarding social responsibility, it is underlined how workers should be treated responsibly and in accordance with national labor rules and, where appropriate, ILO conventions should be applied. In the criteria it is also specified how child labor should not be used in a manner inconsistent with ILO conventions and international standards. (FAO, 2011)2

5 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

2. Overview of the significance of the aquaculture sector

2.1 Aquaculture Coastal ponds and tanks diets or, for some species, trash fish. production systems Cage units can be sized and arranged Coastal ponds and lagoons and flexibly to meet the needs of the have been exploited in simple ways farm. Expansion is straightforward by Aquaculture is characterized by for fish, mollusc, crustacean and increasing cage volume or number of a great variety of systems and seaweed production for centuries. units. Larger cages, especially in more environments. Below is presented a However, production has been exposed locations, become difficult short description of them.3 expanded and intensified over the and costly to manage with manual past 30 years. In warmer countries, labour, so a range of specialist service Freshwater ponds and tanks the penaeid shrimps have tended vessels and equipment has been to dominate brackish-water culture developed, especially in the salmon In 2008, freshwaters was the due to high-value, short production sector, to overcome such constraints. source of 60 per cent of the world cycles and accessible technologies. Economies of scale supported by aquaculture production in 2008 (56% Production has increased almost mechanization have helped to reduce by value), despite it only constituting exponentially since the mid-1970s production costs substantially. 3 per cent of the planet’s water, and and now accounts for about 58 only 0.3 per cent is of surface water. per cent of aquaculture production Marine molluscs and aquatic plants In this system, 65.9 per cent were from brackish water (72% by carp and other cyprinids which are value). In more temperate climates, Oysters and mussels are mainly mostly cultured in ponds using semi- brackish-water fish species are the grown on structures built above intensive methods. Salmonid farming main crop with varying degrees of the seabed - poles or racks on the (mainly rainbow trout in freshwater) intensification. Further expansion shore, or ropes suspended from constituted only 1.5 per cent, typically of brackish-water aquaculture is rafts or floating lines. Most of the using ponds, concrete raceways and possible, although competition for commercially grown molluscs feed other types of tank that require higher land resources in some areas is likely on microscopic algae floating in the throughputs of water to maintain a to limit developments of the kind water, so the farmer does not need to good water quality. seen in some Asian countries. Coastal provide any feed. aquaculture using onshore tanks has Freshwater cages developed in some areas (e.g. South The cultivation of marine molluscs Korea, Spain, Iceland), usually where (mainly bivalves) and seaweed Cage-based aquaculture in both other types of aquaculture would not using simple methods has a long freshwater lakes and rivers has be possible. history in many countries and has flourished in many countries, become widely established as a although some are now regulating Coastal cage farms coastal livelihood activity involving use due to concerns over high labour inputs. Since the 1990s, environmental impacts. Globally, Asia For marine fish species with mid however, there has been significant and especially China has the greatest to high-value, floating cages have upscaling of production and the freshwater aquaculture production proved the most cost-effective introduction of specialized equipment in relation to land area, although production system across a range allowing larger sites and greater some European and African countries of farm sizes and environments (as labour efficiencies. Total output are also significant. The Americas determined by conventional financial of mollusks from coastal waters in in particular are notable for appraisal; Halwart et al. 2007). The 2008 was 12.8 million tones valued at relatively low freshwater aquaculture open exchange of water through US$12.8 billion. A further 15.7 million production per unit area. the nets replenishes oxygen and tonnes of seaweeds were cultivated removes dissolved and solid wastes. in coastal waters in 2008 valued at Most rely on feeding either complete US$7.4 billion.

6 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

Source: Hall, S.J., A. Delaporte, M. J. Phillips, M. Beveridge and M. O’Keefe. 2011. Blue Frontiers: Managing the Environmental Costs of Aquaculture. The WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia.

2.1.1. Main farmed species even across the species groups. The 2.2 Overview of proportion of food fish supplied by production Aquaculture has pushed the demand aquaculture n 2008 was 47%. Supply for, and consumption of, species that from aquaculture is now dominant and trade in have shifted from being primarily for seaweeds, carps and salmonids.6 aquaculture wild-caught to being primarily aquaculture-produced, with a Oceania is of relatively marginal globally decrease in their prices and a strong importance in global aquaculture increase in their commercialization, production. Production from this Capture fisheries and aquaculture such as for shrimps, salmon, bivalves, region consists mainly of marine supplied the world with about 148 tilapia, catfish and Pangasius.4 About molluscs (63.5 percent) and finfishes million tonnes of fish in 2010 (with 600 aquatic species are raised in (31.9 percent), while crustaceans a total value of US$217.5 billion), captivity in about 190 countries (3.7 percent, mostly marine shrimps) of which about 128 million tonnes for production in farming systems and other species (0.9 percent) was utilized as food for people, and of varying input intensities and constitute less than 5 percent of its preliminary data for 2011 indicate technological sophistication. These total production. Marine bivalves increased production of 154 million include hatcheries producing seeds accounted for about 95 percent tonnes, of which 131 million tonnes for stocking to the wild, particularly of the total produced in the first was destined as food. With sustained in inland waters.5 Farmed food half of 1980s but, reflecting the growth in fish production and fish include finfishes, crustaceans, development of the finfish culture improved distribution channels, molluscs, amphibians (frogs), aquatic sector (especially Atlantic salmon world fish food supply has grown reptiles (except crocodiles) and in Australia and chinook salmon in dramatically in the last five decades, other aquatic animals (such as sea New Zealand), they currently account with an average growth rate of cucumbers, sea urchins, sea squirts for less than 65 percent of the 3.2 percent per year in the period and jellyfishes) that are indicated as region’s total production. Freshwater 1961–2009, outpacing the increase fish throughout this document. Carp aquaculture accounts for less than 5 of 1.7 percent per year in the world’s dominates production in both China percent of the region’s production.7 population. World per capita and the rest of Asia. In contrast, food fish supply increased from for Europe and South America it an average of 9.9 kg (live weight is salmonids; African aquaculture equivalent) in the 1960s to 18.4 kg in production is almost exclusively of 2009, and preliminary estimates for finfish, primarily tilapias. For Oceania, 2010 point to a further increase in shrimps and prawns dominate while fish consumption to 18.6 kg. in North America production is more

7 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

Source: FAO World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture. 2012

Global aquaculture production freshwater contributes 59.9 percent (shrimps and prawns) in 2008 was has continued to grow in the new to world aquaculture production 73.3 percent of the total production. millennium, albeit more slowly than by quantity and 56.0 percent by The introduction of whiteleg shrimp in the 1980s and 1990s. In the course value. Aquaculture using seawater (Litopenaeus vannamei) to Asia has of half a century or so, aquaculture (in the sea and also in ponds) given rise to a boom in the farming has expanded from being almost accounts for 32.3 percent of of this species in China, Thailand, negligible to fully comparable world aquaculture production by Indonesia and Viet Nam in the last with capture production in terms quantity and 30.7 percent by value. decade, resulting in an almost complete of feeding people in the world. Although brackishwater production shift from the native giant tiger prawn Aquaculture has also evolved in represented only 7.7 percent of world (Penaeus monodon) to this introduced terms of technological innovation production in 2008, it accounted for species in Southeast Asia.8 and adaptation to meet changing 13.3 percent of total value, reflecting requirements. World aquaculture the prominence of relatively high- Data available at FAO show that, in production attained another all-time valued crustaceans and finfishes terms of quantity, the percentage high in 2010, at 60 million tonnes cultured in brackishwater. of production from freshwater rose (excluding aquatic plants and non- from less than 50 percent before the food products), with an estimated Although cultured crustaceans still 1980s to almost 62 percent in 2010, total value of US$119 billion. account for less than half of the with the share of marine aquaculture total crustacean global production, production declining from more than Aquaculture production using the culture production of penaeids 40 percent to just above 30 percent.

8 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

Source: WWF, 2013 http://wwf.panda. org/?unewsid=202534

2.3 The significance of 359, 790 tonnes representing 0.60 Since 1980 different international aquaculture sector percent of global world production. donors, started investing in the aquaculture sector in Sub-Saharan in ACP countries The biggest aquaculture producers Africa and the World Fish Center in the region is Egypt which started projects of small-holder Africa accounts for 71.38 percent of total aquaculture in Cameroun, Ghana and production in Africa. In Sub-Saharan Malawi. A central conclusion from Fish represents an important source Africa, Nigeria is the major producer these project is that the adoption of of animal proteins for some 400 (15.57%) followed by Uganda (7.37 fish-farming by smaller producers can million Africans contributing essential %) and Kenya (0.94%). Aquaculture produced many benefits. Analysis of proteins and micronutrients to their production is dominated by finfishes the development and dissemination diets. Despite the high dependence (99,3 percent by volume), with only of small-scale integrated aquaculture on fish as a source of animal proteins, a small fraction from marine shrimps in Malawi suggests: total increase fish consumption in Sub-Saharan (0.5%) and marine mollusks. Despite of farm productivity by 10%; per Africa is the world’s lowest. The some limited success the potential hectare farm income increased by continent is projected to need an of bivalve production remains 134%; total farm income increased by additional 1.6 million tons of fish per unexplored. In Sub-Saharan Africa, 61%; technical efficiency improved year by 2015 just to maintain current the carnivorous North Africa Catfish by 40%. Furthermore the number of consumption. (WorldFish, 2009)9 (Clarias gariepinus) has replaced smallholders practicing aquaculture Tilapia as the most produced fish in Malawi increased from 300 to Africa increased its contribution to in aquaculture since 2004. The 7000 over the past 25 years. Being global aquaculture production from progressive dominance of catfish farm productivity quite low, this 1.2 percent to 2.2 percent in the past species in aquaculture is particularly data didn’t impact national statistics ten years, albeit from a very low pronounced in Nigeria and Uganda. but its impact on food security and base. This was possible thanks to the As the largest producer of catfish in of small households is significant. contribution of rapid development in Africa, Nigeria even imports catfish (Beveridge et al. 2010) 10 freshwater fish farming in Egypt and feeds from as far away as Northern in Nigeria, Uganda, Zambia Ghana Europe. (FAO, 2012) The Sustainable Aquaculture and Kenya. In 2010 Sub-Saharan Research Networks for Sub-Saharan Africa production amounted to Africa (SARNISSA), is a project

9 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

funded by EU to improve information through the construction of schools mus (Cichlasoma riedrichstali), tuba flow and communication between and a medical clinic. (Cichlasoma synspilum) as well as the main stakeholders in Sub-Saharan exotic tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Africa. The consortium is formed Caribbean Most recently, farmers focused their by eight partners from Africa interest in the farming of red-tilapia, and Europe. The main aim of the The Caribbean region contributes in 2010.12 project is to create a platform for less than one percent to the global sharing information among different aquaculture production and total Guyana recently announced the put stakeholders such as researchers, aquaculture production in the region in place of national policy for inland NGOs, commercial and market sector amounted to 36 871 tons in 2011. fishing and aquaculture, that will and government agencies. Through (FAO, 2012) The biggest producer follow the fisheries product regulation, the further development of the in the region is Belize followed the marine fishing regulation and Aquaculture Compendium the project by Jamaica. Aquaculture in the the aquaculture regulation. Guyana aims to deliver a comprehensive Caribbean region is focused on the in fact cannot access the markets interdisciplinary knowledge base cultivation of non-native species such of Trinidad et Tobaco due to poor required for Sub Saharan African as Tilapia. The growth of aquaculture quality standards of its aquaculture aquaculture to develop in a sector in the region is strongly production in the region. sustainable way and so fulfill its influenced by lack of technical potential to help increase farmers’ expertise, infrastructure, capital 3DFL´FUHJLRQ incomes and increase food security.11 investment and human resources. (Lovatelli et. al. 2010). According to SPC, 2008 aquaculture The case of UNIMA in Madagascar sector employs in the Pacific region In Belize, commercial aquaculture around 25,000 people, the major Since 1990, the company UNIMA was established around 1980s part of whom in Papua New Guinea. is operating in Madagascar to and led to the rapid expansion of produce high quality shrimps. The shrimp farming sector, with a total If compared with fishing, aquaculture French Ministry of Agriculture of 18 farms with and a production has a relative small commercial granted UNIMA, the ‘Label rouge’, area of 2 790 hectares in 2005. significance in the insular Pacific a certification for high quality As a result of disease events and region with one important exception: products. UNIMA, in partnership with major decline in global market black-peal farming which is confined the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), prices in 2000 seven farms remain to the French Polynesia. Elsewhere in adopted environmentally sustainable operational with a production area the Pacific considerable development practices and is investing in social of 1 247 hectares. The main market is needed before aquaculture development. UNIMA has opted for destination for shrimp commodities can be considered economically low density farming with 5 to 10 is the Mexican market, followed sustainable. Shrimp (Penaeus shrimps per square meter, instead by the United States of America spp.) farming has been a focus of of intensive farming with over 100 and the Caribbean Community. commercial development in several shrimps/m2, a model that is common Commercial aquaculture production islands over the past 30 years, with in many Asian countries. The farm in the country includes Tilapia varying degrees of success; Tilapia is spread over 700 hectares of farming as well as Cobia. Small (Oreochromis niloticus) aquaculture natural clay soil and produces over scale aquaculture farming in Belize has entered the subsistence economy 2,500 tons of shrimp annually. remains largely undocumented. It in some areas, and seaweed Additionally UNIMA is supporting is mainly practiced in the form of (Kappaphyces spp.) is considered a the reforestation of 45 hectares backyard farming operations, with future commercial export prospect of formerly depleted land with fast the cultivation of locally occurring by the region. But the culture of growing tree species. Finally UNIMA cichlids species such as the bay other marine and freshwater species is investing in the welfare of its snook (Petenia splendida), crana is, generally, still at the experimental employees and their communities (Cichlasoma uropthalmus), mus- or “backyard” stage. (Adams, 2000)13

10 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

Many of the large scale private sector region. Substantial Tilapia and/or culture is carried out in Fiji Islands, pearl culture operations in Cook milkfish exists in American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands Islands, Fiji Islands and Marshall Cook Islands, Fiji Islands, Guam, and Vanuatu. It appears to be highly Islands appear to be successful Kiribati, Nauru, Northern Mariana dependent on demand from tourists (consistent production in the absence Islands, Palau, Samoa and Vanuatu and affluent residents. (Gillet, 2009) of subsidies). They appear to offer a with a total combined production in positive model for emulation in the 2007 of 346 t. Significant shrimps

Concerning consumption, fish is fish consumption in many PICTs remarkable. In most countries where extremely important for nutritional is remarkably high and many rural there is aquaculture production and diet purposes in the Pacific community in the Pacific depend for local food supply it is tiny on region. Bell et al. (2009)14 heavily on fish. Subsistence fishing a per capita basis, even in highest estimated the existing pattern still provides the great majority of consuming countries, Guam and of fishing consumption in Pacific dietary animal protein in the region. Nauru. Tilapia is by far the most Islands and Countries territories Contribution of aquaculture to local important cultured commodity for (PICTs). According to his study food production is, in fact, not local food.

11 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

3. Food and nutrition security and poverty reduction: potential benefits deriving from aquaculture development

Through innovations in technology large portion of its products traded Over the past three decades, and organization, intensification across borders. While the sector aquaculture has developed to in operations, and diversification is still mainly motivated by and become the fastest-growing food- in products, species and culture promoted for its economic benefits, producing sector in the world and as systems, aquaculture continues increasing attention has been paid such it has achieved a reputation as growing towards a matured and to aquaculture’s environmental and a significant contributor to poverty global industry, accounting for half of social responsibilities15. alleviation, food security and income the world seafood supply and with a generation in many.16

Aquaculture and poverty reduction: potential impact pathways (Stevensen & Irz, 2009)

The development community for rural development and has diverse Fisheries enhancements using considers aquaculture as an important applications in both inland and coastal appropriate culture techniques also domestic provider of much needed, areas. While export-oriented, industrial provide important opportunities for high quality, animal protein, generally and commercial aquaculture practices resource-poor people to benefit from at prices affordable to the poorer can bring much needed foreign enhanced use of under-utilized, new segments of society. It is also seen as a exchange, revenue and employment, or degraded resources. Such culture- valuable provider of employment, cash more extensive forms of aquaculture based fisheries have considerable income and foreign exchange, with benefit the livelihoods of the poor potential to increase fish supplies developing countries contributing over through improved food supply, from both freshwater and marine 90% of the total global production. reduced vulnerability to uncontrollable fisheries, with concomitant income When integrated carefully, aquaculture natural crashes in aquatic production, generation in rural inland and coastal can also provide low risk entry points employment, and increased income. communities.17

12 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

Aquaculture and nutrition security

Aquaculture can contribute to enhancing fishermen’s nutritional security through different mechanisms. Fish produced by aquaculture can be either kept for household consumption or sold for cash income. Fish for household consumption contribute to dietary intake but the nutritional role varies with species . Fish sold for cash income contribute to purchasing sufficient staple foods, and can also be used for consumption or purchase of non-staple foods which directly improve dietary intake beyond energy intake.18

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Whilst demand for aquatic food systems to diversify and maximize 3.1 Empirical evidence products increases, production output in developing countries. of impacts from capture fisheries at a global The culture method differs from level is levelling off, and most mono-culture, which is often too of the main fishing areas have risk intensive for resource-poor Pathways to food security and reached their maximum potential. farmers. Integrated systems benefit poverty Ocean fishery stocks are declining from the synergies among the worldwide whilst fish and shellfish different components and they have The global aggregate wealth farming is undergoing rapid growth. diversity in production that results in generated from both aquaculture and The common perception of the a relative environmental soundness fisheries in marine and freshwater contribution of aquaculture to (Prein 2002). Integration can be environments is unquantified but, the available fish supply is that categorized into: (i) polyculture based on an estimate of US$ 225 aquaculture is an add-on to current (multiple species co-cultured; (ii) to 240 billion for marine capture ocean productivity. In particular it is sequential (waste flows directed fisheries alone, is likely to be of believed that aquaculture production sequentially between culture units); the order of US$ 500 billion per can compensate the shortfall in (iii) temporal (replacement of species year. The sector’s economic output ocean harvests as ocean fisheries within the same holding site to benefit provides important contributions to deteriorate, or that fish farming will from waste generated by preceding poverty and food security through restore wild populations by relieving species); and (iv) mangrove three main, interlinked pathways: pressures on capture fisheries.19 integration (using mangroves as (1) nutritional benefits from the biofilters) (Troell 2009).20 consumption of fish; (2) income to Fish production also constitutes an those employed in the sector and interesting opportunity to increase multiplier and spillover effects in agricultural land productivity. fishery-dependent regions; and (3) Integrated aquaculture/agriculture through generation of revenues (IAA) provides a means for rural from exports, taxation, license fees

13 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

and from payment for access to Aquaculture development pathways: calls for support to smallholders resources by foreign fleets or foreign Impact on food security and poverty to reduce the numbers of the rural investment in aquaculture.21 alleviation poor co-exist with support for commercialization of agriculture Trade impact on food security Aquaculture growth has mostly to accelerate its role in promoting taken place in Asia. The past fifteen macroeconomic growth. The Improved economic dynamism years have seen the emergence of a aggregate data on Asian aquaculture and purchasing power from trade vibrant small and medium enterprise all show increases in the volume and will not result in welfare gains for (SME) sector, particularly in China, value of trade, increased contribution vulnerable, food-insecure people Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia and of production to agricultural GDP, unless the sources of vulnerability are the Philippines, which targets both and, in some cases, increased also addressed. In the fisheries and domestic and international markets. availability of fish in domestic supply aquaculture sectors, vulnerabilities Aquaculture for poverty reduction as well. That this translates into arise from large inequities in relations and food security is developing fast, improved food security and reduced of power between producers and but not always in ways promoted incidence or prevalence of poverty is buyers, or fishers and processing by many development agencies. then often simply assumed, although factory owners and exporters, or Rather than being a means to secure this is not necessarily the case if between men and women in fishing nutritional gains and income directly revenues accrue largely to a small and farming communities. for the poorest smallholder farmers, number of wealthy people, or the it is increasingly a means to increase growing middle classes in Asian For aquaculture, one of the few domestic fish supply to low-income cities increase their fish consumption, studies to quantify growth linkages consumers, develop opportunities for but nothing changes for the poor relates to the shrimp farming industry employment, support local economic and hungry. Deeper analysis is in southern Honduras (Stanley, multipliers, and to generate revenue needed before causal linkages can 2003). The study found that export- from trade. Impact assessment be inferred and poverty and food oriented commercial aquaculture studies in Malawi, Bangladesh security benefits for aquaculture can exhibited low backward and strong and the Philippines demonstrate be claimed.24 forward linkages, but those were positive income employment and likely to be reduced with increased consumption effects for poor Belton & Little (2011) carried out reliance on imported inputs as vertical households adopting small-pond or a review of the evidence which, integration and concerns for disease cage aquaculture systems. Overall, though heavily weighted towards and quality management shaped the however, greater gains for wider examples from Bangladesh, suggests development trajectory of the industry food security can be expected from that the performance of externally (Stanley, 2003). The fiscal linkages SME development of specialist funded aquaculture development were minor – mainly in the form of aquaculture. The policy emphasis in interventions has generally been municipality taxes. Strengthening the aquaculture development is therefore either underwhelming or difficult local economic impact of larger-scale, shifting away from aquaculture as to divine on the basis of available capital intensive export-orientated an income- a supply of fish to lower- information. This does not necessarily production is a key area of challenge income consumers. Larger-scale preclude the possibility that modest for policy, if ‘enclave development’ is enterprises and SMEs, which don’t production gains generated by the to be avoided and the potential for face the constraints to investment more successful of such efforts such business to act as growth poles is that small, resource-poor farmers may enhance the resilience of to be maximized. 22 While aquaculture do, are now thought to be a better those targeted to seasonality and has greatly increased its economic target for aquaculture investment in crises. In addition, the specificity of contribution in the new millennium the service of wider food security. the Asian context in these studies (FAO, 2009), it is still a less-established This support for a mix of small-scale needs to be accounted for when sector than fisheries or agriculture.23 and larger scale aquaculture parallels looking at other geographical developments in agriculture, where areas. Nevertheless Haque et al.

14 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

(2010) explain relatively high levels tonnes. The poor performance of The benefits to food security - both of uptake and retention of a novel aquaculture in Africa has resulted through increases in income and form of fish culture introduced by in little investment in the sector in direct consumption of fish – are clear, a project (rice field-based tilapia recent years but this is beginning to but they accrue to relatively small seed production), despite low change in response to the growing numbers of people. Total production of financial returns, with reference gap between fish demand and supply farmed fish is still only a small fraction to the cumulative and mutually and signs that historical constraints of total supply in Malawi, and in all reinforcing effect of numerous to aquaculture development on other African countries apart from individual agro-ecological, socio- the continent are being overcome Egypt. And the numbers of farmers cultural and seasonal factors which (Beveridge et al., 2010). with ponds is a minute fraction of appear insignificant if considered the number of smallholder farmers in discretely. Lovshin et al. (2000) With respect to smallholder systems, Africa. Growth of the sector continues offer a similar but converse example a focus in Africa has been on the to be limited by the water and other from Latin America involving farm pond as an integral part of resource constraints of small-scale two projects which provided the farming system, supporting farmers and by weak input and assistance for pond construction for the production not only of fish but output markets and limited access to aquaculture, in which most pond also offering flexibility to farmers technologies and knowledge. owners subsequently quit fish culture in the use of water for irrigation or continued at very low levels, but and household needs to reduce Analysis of performance success in persisted in using ponds for a diverse vulnerability to rainfall variability, Egypt, Cameroon, Ghana, Nigeria and range of other functions long after particularly in the context of Uganda shows that fish production the project ended. In this light it climate change. Ex-post analysis begins to significantly contribute seems possible that other positive of the development of small-scale to fish supply and trade where outcomes related to the multi- integrated aquaculture in Malawi, conditions support the emergence of functional nature of aquaculture which has led to an increase in small and medium-scale aquaculture introduced through interventions the number of fish ponds from enterprises with a more commercial may be overlooked because they 300 to 7 000 over the past 25 orientation. Where links to output do not readily lend themselves to years, has quantified the following markets are strong – such as near measurement using standard impact- mean benefits accruing to farms urban centers and where the evaluation methods. For example, the incorporating fish ponds into their technologies and expertise have been increased availability of cultured fish farming systems (Dey et al., 2007): available, entrepreneurs have seized to producing households may result opportunities to specialize in fish in reduced consumption expenditure - 10 percent improvement in total production (Beveridge et al., 2010). on fish from other sources which, farm productivity; The impact of such development in rather than raising incomes directly, Africa on food security, employment may be diverted to the purchase of - 134 percent increase in per creation and revenue generation has other foods or productive assets, hectare farm income; not yet been evaluated, and studies or, as Haque et al. (2010) suggest, such as those conducted by Stanley may reduce variability in income - 61 percent increase in total farm (2003) on the economic impacts or hungry gaps through regular or income; of shrimp aquaculture in Honduras counter-seasonal sales25. are recommended. However, as the - 40 percent increase in technical majority of aquaculture in Africa to Aquaculture impact in Africa efficiency (financial input-output date has been orientated towards ratio), and domestic and regional markets, Aquaculture is a major food rather than developed-country production sector in Asia (over 50 - 208% increase in household ones, the controversies around food million tonnes a year), while in Africa, consumption of fresh fish and 21% security and export of fish that exist production just reached 1 million increase consumption of dried fish. with respect to aquaculture in Asia

15 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

and capture fisheries in LDCs and health consequences. Women’s to fish supplies is severely diminished LIFDCs have not yet arisen in Africa.26 participation in aquaculture may by the rapid growth in production have certain effects on improving of species fed carnivorous diets and Impact on nutrition security nutritional status but the pathways by aquaculture practices that lead to are not clear and this needs specific coastal habitat destruction, biological Kawarazuka’s (2010) study examined strategies in interventions to ensure pollution, and discharge of untreated the pathways through which participation of women. Aquaculture effluents. Continued expansion of aquaculture can contribute to dietary interventions could have positive aquaculture requires healthy coastal intake of the households engaging impacts on the people living with and freshwater ecosystems. Without in aquaculture activities. Household HIV and AIDS as it can help to clear recognition of the industry’s income from aquaculture is important attain their increasing nutritional dependence on natural ecosystems, it as it can enhance purchasing power needs and sustain livelihoods with is unlikely that aquaculture will develop thereby increasing both quantity lower intensive work. It seems to be to its full potential or will continue to and quality of the diet. Aquaculture difficult to show nutritional outcomes supplement ocean fisheries.28 can bring synergy with agriculture in short term interventions productivity and profitability and focusing on aquaculture alone Small pelagic fish comprise around contribute to improving dietary without addressing other factors 30% of marine capture fisheries intake. In this respect, rice-fish which determine nutritional status. landings, with the proportion going farming and vegetable cultivation Nevertheless, as a case study in into fishmeal production decreasing on the dikes of ponds have potential Malawi demonstrated (Aiga et al., since the 1990s, as aquaculture to improve dietary intake. The 2009), aquaculture can be one factor producers aim to substitute fishmeal study shows that fish produced by among others which contribute for other feeds to reduce input aquaculture was kept for household to improved nutritional status, and costs. Overall, it seems likely that consumption to some extent. this kind of study may be useful for a combination of improved catch The direct effect of increased fish linking the role of aquaculture to regulations to sustain stocks of pelagic consumption on dietary intake was nutrition.27 fish, coupled with feed innovation, not clear but in the cases of the will send price signals to aquaculture polyculture of nutrient-dense small Impact on fisheries producers that will encourage indigenous fish species with carps innovation to reduce dependence on and prawns, significant increase in Evidence presented by Naylor pelagic fish catches as a source of micronutrient intake was projected et al. (2000) shows that total aquaculture feeds. It is unlikely these from trial interventions. Therefore, world aquaculture production sources will be eliminated, but they disseminating polyculture in already currently adds to net global fish may be reduced, giving space for existing fish ponds with large fish has supplies although many types of innovation in ways to supply these fish the potential to reduce micronutrient aquaculture result in a net loss of fish. directly to low income consumers in deficiencies and their adverse Aquaculture’s potential contribution developing countries.29

16 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

4. Challenges for the development of sustainable aquaculture

Risk analysis is less commonly used economically sustainable. Only this countries) used antidumping tariffs, to achieve successful and sustainable way will its full potential be truly stringent market standards or aquaculture by assessing the risks to exploited. other barriers to protect inefficient aquaculture posed by the physical, domestic industries, while importing social and economic environment in countries accused seafood exporters which it takes place. These include 4.1. Challenges of gaining unfair competitive reduction of environmental risks (e.g. to economic advantage through ignoring due to poor siting or severe weather sustainability environmental and social costs and events), biological risks (infection asked for leveling of the playing field. by pathogens via transfer from native stocks, predation by seals and Economical sustainability is Although it is not sensible or possible sharks; red tides, etc.), operational expressed by the idea of self- for fish farmers to form a cartel to risks (poor planning, work-related maintaining growth. It is based on a limit production for higher revenues, injuries), financial risks (e.g. market series of macroeconomic principles fish farmers as well as policymakers changes, currency fluctuations, related to balancing the budget, should understand that demand for emergence of new competitors, etc.) current account balance, inflation seafood is constrained by people’s and social risks (negative image control, and so on, and basic incomes and preferences, and that and resulting product boycott, lack investment rules, such as budgetary increasing the supply to already of skilled manpower, competition allocations, investment sector rates, saturated markets would only lower from other sectors).30 Many reports capital ratio, productivity levels, prices without increasing revenues. suggest that in the decades to come consumption/saving ratios, and so While boom-bust cycles may be a aquaculture’s greatest challenge is on. These are intended to optimize common adjustment process under to bridge the gap between growing growth without saddling future the competitive market mechanism, market demand for aquatic products generations with excessive debt32. severe price fluctuations tend to and supply from capture fisheries. cause hardships for fish farmers, Whilst developing new technologies Competition within aquaculture especially small-holder fish farmers to increase productivity is important, who lack bargaining power and the challenge lies in increasing Aquaculture has become an tend to be price-takers in both production in a sustainable way. increasingly commercial business input-purchasing and output-selling Sustainable aquaculture development in the new millennium. While markets. How to avoid flooding the seeks sustainability under three competition is a positive factor market is a challenge faced by fish dimensions, i.e. economic, social that benefits consumers with farmers that compete for common and environmental. Ensuring social lowered prices and motivates markets (Lovatelli et al., 2008). When sustainability is necessary for technological advances, species there is excess supply in international aquaculture to make sure that the diversification, new markets and markets, governments tend to benefits of aquaculture development quality improvement (FAO, 2006), stabilize seafood prices by promoting are equitably shared.31 harsh competition may disrupt the domestic consumption and helping industry and cause serious damages fish farmers explore other markets. Risks of major environmental and in the short run, especially when While such remedies are helpful, it is human-health problems need to be fish farmers, under the pressure of equally important to provide timely weighed against achieving a more low profit margins, choose to adopt information about market demand cautious rise in production that unsustainable farming practices (Bai, and competition conditions at all is, in the longer term, sustainable. 2008). Competition has also led to levels (i.e. global, regional, domestic, The challenge of aquaculture lies trade disputes. Seafood exporting and local) to prevent market glut. in achieving systems which are countries (mostly developing Modern information technology (e.g. simultaneously environmentally countries) complained that importing Internet) makes such information a sound, socially oriented and countries (mostly developed valuable yet affordable public good

17 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

that can benefit many stakeholders three decades, aquaculture has M TWD, approximately US$ 11.4 M) in and lead to more orderly market expanded, intensified, and diversified, Taiwan, Province of China (Pro-Med conditions. based heavily on movements of live News, 2003b). aquatic animals and animal products Availability and increased demand for (broodstock, seed, and feed). The aquatic environment is a feed resources New outlooks and directions have complex ecosystem, which makes accelerated the accidental spread the distinction between health, sub- All finfish and crustacean farming and incursion of diseases into new optimal performance and disease systems are dependent upon populations and geographic regions, obscure. During disease outbreaks, the market availability of `feed for example, through movements the underlying cause is often resources’ for the provision of of hatchery produced stocks, new difficult to ascertain and is usually nutrient inputs, either in the form of species for culture, enhancement and the end result of a series of linked fertilizers, agricultural wastes and development of the ornamental fish events involving environmental by-products as supplementary feeds, trade. Translocation of pathogens factors, health condition of the or formulated pelleted aquafeeds. and diseases with movements of stocks, presence of an infectious It follows therefore that if the finfish their hosts is by no means a new agent and/or poor husbandry and and crustacean aquaculture sector phenomenon. Advances in live management practices. The whole is to maintain its current growth aquatic animal trade, facilitated by aquatic production environment, rate (increasing by 11.2% from 10.90 improved transportation efficiency, including ecological processes, mmt to 12.12 mmt from 1992 to 1993) are now recognized as having played must be taken into consideration. then it will have to compete with a pivotal role in the introduction and Therefore, an aquatic system health other users (ie. humans and/or farm spread of pathogens and diseases management approach needs to livestock) for these feed resources. into many aquaculture systems. be developed to replace the more Although the aquaculture sector may traditional pathogen-focused have been successful in the past in There is now convincing evidence approach applied traditionally to obtaining the necessary fertilizer and of the serious socio-economic, disease diagnosis.34This means feed inputs, this may not be so in the environmental and international leaving behind the decade of future as farming systems intensify tradeconsequences arising from disease treatment with all the and the demand for a finite pool of trans-boundary aquatic animal negative environmental and other valuable feed resources increases. diseases (Arthur and Ogawa, consequences, and move to a future It has been estimated that the total 1996; Subasinghe et al., 2001). For of disease prevention. Disease control world production of manufactured instance, combined losses from in aquaculture should focus first on compound animal feeds exceeded 550 shrimp diseases, at the global level preventive measures related to good mmt in 1994 (valued at over 55 US$ from 11 countries for the period management practices that maintain thousand million), of which poultry 1987–1994, were estimated at US$ good water quality, with better/ feeds constituted 32%, pig feeds 31%, 3019 M (Israngkura and Sae-Hae, certified seed, less stress, high- dairy feeds 17%, beef feeds 11%, aquatic 2002). More recent examples of quality feeds etc. In most farming feeds 3%, and others 6%.33 major losses due to spread of aquatic practices, there is still plenty of room animal diseases include that of for improvement on many of these Disease carp mortalities (losses estimated counts. More applied research should at US$ 50 B rupiah, approximately better document these effects. More Diseases are a primary constraint US$ 5.5 M) in Indonesia (NACA/ basic knowledge is needed of the to the growth of the aquaculture ACIAR, 2002); koi herpes virus (KHV) microbial, viral and parasitic diseases sector in many parts of the world. A (losses estimated at 150 M yen, and their epidemiology in aquatic multitude of factors has contributed approximately US$ 1.4 M) in Japan organisms. Access to a large arsenal to the health problems currently (Pro-Med News, 2003a); and abalone of molecular techniques will certainly faced by aquaculture. Over the past mortalities (losses estimated at 400 assist in quick progress in this area.35

18 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

6PDOOKROGHUVSHFL´FFKDOOHQJHVWR aquaculture farmers, processors and Market access the development of economically retailers, and is evident in the higher- sustainable aquaculture value internationally traded export To remain competitive, there is a species such as shrimp, although this need to change the management of The positive impacts of globalization trend is now also affecting low-value both large and small-scale producers. include worldwide marketing of species such as catfish and tilapia in Large-scale farmers have a much goods and services; increased some countries. higher adaptive capacity to benefit economies of scale; and corporate from such trends than do small-scale governance of the industrial food Quality and food safety standards farmers. Small-scale aquaculture production sectors taking advantage farmers are not only exposed to of inexpensive labour, capital and Small-scale producers face increasing market risks, but also face technology. There is, however, good challenges related to the changing enormous constraints in accessing evidence that while the industrial and preferences of consumers for markets and services and integrating corporate sectors continue to benefit safer, healthier, better quality into modern supply chains. In many from globalization, small-scale food produced in environmentally cases, they are ill-equipped to producers are slowly being pushed sustainable and ethical ways. This benefit fully from the new market out of business due to competition. has resulted in increased demand environment and knowledge because The combined effects of trade for food safety and environmental of lack of public and private policy liberalization and globalization have standards, or “niche” products that and services to support investment increased economic differentiation have special characteristics based and change, resulting in potentially among communities and households. on their quality, farming practice significant social risks for many rural In addition, state withdrawal and origin. These characteristics producers. from agricultural marketing has are strongly linked to how products contributed to a highly uncertain are being produced rather than to Taking Litopenaeus vannamei environment in which input and the end product itself, thus, putting (whiteleg shrimp) farming as an output prices are determined by the greater emphasis on traceability. example, the market price fluctuates market, often favouring large-scale Growing customer awareness has tremendously as production volume producers who are better equipped also led to the development of increases, thus making it difficult for to manage price variability and/ several aquaculture certification small-scale farmers to make a profit or absorb price shocks and to gain schemes, making it no longer from small-scaleproduction. Besides through efficiencies of scale in enough for aquaculture farmers farm-gate price, there is a significant commodity production. It is clear to pay attention solely to efficient difference in productivity between that increasing globalization and production. These increased small-scale farmers and large-scale the resultant trade liberalization demands for meeting food safety corporate farms. In Thailand, the of aquaculture products is leading standards, traceability, certification difference in productivity between towards the marginalization and and other non-tariff requirements small-scale and large scale farming exclusion of individual small- are driving risks and costs down of L. vannamei is almost three times scale producers, who face major the market chain to the farmer, (Figure 3). The low productivity of challenges to remain competitive favouring medium to large-scale, small-scale aquaculture producers and to participate in modern value capital-intensive operations that can compared to larger enterprises has chains globally. The situation is afford such extra costs and excluding also been noted in various studies (e.g. particularly serious in Asia, due to small-scale farmers who have limited Brummet, Lazard and Moehl, 2008). the large numbers of people involved resources and capacity to meet these but the trend affects farmers across requirements. Market access remains very the aquaculture-producing regions. important for small-scale producers This is partly due to integration of and for rural development in general. production-distribution chains and In developing countries, especially coordinated exchange between in poor rural areas, markets are

19 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

often thin (with low volume of trade sustainable development raises the Access to resources or a low number of transactions) issue of how to transmit sufficient or fail completely due to the high assets and potentialities from one Equitable and fairer access to costs and risks of participation. generation to the next. As well resources utilized for aquaculture is However, avoiding markets is not a as physical and financial capital, an important policy issue. Empirical realistic solution for most small-scale these assets include human capital results from Asian countries, producers, particularly those who (including education and health), particularly those in rural and seek commercial income gains from social capital (based on social agricultural settings, have shown the their investments into aquaculture interactions), rights, values, and so on, great importance of land and water ponds. With small-scale producers as well as the capacity to use all these (pond) in the portfolio of the rural facing many general challenges potentialities in an appropriate way.38 household. Ownership or rights over (including limited land and capital, access to land and water played dispersed locations, limited transport Equity and access to resources an important role in determining and communications infrastructure, who would primarily benefit poor health and social and political Technological advances almost from aquaculture development in marginalization), markets have the universally help the rich more than Bangladesh (Ahmed et al., 1993; potential to help them overcome the poor; the rich use them to their Lewis, 1998). From a survey of two these challenges by providing advantage (Kent, 1976). Policies thanas (sub-districts) it was evident income, generating employment, have often failed to correct the that there exists a strong positive reducing poverty, empowering social and institutional inadequacies association between pond and land small-scale producers, fostering self- or constraints preventing wider ownership and farm size group of reliance and promoting pro-poor participation of small-scale farmers the households, implying a lower economic growth through enabling in new technologies. Culture of possible benefit for landless and consumption linkages resulting high-value fish and shrimp targeted assetless households from a general in multiplier effects on growth for export markets continues to development of aquaculture (Table 2). (Penrose-Buckley, 2007).36 receive substantial policy incentives such targeted for export markets Evidence also suggests that the continues to receive substantial richer people established a greater 4.2. Challenges policy incentives such as cheap claim on the land and water to social land leases, credit supply and low resources that over the years were sustainability tariffs on imported inputs and brought under aquaculture practices. infrastructure, where benefit tends Even in cases where landless and to favor the richer entrepreneurs poor people initially held the ponds Social sustainability encompasses (Ahmed, 1997, 1999). These policies and waterbodies through lease and human rights, labor rights, provide economic incentives to the other arrangements, rich owners and corporate governance. In rich fish farmers to operate at a low re-exerted their claims over them as common with environmental level of marginal productivity from soon as the high profitability from sustainability, social sustainability the subsidized inputs (e.g., land) and aquaculture was revealed (Lewis, is the idea that future generations offer a higher price for competitive 1998). Likewise, liberal government should have the same or greater inputs such as feed, which involve policies on land use encouraged access to social resources as diverting food-fish into fishmeal and large scale conversion of public the current generation (“inter- animal feed. Their products are often lands (e.g., mangroves, coastal generational equity”), while there targeted to up-scale (e.g., urban) lakes and lagoons) into aquaculture should also be equal access to and export markets, implying a net holdings at minimal rent (Ahmed, social resources within the current transfer of food and income away 1999). This, in many cases, took generation (“intra-generational from the poor (Ahmed, 1997). away the common property and equity”).37The social dimension of subsistence-oriented activities such

20 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

as fishing by the poorer segments of evidenced by an increase in the Equity and gender perspective in the population, while the negative number and area of fishponds as well aquaculture development environmental effects extended as adoption of improved aquaculture into the adjoining ecosystems such technology (Ahmed et al., 1995; While most fishing activities are as rice fields and wetlands creating Thompson et al., 2000). dominated by men, there is a need an outright inequity and increased to acknowledge the critical role social and political tension (Alauddin Competition and bargaining power of of women and their increased and Tisdell, 1998). The benefit or small-scale producers involvement in all aspects and stages net returns from the adoption of of aquaculture. In some countries, aquaculture technology will depend In most parts of the world, small- women are excluded and are often foremost on the accessibility to or scale producers (e.g., fishers), not allowed to work in fishponds, ownership of principal production especially the subsistence-oriented except for collecting shellfish off factors, such as land (including operators, have poor bargaining the beach, while in some countries water), labor and capital. The power. Given the wide evidence of women lack the rights to own land study by Veerina et al. (1993) on exploitation of fishers and extraction or ponds (Nash, 1995). However, in aquaculture development in Andra of rent by traders and middle agents, most Southeast Asian countries, Pradesh, India revealed that mostly small farmers who lack bargaining women actively participate in landed people adopted aquaculture, power will naturally have to compete farming. In these countries women where about 85% of the farms were against organized marketing agents, have assumed a major role in the owned. In targeting the poorer and are likely to suffer from similar growth of the aquaculture sector. sector to undertake aquaculture consequences. They are actively involved in the even at a smaller scale, the lack of feeding and harvesting of fish and access to land and water would be a Likewise, if farmers depend only on likewise in the processing of the major constraint, warranting a more the local village markets to sell their fish catch. Nevertheless, despite targeted and institutional approach fish products there will be a tendency the critical role they play, most of to rural aquaculture development for overproduction and increased them still lack access to physical (Lewis, 1998). fish supply in the rural markets. Due and capital resources, and training to low purchasing power, slower and education. In anticipation of Despite the resource constraints, growth of income and lower income the increased workload of women, the poor and subsistence-oriented elasticity of demand, any reduction and given the current development households have also demonstrated in the price of fish due to increased efforts in the aquaculture sector, a greater ability to participate and supply may not necessarily result there is also a need to redirect some benefit from aquaculture in situations in a proportionate increase in the policies towards improving the where wider options on technology fish consumption levels of rural efficiency and profitability of female choices (e.g., species combination, households (Ahmed et al., 1995). labor, by providing greater access stocking density and feeding) and This implies that fish farmers need to critical resources and services opportunities for marketing were to expand their market outlets and training to the women members made available to them (Gupta et (e.g., to urban areas) or are likely of the household. In Bangladesh, al., 1998, p. 90; Ahmed et al., 1995). to face a more competitive price functionally landless people (less The level of aquaculture information for their produce. The demand for than 0.5 acre) became profitably available to farmers proved to be fish in the urban market is evidently involved in aquaculture in NGO- very crucial. Availability of programs higher; the urban consumers have administered project sites. Women focusing on intensive information higher purchasing power; and there from resource-poor and asset-less dissemination and training schemes on is an increasing trend in urban fish households can also participate if the various technology choices have consumption (Veerina et al., 1993, institutional constraints are reduced shown positive effects on the adoption 1999; Ahmedet al., 1993; ICLARM, or minimized as demonstrated rate of aquaculture technology, as 1998).39 by NGO-administered projects

21 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

(Watanabe, 1993; Gupta et al., 1999). borders, they can give enterprises as well as negative environmental This can contribute to empowerment operating in countries with lower externalities are part of the social of women, and play a significant role labour and social standards a risks of aquaculture (Bueno, 2008). in household nutrition. One should competitive advantage compared This can be particularly acute if small also look at how aquaculture will with those in jurisdictions with higher elites, domestic or foreign, dominate add to the workload of the women standards. A possible result is that the industry. Experiences in many within the household in a traditional governments will be under pressure countries indicate that when profit- family structure, and how women will from companies to reduce labour and driven aquaculture results in a large respond to the demanding nature social standards in order to ease the amount of resources flowing into of aquaculture activities vis-à-vis burden of high indirect labour costs, the production of a highly profitable traditional and obligatory familial thereby enhancing their competitive single crop (e.g. shrimp), some responsibilities (e.g., child care and edge. This pattern of behaviour local people are able to grab them home making).40 becomes possible because large opportunity and become better companies farming some species off, while others are marginalized Employment conditions (such as shrimp, salmon, tilapia, because of various constraints; and abalone and others that become worse still, their requirements for There are well-documented cases global commodities) are generally livelihood and environment were of unfair employment practices in located in isolated rural communities, often neglected (Barraclough and aquaculture. For example, there are which gives them power over Finger-Stich, 1996). The resulting some research findings according the labour force as the sole or increase in inequality tends to cause to which aquaculture enterprises, dominant employer. Workers in social conflicts. especially large corporations, exploit these communities may also accept local labour. One study argue reduced wages and salaries, work When export-led commercial that local labour is employed in longer hours without compensation aquaculture opens rural communities lower-paid jobs, paid low salaries, or forgo some benefits. A thorough to the outside world, the traditional and subjected to discriminatory understanding of these and values and way of life tend to be practices such as willingly creating other aspects of governance of impacted. People may become more gender imbalances or paying female employment in aquaculture will open, ambitious and competitive and workers less than male workers assist policy-makers in implementing pay increasing attention to financial doing the same jobs.41 Child labour corrective measures or in taking success. Traditional customs and employment, for example, in preventive action.43 the cultural heritages of indigenous factories, processing units, peeling people may be suppressed sheds, and in the collection of Social cohesion and community- by profit-seeking aquaculture shrimp seeds, is also sometimes level challenges activities.As a highly profitable and highlighted.42 There is a need for regulated business, aquaculture more research into this issue, as Social acceptability is an integral development may foster rent-seeking there are sufficient indications to part of sustainability. However, it behaviours. While such impacts suggest that these practices might has usually become an issue for have complicated and significant occur on a large scale, especially in aquaculture planners and developers implications for stakeholders’ developing countries for economic only after sections of the population social well-being, research in this reasons. Most countries have labour have demonstrated discontent area is generally lacking.44 Rapid legislation to protect workers. through conflict or litigation. While aquaculture development may also However, compliance with such aquaculture can contribute to attract immigration of labour to legislation can result in high indirect economic growth, it can also create local communities, which would costs and deter firms, especially social disruption and inequalities. nevertheless put pressure on the when goods are intended for original social order and cause social export. Where these costs are high Conflict over resource allocation and conflicts (Rijsberman, 1999; Lewins for firms and differ amply across resentment over hiring practices 2006).45

22 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

4.3. Challenges to environmental impacts on aquculture pressure on natural resource inputs, environmental caused by non-aquaculture activities, notably water, energy and feed, such as climate change. although sites in a broader sense sustainability are also an issue. There is also the Resource interactions and question of the use of, and impact on, Aquaculture faces the challenge dependencies environmental services, particularly of achieving environmental for the dispersion and treatment of sustainability. Lack of sustainability (i) Land water and energy farm effluents. Aquaculture systems is a result of either negative are very diverse with respect to their environmental impacts of While beneficial in many ways, the dependence on these resources aquaculture development or of growth of aquaculture is increasing (table below).

Freshwater farming uses a range of their volume per day (Beveridge 2004). cost of higher energy inputs. systems, from static water ponds through to high flow-through tanks. However, pond aquaculture can also The majority of freshwater Most involve intake of water from the contribute to water management aquaculture is pond based using environment and a post-production as it acts to catch and store surface semi-intensive methods that rely on effluent stream, so that water water (rain and run-off) that controlled eutrophication for their consumption does not equate to might otherwise be lost from local productivity, using a wide variety of water intake. However, the quality of agroecosystems or which might organic and inorganic fertilizers as discharge water is usually diminished cause damaging floods (e.g. in the well as supplementary feedstuffs. and water can be lost through Czech Republic). Implementation The production of feed materials evaporation and seepage. As a of water reuse and recirculation for aquaculture, particularly grain worst case, pond systems in tropical systems can reduce consumption and similar crops, incurs additional countries can lose 20 per cent of substantially, although usually at the freshwater use (up to 3000 m3

23 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

tonne21 according to Verdegem freshwater usage according to precipitation and/or increased & Bosma 2009). Solid wastes Verdegem & Bosma (2009). Given evaporation may limit aquaculture in produced from such systems often the presently increasing pressures some areas. This may take the form have a use as fertilizers for other on freshwater supplies, future of increased risks associated with a crops. Dissolved nutrients can often aquaculture development might be reduced water supply on a continual be lost through necessary water expected to utilize more abundant basis, or by reducing the length of replacement regimes and sometimes brackish and sea water resources. a routine growing season. Increased cause problems in areas with However, environmental issues are no variation in precipitation patterns and extensive aquaculture production less complex. droughts may increase the risk and or with otherwise oligotroiphic or costs of aquaculture in some areas as mesotrophic environments. Aquaculture will have to compete provision for these extremes has to with agriculture as well as industrial be made. Better optimization of freshwater and domestic users for a limited production systems with respect to water supply which may often be (ii) Productivity in relation to energy water and feed management could supporting a growing population. inputs triple production without increasing Water stress due to decreased

The energy cost and linked Life cycle analysis (LCA) carried more modest input levels. implications for carbon emissions out by Tyedmers & Pelletier (2007) of aquaculture activities is receiving found energy dependence correlated (iii) Coastal zone pressures and eco greater attention. A distinction needs with production intensity. This is system impacts to be drawn in analysis between direct mainly due to the energy input energy use (e.g. fuel and electricity in the production and delivery of Aquaculture, especially in coastal consumed directly in the production feed (Gronroos et al. 2006). More zones, is frequently in competition process) and the more comprehensive variable is the energy required for with other uses of the resource that approaches to auditing energy inputs. other on-farm activities which can can often take precedence (e.g. For instance, these may include range from virtually zero up to tourism and port developments). consideration of industrial energy about 3 kWh kg21. For land-based However, there are also cases where (energy used in the manufacture farms, most of the power is likely aquaculture has outcompeted other and supply of equipment, feeds and to be provided by electricity from users, such as shrimp farming, which other inputs) or embodied energy, the central grid. Cage-based farms has come under scrutiny due to which also takes into account rely mainly on diesel or other fossil over-exploitation and destruction of photosynthesis and sunlight energy fuel. Table 5 shows typical embodied mangrove resources, as well as other or calorific values, etc. Another energy levels and ratios for different environmental impacts and serious consideration is whether the energy production systems, with seaweed disease problems.46 Hundreds of sources are renewable or not. and mussel culture requiring much thousands of hectares of mangroves

24 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

and coastal wetlands have been development of coastal zone plans. crabs, etc.). The scarcity of seed transformed into milk-fish and shrimp Similar issues apply to coastal pond resources is expected to continue ponds. This transformation results and pump-ashore tank systems. driving progress in artificial breeding in the loss of essential ecosystem through the market mechanism, services generated by mangroves iv) Wild species while more public supports and including the provision of nursery better partnership between scientific habitats, coastal protection, flood Aquaculture can help preserve researchers and the private sector control, sediment trapping and water wild fish stocks by supplying more are needed to speed up the process treatment. Mangroves are also linked affordable aquatic products and (FAO, 2006).48 closely to habitat conditions of coral hence reducing the pressure on reefs and seagrass beds. The loss in fisheries (Tisdell, 2004). Aquaculture Other controversial issues include the wild fisheries stocks due to habitat can also increase wild fish stocks introduction of exotic species and conversion associated with shrimp through restocking programmes aquaculture escapees, which may farming is large , estimated at about (Petr, 1998). However, environmental negatively affect wild stocks through 440-447g of wild fish biomass lost degradation caused by aquaculture habitat competition, disease spread per kilogram of shrimp raised.47 The may negatively affect wild species. In and gene contamination (APEC/ wider ecosystem value of these addition, collection of wild seed and FAO/NACA/SEMARNAP, 2001). environments is now recognized and broodstock, introduction of exotic Genetically-improved farmed species, suitable protection given in most species and aquaculture escapees once let into the wild environment, regions, although much remains to may also have negative impacts may intrude genetic integrity and be done with respect to rebuilding on wild stocks (FAO, 2006; World cause ecological disruption (Naylor lost area. More recent moves by the Bank, 2006). Most aquaculture et al., 2005). While the damaging shrimp industry inland have also species still rely on wild stocks for impacts of farmed species in the wild caused problems with saline intrusion seed or broodstock. As collection of are not entirely clear, public concerns into agricultural soils. wild seed and broodstock tends to over biodiversity and bio-security damage not only the targeted wild have led to stricter regulations The development of marine fish stocks but also those of by-catch (e.g. requirement of import risk farming in cages has also raised species, increasing public concerns assessment) prior to introducing new concerns over wider environmental, over biodiversity have put it under species or strains for aquaculture ecosystem and biodiversity impacts. stricter scrutiny and regulation; (FAO, 2006, Arthur et al., 2009). At modest scales of development, some countries (e.g. Egypt) have Various measures (e.g. removal these are hard to detect apart from established official fry collection of escapees as a precondition for localized changes to sediments centers or have used licensing to farm licenses, selecting sites with beneath the cages. Larger scale regulate such activities (FAO, 2006). least impacts on wild stocks) have development has the potential for However, because in some countries been applied to reduce the impacts wider impacts due to the release of wild seed and broodstock collection of farmed species on wild stocks; nutrient or chemical wastes directly is a lucrative business providing the further studies on the impacts of into the environment, or the effects livelihoods for many low-income cultured species on biodiversity are of escaped fish or disease transfer people, public attempts to restrict needed (World Bank, 2006).49 on wild populations. The most it tend to be difficult because of immediate problem is often conflicts social pressure, or they may not be (v) Feeds between cage-based farming and effective because of black markets other interests, such as boating (FAO, 2006). Advances in artificial Most mollusk cultures requires and navigation, preservation of breeding technology have helped no feed inputs and the majority seascape scenery and protection reduce aquaculture’s dependence of freshwater fish production of wildlife. In Europe, these issues upon wild seed resources for an utilizes low protein, grain-based are considered during the licensing increasing number of species supplementary diets and organic process or increasingly through the (milkfish, tiger prawn, mangrove fertilizers. Much of the crustacean

25 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

farming, most marine species and are over-fished and are strained by because of their dependence on other intensive fish aquaculture climate variability associated with fish for employment, domestic and require a higher quality diet, usually EL Nino Southern Oscillation events. export incomes and dietary protein containing fish meal and often fish The impact of pelagic fisheries supply. However, the complexity of oil. Some aquaculture, notably tuna depletion is thought to reduce vulnerability, its uneven distribution fattening and much of the marine available food supplies for marine and difficult prediction make the cage culture in Asia, relies directly on predators, including valuable species impacts of climate-related changes wild-caught small pelagic fish with consumed by humans. In the North on those depending on aquaculture relatively low market price. The process Sea, for example, over-exploitation for their livelihoods as varied as transforms fish protein from low to of many capelin, sandeel and Norway the changes themselves (Daw et high value for human consumption. pout stocks, mainly for reduction to al., 2009). Leung’s study of disease However, the efficiency of this is both fishmeal, has been implicated in the outbreak severity across different an ecological issue and one of social declines of certain stocks of other latitudes in a diverse range of justice (e.g. consumers of farmed wild fish such as cod. 51 aquaculture systems and showed that salmon and shrimp may effectively disease at lower latitudes progresses outcompete rural poor for this fish vi) Aquaculture and climate change more rapidly and results in higher resource; Tacon & Metian 2009). cumulative mortality, in particular Physical and biological climate- at early stages of development and In 2008, approximately 90 per cent induced changes in marine and in shellfish. Tropical countries are of the fish oil available worldwide, freshwater systems are being expected to suffer proportionally and 71 per cent of the fish meal, was increasingly observed (Barange greater losses in aquaculture during consumed in aquaculture practices and Perry, 2009). The severity disease outbreaks and have less time (Tacon & Metian in preparation). of climate change impacts on to mitigate losses. As a consequence, Unless alternative higher value aquaculture are dependent on the disease can present a major problem markets develop, aquaculture will nature (freshwater, brackish, marine) for food production and security in continue to consume the majority of and location (tropical, temperate) equatorial regions where fish and fish meal and oil produced but this of operations and on the direct and shellfish provide a major source of will not be sufficient to meet ever- indirect impacts of climate change dietary protein.52 increasing demands for aquafeed on the natural resources it requires, ingredients. Feeds for herbivorous primarily water, land, seed, feed and Aquaculture presents some scope and omnivorous species (carps and energy (De Silva and Soto, 2009). for adapting to climate change tilapias) often contain fish meal and Positive impacts of climate change and mitigating its own impact sometimes fish oil, although this is on aquaculture include higher food on climate change. Although not essential on purely nutritional conversion efficiencies and growth adaptation and mitigation measures grounds. Rapidly expanding culture rates in warmer waters, increased should be commensurate with risk, of carnivorous species such as cobia length of the growing season and they should become an integral and pangasius catfish could increase range expansions polewards owing component of aquaculture policies the pressure on fish meal and oil to decreases in ice (Easterling et and/or strategies. To this end, supplies. Overall, the finite supply of al., 2007). However, as capture and to overcome the additional fish meal and oil is not expected to fisheries provide major feed and pressure of climate change on be a major constraint, but demand seed inputs to aquaculture activities, improving governance in aquaculture for alternative feed materials will variations in the quantity, quality development, the sector needs to increase—in turn placing greater and prices of these inputs will engage with diverse stakeholders, pressure on the wider agro-feed have direct repercussions on the including consumers, governments system.50 overall efficiency of aquaculture and allied or competing industries systems. Allison et al. (2009) have in order to create economic Food web interactions. Many small identified the national economies opportunities, in particular for pelagic fisheries exploited for feed most vulnerable to climate change vulnerable groups, while increasing

26 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

the long-term resilience of the sector Climate change and food safety phenomenon that have occurred to climate induced changes (FAO, throughout recorded history in all 2008b).53 Climate change may also influence parts of the globe. Whereas wild the safety of food harvested from fish stocks are free to swim away Building climate-resilient marine and freshwater environments. from problem areas, caged fish and aquaculture There are two main areas that have shellfish are trapped and, thus, can the potential for change: microbial suffer mortalities and/or become Resilience requires genetic and pathogens, and harmful algal blooms. toxic. Of greatest concern to human species diversity, low stress from society are algal species that other factors, and “healthy” and Microbial pathogens. Climate change produce potent neurotoxins that can productive populations. Effective is expected to accelerate the water find their way through shellfish and ecosystem approach to aquaculture cycle with increased precipitation fish to consumers, where they cause (EAA) should lead to resilient in the tropics and at high altitudes, a variety of gastrointestinal and social-ecological systems. In the drier conditions in subtropics and neurological illnesses. Worldwide, face of uncertainty, aquaculture increased frequencies of extreme almost 2 000 cases of food food production systems should be droughts and floods. Events such as poisoning from consumption of established which are diverse and floods are likely to disrupt sanitary contaminated fish or shellfish are relatively flexible, with integration infrastructure around fish harvesting reported each year. Some 15 percent and coordination of livestock and and aquaculture sites, affecting fish of these cases prove fatal. In the past crop production. Aquaculture’s safety. The presence of Salmonella three decades, harmful algal blooms ability to respond to disease shocks in rivers and the marine environment seem to have become more frequent, is through better site selection has been related to torrential rains more intense and more widespread, and vaccines in salmon, use of low and storm-generated flows, and in part ascribed to climate changes. and zero water exchange systems, the pathogen could thus reach The seafood industry (capture the selective breeding of disease- aquaculture sites or contaminate fish and farmed) must monitor for an free and disease resistant stocks in in coastal waters. Outbreaks of illness increasing number of harmful algal shrimp, and the introduction of new caused by Vibrio parahaemolyticus in species in the water column and for species in oysters. shellfish in Chile have been related to an increasing number of algal toxins the arrival of warm equatorial water in seafood products. Global climate during El Niño events. change is adding a new level of uncertainty to many seafood safety Harmful algal blooms. Harmful algal monitoring programmes.54 blooms are a completely natural

27 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

5. Opportunities for aquaculture sustainable development

5.1 The drivers of to boost shrimp output can degrade enforceable laws, regulations sustainability land and water quality. Hein (2002) and administrative procedures notes that the development of that encourage sustainable traditional and extensive shrimp aquaculture and promote trade Various aspects have to be taken farms in the vicinity of Chilka lake, in aquaculture products, with into account when considering a Ramsar site in Orissa, India was a stakeholder participatory the three interrelated dimensions leading to increased sedimentation approach; of sustainable development. First, in the lake, degradation of the economic and social linkage protected habitat and changes in - targeting organizations and can be used to tackle the social local hydrology. If well managed and institutions dealing with consequences of macroeconomic regulated, technological upgrading administration, education, policies in terms of the poverty, can enhance productivity and research and development, that vulnerability and inequality various reduce environmental spillovers. represent the private sector, groups are facing. Second, the For instance, Anderson (2002) non-governmental organizations interconnection between the shows how management and (NGOs), consumers and other ecological and social dimensions technology use is a continuum from stakeholders, in addition to raises the issue of trade-off between unregulated fisheries to regulated government ministries and public- reducing poverty, on one hand, fisheries, extensive and then intensive sector agencies; and protecting the environment, aquaculture.56 on the other. Third, we must - developing mechanisms and consider the social nexus itself, Enabling environment protocols for the timely collection which deals with access to and and reporting of relevant data; accumulation of human and social Subasinghe distinguishes several resources, as well as with the links components of an enabling - sharing information on policies between poverty, vulnerability and environment necessary to the and legislation, rules and inequality for various groups of development of sustainable procedures that encompass people.55 In addition, the challenges aquaculture: good management practices in generated by a given aquaculture aquaculture; system vary depending on several Policy and institutional and legal factors, including: farming system environment. Strong institutional - clarifying legal frameworks and in terms of size and extent of capacity, that is, the ability of policy objectives regarding access intensification, geography and countries and organizations to and user rights for farmers; location, species farmed etc. For strengthen and implement policy and instance, the environmental problems regulatory frameworks that are both - improving the capacity of generated by shrimp farming also transparent and enforceable. Key institutions to develop and vary depending upon the shrimp recommendations that would help implement strategies that target production system adopted. While develop conducive institutional and the aquaculture development low intensity traditional and extensive policy environments include: needs of poorer communities. shrimp farms are likely to cause greater destruction of mangroves - developing clear aquaculture Technology: Appropriate than semi-intensive ones because policy with a clearly defined technologies contribute to of the larger area covered by such lead agency with adequate aquaculture sustainability with a farms , the high yielding intensive organizational stature to play a variety of mechanisms that can meet and semi-intensive shrimp farms strong coordinating role; the needs of the local environment. which occupy lesser area but rely on Delivery of such techniques requires chemicals, fertilizers and antibiotics - developing comprehensive and effective communication networks,

28 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

reliable data and a decision-making 5.2 New niches and Another example is the Aquaculture process that ensures aquaculture standards Stewardship Council. In 2009, producers choose the best WWF co-founded with the Dutch production systems and species for 'HYHORSLQJFRQVXPHUVFHUWL´FDWLRQV Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH ) their environment. the Aquaculture Stewardship Council One of the opportunities for (ASC) a no-profit development Product quality and safety: Quality, aquaculture production is developing organization to manage global safety and trade of aquaculture consumers’ certification to reap standards and certification programs products are important aspects of a the benefits of niche markets and for farmed seafood. The process sustainable industry. It is therefore promote sustainability concern started in 2004 when a series of appropriate to mention that the in farmed fish production. This policy dialogues were initiated. importance of attaining sustainable approach, in fact, is based on the The ‘aquaculture dialogues’ were aquaculture with negligible/minimal setting up of clear standards for attended by 2000 farmers, retailers, environmental or socio-economic producers and an easily recognizable NGOs, scientists and other important impacts is forcing many exporting label for consumers. The purpose stakeholders. The group committed countries to adopt and implement of eco-labeling is to influence the to develop measurable standards more sustainable production purchasing decision of consumers, for responsible seafood. Up today, practices. At a national level, safety the procurement policies of standards have been set for salmon, and quality management systems producers and retailers, and to reward shrimp, tilapia, trout, pangasius, should be put into place to ensure responsible fisheries and aquaculture abalone, mussels, clams, oysters, production, distribution and sale of farms. A range of eco-labeling and scallops, cobia and seriola. The aquaculture products are safe and of certification schemes exist for fish cultivation of these fish can have a high quality. Such measures require and fisheries products, each with its huge impact on natural surroundings competent professional associations own specifications, standards, level and the environment. Their market that work in close association with of transparency and sponsor and can value and (potential) international the legal authority, in order to be cover different aspects going from commercial value are also high. It successful. environmental aspects or animal was precisely for such reasons that welfare to social and economical these 12 species were chosen. Information: Access to, and development projects. effective dissemination of, reliable ASC works with Accreditation information is needed for informed Within aquaculture, there are now Services International (ASI) to decision-making and responsible many initiatives, among them there accredit independent certification actions at all levels. High-quality is for example GLOBALG.AP, which bodies to audit and certify compliant information supports policy and is a private sector-based business- farms. Fish farmers that pass planning, improves application of to-business certification focusing successfully the audit receive a research results, increases farmers’ on food safety, animal welfare, certificate. In some cases a group capabilities to address sustainable environmental protection and of farmers can be the owner of the development and public awareness social risk assessment standards. certificate. The ASC certification, of achievements. Establishing This now has certification schemes promotes also the full traceability of effective national and regional for shrimp, salmon, pangasius and the products. All companies involved information systems, with clear tilapia and is developing a standard in the supply of ASC certified understanding of the role of the for aquaculture feeds. (Bostock; information for management of the 2010). Other existing certifications sector is vital. Effective tools and include the IFOAM standards, methods to manage and analyze the International Federation of data (disciplinary, interdisciplinary Organic Agricultural Movements; and inter-sectoral) and information the standards developed by systems, are required.57 NATURALAND, a private company.

29 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

products also have to be ASC Costa-Pierce, 2010). More generally, (e.g. salmon, cod and molluscs in certified. 58 WWF is now supporting the primary goal of organic northern and western Europe, or famers and local communities to agriculture is to optimize the health seabream, seabass, or even tilapia in adapt production techniques the and productivity of interdependent countries around the Mediterranean newly established standards. communities of soil life, plants, Sea). A large proportion of animals and people. However, details organically certified aquaculture Organic Aquaculture are often unclear to the consumer, products are produced in developing e.g. the exclusion of synthetic countries and processed and There is unprecedented growth in fertilizers and genetically modified shipped to their markets. Organic the demand for certified organic organisms (GMOs) in the production aquaculture global production food, and new areas of organic process (Mansfield, 2003, 2004; saw an increase of 950 percent food production, such as seafood, Hatanaka, 2010). This contribution from 2000 to 2008. Based on the are proving increasingly popular. In presents the current status and data of 2008, the majority (25000 reference to the Codex Alimentarius issues in organic aquaculture tonnes/ year) of organic aquaculture Commission (2011), organic production and markets. production is farmed in Europe, aquaculture refers to the production followed by Asia (19 000/year )and processes and practices of ecological ‘The market for organic seafood Latin America with a total estimated products grew enormously in the last market value of 300 millions of USD production management systems 15 years especially in Europe, with in 2009. (Prein et.al, 2012)59 that promote and enhance Germany, UK, France and Switzerland biodiversity, biological cycles and as leading countries. However an The standards for organic biological activity (Bergleiter 2003; emerging demand is also noticeable aquaculture include many Bergleiter et al., 2009). It is based on among middle classes in transition requirements on the production minimal use of off-farm inputs and economies. Part of this demand is system, the feeding, the reproduction on holistic management practices met domestically (e.g. carp, brook and health control. The following that restore, maintain and enhance trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) or table, based on the contribution of species diversity and ecological rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Prei et al. 2012 presents the main harmony (IFOAM EU Group, 2010; in Austria and Germany) or regionally requirements :

30 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

General Closed life cycle in captivity;

- It is not permitted a new introduction of a species into a country or location in which it previously did not exist specifically for the purposes of organic agriculture;

- Polyculture is the recommended system for organic aquaculture where several species occupy distinctly separated feeding niches within the aquaculture ecosystem;

- Ponds and cages are recommended as rearing systems;

- The stocking density of culture species is limited;

- The use of mechanical aeration is usually banned, while an exception is made only for mechanical mixing and destratification of the water column for a limited number of hours per day with a small number of devices;

- Monitoring of effluent quality with the stated goal of avoiding negative impacts on the surrounding environment

Reproduction, Indications exist also for the provision of juveniles through controlled conditions. The so to Fingerlings and induce a closed cycle and avoid the collection of seeds from the wild; larvae - In the methods to induce spawning , no hormonal sex-inversion is permitted;

Feed Feed should be certified as organic

- In transformation facility full traceability need to be ensured. Organic standards exist for the use of detergents and for pest control substances.

- Anesthetization of vertebrates before slaughter is mandatory

- Some additives are either restricted or prohibited (e.g. metabisulphites, phosphates, and anticaking agents)

Health Feed should be certified as organic

- In transformation facility full traceability need to be ensured. Organic standards exist for the use of detergents and for pest control substances.

- Anesthetization of vertebrates before slaughter is mandatory

- Some additives are either restricted or prohibited (e.g. metabisulphites, phosphates, and anticaking agents)

Health The use of chemicals for sea-lice treatment is not permitted;

- Use of antibiotics is not permitted in invertebrates in most private standards, less stringent is the EU regulation to this regard;

- For predator control no measure should be taken that could harm the predators. Nets over ponds or cages are recommended for the control of birds.

Source: Prein et al. (2012)

31 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

Organic aquaculture production changing market environment. The in increasing production levels represents a good opportunity shift in consumer’s preferences and the quality of the shrimps, for producers, it allows them to towards more healthier food is increasing their profits as a result of get a premium price in respect to posing new challenges for small scale decreased costs, increased output conventional aquaculture. On the aquaculture producers. In fact, the prices, decreased disease risks other side it favors animal welfare costs and operations associated with and increased market access, even and human health, limiting the obtaining a cretification might be not achieving organic certification of impact on environment. Around 80 affordable for and complex for small two societies. Central to this is the organic aquaculture certification scale producers. application of BMPs, these are not standards exist, both public as well fixed but constantly reviewed and as private of which those with the A joint publication of FAO and improved so to meet the changing greatest number of certified farms WorldFish, drawing on the needs of the culture environment are Naturland, AB France and Bio experience of some projects in Sri and technology. FOs need to be Suisse. From 2009 in EU it exist the Lanka, India, Thailand demonstrated supported in developing appropriate Organic aquaculture implementing how Farmers Organizations have BMPs for their different commodities rules. Whilst organic aquaculture an important role to play in the and the range of contexts in could dimish the pressure over sustainable development of the which they operate BMPs should natural resources of fish farming, small-scale aquaculture sector. The reduce diseases occurrence and some challenges still need to be organization of farmers into FOs costs of farming, improve growth addressed: the cost of undertaking can facilitate the certification of performance, enhance environmental an adaptation especially for small- groups as opposed to individuals; conditions by minimizing the impact scale farmers; the risks that it remains benefit farmers through economies of farming on local environment. a niche markets; the bottleneck of of scale related to bulk purchasing certified feed. The next paragraph of inputs and services, collective The challenge facing FOs include outlines the creation of aquaculture processing and marketing; support an effective capacity of involving producers’organizations as a strategy communication, extension training poorer and subsistence aquaculture to overcome the challenges faced by and technology dissemination; farmers. Because of low level of small-scale famers. and lead to effective management literacy they might be the more risk through collective implementation adverse and incapable of producing of better management practices reliable surplus that meet market 5.3 Collective actions (BMPs).60 requirement for quality. A market - Aquaculture oriented development strategy may producers The case of better management not be the most appropriate for this practices (BMPs) through cluster type of famers. organizations management

A large proportion (up to 80 Cluster management (as the 5.4 Recognition of the percent) of aquaculture production collaborative management of role of women in in many countries in Asia comes aquaculture production by farmers), aquaculture from small-scale, family-owned has been used as a tool by NACA operations (Phillips et al., 2007). and other organizations such as However, while this sector is socially FAO to facilitate the implementation Among the opportunities for and economically important and of BMPs. Farm cluster consist of aquaculture sustainable development continues to remain innovative, famers located in the same local there is a better involvement of it faces many constraints and area and often sharing the same women. Several studies exist on the challenges in integrating into water source. Through the collective involvement of women in fisheries modern supply chains (especially implementation of BMPs, the NacSA and post-harvest activities in the for exports) and dealing with the farmers society have succeeded fishery sector but few studies

32 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

focused on women engagement highly paid posts in fish processing aquaculture sector. Furthrmore, in fish farming. Notwithstanding, a factories even though they make up gender mapping is a key tool to make recent expert panel review paper, the majority of workers in post-harvest visible and effectively target women. in the occasion of the Global sector. Compared with men, they are The process aims at highlighting the Conference on Aquaculture in 2010, often greater losers from increasing contribution of women in a certain individuated some of the main market globalization, and they are value chain, mapping the activities contribution of women in fish- more vulnerable to poor services and in which they are involved, Finally farming sector in different countries. market decline. (FAO, 2012) opportunities to upgradre women’s For example: position are identified. This approach Acknowledge the contribution of has already been used in other - In Belize, most workers involved women in fish farming, addressing value chains (see Agri pro focus in processing are women the factors and constraints that limit network) adn could be applied also from rural communities where their involvement into the sector is to aquaculture value chains. unemployment levels are high and a central question for sustainable poverty is greatest. fish farming. According to FAO, Furthermore ‘women should be in fact ‘ Women’s participation as empowered through gender equity in - In Cuba, female workers equal and productive partners in the access to financial, natural, training and constitute 27 percent of the fisheries and aquaculture sector has market resources. In circumstances aquaculture workforce (19 percent significant impacts on households’ where rural men have migrated for are intermediate and higher nutrition and living standards. work, small-scale aquaculture has education technicians; 11 percent If fisheries and aquaculture proven a suitable livelihood option have attended higher education projects generate the data for and to reduce the pressure on women. institutions). potentially, include analyses of, all Because postharvest processing and gender aspects (livelihoods factors, fish trade are feminized occupations, - In Jamaica, about 8–11 percent of relationships, actions and results), gender equity deserves special fish farmers are women who own they can contribute to gender attention in fair trade and fish and operate fish farms; and in equality and promote women’s certification schemes. Human capacity processing plants, women dominate participation as active agents for development and gender are receiving the workforce. (FAO, 2012) change in the sector. (FAO, 2012) more attention in rehabilitation efforts to assist survivors from disease and According to FAO, women tend to One of the practical instrument natural disasters’.61 be excluded from the most profitable to do so i sto generate gender markets and enterprises, and from disaggregated data for the

33 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

6. The way forward

In the medium term, increased suitable regulatory framework regulation and improved governance output is likely to require expansion that captures environmental costs and traceability. However, this in new environments, further within aquaculture processes, bring the risk of marginalisation of intensification and efficiency gains building capacity for monitoring those producers wo cannot meet for more sustainable and cost- and compliance, and encouraging international standards and could effective production. Trends towards research on the supply and demand contribute to the concentration of industrialization and consolidation for fish and fish products. There production in the hands of wealthier are strong for some species, is an urgent need to improve and and more skilled farmers. Group especially commodity products expand national and international certification, as already suggested, is that are internationally marketed aquaculture statistics collection and one of the opportunities to reap the There is increased private sector reporting schemes.62 At present, benefits of niche markets through involvement in the production genetic improvement programs are collective actions. As effective mean and delivery of inputs (seed and underway for a dozen or so widely to grant food security and contribute feeds) and the manufacture and farmed species, including both marine to poverty alleviation, national supply of aquaculture equipment shrimps and freshwater prawns, legal frameworks, sectoral policies in some countries. However, the common and Indian major carps, and development agencies should small-scale sector is the largest tilapias, African and channel catfish, strive for greater policy coherence aquaculture producer and mainstay rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon.63 and mutually supportive actions of communities in many parts of the accross different economic, social world and needs specific support and The biological and ecosystem and enviromental issues. Finally capacity-building programmes. arguments for change have been concerning the enviromental impacts widely expressed, and they have of fish farming, Life Cycle Analysis There are measures that policy also been reflected in growing (LCA) and the Ecosystem Approach makers can take for a sustainable consumer awareness and concern to Aquaculture (Soto et al. 2009) development of aquaculture for purchasing decisions related to are new emerging comprehensive which include providing support sustainable fisheries. The increasing approaches that could contribute to to innovative and technological influence of consumers and the sustainable development growth developments, ensuring a markets will contribute to enhanced of the sector.

34 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

GLOSSARY64

Access Agropisciculture are a part: this includes diversity within species, between species and Defined by the rules and social norms Combination or alternation of ecosystems. that determine the differential ability of agriculture and freshwater of people in rural areas to own, aquaculture. Biotic depletion control, or otherwise ‘claim’, or make use of resources such as land and Alga (pl. algae) The volume of wild fish required common property. It is also defined to support observed aquaculture by the impact of social relations, for Primitive chlorophyll-containing production. example gender and class, on this mainly aquatic eukaryotic organisms ability. Access in addition, refers lacking true stems and roots and Cage culture to the ability to participate in, and leaves. derive benefits from, social and Culture of stocks in cages. Cages public services provided by the state Alien species are rearing facilities enclosed on such as education, health services, the bottom as well as on the sides roads, water supplies and so on. A species occurring in an area to by wooden, mesh or net screens. which it is not native. They allows natural water exchange Adaptation through the lateral sides and in most Aquaculture cases below the cage. The process by which individuals (or parts of individuals), populations, or The farming of aquatic organisms in Capacity building species change in form or function inland and coastal areas, involving in order to perform better under intervention in the rearing process Encompasses the country’s given or changed environmental to enhance production and the human, scientific, technological, conditions. May also be used for the individual or corporate ownership of organizational, institutional and results of this process. the stock being cultivated. resource capabilities. A fundamental goal of capacity building is to Agreement on Sanitary and Assets enhance the ability to evaluate and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS address the crucial questions related Agreement) Resource having commercial or to policy choices and modes of exchange value that is owned by implementation among development According to this Agreement, World or due an individual, business, options, based on an understanding Trade Organization members have institution, or corporation. of environment potentials and limits the right to take legitimate measures and of needs perceived by the to protect the life and health of Better Management Practices (BMPs) people of the country concerned. their people from hazards in food, but these measures may not be A series of practices/ Certification unjustifiably trade restrictive. recommendations in the area of disease risk factors along, food safety It is the process by which a Agroecological zone and environmental risks, applied by certification body or entity gives clusters of aqua-farmers. written or equivalent assurance A land resource mapping unit, that a product, process or service defined in terms of climate, landform Biodiversity conform to specified requirements. and soils, and/or land cover, and Certification may be, as appropriate, having a specific range of potentials The variability among living based on a range of audit in the and constraints for land use. organisms from all sources including, production chain. inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they

35 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

Consumer label of the sea coast, defined legally or animal species (often called species administratively for this purpose. richness) it contains, their distribution Easily recognizable symbol and the degree of genetic variability connected to a certification scheme. Code of Conduct for Responsible within each species. Fisheries (CCRF) Climate Ecosystem FAO-formulated code, which sets Condition of the atmosphere in a out principles and international A natural entity (or a system) with particular region over a long period standards of behaviour for distinct structures and relationships of time. Climate is a long-term responsible aquaculture and fisheries that liaise biotic communities (of summation of atmospheric elements practices with a view to ensuring the plants and animals) to each other (e.g. solar radiation, temperature, effective conservation, management and to their abiotic environment. humidity, frequency and amount of and development of living aquatic The study of an ecosystem provides precipitation, atmospheric pressure, resources, with due respect for the a methodological basis for complex speed and direction of wind) and ecosystem and biodiversity. synthesis between organisms and their variations. their environment. Code of Practice for Fish and Fishery Coastal aquaculture Products Ecosystem approach to aquaculture

The cultivation of aquatic organisms The draft for the Aquaculture section An ecosystem approach to where the end product is raised in of this code, prepared by FAO, is aquaculture (EAA) strives to balance brackish and marine waters; earlier presently under review by the Codex diverse societal objectives, by taking stages of the life cycle of these Alimentarius Committee on Fish and account of the knowledge and species may be spent in fresh waters Fishery Products. uncertainties of biotic, abiotic and or marine waters. human components of ecosystems Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) including their interactions, fl ows Coastal area and processes and applying an Assessment of the direct economic integrated approach to the sector A geographic entity of land and and social costs and benefits of a within ecologically and operationally water affected by the biological proposed project for the purpose of meaningful boundaries. and physical processes of both project or programme selection. The the terrestrial and the marine cost-benefit ratio is determined by Environment environments, and defined broadly dividing the projected benefits of the for the purpose of natural resources programme by the projected costs. All the external or internal factors or management. Coastal area A programme having a high benefit- conditions supporting or influencing boundaries usually change over cost ratio will take priority over the existence or development of time without regard to enabling others with lower ratios. an organism or assemblages of legislation. organisms. Diversity Coastal zone Environmental capacity The number of different species, The band of dry land and adjacent and their relative abundance, and A property of the environment, ocean space in which land ecology the number of habitats existing defined as its ability to accommodate and use directly affect ocean space in a particular area. Diversity is a an activity or rate of activity without ecology and use, and vice versa. measure of the complexity of an unacceptable impact. For Coastal Zone Management: a ecosystem, and often an indication geographic entity including both of its relative age, measured in terms terrestrial and submerged areas of the number of different plants and

36 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

Environmental impact Fish farm Gender mapping

The change in well-being of the An enterprise where (fin)fish culture is Process aiming at individuate the ecosystems, that results from a carried on: an aquaculture production activities in which women are process set in motion or accelerated unit either land or water-based, involved in a certain value chain. by man’s actions. usually consisting of holding facilities (tanks, ponds, raceways, cages), Inland aquaculture Environmental impact assessment plant (buildings, storage, processing), (EIA) service equipment and stock. Aquaculture that takes place in freshwater. A set of activities designed to Fish oil identify and predict the impacts Intensification of a proposed action on the Oil extracted from total fi sh body or biogeophysical environment and from fi sh waste. Fish oils are used in The increase of production in an on man’s health and wellbeing, the manufacture of fi sh feeds, aquacultural or agricultural system and to interpret and communicate through increasing the stock or information about the impacts, edible fats and industrial products. planting density (and expected including mitigation measures that production) in the existing water or are likely to eliminate the risks. Fishmeal wetland area. In many countries, organizations planning new projects are required Protein-rich meal derived from Livelihood security by law to conduct EIA. processing (boiling, pressing, drying, grinding) whole fi sh (usually small Refers to secure rights, physical Fatty acid pelagic fi sh or bycatch) as well as safety and reliable access to residues and by-products from fi resources, food and cash to meet Organic acid composed of carbon, sh processing plants (fish offal). basic needs and to support well- hydrogen and oxygen that combines Used mainly as agriculture feeds for being. Livelihood security is basic to with glycerol to form fats. domestic livestock (poultry, pigs, well-being. cattle, etc.) and as aquaculture feeds Farmers organization for carnivorous aquatic species. Malnutrition It must contain not more than 10 It is a generic form of association, percent moisture. If it contains An abnormal physiological condition aiming at providing services more than 3 percent salt (NaCl), the caused by deficiencies, excesses or to farmers and improving their amount of salt must constitute a part imbalances in energy, protein and/or economic welfare. of the brand name, provided that in other nutrients. no case must the salt content of this Fish product exceed 7 percent. Natural capital

Literally, a cold-blooded lower Food security The natural resource stocks from vertebrate that has fins, gills and which resource flows useful to scales (usually), and lives in water. Food security exists when all people, livelihoods can be derived (land, Used as a collective term it includes at all times, have physical and water, wildlife, environmental fish, molluscs, crustaceans and any economic access to sufficient, safe services). aquatic animal which is harvested. and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences Nutrition security for an active and healthy life. It is achieved when secure access to appropriately nutritious food is

37 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

coupled with a sanitary environment, Pollution generations. Such sustainable adequate health services and care, to development conserves (land), ensure a healthy and active life for all The introduction by human activities, water, plants and (animal) genetic household members. directly or indirectly, of substances resources, is environmentally or energy into the environment non-degrading, technologically Organic aquaculture resulting in deleterious effects on appropriate, economically viable and living organisms. socially acceptable. The production of fish according to certain specific standards that aim at Pond Trash fish reducing the environmental impact of fish production on the surrounding Relatively shallow and usually small Small fish species, damaged catch ecosystem. body of still water or with a low and juvenile fish are sometimes refreshment rate, most frequently referred to as ‘trash fi sh’ because of Pen culture artificially formed, but can also its low market value. Usually part of apply to a natural pool, tarn, mere or a (shrimp) trawler’s bycatch. Often Culture of stocks in pens. Pen is a small lake. it is discarded at sea although an fenced, netted structure fi xed to increasing proportion is used as the bottom substrate and allowing Recirculating system human food or as feed in aquaculture free water exchange; in the intertidal and livestock feed. zone, it may be solid-walled; the A closed or partially closed system bottom of the structure, however, employed in aquaculture production Undernutrition is always formed by the natural where the effluent water from the bottom of the water body where it is system is treated to enable its reuse. It happens is when the body contains built; usually coastal e.g. in shallow lower than normal amounts of one lagoons, but also inland e.g. in lakes, Stock or more nutrients i.e. deficiencies reservoirs. A pen generally encloses a in macronutrients (carbohydrates, relatively large volume of water. In fisheries: a quantity of fish proteins) and/or micronutrients considered in a given situation. (amino acids, vitamins, minerals), Pisciculture such that stunting, wasting and Sustainable development illness will occur. The breeding, rearing, conservation, etc. of finfish by means that Management and conservation Zoonotic supplement or replace those of the natural resource base, and normally available in nature. the orientation of technological Pertaining to a zoonosis: a disease and institutional change in such a that can be transmitted from animals manner as to ensure the attainment to people or, more specifically, of continued satisfaction of human a disease that normally exists in needs for present and future animals but that can infect humans.

38 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

ACRONYMS

ASC Aquaculture Stewardship Council

BMPs Better Management Practices

CCA Climate change adaptation

CCRF Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (from FAO)

COFI FAO Committee on Fisheries

COP Code of Practice

CPUE Catch per unit of effort

DRM Disaster risk management

DRR Disaster risk reduction

EAA Ecosystem approach to aquaculture

EAF Ecosystem approach to fisheries

EC European Commission

EEZ Exclusive economic zone

EIFAAC European Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture Advisory Commission

EIFAC European Inland Fishery Advisory Commission

FOs Farmers Organisations

GIS Geographic Information System

IAA Integrated aquaculture/agriculture

IFOAM International Organization of Organic Agriculture Movements

IMO International Maritime Organization

ILO International Labour Organization

IUU Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing

LCA Life Cycle Analysis

LDC Least-developed country

LIFDC Low-income food-deficit country

39 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

MPA Marine protected area

NACA Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OIE World Organisation for Animal Health

RFB Regional fishery body

RFMO Regional fisheries management organization

R&D Research and development

SARNISSA Sustainable Aquaculture Research Networks for Sub-Saharan Africa

SIS Small indigenous fish species

SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community

WHO World Health Organization

WTO World Trade Organization

40 Fish-farming: the new driver of the blue economy

RESOURCES

Adams T, Bell, J. and Labrosse P social impacts of salmon farming. edu/bitstream/51227/2/Ninan%20 (2000) Current status of Aquaculture A report by the Technical Working IAAE%202009%20Beijing%20 in the Pacific Islands.http://www. Group of the Salmon Aquaculture Conference%20Paper.pdf spc.int/DigitalLibrary/Doc/FAME/ Dialogue [online]. [Cited 13 April Reports/Adams_00_Aquac.pdf 2012]. www.worldwildlife.org/ Bosma, R. H., Hanh, C. T. T. and what/globalmarkets/aquaculture/ Potting, J. (2009). Environmental Ahmed, Lorica. Improving developing WWFBinaryitem16115.pdf impact assessment of the Pangasius country food security through sector in the Mekong Delta. aquaculture development – Lessons Ayer, N. W. and Tyedmers, P. H. Wageningen University: 58 pp. from Asia. Food Policy 27 (2002) (2009). Assessing alternative 125–141 137http://static.sdu.dk/ aquaculture technologies: life cycle Bostock et al. Aquaculture: mediafiles/Files/Om_SDU/Institutter/ assessment of salmonid culture global status and trends. Miljo/fame/workshop/jun05/ systems in Canada. Journal of Philosophical transactions of the readings/foodpolicy.pdf Cleaner Production 17(3): 362-373. royal society. B 2010, 365 http:// rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/ Allison, E.H., Bell, J.D., Franz, N., Bell J.D, Kronen M, Vunisea A, content/365/1554/2897.full Fuentevilla, C., McConney, P., Nasharwick W J. , Keeble G, Demmke Robinson, J., Westlund, L. and A, Pontifex S, Andréfouët S (2009) Brander K.M. 2007. Global Willmann, R. 2012. Blending green Planning the use of fish for food fish production and climate and blue economics: sustainability security in the Pacific. Marine change. http://www.pnas.org/ transitions in the fisheries and Policy 33 (2009) 64– 76 ftp://ftp. content/104/50/19709.full.pdf+html aquaculture sector of small island fisheries.ubc.ca/s.harper/Devraj%20 developing States. -%20Pitcairn%20Islands%20 Brooks, K. M. (2007). Assessing Reconstruction/Papers%20 the environmental costs of Atlantic Allison, E.H, Beveridge, M.C.M. & van Referenced/Bell_2009.pdf salmon cage culture in the Northeast Brakel, M. 2009. Climate change, small-scale fisheries and smallholder Belton & Little. Immanent and Pacific in perspective with the aquaculture. In M. Culberg, ed. Fish, interventionist inland asian costs associated with other forms Trade and Development. pp. 73–87. aquaculture development and its of food production. In Comparative Stockholm, Royal Swedish Academy outcomes. 2011. Development Policy assessment of the environmental of Agriculture and Forestry. Review, 29 (4): 459-484 http:// costs of aquaculture and other food onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ production sectors: methods for Allison E.H., Perry A.L., Badjeck M.- j.1467-7679.2011.00542.x/abstract meaningful comparisons. FAO/WFT C., Adger W.N., Brown K., Conway D., Expert Workshop. 24-28 April 2006, Halls A.S., Pilling G.M., Reynolds J.D., Beveridge, M. (2004). Cage Vancouver, Canada. FAO Fisheries Andrew N.L. and Dulvy N.K. 2009. aquaculture. Wiley-Blackwell. Third Proceedings. No. 10. D.M Bartley, Vulnerability of national economies edition: 376 pp. C Brugère, D Soto, P Gerber and B to the impacts of climate change Harvey (Eds). FAO: 137-182. Rome. on fisheries. http://onlinelibrary. Beveridge, M. and Phillips, M. (2010). wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467- Aquaculture and climate change: Brummett, R. E. (2007). Comparative 2979.2008.00310.x/abstract what are the challenges for the WIO analysis of the environmental costs region? of fi sh farming and crop roduction Andrew, N., K.S. Pheng, M. Philips in arid areas. In Comparative (2011). Fisheries Dependence in Bhattacharya & Ninan. Social assessment of the environmental Timor-Leste: A Scoping Study. Coral cost-benefit analysis of intensive costs of aquaculture and other Triangle Support Partnership. 27 pp. versus traditional shrimp farming: food production sectors: methods A case study from India. Natural for meaningful comparisons. FAO/ Arengo, E., Ridler, N. and Hersoug, Resources Forum 35 (2011): 31- WTF expert workshop. D M Bartley, B. 2010. State of information on 333 http://ageconsearch.umn. C Brugère, D Soto, P Gerber and B

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WEBSITES

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50 BRUSSELS RURAL DEVELOPMENT BRIEFINGS A SERIES OF MEETINGS ON ACP-EU DEVELOPMENT ISSUES