UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI
DATE: March 4, 2003
I, Jane Shepherd Stuart , hereby submit this as part of the requirements for the degree of:
Doctorate of Education, Ed.D. in:
Curriculum & Instruction It is entitled:
The Design and Use of Strategies in Face-to-Face and Online Instruction
Approved by: Dr. Janet Bohren Dr. Glenn Markle Dr. Annette Hemmings Dr. Carol Setter
THE DESIGN AND USE OF STRATEGIES IN FACE-TO-FACE AND ONLINE INSTRUCTION
A dissertation submitted to the
Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTORATE OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.)
In the Division of Curriculum and Instruction Of the College of Education
2003
by
Jane Shepherd Stuart
B.A., Northern Kentucky University, 1993 M.Ed., University of Cincinnati, l998
Committee Chair: Janet Bohren, Ph.D. Glenn Markle, Ph.D. Annette Hemmings, Ph.D. Carol Setter, Ph.D.
The Design and Use of Strategies in Face-to-Face and Online Instruction
This is an in-depth qualitative case study to gain insight into one instructor’s efforts to teach two distinct bodies of students the same curriculum using two different mediums—classroom and online. The relationship between the use and beliefs of instructional strategies in face-to-face and online instruction are described in terms of patterns in the behaviors and beliefs of the instructor.
There are three outcomes of this study. The tensions that exist in the instructor’s behaviors and beliefs when considering two instructional mediums are identified; the multiple levels of converting instruction from face-to-face to online are identified and described; and strategies for online instruction that can be used for professional training are provided.
Tensions include 1) familiarity versus unfamiliarity with students, 2) direct versus indirect instruction, 3) collaborative versus cooperative learning, and 4) synchronous versus asynchronous communications. The tensions were instrumental in understanding and creating the Developmental Levels of Conversion. Training techniques and strategies relate directly to each tension.
An outcome of this study is the identification of multiple levels when converting instruction from face-to-face to online; currently five levels have been identified. Each level of conversion requires training for the instructor and students along with more sophisticated technology. Data collected in this study clearly identifies two levels—
Level I and Level II. Inferred are three additional levels of conversion.
With sincere gratitude to my husband, Bryant, for his
patience and encouragement and for Jason, Heather,
Emily, and Travis who serve as reminders that life is an
adventure.
Chapter One: Introduction
Significance of Research Study ………………………………………… 5
Recognize a Phenomenon ……………………………………… 6
Changing Face of Higher Education …………………………………… 7
Trends in Electronic Learning …………………………………. 7
Economics of Change ………………………………………….. 9
Changing Landscape and Student Demographics ……………… 10
Changing Roles of Instructors of Higher Education …………… 11
The Study ……………………………………………………………… 13
Research Components ………………………………………… 13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Introduction ……………………………………………………………. 15
Designing Instruction and Attitude Formation ………………………… 15
Learning Theories ……………………………………………… 16
Learning, Instruction, and Strategies …………………………… 18
Direct and Indirect Instruction …………………………………. 19
Instructional Strategies ………………………………………… 24
Art and Science of Designing Online Instruction ……………… 26
Technology …………………………………………………….. 30
Delivery of Online Course ……………………………………… 32
Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………… 34
Chapter Three: Methodology
Review of the Data Collection Process …………………………………... 39
1
Research Setting ………………………………………………… 41
Participants ……………………………………………………….. 44
Entrée ……………………………………………………………. 50
Data Collection Plan …………………………………………….. 52
Data Collection Methods ………………………………………… 66
Category Dissemination Model ………………………………… 76
Purposeful Sampling …………………………………………… 77
Role Negotiation ……………………………………………….. 79
Reflexivity ……………………………………………………… 82
Data Management ……………………………………………… 86
Trustworthiness ………………………………………………… 86
Field Dilemma …………………………………………………. 88
Exit …………………………………………………………….. 91
Data Description and List ……………………………………………… 92
Chapter Four: Data Description, Analyses, and Interpretation
Introduction ……..……………………………………………………… 93
Setting the Scene: Classroom Instruction Begins ………………. 93
Setting the Scene: Online Instruction Begins .…………………… 97
Patterns of Instruction within the Context of Assign ……………………. 101
Assignment One ………………………………………………… 105
Assignment Two ………………………………………………. 112
Assignment Three ……………………………………………... 119
2 Assignment Four ……………………………………………… 126
Summation Analysis of Effective Strategies for Face-to-Face and Online Instruction ……….…………………………………………….. 131
Summation Analysis of Ineffective Strategies for Face-to-Face and Online Instruction ……….……………………………………………… 135
Beliefs and Attitudes Toward the Use of Strategies for Face-to-Face Instruction ...…..………………………………………………………… 140
Behavioral Beliefs ……………………………………………… 141
Normative Beliefs ……………………………………………… 147
Control Beliefs ………………………………………………… 149
Category Dissemination Model Displays Relational Data for Face-to-Face Instruction ……………………………………………………………………… 152
Beliefs and Attitudes Toward the Use of Strategies for Online Instruction .155
Behavioral Beliefs ……………………………………………… 155
Normative Beliefs .……………………………………………… 166
Control Beliefs …………………………………………………. 169
Category Dissemination Model Displays Relational Data for Online Instruction …………………………………………………………….. 174
Similarities and Differences in the Strategies Used for Face-to-Face and Online Instruction ……………………………………………………… 176
Chapter Five: Implications and Future Directions
Introduction …………………………………………………………….. 179
Tension One: Online Students Have Faces Too ………………………. 184
Tension Two: Direct Versus Indirect …………………………………. 186
Tension Three: Collaborative Versus Cooperative ……………………. 188
Tension Four: Synchronous Versus Asynchronous …………………… 194
3 Developmental Levels of Conversion ……………………………………. 195
Additional Areas of Study ………………………………………………. 198
A Discussion About the Theory of Planned Behavior ………………….. 199
Tables
Table 1: Mean Averages for Demographics of Face-to-Face Students
Table 2: Mean Averages for Demographics of Online Students
Table 3: Chronological Order of Data Collection for Face-to-Face and Online Instruction
Table 4: Components of the Research Study Correlated Data Collection
Table 5: Data Description and Quantity
Table 6: Instructional Strategies Described and Analyzed within the Context of Assignments
Table 7: Assignments and Documented Accounts of Feedback Collected in Face-to-Face Instruction
Table 8: Assignments and Documented Accounts of Feedback Collected in Online Instruction
Table 9: Frequency of Planned One-to-One Discussions Conducted With Face-to-Face Students
Table 10: Documented Accounts of Written Feedback Including a Request From the Online Student to Phone Appendixes
Appendix A: Research Study Demographics Survey Face-to-Face Instruction
Appendix B: Research Study Demographics Survey Online Instruction
Appendix C: Exit Interview Beliefs and Attitudes Toward Face-to-Face Instruction
Appendix D: Exit Interview Beliefs and Attitudes Toward Online Instruction
Appendix E: Face-to-Face Instruction: Samples of Written Feedback
4
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Significance of Research Study
The purpose of this study is to gain an understanding about the relationship between the beliefs and the use of instructional strategies in the design of face-to-face and online instruction and describes similarities and differences. This is a descriptive study with a sampling group of one instructor of higher education who faces a very different reality today than those of the recent years. Technology is increasingly accessible. Economics, as well as the needs and demographics of learners, are changing. Therefore, instructors are being asked, and at times required, to convert classroom instruction to online instruction. This requires a paradigm shift—the design and delivery of face-to-face instruction to the design and delivery of instruction over distances.
This study provides a perspective that is different from other studies because it focuses on the use of instructional strategies when designing online instruction. The body of knowledge currently available tends to focus on the attitude of instructors or students toward the use of online environment as a medium for instruction. These studies generally compare the classroom and online experiences while focusing on attitudes toward the use of electronic instructional environments and the level of satisfaction or success. Much of the current research measures outcomes of instruction as determined by student performance. Finally, literature provides insight on how to
5 design online instructional environments—providing tried-and-true structures such as posting a syllabus, providing communications, and adding resources. However, there is limited information on the application of pedagogically sound instructional strategies in the development, or design, of online instructional environments.
Recognize a Phenomenon
Through personal experience, I have noticed a phenomenon in the application of instructional strategies used in face-to-face instruction and those used in online or distance instruction. The classroom and online both represent learning environments; however, there doesn't seem to be a consistent use of instructional strategies between the two environments—in fact, there seems to be a significant disconnect. Classroom instructors commonly employ instructional strategies to build cognitive networks of information. These strategies may include lecture, demonstrations, and questioning when communicating objectives and recalling previous learning. Presenting material and guiding the learning experience are frequently accomplished using examples, whole-class and small group discussions. Students may be asked to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information using various strategies such as building models, diagrams, and time lines; sequence and classify; and compare and contrast to name a few.
However, these instructional strategies are not always effectively applied or not used at all when designing online learning events. Some may conclude that barriers of technology are insurmountable whereas, others may feel that these strategies are not effective or that they are too time-consuming to use when instructing online. There does
6 not appear to be a clear connection between the application of successful instructional strategies used in face-to-face instruction and those used in online instruction.
Changing the Face of Higher Education
Change is inevitable, and nowhere is it more evident than on the campuses of institutions of higher education. In the last half century, a variety of forces had an impact on trends in education. Influences of change include the ongoing development of technology, changing demands of industry and employees, and student demographics.
Universities, administrators, and instructors have responded to the forces of change.
Century-old models of higher education are being infused with technology, flexibility, and a philosophical shift in focus.
Trends in Electronic Learning
Distance learning is not new to education. Palloff and Pratt (1999) define distance learning as “…provisions of learning resources to remote learners and involving both distance teaching (the instructor’s role in the process) and distance learning (the student’s role)” (p. 5). It is a learning process involving two-way communication between two or more people. The history of distance learning dates nearly 100 years. Originally, distance learning depended exclusively on paper and pencil medium; however, now technology is its primary means of communication. As new technologies emerge, growing numbers of universities embrace distance learning as a primary means of delivering instruction. Current projections indicate “that the higher
7 education e-Learning market will grow from $4 billion today to $11 billion by 2003”
(http://company.blackboard.com/index.cgi).
We are in the midst of change—a cultural change in the way we perceive and deliver instruction. Our perceptions around the exclusivity of face-to-face instruction are being questioned. The tools of our trade have expanded the capabilities of education and circles of influence. The economics of technology, specifically the availability of computers and accessibility of the Internet, make distance learning economically sound.
The term “interactive instructional environment” refers to varying models of electronic instruction and requires a computer interface that employs the use of technology to instruct and communicate. Online learning describes multiple types of electronic instruction—Web-based instruction and computer-based instruction. Web-
Based instruction (WBI) requires the Internet or Intranet and the access to electronic resources (http://www.vnulearning.com). WBI is generally referred to in academic settings as distance learning. Computer-based learning refers to a learning or training event that is isolated to a computer such as using a CD-ROM.
Attributes of this instructional medium—WBI and computer-based instruction—include time and place and technology independence. Online learning involves multiple levels of communications and has computer-mediated interaction and requires a variety of communication modes, all of which can be identified as asynchronous or synchronous. Asynchronous refers to a WBI in which participants are not time-dependent, enabling students to review information presented visually or audibly at a time other than its original presentation and to communicate via email.
Synchronous is online communications in which students interact or communicate at
8 the same time, requiring students to be logged on at the same time, generally using chat rooms or instant messaging. This method of instruction encourages spontaneous dialog, similar to what is found in a traditional classroom.
Economics of Change
Like the economy, facilities of higher education are being transformed. The industrial model does not fit today’s information model. Workers are more likely to perceive themselves as knowledge workers, seeking to hone their skills and increase their levels of knowledge to remain competitive in today’s global market. Employers and employees are seeking to convert knowledge into certified competencies. “At this point, the control of education will have shifted from the proved to the consumer”
(Cyrus, 1997, p. 9). Students, as consumers, will shop for the institution that best facilitates their needs for high-quality education at a time and place that meets his or her needs. Understanding the needs of the computer-literate traditional and nontraditional student points to the increase of technology and technology-centered instruction if apparent.
Understanding this reality, faculties of higher education are changing the paradigm away from the industrial model to the information model. Facilities of higher education are also having budgets scrutinized and are “pressured to control cost, improve quality, focus directly on consumer needs and respond to competitive pressures” (Palloff & Pratt, 1999, p. 3). Instructional technology (IT), specifically computers and the ongoing development of the Internet, enables the change. Online instruction facilitates a learner-centered curriculum at a time and location that meets
9 the needs of the student. Universities are increasingly becoming competitive while molding to a new model of flexibility.
The debate to increase opportunities for online learning can be oversimplified as the costs of building and maintaining competitive distance learning programs may become prohibitive to some universities and colleges. Institutions competing for the students, consumers of education, need to stay abreast with rapidly changing technology—hardware and software. Computers costing an average of $2,500 each have a life span of six years with software upgrades needed approximately every two to three years. Additional and more sophisticated systems require constant attention as the number of staff and students increases. These needs place budgetary constraints on universities and colleges. Consequently, value judgments and decisions on where to invest money are a reality. Universities that cannot keep up with consumer demand will find themselves falling behind the curb, thus disadvantaging a segment of the population, primarily women and minorities. Expressed by McKinney (1996)
“although traditionally under represented groups may experience equality through technology in some ways, it may also serve to create a greater division, a new class distinction between the techno-rich and the techno-poor” (p. 3).
Changing Landscape and Student Population Demographics
The landscape of the academic institutions is dramatically different than that of earlier decades—the landscape of the campus and its students is changing. With the conclusion of WWII, thousands of soldiers returned to the United States with one goal in mind: to rebuild their lives. The government supported these efforts by providing
10 tuition and housing through the GI Bill. Campuses quickly became overcrowded with
GIs taking advantage of the benefits provided for in the bill. The average age of the returning soldier was mid-twenties (Brokaw, 1998).
As a result, a post-WWII phenomenon was that hundreds of higher-education facilities expanded or were created. Nearly all of these expanded or newly created facilities mirrored the familiar models of that time—industrial age models. The campus became the centralized location, with the professors and students assuming the role of the workers. The industrial-designed campuses supported a time-driven structure that required class participation at given times and locations. Campuses became mini cities, housing the predominately young and full-time student. During the 1950s, nearly 90 percent of students’ ages ranged from eighteen and twenty-one (Cyrus, 1997). The characteristics of these students defined the term “traditional student”. Today, it’s estimated that only a quarter of the students on campus fit this definition (Palloff &
Pratt, 1999). Today’s students of higher education represent a diverse population. They are older, are employed full time, and exhibit better study and coping skills than younger traditional students. Typical students enrolling in online courses range in age from 25 to 50 with two-thirds female and married (Cyrus, 1997).
Changing Roles: Instructors of Higher Education
This revolutionary paradigm shift has implications on the student and instructor. Changing demands in the academic and business worlds and the nature of today’s students have caused a shift in the instructor and participant relationship.
Students are more frequently returning to college or institutions of learning as adults
11 and with the purpose of gaining information or skills to support their needs in the workplace. An accepted principle of the Adult Learning Theory states that adults learn when information is applicable to real-life situations and is relevant to the learner. The adult learner is seeking academic institutions that understand and are capable of meeting those needs (Knowles, 1973; Knowles, 1975). In response, instructional environments are shifting from a focus on the teacher to the student and have increased the number of online courses to meet the demands of the adult learner. Becoming a student of online instruction has its own challenges. The distance student needs to be more focused, be an effective time manager, possess the ability to work independently, and be self-motivated (Gibson, 1996).
Instructors may be influenced by administrations to place their courses online without considering the design needs of online courses and without the active support of IT. And for all of the familiarity with technology and the Internet, few composition teachers have instructed using the Internet as their medium (Galin & Latchaw, 1998).
Instructors may not have the technical background or knowledge to make the technical transformation. This reinforces the thinking that online instruction requires little effort in design, thus minimizing the cost involved in additional training and conversion support (Cyrs, 1997). Instructors find the experience unsatisfying and are disappointed with the reduction in outcomes.
Without an understanding of the differences in presentation mediums—face-to- face and online—some instructors have developed online courses by posting their syllabus, notes, and additional reading. Instructors have missed opportunities to design collaborative, active environments where creativity and self-reliance is encouraged—
12 thus a failure for students and instructors. Designing courses online requires a shift in thinking. Once-practiced blank-slate approaches to education in which instructors imparted information to students no longer holds true. The shift in paradigm includes a move from an instructor-centered approach to student-centered, active, and collaborative approach. Online instructional courses should be robust with interation and optimized with pedagogically sound instructional strategies.
The Study
It is not difficult to see the influence teachers have when considering the design and use of effective instructional strategies. To better understand the use of instructional strategies in the design process, this study describes instructional behaviors in face-to-face and online classrooms through observations. The study is designed to gain insight into the instructors’ beliefs and attitudes toward the design and use of observed strategies in face-to-face instruction and online instruction. Similarities and differences are described, analyzed, and interpreted in terms of a causal relationship of salient beliefs, attitudes, intent, and behaviors.
Research Components
To gain an understanding about the relationship between the beliefs and use of instructional strategies as applied to face-to-face instruction and the design of online instructional environments, this study investigates five research components:
Face-to-Face Instruction:
13 - Behavior: Describe the use of instructional strategies in the classroom.
- Beliefs and attitudes: Examine the beliefs and attitudes toward the use of
instructional strategies in face-to-face instruction.
Online Instruction:
- Behavior: Describe the use of instructional strategies in online classroom.
- Beliefs, attitudes, and intentions: Examine the beliefs and attitudes toward
the use of instructional strategies in online instruction.
- The final component examines how the belief systems and behaviors used in
the face-to-face instruction differ and how they are similar from those used
when designing online instruction.
14 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
Issues relevant to this study are discussed in this chapter beginning with the impact theories have on the design of instruction. The review of current literature also includes a discussion about learning, instructional pedagogy, and instructional strategies. Finally, the Conditions of Learning as well as the Adult Learning Theory and Theory of Planned Behavior are explored.
Designing Instruction and Attitude Formation
The effective design and implementation of various types of instruction, including online, is grounded in theoretical frameworks. Decisions that impact the design and ultimately the outcome of an instructional experience are based on principles of well- established theories. Theories are defined as ways to describe relationships beyond a single event. They attempt to explain patterns of relational behavior and generally begin as assumptions based on observed behavior. The assumptions are tested in studies, altered, embellished, or replaced. Over time, a sound theory evolves from the body of knowledge. Theories have multiple functions: a) “provide a framework for conducting research,” b) “provide an organized frame of reference for specific items of information,” c) “unmask complexities and subtleties of simple events,” d) “provide a means for reorganizing prior experiences into testable principles” (Hewit & Whittier,
15 1997, p. 70). Good theories lead to research that serves to advance the body of knowledge surrounding the theory.
Learning theories evolve from a set of well-organized principles. They are rules or guidelines that describe the fundamental essence of a theory. Principles, when considered in the context of learning, are observable events of instruction. These events are verified through multiple experiments, studies, or observations and are consistent under certain conditions regardless of the training program or medium. When a set of principles group together in a logical way, conceptual models form.
Models are not observable, however, their outcomes are. It is only when the consequences of models are proven over time that the model becomes a learning theory.
The development, acceptance, and integration of a theory and theoretical principles into instruction is an ongoing dynamic process. Learning theories, models, and the principles become cornerstones of the decision-making process. Decisions, made throughout the instructional design process, are based on theoretical principles (Gagne,
1974).
Learning Theory
Learning theories have increased dramatically in recent years and are grounded in sound educational principles that apply to a broad understanding of curriculum and teaching strategies. There is a complexity of learning theories identified by approaches, associations, and classifications. Learning theories have strong implications for principles of instructional design, thus driving design decisions including the use of instructional strategies. Classrooms and interactive environments are contrived
16 mechanisms or tools used to enhance interaction with students for the purpose of attitude and behavioral changes. These changes occur as the result of information internalized as knowledge. The design of instructional environments—classroom and online—is dependent upon the same sound learning theories.
Designing instruction is an external event that influences the internal processes of the learner. This requires an understanding of the events of instruction that embraces the identification of objectives; teaching strategies and presentation; and evaluation and feedback. This systematic approach relies on the “arrangement of resources and procedures used to promote learning” (Gagne et al, 1992). Arranging resources and applying processes need to be a deliberate strategic action whether one is in the classroom or electronic environment. Principles from Robert Gagne’s Conditions of
Learning and Malcomb Knowle’s Adult Learning Theory have been driving forces in the design of face-to-face and online instruction.
Designers of online instruction face new challenges. As new technologies emerge and student populations change, designers must adjust to using strategies or techniques that are most appropriate for the environment and to meet the needs of the students. In addition to issues such as changing assessments, a shift in control from the instructor to the students must be dealt with. Access and availability to resources, time management, and different skills and life experiences are only a few issues that effect control. Palloff and Pratt (2001) state that students are empowered when instructors give up control over the learning process. Instructors who use appropriate collaborative strategies, real-life experiences, and encourage student interaction are good prospects for teaching online courses.
17
Learning, Instruction, and Strategies
The design of instruction is an art and science built upon sound learning theories and the application of principles to create an environment conducive to learning. As stated by Reigeluth (1983), it is the “discipline that is concerned with understanding and improving one aspect of education: the process of instruction. The purpose of any design activity is to devise optimal means to achieve desired ends.” (p. 4). Designing effective instruction focuses on a dynamic relationship between the teacher and student or student and student. Instructional strategies are the tools that enable the exchange of information in the relationship. Understanding the intent and needs of those in the relationship and selecting the most effective strategies is paramount to success.
Learning is by nature an active process. Learning becomes a meaningful
experience only when information is internalized, thus becoming knowledge. Eggen and
Kauchak (1988) view those processing and internalizing the information to knowledge
as active investigators rather than passive recipients of information. The desired
outcome of learning is to change behaviors. Outcomes are measured in various ways;
however, changed behavior is the evidence of internalizing information into knowledge.
The effects of instruction are observable. “Learning is a change in human disposition
or capability, which persists over a period of time, and which is not simply ascribable
to processes of growth” (Gagne, 1977, p. 3). Learning occurs in naturalistic settings as
well as planned, intentional settings. From our earliest experiences as infants, learning
occurs in unstructured learning environments; however, the focus of this study is to
18 consider conditions of learning in structured environments—face-to-face and online classrooms—each consisting of intentional, preplanned instruction.
Instruction is used to support learning and requires interaction between students and teachers, or instructors as they’re referred to in this study. Instruction is a set of planned activities that impacts the learners in a way that facilitates learning—to activate and support learning. Stated another way, “instruction is a human undertaking whose purpose is to help people learn” (Gagne, Briggs, & Wager, 1992, p. 3).
Effective instruction is planned using some type of systematic method or approach.
Instructors promote learning by designing a systematic delivery of instruction. When considering classrooms—face-to-face or online—instruction is not random. (Gagne, et al., 1992).
Direct and Indirect Instruction
The belief that there isn’t any difference between face-to-face and online instruction is a misnomer. The lack of funding or opportunities for training has further entrenched this myth. Many well-intended instructors simply do not have the tools or training to develop pedagogical strategies for the delivery of online instruction.
Therefore, some instructors continue to teach online courses in the same way as the course had been taught in the classroom. Often this results in posting lengthy online lectures supported by the compressed video “talking heads” (Cyrs, 1997).
Interaction appears to be the missing component when comparing online instruction to that of face-to-face. As defined by instructors and administrators of successful online learning, “interactivity is the defining attribute of a contemporary
19 distance learning experience” (Wagner, 1997, p.19). “Through their interaction with one another, the instructor, and their environment, create knowledge and meaning…a well-constructed interactive online course or good use of technology to enhance a course only serve to contribute positively to learning outcomes” (Pallott & Pratt, 2001, p. 6).
Interactivity for online instruction is dependent on the available wireline technologies. Computers, compressed video, video conferencing, audio clips, animations, interactive illustrations, and hyper-linked documents. When designing an online course pedagogical strategies can include, but are not exclusive to, the following:
· Course planning and organization: building course interactivity using design and
instructional strategies to increase effectiveness of instruction.
· Presentation skills: organize, present, and coordinate presentation and materials to
cue students, guide discussions, focus students’ attention, and maintain an
appropriate pace. An instructor placing a course into a digital format needs to be
aware of usability issues such cross-linking information, resource accessibility, and
providing visual cues that make using the technology intuitive.
· Collaborative teamwork: nurture a dependency among students.
· Questioning strategies: Knowledge of how to construct questions and encourage
students to respond and ask questions (Cyrs, 1997).
Face-to-face instruction is referred to in this study as direct instruction. This method of instruction is a commonly viewed as teacher-centered instruction. Direct instruction primarily focuses on lecture and drill-and-practice but also allows for other
20 teaching methods and strategies that encourage student involvement and activity. For example, direct instruction can include compare and contrast, demonstrations, and the use of questioning techniques. Direct instruction also encourages the use of authentic literature. (http://schools.spsd.sk.ca/DE/PD/instr/index2.html). Direct instruction requires direct contact with students generally found in the classroom setting. In context of this study, direct instruction presents a tension when the instructor tries to teach the online course in a way that he was experienced in and familiar with—face-to- face.
Indirect instruction requires a shift from teacher-centered to student-centered.
The role of the instructor is a facilitator. Indirect instruction applies to online instruction as it is student-centered with the instructor providing more of a resource role. The students are more actively involved in the learning process. Indirect instruction used when teaching online courses is a unique experience from that of direct classroom instruction.
Each online course includes variables of audience generally not found in traditional classroom. Demographics of students who tend to take online courses are more varied and students can represent multiple geographic locations around the world.
Online students are typically older, more experienced adult learners. Instructors feel a loss of control when employing face-to-face strategies that translate differently when used for online instruction. The instructor-student relationship can be impeded with the loss of personal contact. Also, instructors are limited to technical specification requirements.
21 Adult Learning Theory helps to better understand the uniqueness of indirect online instruction. As outlined by Knowles (1975) the Theory of Adult Learning is based on five assumptions:
1) Self-concept: Adult learners find identity and develop self-concept in active
learning. Adults have a need to be self-reliant learners assuming
responsibility for their own learning and their own lives. Once self-concept
is developed, the person needs to be perceived as self-reliant. This includes
the need to be a learner independent of the instructor.
2) Experience: As a person matures, life experiences become a part of, and can
be applied to, the learning process. Adult learners draw from their reservoir
of knowledge and experience. Adults seek out opportunities to integrate
what they know and experience into the instructional event that must be
presented as active learning.
3) Readiness: Adults learn on a need-to-know basis. The need to learn
something is usually based on employment or personal growth and that
makes new demands or challenges in the participant’s life.
4) Orientation to learn: Through the course of maturation, learners move from
a subject-centered learning to problem-centered learning. This shift in
orientation places the focus on learning tasks.
5) Motivated by internal factors: Adults are more likely to be motivated by
internal factors such as self-esteem, achievement, recognition,
responsibility, and advancement.
22 Malcomb Knowles’ Adult Learning Theory provides a general description of instruction that typically motivates adults. Knowles identifies a paradigm shift from teacher-centered, didactic instruction to student-centered instruction—from what the teacher does to what the learner needs (Knowles, 1973, 1975; Lee, 1999).
Designers of online instruction face new challenges. As new technologies emerge and student population changes, designers must adjust to using strategies or techniques that are most appropriate for the environment and to meet the needs of the students. In addition to issues such as changing assessments, a shift in control from the instructor to the students is an outcome of online learning that must be dealt with.
Access and availability to resources, time management, and differences skill levels and life experiences are only a few issues that affect control. Palloff and Pratt (2001) state that students are empowered when instructors give up control over the learning process.
There are also similarities between direct and indirect instruction as both are dependent on the same theoretical principles or components of instruction. For example, similar components of direct and indirect instruction can be organized into three domains and based on Gagne’s nine events of learning. (Overbaugh, 1994).
1) The first domain is the instructional set and consists of stating objectives, gaining
student’s attention, and recall of prior learning. The primary means of instruction
for these events are teacher-directed lecture, demonstrating, and questioning (Burden
& Byrd, 1994).
2) The second domain includes content and its presentation—guiding the learning
experience, enhancing retention, and transferring information. This is considered the
instruction. Strategies are used based on the objectives and content discipline.
23 Strategies that are described and analyzed in this study include group discussions,
personal experiences, and models of work.
3) The third domain is feedback and student performance. This model, consisting of
three domains, or referred to at times as levels, include a) the outcomes of
instruction, b) instruction, and c) evaluating the effectiveness of instruction (Gagne
et al., 1992).
Effective designs for face-to-face and online learning include these domains; therefore, the design dependency of the domains is viewed as a similarity between the two mediums.
Instructional Strategies
Instructional strategies define ways to communicate planned events of interaction. Strategies are deliberate, planned activities for presenting content and are intended to increase knowledge, thus support learning. There is a wide range of strategies that can be instructor- and user-centered and conducive to different models of learning. Learning objectives must be considered when planning appropriate instructional strategies. Finally, strategies are content or discipline appropriate and selected with knowledge of the learners’ needs. It is when an instructor reflects on the learning objectives, knowledge about the learners, and chooses appropriate strategies based on the content that the best instructional designs are achieved (Burden & Byrd,
1994; Gagne et al., 1992; Hewit & Whittier, 1997; Joyce & Weil, 1996).
When considering the strategies used in this study, it was not possible to correlate the appropriateness of a strategy to the learning objective because objectives
24 were not documented. As identified by the instructor in an interview, he did not formally document instructional activities or outcomes using lesson plans. He did, however, infer an overall objective to develop critical thinking skills using writing goals, reading and critical thinking goals, and information literacy and source management goals. It is important to identify this objective in light of strategies used.
Instructional strategies observed during the data collection process of this study were considered content appropriate.
The use of instructional strategies may not always support learning. An inappropriate application or lack of instructional strategies can cause a disconnect in the learning process. Some writings support learning environments that are free of instructional design or strategies, thus enabling students to design their own direction of learning. Design and strategy-free environments are perceived to deprive the student of learning within social constraints and rewards (Gagne, et al., 1992).
Instructors use a wide variety of strategies. For example, an instructor may use a diagram to illustrate the relationship between branches of the government and implement a variety of questioning techniques while another instructor may lecture and create an assignment where students compare and contrast branches of the government using a visual representation. Knowing which strategy to use is in part based on an instructor’s knowledge and experience and their understanding of how students learn based various learning theories.
Art and Science of Designing Online Instruction
25 The planning of an instructional strategy is an important part of the
instructional design process. It is at this point that the designer must be able to
combine knowledge of learning and design theory with his experience of
learners and objectives. Needless to say, creativity in lesson design enhance this
other knowledge and experience. Perhaps it is this component of creativity that
separates the art of instructional design from the science of instructional design
(Gagne, et al., 1992, p. 28).
A design principle of an interactive program is that it is a user-centered. User- centered designs seek the involvement of the end users throughout the design process including content development, instructional strategies, appropriate assessments and technical specifications. A user-centered design is an integration of the designer’s ideas into the world of the user and engages the participant with interesting and highly interactive designs (Smith & Ragan, 1999). Strategies used in the classroom are appropriately applied to interactive instruction when face-to-face instruction is user centered with appropriate collaborative strategies.
Some academic institutions support active learning. Much emphasis is given to active learning as Palloff and Pratt (2001) states, “when course delivery does not include any interactive component we [authors] have to agree that quality will suffer”
(p. 6). Active learning occurs when online courses are designed with interactive elements. These include the exploration of content through highly interactive navigational structures, problem solving, writing, coaching, and collaboration with other participants. Digital learning environments support both changes—a shift to being user centered and active learning. Even though there is concern about instructor
26 dissatisfaction and reduced instructional quality with Web-based learning, Palloff and
Pratt (2001) state, “faculty who have historically made good use of active learning techniques face-to-face are finding that their transition to online learning is eased through the use of those techniques” (p. 12).
Traditional classrooms provide various avenues of communications—talking, listening, writing, reading, and reflecting are element of active learning in traditional classrooms and online learning (Meyers, 1993). Talking, or thinking aloud, makes the participant aware of his or her thought processes—thinking through the problem, event or internalized information. This is especially true when considering problem solving.
Thinking though a problem out loud reviews error in logic or process. This process of logically organizing and presenting information encourages the student to connect to previously learned information; thus, helping to move information from short-term to long-term memory.
Listening is also active learning. Models of communication can require the listener to mirror back or interpret what is being said. Active listeners encourage clarity by asking questions. The listener is an active participant in the event, therefore, engaging in active listening. Examples of active learning in the classroom include the use of collaborative models of instruction, problem solving through experimentation, using manipulatives, and portfolio writing. Active learning and communication build the learning community and paves the way for meaningful learning (Meyers, 1993).
Particularly supportive of writing and reflecting is the ability to communicate through multiple modes of communication—all of which can be identified as asynchronous or synchronous. Asynchronous communications may include lectures
27 that are published or video taped and put on the website for future references
(http://www.vnulearning.com/wp/glossary.htm). Threaded discussions or bulletin boards are also considered asynchronous as participants react to previously posted information at a time that is convenient for them. Email is also effective as an asynchronous design element. Asynchronous design elements become an effective communication tool for delivery of instructional information and activities in online learning.
Synchronous is online learning experience where participants interact or communicate at the same time. It is time-dependent meaning that students are logged on at the same time and can listen to or read communications delivered via an interactive environment and respond immediately. Video conferencing and chart rooms are examples of synchronous learning. Guest speakers, content experts or visiting professors can present online in a synchronous environment with interested participants
(http://www.vnulearning.com/wp/glossary.htm). This method of instruction encourages spontaneous dialog, similar to what is found in a traditional classroom.
As in the classroom, online learning provides information in the form of documents and resources that support reading. Knowledge management (KM) refers to the management of documents, resources, and information electronically. It’s a system of organizing and storing information.
Given an appropriately designed online learning environment and a community active learning occurs. Based on instructional design elements that provide for active learning including communications, participants are enabled to interact with the content, select information and build mental structures that are relevant to real life
28 situations. A highly interactive environment provides cognitive activities—questioning, clarifying, and consolidating information into knowledge—thus supporting the learning process. (Meyers, 1993).
Definition of Terms
Asynchronous communication: online communication that is not time-dependent
Computer-based instruction: dependent on CD-ROM or individual software applications
Distance learning: an instructional event that involves two-way communication between people who are not at the same location and is used interchangeably with online learning
Internet: global connection of networks that electronically communicate information.
The Internet is linked together with phone lines and satellite connections making it accessible to individuals, public and private institutions.
Intranet: network of electronically communicated information accessible by a designated group of people.
Online instruction: distance learning that using the Internet or Intranet as it means of communications and is used interchangeably with distance learning
Synchronous communication: online communication that is time-dependent
Web-Based instruction (WBI): broader term that encompasses multiple mediums of instruction—all of which include using the Internet or Intranet.
World Wide Web (Web): vast collection of information and documents stored on the
Internet and accessed using browsers and Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)
29
Technology
Technology is changing the face of higher education. “Between the fall of 1995 and 1997-98 the percentage of all higher education institutions offering distance education courses increased by about one-third and that the number of course offering and enrollments in distance education courses doubled” (Palloff & Pratt. 2001, p. 6).
This is not surprising considering several factors: trends in learning, economics of higher education, changing demographics of students, and the development of the
Internet in the late decades of the twentieth century.
The development of the Internet was a response to the race between the United
States and Soviet Union (USSR) to explore outer space and to exhibit dominance in the world of science and technology. As described by Robert Zakon (2000) the launch of the Soviet Sputnik prompted the U.S. to pour unprecedented resources into the development of its space program. Developed by the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA) and the Department of Defense (DOD) to communicate, the Internet was first used with a handful of universities across the United States to exchange highly sensitive military information that primarily supported the space program. A symbiotic relationship between the Internet and higher education quickly developed.
Throughout the 1960s the Internet networks were developed between the DOD and
MIT, Stanford, UCLA, University of Utah, and Harvard among others. Extending the
Internet beyond the U.S. borders occurred in 1973 when University College of London
(England) joined the network.
30 Primarily document focused, the Internet maintained a communication link between think tanks and the DOD until early1980s. Corporations such as IBM, BBN, and the RAND Corporation supported research projects with seed money to develop the use of Internet email. This coupled with the development of more sophisticated protocols allowed university staff and students across the world obtain access.
Government initiatives such as US Research and Education Network provided access and funding to all public schools across the nation. Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s the race appeared to be the access of the Internet rather than space exploration. Governments across the world raced for a presence on the Internet—the
World Wide Web (WWW).
Currently, “75 percent of U.S. public schools have access to the WWW.
Seventy million adult users are online in North American, and in the United States, 18 percent of users are between the traditional college ages of 18 to 24” (Bitler, Rankin &
Schrass, 2000, p.325). Universities use the WWW for recruitment, admissions, course postings and registration, alumni and faculty, research, and distance learning.
It is not surprising that the current generation of college students, who have grown up with computers in the household and ready access to the WWW, are contributors to pushing the envelope in online learning. Comfortable with the technology and enthusiast in its continued growth and development along with universities increasing the number of online learning opportunities, enrollment in distant learning opportunities has grown exponentially in recent years. It’s currently estimated that 50 percent of college students will participate in a type of distance
31 learning. Trends in education point to a combination of classroom and distance learning opportunities (Jones & Gower, 1997; Levin, 1997).
Delivery of Online Course
Delivery of an online course has two foci: the technical and the human aspects.
Technical issues, in this study, focus primarily around the software program.
Blackboard, a course management software product, was the delivery mechanism for online instruction. “Blackboard delivers the promise of the Internet for online teaching and learning, campus communities, auxiliary services, and integration of Web-enabled student services and back office systems” (http://company.blackboard.com/index.cgi).
Blackboard enables instructors and students to conduct coursework in a secured environment. The software package provides for posting documents and messages, online assessments, drop box, links to resources, and synchronous and asynchronous capabilities—features to enhance the online learning experience. Communication tools include a threaded discussion board, email, and chat. One drawback of the chat room is that the conversation is captured with a length-restrictive copy and paste command.
Consequently, only partial conversations are permanently documented.
Blackboard offers a resource center that instructors and students benefit from.
The center includes news, features, password assistance, and technical support.
Instructors, designing online courses, can receive help using the training center.
Information such as teaching issues, tips, manuals, and flash tutorials is available. The
Student Center has fewer features, but includes news, programs, and services.
32 Blackboard software package offers features that support active learning, provided the instructor understands differences in instructional styles between face-to- face and online instruction and has either been trained to use the software or aggressively self-trains for effective design of instruction. Software limitations, such as not including audio- and video-conferencing, may be the results of hardware limitations—the lack of robust and updated computer systems for students’ use.
Software, like technology at large, is a tool to augment learning by organizing information in ways that are logical and meaningful while enhancing the ability to communicate and collaborate.
Technology is only one issue when considering the delivery of online courses.
Instructors face many dilemmas including training and development. According to a study by Cookson (2000), the integration of technology-based instruction has implications on instructors. “Other than innovators and early adopters, most faculty will need to tap into some form of systematic faculty development activities and training related to the design and delivery of Web-based course” (p. 76). However, instructors are not always willing to buy into the process before understanding the benefits of online instruction. The benefits of online instruction are not always perceived as beneficial to the instructors. Designing and implementing online instruction is time consuming. Instructors often pay for their involvement with online courses by having less time to pursue other academic achievements such as publishing and serving on tenure committees, thus impacting promotion. Universities need to combat this mentality by providing adequate time and training while making additional resources—designers and technologist—available (Cookson, 2000).
33
Theoretical Framework
Theories are organized into theoretical perspectives, one being Behaviorism.
Theories within Behaviorism focus on causal behaviors—stimulus and response, and assume that behavior can be modified. Behavioral theorists view the world of human behavior “as a response to identifiable prior stimuli. The direction of behavior can be modified and its consequences predicted in accordance with the degree to which preceding causes can be identified and controlled” (LeCompte, 1994, p. 128). Human behavior is viewed as rational and controllable. Behavioral theories are important when examining the art and science of designing instruction because the focus is on modifying or changing behavior—the event of learning.
Theory of Planned Behavior
The Theory of Planned Behavior provides the theoretical framework to analyze this study’s data collection and is used to identify the instructor’s salient beliefs and attitudes toward the use of instructional strategies as they apply to the classroom and online instruction. The instructor’s beliefs and attitudes are indicators of his intent to employ the strategies to face-to-face and online instruction.
The theory is an approach to understand and predict behavior and has implications when considering instructional design elements. The theory provides a structure of causal relationships among beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors.
The theory states “most human behaviors can be predicted and explained almost
34 exclusively in terms of individual beliefs and attitudes” (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p.
193).
Belief è Attitude è Intention è Behavior
Figure 2.1. Causal Relationships
The most accurate indicator of a behavior is the intention to perform the behavior; however, the intention is not necessarily known. “Actions [behaviors] are controlled by intentions, but not all intentions are carried out: some are abandoned altogether while others are revised to fit changing circumstances” (Ajzen, 1989). The intent to perform a behavior is reflective of the person’s attitude toward the behavior.
Attitude is a result of salient beliefs. Stated another way, beliefs form attitudes that are determining indicators of the intent to perform an action or behavior. The following is a description of each link in the causal chain beginning with belief.
Belief is the “information that a person has about other people, objects, and issues. The information may be factual or opinion” (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p. 7). A salient belief is what someone holds or perceives as being true. There are a triad of beliefs—behavioral, normative, and control beliefs. Each belief relates to an attitude.
Behavioral beliefs stem from an individual’s perception of the advantages or disadvantages of engaging in an action or event. Using interview instruments, this study gains insight into the perceived advantages and disadvantages of instructional strategies used in the delivery of face-to-face and that of online instruction.
Normative beliefs represent the influence important individuals or peer groups have about a behavior. Salient normative beliefs reflect “a person’s perceptions of the
35 social pressure to perform or not perform the behavior” (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996, p.
193). The interview instruments provide a format for understanding the instructor’s perception of social pressure and peer pressure to design and to use instructional strategies in the design and delivery of face-to-face and online instruction.
Control beliefs are the perceived constraints or limitations determined by “the presence or absence of requisite resources and opportunities” (Ajzen, 1989, p. 252).
Control beliefs identify elements of control a person feels he or she has over the success or failure of an event. For example, if an instructor believes that students have limited access to computers and poor computing skills, the instructor will more likely believe that there is a lower likelihood of success if computers are used as an instructional tool.
The interview instruments are designed to gain insight about the salient beliefs toward the use of instructional strategies in face-to-face instruction and online instruction.
The next link in the causal chain is attitude. Attitude is viewed as a person’s feelings or opinions and described by Mager (1984) as the “tendency to behave in one way or another” (p. 14). Understanding a person’s attitude provides insight as to anticipated behaviors. However, the outward exhibit of attitude through visible actions only provides circumstantial evidence toward tendencies of behavior. Virtually, any positive action toward an event or subject is a reflection of a positive attitude.
Likewise, any negative action reflects a negative attitude.
Generally, people are reluctant to discuss their attitudes or are unaware of underlying attitudes, therefore, it is necessary to understand the salient beliefs that form attitude. Each belief leads to an attitude. Therefore, from the three salient beliefs a triad
36 of attitudes forms. Ajzen and Fishbein proposed a casual chain model that links beliefs to attitudes as follows:
Behavior beliefs = Attitude
Normative beliefs = Social Norms
Control beliefs = Control Norms
Based on the triad of attitudes, a person’s own attitude derived from behavior beliefs, the norms of others, and those based on perceived barriers to success or failure, a person is motivated to comply or not comply. The positive or negative nature of attitudes effect the person’s motivation to comply and ultimately the intent to change or maintain a behavior.
Motivation Behavior Attitude to Comply Beliefs
Subjective Normative Intention Behavior Norm Beliefs
Control Control
Beliefs Norm Motivation to Comply
Belief Attitudes
Figure 2.2. Theory of Planned Behavior
As illustrated the causal chain, from salient beliefs, attitudes are identified. The intensity of motivation reflects on the intentions to perform a behavior are predicted
(Petty & Cacioppo, 1996; Mager, 1984; Ajzen, 1989).
37 Instruction requires many design decisions. Each decision has the potential to have profound impact on the success of delivery of instruction and ultimately the success of the student. Design decisions are based on principles derived from well- founded theories. From the Theory of Planned Behavior, we know that the instructor’s salient beliefs form an attitude that is the determining indicator of performing a behavior—the use of certain instructional strategies in face-to-face and online instruction. Research indicates that once a negative attitude is formed, the person invests limited effort toward the subject or event in the future. “Once such a behavior pattern develops, it is unlikely that it will be reversed” (Mager, 1984, p. 26).
Conversely, once a positive attitude is form, the person remains constant in the behavior. Therefore, understanding this theory of behavior and the application of principles based on the theory is critical to effective instructional design.
Behavioral theories are not used exclusively in research focusing on the learning process; however, to gain a deeper understanding of use of instructional strategies, implications and principles that are derived from these theories cannot be ignored. Understanding the instructor’s salient beliefs and attitudes toward the use of instruction strategies in the classroom is fundamental in understanding the connection between the application those used in online learning environments.
38 CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Review of the Data Collection Process
This chapter describes the study methodology—census, map, and calendar. The methodology is described as a qualitative study in which a unique event is portrayed using rich, descriptive words. A picture is painted to give readers a comprehensive understanding of the topic as it happened. The topic was studied in naturalistic setting—in context where the participants’ “actions can best be understood when observed in the setting in which it occurred” (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998, p. 5). The approach of studying the topic in a natural setting enabled the involved with the participants over an adequate period of time, observing and documenting behaviors, developing trust and respect, and gaining insight into their world (Bogdan & Biklen,
1998; Lancy, 1993; Wolcott, 1995).
This is a qualitative case study of one instructor’s efforts to teach two distinct bodies of students the same curriculum using two different techniques: face-to-face and online instruction. It is a collection of all the data obtainable and relative to one instructor and two groups of students. It is a specific way of “collecting data, organizing data, and analyzing data. The purpose is to gather comprehensive, systematic, and in-depth information about a case of interest” (Patton, 1980). This study does not attempt to generalize findings across a broad spectrum of instructional environments. Rather, it provides a clarifying explanation to one educational program and looks for common patterns within that unique experience.
39 This is an in-depth investigation to gain understanding about the relationship between the beliefs and use of instructional strategies as applied to face-to-face and online instruction. The intent is to examine the behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes of one instructor toward the use of instructional strategies. The study takes place in a regional campus of a major university near a midwestern metropolitan area. The participant was observed instructing students in the classroom and online and engaged in one-to-one, informal and formal, semistructured interviews. The data collection focused on five research components as follows:
Face-to-Face Instruction:
- Behavior: Describe the use of instructional strategies used in the classroom.
- Beliefs and attitudes: Examine the beliefs and attitudes toward the use of
instructional strategies in face-to-face instruction.
Online Instruction:
- Behavior: Describe the use of instructional strategies in online classroom.
- Beliefs, attitudes, and intentions: Examine the beliefs and attitudes toward
the use of instructional strategies in online instruction.
The final component examines the differences and similarities in the face-to-face instruction and online instruction and is discussed in CHAPTER IV. The intent of the data collection process is to look for patterns in the behaviors and belief system of the instructor.
Research Setting
40 Community
Suburbia—the great expanse of the American city. This is the place where the research study takes place. The study focuses on a typical classroom, instructor, and students in a regional campus of a major university located in the heart of suburbia, in a community 15 minutes from the downtown area of a major midwestern city. This vibrant community was settled as early as 1791 and incorporated as a city in 1955. The
7.7 square mile community has a balanced mix of residential, public, and industrial/commercial designated areas. The community is known as a blue-chip area because of its diverse and expansive industrial base including global leaders in the healthcare and consumer product industries. Two interstate highways, freight rail service, and a general aviation airport service the community.
The thriving community is well known for its excellence in services, recreational activities, and facilities. These include a community and senior recreational centers, orchestra, 18-hole public golf course, and public parks. The community’s downtown area has been recently renovated capturing the grace and beauty of the aging buildings, quaint shops, and streetscapes. The heart of the city is undoubtedly an attractive retail area. This area is highly desirable not only for its strong sense of community, but also for the schools that are generously supported by local businesses, industry, and property taxes.
Many residents take advantage of the award-winning public schools as well as an array of private schools and local college. The public school is rated among the top
10 districts in the state offering excellence in educational opportunities. Senior high
41 students are encouraged to take advantage of the community’s open admission college by earning college credits prior to high school graduation.
College and Classroom
In addition to partnering with local schools, community, and businesses, the college provides access to higher academics for any student with a high school diploma or its equivalent. The two-year college offers as many as 60 academic majors and a variety of certification programs. Students receive a general education through career and technical programs and often transfer to four-year programs to complete their baccalaureate program. The college’s student population reached 3,700 in 2000 with the average age of 28. Minority students represent 14% of the student body. Instructors and students enjoy a small classroom size; the average is fewer than 20 students. The campus boasts a newly constructed science and health building, computer labs, and renovated library. Because the campus does not offer housing, all students enrolled in traditional classes commute daily. On-site parking is available. Students have an alternative choice—online classes.
A unique design to this study is that the same curriculum is presented to two different groups of students using two methods of instruction—face-to-face and online.
The same instructor teaches both groups of students concurrently. The course is an introduction to college composition with a focus in reading contemporary essays, fiction and nonfiction, and writing response papers. The students’ academic writings are meant to be insightful, analytical, and persuasive. The course requires students to research topics using the library and electronic sources. Students are also encouraged
42 to use personal experience as a part of their response assignments when appropriate.
English 101 is a prerequisite. To meet the requirements of this study, the course is offered in a traditional classroom setting and online environment.
The classroom is located on the second floor of the building and does not have any unique features when compared to the other classrooms positioned side by side down the long corridor. The classroom appears to have an equal allocation of space when compared to other classrooms. Typical in its design, there is a blackboard on three of the four walls, a podium, and a 6-foot long table designating the front of the classroom, and a sufficient amount of combination chairs and desks for students’ use.
The only piece of instructional equipment more sophisticated than chalk and eraser is the overhead projector that is positioned near the table in the front of the classroom.
The only window allows a narrow slice of sunlight to stream into the room; otherwise, the classroom is lit with fluorescent overhead lights.
As designed by the instructor, the online class meets twice at the beginning of the quarter and again at the end of the quarter. The classroom where they meet is adjacent to where the students in the face-to-face instruction meet—one group in the morning and one group in the evening. There is no significant difference in the two classrooms except that online students do not benefit from the natural lighting streaming in from a window. The students enrolling in the online class have enrolled in the evening course with the winter months not providing sunlight after 6:00 p.m.
43
Participants
Instructor
The instructor, Dr. Samuel, is a veteran professor of higher education. His 30- year teaching career has been within the university system and began with a teaching assistant position as a graduate student. Dr. Samuel took a full-time teaching position in the English department initially teaching sophomore literature courses. Over the years he has primarily taught writing courses at the freshman level. His career is not limited to teaching English as he has also taught computer courses in the math department, and corporate and public workshops. Dr. Samuel is a columnist for a major city newspaper. His articles focus on technology and are often coupled with education. When asked about his role in teaching online, he responded:
I inherited this online class when the person who was teaching left. Initially, I
was going to do it for one year because another instructor and I were switching
off with the American literature class. One year I’d teach it and the other she
would teach it. And I enjoyed that. For the last three years, I’ve been teaching
the online class alone. Every tear I try to figure out some strategy for making it
better. And so it’s a constant challenge. The other thing that I like about it is
it’s kind of pleasurable to teach a writing course to older students. They
understand work schedules and meeting deadlines and stuff like that. And I
enjoy reading their papers. They’re often interesting. So, I’ll continue to do it.
44 Providing instruction online has disadvantages as perceived by Dr. Samuel. I asked how he felt when instructing online.
Well, it depends on what you mean. I don’t know when I’m instructing online.
The only time that I’m confident that I’m instructing online is when I break the
class into two groups and we meet in chat rooms. I feel like I’m instructing
then. It’s more like the rest of the time I feel what I’m doing is commenting on
papers. Because that’s what I’m doing—I’m grading. This is pure grading.
When asked about the face-to-face instruction, Dr. Samuel commented that these students tend to be younger. They are more likely to be eighteen-year-old students that tend to need more discussion and instruction than the online students; however, it cannot go without stating that he experiences a high level of satisfaction when teaching in a traditional setting. “I’m a ham and I love it” he responded when asked about how teaching in a classroom made him feel. “I like the stimulation. I feel good when it’s stimulating. It’s exciting…so I get upset when I see students playing with their phones.
I think, what’s going on? It’s distracting and no, I don’t enjoy that.”
A difference that Dr. Samuel recognizes between the two groups of students is that he knows the students by face in the traditional classroom and feels genuine affection and warmth toward them. The online environment is more impersonal, not giving him a chance to get to know the students.
Students Participating in Face-to-Face Instruction
Young quiet faces. That’s what I see when looking around the classroom. A total of 23 students registered for the face-to-face English composition class; however,
45 on the first day of class only 17 students were present—seven females and ten males.
The ratio of 41% female and 59% male does not reflect that of the college. Overall, the campus college student body is 70% female. The average age of these students, 21 years old, is lower than the overall age of the college student body. It is not clear if the differences are significant, as the college statistic does not distinguish between traditional classes taught in the daytime and those in the Evening and Continuing
Education program.
At the end of the quarter, the students in the face-to-face instruction were asked to complete a demographics survey: Research Study Demographics Survey Face-to-
Face Instruction. The five-question survey queried students for the following information. The complete demographic survey is identified in Appendix A.
· Student’s age
· Educational training beyond high school
· Number of months or years in the educational training beyond high school
· Number of hours per week that you work at a job
· Number of dependent children in the household
Fifteen students completed the paper-and-pen survey. It is not certain how many students had formally withdrawn at the time the survey was taken. However, records indicate that 18 of the original 23 registered students completed the course.
Therefore, it is reasonable to state that 83% of the students completing the face-to-face instruction also completed the survey.
46 Results for the demographic survey indicate the average age of the student as
20.9 years old. Only 7 of the 15 surveyed students indicated post-high school educational experiences with a mean average of 5.6 months pursuing post-high school education or training. These students indicated that they had attended technical or junior colleges, commercial driving school, first aid, and CPR training, and in one case, technical training for the military. Twelve of the students registered for the face-to-face instruction worked an average of 26.9 hours per week outside of the home and were responsible for three children.
Table 1
Mean Averages for Demographics of Face-to-Face Students
Students’ Students with post- Time spent in post- Percent of Time spent age high school high school students each week in education or training education or training working the workplace
20.9 7 students—46% of 5.6 months 12 students— 26.9 hours years those responding to 80% of those the survey responding to the survey
Students Participating in Online Instruction
As designed by the instructor, the students registered for the evening course meet face-to-face for the first two weeks of class and again at the end of the quarter— the rest of the course was completed online. The instructor emphasized the importance of attending the first class, as it provides time to put a face on the digital student, to ensure that students understand the course requirements and expectations, and to see if students have adequate computer skills.
47 Twenty-one students registered for the online instruction were in attendance and seated promptly at 6:40 p.m. They seemed to have more of a presence about them than the students in the face-to-face instruction, possibly because the students enrolled in the evening online course looked older. They were casually talking among themselves before class started and were more open with responses and opinions when queried by
Dr. Samuel than the morning students had been.
By coincidence, the enrollment of the online class was the same as those registered for the face-to-face instruction—23. Of those in attendance, 16 were female and 5 male. The ratio of 76% female and 24% male more closely reflects the overall population of the college. Of the 23 students registered for the online class, only 11 completed the course.
To better understand the demographics of the students, those registered for the online instruction were also asked to complete a demographics survey: Research Study
Demographics Survey Online Instruction. The six-question survey queried students for the following information. The complete survey is identified as Appendix B.
· Student’s age
· Educational training beyond high school
· Number of months or years in the educational training beyond high school
· Number of hours per week that you work at a job
· Number of dependent children in the household
· How would you describe your computer skills before enrolling in this course? a. none b. novice
48 c. intermediate d. expert
Of the 23 students originally registered for the online class, eight chose to complete the demographics survey. It is not clear how many students had formally withdrawn at the time the survey was administered; however, since 11 completed the course, it is reasonable to state that 73% of the students completing the online instruction also completed the survey.
Results for the demographic survey indicate the mean average of the students was 25.3 years old. Seven of the eight surveyed students indicated post-high school educational experiences with a mean average of 2.5 years of pursuing continuing education at academic and technical colleges. Because these students were older and had more college experiences than the face-to-face classroom students, it is possible they did not consider including job or military training when responding to the demographics survey. Five of the students worked an average of 40.3 hours per week outside of the home and were responsible for 12 children including foster children. Six of the eight survey respondents indicated that their computer skills were at the expert level, one indicated intermediate level, and one did not respond.
Table 2
Mean Averages for Demographics of Online Students
Students’ Students with post- Time spent in post- Percent of Time spent age high school high school students each week in education or education or working the workplace training training 25.3 6 students—87% of 2.5 years 5 students— 40.3 hours years those responding to 63% of those the survey responding
49
Entrée
“I would like to participate but don’t fit the criteria. Best of luck.” “…I’ll forward your request to others….” “I do use the computer but don’t consider my course online.” “Perhaps you should change your study to….” “I’d be happy to assist you in your study!”
Finding participants and gaining entrée was a long and arduous process beginning eight months prior to the data collection process. The original proposal was to study three instructors; however, this number was reduced to one due to the limited number of instructors using the same curriculum in face-to-face and online instruction. I started the search process by developing a set of criteria for the study participation as follows.
Criteria for the instructor participation:
- Teaching in a university setting
- Teaching the same curriculum concurrently online and in the classroom
- Accessibility
- Exhibit a willingness to participate in the study as demonstrated by signing
a consent form
Criteria for student participation:
- Enrolled in the face-to-face or online classroom of the participating
instructor
- Exhibit a willingness to participate in the study as demonstrated by signing
a consent form
50 I initially sought out a graduate level program but extended my search to include undergraduate courses. Not listed as a criterion but a consideration was that the participant needed to be accessible to the researcher.
I began the search by talking to local colleges and universities, heads of departments, and other researchers interested in educational technology and related topics. I sent requests to state and private educational organizations and posted a research study participation request on Blackboard, a university system. Interested readers forwarded my request to peers and various universities around the state. This attempt, however, proved fruitless, as willing instructors were not accessible or not using the same curriculum in both environments simultaneously. There was one exception—Dr.
Samuel. Teaching undergraduate students at a local college, he met the study criteria and agreed to participate in the study.
Prior to the beginning of the quarter, I met Dr. Samuel at his campus office with the purpose of discussing two topics: to provide a general understanding of the study protocol and the logistics of data collection. I briefly covered issues concerning research and the Institutional Review Board (IRB) protocols and described the study as an investigation into the use of instructional strategies. My intent was to not provide detailed information about the study, as I did not want to influence Dr. Samuel’s instructional methodologies, yet I needed to provide enough information to ease concerns. From the perspective of the instructor, working in the dark would have been stressful. A relationship based on trust began to form, one where he would be comfortable with open and honest dialog between us. Without this trust, Dr. Samuel would not have been candid or reflective.
51 Introduced to Students
The beginning of a school year or new quarter is generally met with excitement.
Electricity was in the air. Dr. Samuel introduced me to the class as a visiting researcher. He told the students that I was in the classroom primarily to observe him but would be observing them too. Given an opportunity to address the students, I introduced myself, explained that I was collecting data for a research program and would be observing both the instructor and students. I communicated that students had the option to not participate simply by not signing a consent form. Because the online students met face-to-face for the first two weeks of the quarter, I had the opportunity to present the study to the students in the same manner. The instructor along with the students, classroom and online, voluntarily signed consent forms.
Data Collection Plan
To gain insight on the questions of this study, data were collected using a variety of strategies and instruments. The process of designing the collection instruments began months before the data collection took place. Instruments were designed with the flexibility that would allow the events to guide the collection process but not compromise the integrity of the study. Data collection continued throughout the
10-week observation period.
The first part of this section describes the initial data collection plan including the development of instruments. The plan is described in context of the four research components. Following the Data Collection Plan, the Data Collection Methods are
52 described in detail. In a similar way, they are described in context of the study components.
Face-to-Face Instruction: Behaviors
Instructional behaviors in the face-to-face classroom were collected using observational evidence, handwritten and audiotaped field notes, and archived documentation including the course syllabus and handouts. A complete listing of collected evidence is found in Table 3 Chronological Order of Data Collection.
Initially the data collection plan included a Classroom Observation Instrument to document the use of each instructional strategy. This meant creating an instrument where all possible instructional strategies were listed along with space to make hash marks. Each time a strategy would be used, a hash mark would be placed on the instrument next to the strategy, thus documenting the frequency of use for each strategy. After consideration, I chose not to use the Classroom Observation Instrument, as it did not allow for documentation of events as they naturally flowed in the classroom. Instead, I used the combination of observation, field notes, and archived documents.
Videotaping the class was also considered. This idea was abandoned, as it was perceived as too intrusive on the natural setting of the classroom. Later conversations with the instructor confirmed that not videotaping the class was the right decision, as he seemed uncomfortable with the idea. I chose to use direct observation and handwritten field notes while tape recording the events.
53 Twenty-four class periods where tape-recorded. Initially, I used a small handheld tape recorder. The quality of the recorder was acceptable; however, I found managing the small tapes difficult. The labels did not provide enough space to encode each tape and identify side one and two along with noting occasional continuations. I also found transcribing these tapes to be more time consuming than expected because the recorder was clumsy to handle when typing. After two weeks I purchased a larger recorder and tapes. When tape recording class interactions, I left the recorder on an empty desk. The larger recorder did not appear intimidating as Dr. Samuel and the students moved freely around it while interacting in group discussions. Audiotapes were transcribed on a weekly basis.
The handwritten field notes where taken in a bound notebook with each new setting identified with the date and coded as described in the following section titled
Coding. Notes were sequential and transcribed along with the audiotapes.
Archival documents were collected throughout the observed period of time.
They consist of the class syllabus, handouts, and peer review forms. Documents were collected at the time they were passed out to students and encoded with the date.
The combination of audiotaped recordings, handwritten field notes, collecting archived documents worked well but did not enable me to collect data on the instructor’s written feedback to the students—a frequently used instructional strategy.
Therefore, copies of his written feedback were made and handled as archived documents.
54 Face-to-Face Instruction: Beliefs and Attitudes
The second component of the study is designed to understand the instructor’s salient beliefs and attitudes toward the use of instructional strategies in face-to-face instruction and required informal and formal taped interviews with the instructor.
Initially the study was designed with only two formal exit interviews: informal interviews were added early in the data collection process. Ultimately, two types of informal interviews were added to the study: hall and office. All interviews combined total approximately five hours. A complete list of all interviews—formal and informal—is organized by date of collection and research component is found in Data
Description and List.
Integrated into the formal exit interviews was an activity—Instructional
Strategy Sorting Activity. The activity enabled the instructor to identify strategies he considered effective. This became an important element of the study and is described in detail in later sections.
Informal Hall Interviews
The hall interviews had not been pre-planned; however, the instructor expressed a need to share information immediately following a class period. The hall interviews were spontaneous. The instructor and I were cautious to stand in an area free of students or other instructors. These interviews were opportunities for Dr. Samuel to communicate how he felt about something that had just happened or for me to clarify
55 an observation. Topics during these interviews varied between the face-to-face and online instruction.
There were four hall interviews, lasting approximately five minutes each for a total of 20 minutes. When organizing collected data, I included the hall interviews with the other pieces of data pertaining to instructional beliefs and attitudes even though the hall interviews included data about the instructor’s behaviors.
Informal Office Interviews
Similar to the hall interviews, the informal office interviews had not been a part of the preplanning and were later used to capture data as it occurred. Interviews were conducted once a week in the instructor’s office. There are a total of five informal office interviews, each lasting from 15 to 25 minutes totaling approximately one and one-half hours. Data collected from the informal office interviews pertains to instructional behaviors as well as the instructor’s salient beliefs and attitudes. The office interviews are organized along with data pertaining to the instructor’s beliefs and attitudes.
Formal Exit Interviews
The Exit Interview instrument consists of open-ended questions designed to elicit beliefs and attitudes from the instructor about strategies used in face-to-face instruction. The instrument is framed within Theory of Planned Behaviors with questions having three foci: behavior, normative, and control. These are described at length in the section titled Data Collection Methods. Sample questions are included
56 with the full-length survey instrument attached as Appendix C and Appendix D. As planned, the exit interviews were to be administered at the end of the ten-week period.
The two exit interviews proved to be the strongest evidence to gain insight into Dr.
Samuel’s beliefs and attitude toward the use of instructional strategies.
The Exit Interview instrument provided the primary set of questions; however, many secondary questions arose from the responses during the interview. I followed primary questions by asking Dr. Samuel to further describe his feelings or explore the situation in a deeper way. In this way, the designed interview instrument was semi- structured, yet flexible and fluid.
Instructional Strategy Sorting Activity
The exit interview also included an activity—Instructional Strategy Sorting
Activity. Dr. Glenn Markle conceptualized the activity during a discussion evolving around innovative ways to corroborate research data. As previously described, it would be possible to observe instructional behaviors and to gain insight about the Dr.
Samuel’s beliefs and attitudes using interviews. The activity provided a third point of data for analysis.
The purpose of the sorting activity was for the instructor to identify strategies he considered effective. The activity consisted of 16 index cards with one strategy written on each card. I chose strategies that supported Gagne’s nine events of learning.
For example, the first domain includes the events of stating objectives, gaining the student’s attention, and the recall of prior learning. These are primarily teacher- centered; therefore, I included teacher-centered strategies such as lecturing,
57 demonstrating and questioning. I included wait time as being strategic to questioning.
Supporting collaborative learning, I included strategies such as group and one-to-one discussions.
The 16 strategies had been carefully chosen before the study began; however,
Dr. Samuel used strategies not anticipated. For example, peer review had not been included in the original cards but was added later because it was frequently used in the face-to-face instruction. One strategy was eliminated prior to administrating the activity—lecture. The decision to not include lecture was that it was not perceived to be used to any extent in the face-to-face instruction or online instruction. This had an interesting outcome as described in CHAPTER IV.
Given the 16 index cards, Dr. Samuel was walked through a process where he identified the most effective strategies—first for face-to-face instruction then for online instruction. A more detailed description is in Data Collection Methods. The selections are used as part of the analysis.
Online Instruction: Behavior
The third component of the study is designed to describe the use of instructional strategies as design elements for online classrooms and required data collection using a variety of methods. The online class met in a classroom three times during the quarter—one evening class each of the first two weeks of the quarter and again for one evening class the last week of the quarter. Because all students were local to the university, this did not seem to present a problem. The remainder of instruction occurred online.
58 The online students meeting face-to-face served three purposes—for the instructor to get to know the students, to provide initial structure for the online class, and to ensure that all students had an acceptable level of technical proficiency. These meetings were documented through handwritten and audiotaped field notes and archived documents including the syllabus and Comp 102 booklet.1
Collecting data on the instructional behaviors used in the online class was not as preplanned as the classroom observations. While in the planning phase, I discussed the need to access the online course and digital communications with Dr. Samuel.
Online postings and emails would serve as my observation. I was given access to the online course and class correspondence via email.
Students wrote digital responses to journal questions each week. These were posted as threaded discussions and were really easy to follow. Occasionally, students responded to each other’s comments, however, that was not the norm. Reading emails in context of the assignments proved to be more difficult. Dr. Samuel forwarded me emails that were out of context and required reconstructing them in time frames. It was like putting together a cognitive puzzle. I generally accessed the online course from home two or three times each week to read students’ responses and revisit the online syllabus.
I had not anticipated phone conversations between the instructor and students ______1 The English Comp 102 booklet is a 17-page guide used throughout the quarter. The booklet, written by Dr. Samuel, was purchased at the college bookstore for $1.00. The booklet includes the syllabus, course description, policies, grading procedures, writing and journal requirements, and journal questions. The booklet is applicable for face-to-face and online instruction and was only available in hard copy. registered for the online instruction. Dr. Samuel encouraged the students to call his home or office. The nature of phone conversations was generally clarification of an
59 assignment, feedback regarding an assignment, or notification of missed classes and changed schedules. When I realized that these phone conversations could yield important data, I discussed the option of tape recording the conversations. This of course would require consent from the instructor and the students. Dr. Samuel was uncomfortable with my request; therefore, I decided to not pursue it, thus missing an opportunity to collect the data.
Online Instruction: Beliefs and Attitudes
Gathering data about the fourth component of the study, designed to identify
Dr. Samuel’s salient beliefs and attitudes toward the use of instructional strategies in online instruction, required informal and formal exit interviews. The exit interviews included the same activity as used previously—Instructional Strategy Sorting Activity.
The only difference was that Dr. Samuel was instructed to identify effective strategies used in online instruction. The process of developing the interview instrument and collecting data for the online instruction was the same as the face-to-face instruction.
Coding System
Before collecting data, a flexible coding system was developed to organize and date the different types of data. Handwritten documents, audiotapes and digital transcriptions were labeled with the same daily code. For example, on January 4 I collected handwritten field notes and an audiotape of the face-to-face classroom instruction. The tape was later transcribed. I encoded the field notes with a code and date CFN: 1_04_02. The audiotape and digital transcription were also labeled with the
60 same code and date. This enabled me to organize and store hard copies and digital
copies of each data collection opportunity and quickly reference the originals when
needed. Each code was followed with the data collection date. The codes are as follows:
· CFN: Classroom field notes
· OFN: Online field notes
· IFN: Informal (office) interview field notes
· HFN: Informal (hall) interview field notes
· EFN: Exit interview field notes
The table, Chronological Order of Data Collection, was constructed on an ongoing basis and identifies each piece of data collected for the face-to-face classroom and online classroom. The table, Research Study Questions Correlate with Data
Collection, correlates relative data with each of the four study questions.
With the coding system developed and data collected and transcribed, the
upcoming analysis required that the data be organized in a meaningful way. This
proved problematic and required a creative approach. Using hard copies I read each of
the transcripts, first to recapture the overall feel of the event and a second time to begin
pulling out the significant events. Issues such as personal exchanges between students
and religious views were noted. Even though these were interesting and when
experienced collectively represented the instructional event at large, they were not my
primary focus. I looked for events of instruction and specifically instructional
strategies. The data was rich in examples and all occurrences were marked.
61 I noted in the margins instructional events and began to put names to them. For example, I noted each occurrence of lecturing, questioning, discussions, providing examples, comparing, and performing peer reviews. Each occurrence of a strategy was identified with brackets and identified by name in the margin. These became my categories and the coding tree began to emerge. Each category and subsequent item was assigned a structure of numbers and letters.
· Roman number III was used to indicate calendar.
· Digits were used to indicate strategies.
· Lower-case letters were used to indicate a uniqueness of a strategy.
For example, I first noted Dr. Samuel using a personal experience to generate a discussion. The coding for personal experience was III.4 as personal experience happened to be the fourth strategy noted. In subsequent transcripts different types of personal experiences were noted—family, student, work and professional. Thus the unfolding of subcategories and the need to continually re-read and expand the codes.
Occurrences of each item in the coding tree were identified with brackets and handwritten codes. The following is an example of the coding tree relating to face-to- face and online instructional behaviors.
III.1 Written Feedback on assignments
III.1a Student generated
III.1b Instructor generated
III.2 Guiding questions
III.2a Generate discussion
62 III.2a.i questions directed at the class
III.2a.ii questions directed at the student discussion groups
III.2a.iii questions directed at individual students
III.2b Develop thesis
III.3 Group discussion
III.3a Dynamics
III.3b Expectations/process
III.4 Personal experience
III.4a Family
III.4b Student
III.4c Work or professional
III.5 Pre-organizers
III.5a Tools
III.5a.i Text books
III.5a.ii Workbook
III.5a.iii Movie
III.5a.iiii Online material
III.5b Workbook questions
III.5c Assignments
III.6 One-to-one discussions
III.6.a Classroom spontaneous
III.6.b Classroom pre-planned
III.6.c Office face-to-face
63 III.6.d Office phone call
I repeated the process for online instructional behaviors, and beliefs and attitudes for face-to-face and online instruction.
As I continued to read, and note and identify occurrences, two unexpected outcomes began to unfold—similarities and differences between the face-to-face and online instruction began to emerge as did patterns in the instructional process. These outcomes are described at length in the Findings; however, the unfolding process can be described using the following illustration.
III.2a.i
III.5b III.2b III.4b
III.3b 02_08_02
Figure: 3.1. Relational Data
This pattern represents one class period of face-to-face instruction. The objective was for students to develop a thesis statement represented in the center—
III.2b. Beginning at the top of the illustration and moving clockwise the following instructional pattern emerges. Dr. Samuel generated discussion by asking topical questions directed at the class at large. He then related the topic to a personal experience of the students. He then had the students move into their groups to discuss the topic and skillfully brought the discussion back to his original line of questioning by
64 directing students to the workbook—the journal entry questions that usually aligned with his opening thoughts.
With each occurrence of an instructional strategy identified in brackets and coded, the next challenge was to organize the data by codes rather than sequential as it appeared in the transcripts. When taken out of sequential context, the relational patterns were lost. I resolved this problem using two strategies—draw additional patterns to the one illustrated above and to create multi-paged Excel workbooks. A separate spreadsheet with multiple pages was developed for each of the study components. These are known as workbooks. For the two behavioral components, pages in the workbooks were labeled a strategy. For the two belief and attitude study components, each page was labeled with one of the three beliefs—behavioral, normative, and control.
From the digital transcripts and using the bracketed and coded hardcopies as guides, each occurrence of a strategy or belief was digitally copied into the appropriate worksheet. Generally two sentences to a full paragraph were copied. Data was copied into the spreadsheets in order of collection. The collection date and tree code was included. The advantage to this system over using word documents was that data was clustered with like-data and I could easily move from one category of data to another— flipping from the data collected on one strategy to that of another, or one belief to another, without opening additional documents. The following is an example of one page in the face-to-face behavior workbook.
65 Date Tree code Strategy: Personal Experience III.4a Family III.4b Student III.4c Work or professional III.4d Other 01_04_02 111.4a There’s a way around that. What I would suggest is that if you get stuck in the ice or a problem comes up call me. I’ve got an answering machine. Call me in the office and just say “I’m sorry I just got stuck today or I’m ill today, or just something.” What that says is that I’m a serious …unavoidably absent or unavoidably late. But I don’t want to…I think it’s a good strategy to make people aware that you really do care. You know when my daughter started college, one of the first things that I said to her was to … let them know that you’re a serious student. They care about what they are doing and they let you know they care. 01_04_02 111.4b I just want to take a moment to talk about the paper. This is a topic that interests me. What are online friendships like and how effective are they? How many of you have done that? Had an online friendship and written back and forth? Couple of you, not many? OK, I guess I thought more of you had. Well, we’ll just have to see how it goes. 01_04_02 111.4b and The only reason that I’m interested is that for four years I’ve written a paper c about the Internet. One of the issues that kept cropping up is “what is it like to have an online friend?” And to have met them and is it fulfilling or not fulfilling? And I talked to psychologist there was an incredible difference in opinion. And maybe in preparation for this, I don’t know, maybe you’d like to do some online mailing? [student question cannot hear] Well, we’ll see what happens with this.
Data Collection Methods
The second part of the Data Collection Plan and Methods and details the process or method of collecting data. It is organized by the four research components beginning with the instructor’s behaviors in face-to-face instruction then continuing with the instructor’s beliefs and attitudes towards the used of strategies. As described in the previous section, data collection incorporated various strategies including formal and informal interview. The formal exit interviews were framed within the Theory of
Planned Behavior. The instruments are designed to gain insight into behaviors and
66 beliefs of the instructor as they relate to the use of instructional strategies in the face- to-face and online instruction.
Face–to-Face Instruction: Observing and Documenting Behaviors
I arrived each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday at 8:55. Collecting observational data in the classroom required me to sit in a way that was non-obtrusive to the students or instructor. Initially, I sat in the back of the room but found I was surrounded with students. Tape recording tended to pick the responses and conversations of only these students. One morning I couldn’t get a seat in the back of the room, as students had taken the seats. Chuckling to myself, I decided I had to get to class early just to get a seat in the back of the room. I decided to move to the far side of the room where I had three vacant chairs.
Collecting observational data was fairly uneventful. I placed the tape recorder on an unused desk next to me while taking handwritten notes on my desk. To create a little buffer zone around me, I generally placed my coat over another seat. The buffer zone not only gave me a little space to maneuver, but also kept the comments of any one student from dominating the tape recording.
Students spent time in discussion groups where they collaborated on assignments. Dr. Samuel moved around the discussion groups talking one-to-one with each student. This was problematic when trying to capture discussions on tape. While in groups, students discussed their thesis statements, conducted peer reviews, and responded to specific content questions. I sat in proximity of three groups and was usually able to capture most of one group’s discussions. Throughout the 10-week
67 period, I moved the recorder to different desks to capture discussions of various groups. This also provided documented evidence of the instructor’s one-to-one discussions with students.
Students were mildly interested in the study. They were polite and occasionally asked questions usually focused around my career as an educator and ongoing education. Questions included “Are you a teacher?” “Why are you doing this?” and
“Do you still take classes?” One student tried several times to pull me into class and group discussions by directly addressing me from across the room, “What do you think of that?” With a quick nod of his head, Dr. Samuel acknowledged that it would be appropriate for me to respond.
Face-to-Face Instruction: Documenting the Instructor’s Beliefs and Attitudes
To gain insight on the instructor’s salient beliefs and attitudes toward the use of instructional strategies in the classroom, informal and formal interviews were conducted.
Informal interviews took two forms—hallway and office interviews. The hallway interviews, lasting five to ten minutes each, are described in the Data
Collection Plan. Other informal interviews, lasting 30 to 45 minutes, were at prescheduled times and location—generally 8:30 a.m. and in Dr. Samuel’s office.
Conducted informally, I generally asked for clarification of a recent instructional event.
The interviews included topics that were not always relevant to the study. For example, one student had an interesting perspective about online courses providing an environment free of judgment where black students could perform on an equal standing
68 to white students. Other discussions focused around a student, who because of religious convictions could not fulfill a requirement of the class—to watch a video. Overall, the informal interviews included data that focused on the instructor’s behaviors and beliefs.
Rarely did I find interviews to fit neatly into one category.
The final two exit interviews lasted one hour. As expected, I followed a preconstructed open-ended interview instrument and followed his responses with secondary questions. Students occasionally interrupted us with questions or needing to drop off completed assignments. I would pause the tape recorder then continue after the student left. During the interviews, I found Dr. Samuel to be quite candid.
The exit interviews were conducted at the end of the 10-week period. With the observations behind me, I was able to clarify Dr. Samuel’s interview responses with spontaneous questions specific to classroom behaviors that I had observed. We were able to discuss his beliefs and attitudes in context of the assignments.
The Exit Interview instrument was framed by the Theory of Planned Behavior.
To identify specific beliefs and attitudes toward the use of instructional strategies in the classroom, the interview was subdivided into three foci: behavioral beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs. As stated in the theory, salient beliefs are positive and negative. Positive salient beliefs are perceived as advantages and negative salient beliefs are perceived as disadvantages. Once the interview responses are understood in terms of perceived advantages or disadvantages, attitude, which is the strongest determinant of the intent to enforce or change a behavior, can be determined.
69 The questions were designed to assess behavioral beliefs—perceived advantages and disadvantages—of using instructional strategies. The following are sample questions taken from the questionnaire.
Do you believe that the use of instructional strategies improves student learning
in a classroom situation? Why or why not?
What are the advantages in using instructional strategies?
What are the disadvantages in using instructional strategies?
Questions were developed to identify normative beliefs or other peoples’ opinions that influence the study participant about using instructional strategies in the classroom. The following are examples of normative belief questions.
Are lesson plans ever evaluated by a department head?
What criteria are used to evaluate the instruction?
Finally, the interview questions focused on control beliefs that are influenced by environmental factors. The following are examples of questions used to determine the instructor’s control beliefs.
Describe the available resources that enable you to use instructional strategies
in your classroom.
Describe any professional training that you’ve had specific to instructional
strategies.
Thinking back on the teaching event, would you have used a different strategy?
Explain.
Complete Exit Interviews can be viewed in Appendix C and Appendix D.
70 The end of the first exit interview provided the perfect opportunity to complete
Instructional Strategy Sorting Activity. I provided the following explanation.
I have an activity that will help in understanding how you feel about
instructional strategies. As you know, this study is about strategies that we use
in the classroom and those used online and how they are similar and different.
So, what I have is a list of different strategies. I’d like for you to go through
these and identify the top ten strategies that you find effective in the classroom.
Let’s just focus on the classroom instruction.
I handed Dr. Samuel a stack of 16-index cards2, each with an instructional strategy written on it. He was asked to flip through the cards and select the 10 strategies he believed to be the most effective for face-to-face instruction. While reviewing the stack of cards, he asked me to clarify the meaning of wait time. I responded, “When you ask a question or pose a thoughtful comment and then you stop and wait while students think about it before initiating another question.” Dr. Samuel moved to the next card and commented “Sequence. Help me understand that.” I responded, “Is there ever a time when you take a group of events and have the students sequence them, place them in a logical order?” With that he took a final shuffle through the cards. He made his selections and handed the cards to me. The
______
2 Demonstration, Pre-organize, Guiding Questions, Wait time, Restate a question, Peer reviews, Group discussion, One-to-one discussion, Personal experience, Models, Pre- organizers, Written feedback, Classify, Compare and contrast, Illustrate, Sequence
71 strategies identified are footnoted.3 When asked to narrow his selection to five strategies, he took a few minutes then said he had six. “Is that going to be a problem?
Some of these are hard, because something like feedback I always do. Does that mean it’s number one? I do it on every paper that I get.”
Dr. Samuel identified these six strategies as the most effective for classroom instruction. See footnote for six identified strategies discussed in CHAPTER IV.4
Online Instruction: Observing and Documenting Behaviors
The third component of the study, designed to describe the behavior or use of instructional strategies as design elements for online instruction, required data collection using a variety of methods. During the two face-to-face evening meetings, data were collected using audiotaped recordings, handwritten field notes, and collecting archived documents such as the Comp 102 booklet and syllabus.
Because the face-to-face class and online evening class had identical curriculum, the first two weeks of the quarter presented few differences in instruction.
One difference, in the two classes, was that the online evening students received condensed instruction in two two-and-a-half-hour evenings, or five hours of instruction, rather than the six one-hour classes the face-to-face students received.
______3 Pre-organize, Guiding Questions, Restate a question, Peer review, Group discussion, One-to-one discussion, Personal experience, Pre-organizers, Written feedback, Compare and contrast ______4 Pre-organize, Guiding Questions, Group discussion, One-to-one discussion, Personal experience, Written feedback
72 As a result of the condensed classes, online students did not receive review on topics quarter such as developing a thesis statement.
Approximately half of the instructional time during the first evening for the online students was spent in the computer lab, thus shorting the instruction time for content topics. The purpose of spending time in the computer lab was to ensure that students’ computer skills were adequate to meet course requirements. Once in the lab, students logged onto Blackboard with only one student needing assistance. Another student had not registered for the class and could not log into the online course.
Students were asked to complete an assignment from home. They were to access the course syllabus posted on Blackboard, and click “Greetings” to hear an audio recording. They were to respond to Dr. Samuel via email. This exercise served three purposes—access the syllabus, test the technical capabilities of student computers for future online audio lectures, and encourage students to take part in a two-way electronic dialog.
Collecting observational data when the online students met in person is described the same as collecting observational data for face-to-face instruction. Once beyond the first two weeks, collecting observational data online required accessing and reading digital communications—threaded discussions and emails. I found the mechanics of this process to be time consuming. Initially I clicked into each response within a threaded discussion then closed it before moving to the next. A coworkers helped me discover a way to open and access all weekly postings in one document. This was a huge help when reading threading discussions. Emails were sent to me via the instructor.
73 To ensure confidentiality, I developed a coding system where numbers replaced each student’s name beginning with the number one. I organized and stored this student coding system digitally. Once a week’s threaded discussions were saved as a word document, it took only a short amount of time to delete any identifying information and replace with the coding number. Emails were handled in the same manner.
Online Instruction: Documenting the Instructor’s Beliefs and Attitudes
The fourth component was designed to examine the beliefs and attitudes toward the use of instructional strategies of online instruction required a semi-structure exit interview. Similar to the survey instrument used to determine the beliefs and attitudes toward the use of instructional strategies in the face-to-face instruction, this survey was framed by the Theory of Planned Behavior and subdivided into the same three foci: behavioral beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs. The behavioral open-ended questions, soliciting beliefs and attitude based on perceived advantages and disadvantages, were as follows.
Do you believe that the use of instructional strategies improves student learning
in online instruction? Why?
Do you believe that instructional strategies facilitate online instruction? Why or
why not?
Questions used to identify normative beliefs or other people’s opinions that influence the study participant about using instructional strategies in the online instruction are as follows.
74 Does your department head encourage the use of instructional strategies in
online instruction?
Do you ever work collaboratively with other instructors to design online
instruction? If so, are instructional strategies discussed? How do you document
the design process?
Sample interview questions that focus on the control beliefs that are influenced by environmental factors are as follows.
Describe how Blackboard enables you to use instructional strategies in your
online instruction.
What capabilities does Blackboard provide that you’ve not taken advantage of?
Describe the training you’ve received to support the design of online
instruction.
What are the barriers to using instructional strategies in your online courses?
Unanticipated secondary questions arose from Dr. Samuel’s responses to the questionnaire instrument. A complete survey instrument can be viewed in Appendix D.
We repeated the Instructional Strategy Sorting Activity from the first exit interview; however, the selections were reflective of strategies used for effective online instruction. Given the same 16 index cards, he identified four strategies and immediately began discussing his rationale. He identified the following strategies.5 This concluded the second exit interview.
______5One-to-one discussions, Provide feedback, Models, Pre-organizers Brief explanations for each selection, along with an analysis of the selections, are discussed in the CHAPTER IV.
75 Category Dissemination Model
Using the domain display Category Dissemination Model, the instructor can be classified into one of four categories based on the data analysis. Similar to a mathematical quadrant, this model classifies the instructor’s behaviors and beliefs and attitudes based on positive and negative attributes. These attributes are based on the research questions: face-to-face instruction behaviors and beliefs and attitudes, and the online instructional behaviors and beliefs and attitudes.
Using this model, differences or similarities are represented visually. The model’s Y axis is labeled Use of Instructional Strategies and is aligned with observational data. The X axis is labeled Beliefs and Attitudes and aligns with interview instruments (see Appendix C and D).
- Upper left quadrant: Instructor with a negative belief system and uses
instructional strategies.
- Upper right quadrant: Instructor with a positive belief system and uses
instructional strategies.
- Lower left quadrant: Instructor with a negative belief system and does not
use instructional strategies.
- Lower right quadrant: Instructor with a positive belief system and does not use instructional strategies.
(Y axis) Use of Instructional Strategies: Behavior
76
“Students’ achievement “I think it’s a waste of time but I’m told I is much higher because of instructional strategies have to do it.” (X axis) I use.” Beliefs and Attitudes
“I think strategies are “Using all these strategies good but I don’t really just makes the classroom know how to integrate noisy so I don’t use them into my lesson them.” plans.”
Figure 3.2. Category Dissemination Model
The quotes are used to exemplify possible responses that represent the four categories of classification. The Category Dissemination Model was developed by committee member Dr. Carol Setter.
Purposeful Sampling
Unlike quantitative research where the idea sample space is randomly selected, qualitative research requires a purposeful sampling based on the researcher’s biases.
As described by Harry Wolcot, the word “bias” is a substitute for hypothesis (1995).
To understand this concept, I needed to step away from my own preconceived definition of bias, holding a prejudiced view about an event or person, and examine the word in a fresh and new way. Defined within the context of qualitative research, bias represents an assumption and a desire to find logical and consequential outcome to further understand a point of interest. Biases stimulate inquiry and help focus on what is interesting and where data regarding the research topic are obtainable (Lancy, 1993).
77 I selected the site and study participants that represented the research topic, met the needs of research study, and would yield data relative to the research questions. As a researcher, I could not deny my biases, rather understand and accept them as my feelings and as a part of the study. My biases would have hurt the study only if taken to excess: to “exert undue influence on the consequences of inquiry” (Wolcott, 1995, p.
165).
The balance to understanding my own biases or feelings toward a topic, while not allowing them to influence the outcome of the study, was to remain neutral.
Neutrality is not a matter of not having likes or dislikes concerning the topic. It is an acknowledgment of having preferences or a passion and allowing those to become my motivation. Only because I am truly interested in a topic am I willing to quietly observe and collect data and carefully analyze the findings. My neutrality speaks of honesty and integrity of research.
This study does not attempt to generalize findings across a broad spectrum of instructional environments. Rather, it provides a clarifying explanation to one educational program and looks for common patterns within that unique experience
(Patton, 1987). Defining the sample group was dependent on the intent of the study.
For this reason, it was not necessary to consider samples such as homogeneous groups, a small group that exemplifies a group at large, to look for critical cases, those critically important within the scheme of things or a variety of other sampling strategies. Instead, the process was a combination of criteria sampling and that of finding an information-rich case. Criteria sampling, used often for quality control, details certain criteria to match against a certain population (Patton, 1987).
78 Identifying the sampling space for this study was a process of purposeful selection, yet it had a question of randomness. Selecting the key participant was deliberate and purposeful starting with developing the study criteria. Purposeful sampling for this study was a well-designed and orchestrated search intended to yield data needed to investigate the topic. The data needed to be information rich: where I could learn a great deal about an important issue. This meant the experience needed to be focused and defined in such a way to meet the questions of my study: to investigate the behaviors and beliefs toward the use of instructional strategies in the classroom and online instructional environments. This also meets the intent of qualitative research: having abundance of rich information describing an event and in this case through primarily unobtrusive observation. It’s a process of “mining for gold.” Even though Dr.
Samuel met the study criteria, I would not have identified him as the key informant if I felt a relationship of trust and honesty could not be established. As the key informant, I expected him to provide “definitional, objective, and judgmental types of data”
(Johnson, 1990, p.29). Other study participants, students enrolled in the traditional and online classes, were purely random. I did not have any specific information about the students prior to the beginning of the data collection process.
Role Negotiation
Role negotiation occurred on multiple levels: with the college administration and with the study participants. Data collection focused on the instructor; however, I needed to gain the trust of the students as well. As described in Entrée, the search for an appropriate study site began with my request being sent to college instructors within
79 the state. I had several responses including instructors from a local college. Protocol to move to the next step was to contact college administration.
Contacting college administration didn’t happen right away. Using the Internet,
I researched the college. Then I contacted several individuals who where familiar with the college system and shareholders in the entrée process. Given a name and the confidence to state my case, I contacted a college representative with my request. I received permission to continue the pursuit providing all protocols where strictly observed.
Negotiating Roles with the Instructor
Dr. Samuel and I had been in communication since the end of the previous quarter when my initial request was posted on Blackboard. He had invited me to a class outing at a local pizzeria. The invitation was positioned as an opportunity for me to meet some students, though they would not be the ones in the study, and to meet him. In retrospect, it was an opportunity for him to size me up. How serious was I about completing the study? Would I interfere with his ability to instruct? Would I be reliable and committed to completing the project? Over a plate of greasy pizza and a dozen chatter-box students, the instructor and I decided the match would be a good one. Over the next several months, as I prepared to enter his world, I sent occasional updates via email.
I worked with Dr. Samuel to build trust throughout the study. He showed a great deal of integrity and commitment toward my study. Once, while battling a cold, he not only came to class prepared to teach, but he met with me for a scheduled
80 informal interview. It wasn’t until I transcribed the tape that I realized how bad he felt that day. Always willing to be forthright in his reflections, Dr. Samuel provided insightful and candid data. For example, once while being interviewed he admitted that he was embarrassed to share his true feeling over a situation involving a student, but did so because he thought it might be of value to my study.
Negotiating Roles with the Students
The final area where role negotiation occurred was with the students. “One can become a participant by just being there, until gradually one is accepted” (Cusick,
1973). The face-to-face students exhibited moderate interest in my presence; however, they gradually started asking general questions. Students usually said hello when passing in the hallway and before or after class. For the most part, students seemed unconcerned that I was in the classroom once instruction started; however, on a rare occasion, I was pulled into a discussion or asked an opinion. Two male students often continued the class discussion as I was preparing to leave. With my tape recorder and notebook packed away, they would continue to press their position on the given topic seeking my input. I often reiterated an alternative position that had already been shared in class, as I did not want to give them an unfair academic advantage over the rest of the students. My overall impression was that they enjoyed the discussions and debates.
All of these students signed the consent forms. Returning copies of their signed consent forms was easily accomplished the following class period.
Being older and more experienced students, the online students challenged my role more than the face-to-face students. Meeting on campus the first two weeks of the
81 quarter gave Dr. Samuel an opportunity to introduce me to the group. I was questioned about where I went to school and what I hoped to accomplish. One student asked to read the consent form on her own time. She returned the signed consent form the following week. Returning copies of the signed consent forms was problematic. Those signing the first week were given their copies the next week. Those signing consent forms the second week had their copies mailed to them. This represented only five students. Once their focus shifted to the online environment, there did not appear to be any awareness of my presence.
I did not offer anything in exchange to the students for their participation; however, I sent a thank-you note along with a gift certificate to a local restaurant to the instructor.
Reflexivity
Quite by accident, I stumbled onto a situation that brought the topic of
reflexivity to life. Prior to embarking on this study I was listening to an interview on
National Public Radio, NPR where the issue of reflexivity was addressed. The guest
speaker was an author of a book based on a research study. The book author and
researcher were one in the same. He discussed how he had to examine his biases,
ethnicity, and personal experiences, as they related to his study.
The author talked about his childhood, being born in India, and moving to
Chicago as a youngster where he lived on a university campus with his parents and
within view of the Chicago housing projects. Being an eastern Indian living in a major
American city caused many conflicts in interest, cultural norms, and biased beliefs,
82 especially toward inter-city blacks. For example, he was taught not to cross a certain street as life on the “other side” was crazy and terrible things happened there.
Interestingly enough, his own academic goals lead him to develop a study focused on the very community and population he had been taught to distrust and avoid.
The author discovered that his reflexivity issues to benefit and impede his study. For example, over a period of time, he lived and interacted with the study participants in the Chicago projects where he discovered that there were fewer differences in who he was as a human being and that of his study participants. Their basic needs: love, acceptance, comfort, and security were the same as his. The differences were in how the study participants worked to have those needs met. He talked about learned cultural behavior. While playing basketball with a group of youngsters in the projects, he was left standing alone on the court while everyone else quickly ran for cover behind bushes, cars, and poles. A drive by shooting was about to take place and unlike the study participants, he had not learned the “warning” behaviors. In another situation, he found some elderly people very receptive of him because of his ethnicity. The elderly study participants recalled and related America’s civil rights movement and Martin Luther King, Jr. to India’s freedom movement and
Ghandi.
Addressing my issue of reflexivity is not quite so dramatic. My personal interest in this study is that of an educator: one familiar with corporate and campus life with academics being the focus of time and energy. I quite enjoyed the academic discussions and interviews with the instructor. I found his career and passion toward teaching and academic success of students impressive.
83 There were times, however, that I had a difficult relating to Dr. Samuel’s experiences in the classroom. In my career, I have taught public middle school and graduate level students. My experience teaching graduate-level students was very different from what I observed Dr. Samuel teaching at the freshman level. My initial thoughts were these are all college students should have similar motivation and whether working as an undergraduate or at the master’s level. Reflecting on the fact that most of the students being observed in the classroom were only a few months past high school graduation I came to realize that their academic needs and classroom behaviors were not that different from what I would expect to see at a senior high school. Dr. Samuel recognized the need to guide them into taking responsibility for their own work and actions. I observed this in constant encouragement to complete assignments and make resources available while once dismissing three students from class who were not prepared for the day's assignment or discussion. I needed to realign my thinking.
I also had a conflict in perspective with the classroom students. I registered for my first college class at as a nontraditional student and have over time developed a full appreciation for the value of education. I embrace life-long learning as a lifestyle, a part of who I am. I struggled with the idea of students, coming to class unprepared, unconcerned, or particularly radical in the perspective of an issue they had little knowledge about. However, reflecting on the age and life experiences of these students, helped me keep this in perspective and enjoying their positive attributes and contributions to the class.
84 Issues of reflexivity when considering the online instructional experience are
different. I have spent several years of my professional career developing digital
instructional environments and have studied online learning and related issues at
length; however, I have never enrolled in an online class. This was the first online
experience for some of the students. Others had only taken the previous English
Composition course online. Generally speaking, this was new to them too. Similar to
these students, I was interested in watching the event unfold over the ten-week period.
I also related more closely to the online students in age and responsibilities than
that of the classroom students. Most of the online students, like me, could be described
as nontraditional students working more hours and having more life experiences and
responsibilities.
Spending time collecting, organizing, and analyzing data is exhilarating. The
negative impact of this is that it was difficult to not allow the study to bleed over into
other parts of my life—personal and professional. All too often, I felt resentment
towards energy spent in these areas. I minimized the needs of others while my focus on
the study remained constant. Cultural norms generally define the roles of wives,
mothers, and employees. I found these in conflict with the cultural norms of an
academic lifestyle. The demands are unique and often conflict. Finding balance and
ongoing solutions was not always easy of graceful, however, manageable.
Data Management
By the end of the ten-week period, with all field notes had been transcribed and digital messages copied into word documents, I had approximately 850 pages of
85 evidence. Early in the design process, I started to organize storage methods. A coding system is described in Data Collection Plan. All audiotapes and handwritten field notes were encoded and stored in a lockable cabinet in my home office. Digital communications were moved to a folder in my home computer. Identifying information was deleted and replace with a student code number before the messages were pasted into word documents. Feedback from the instructor also communicated digitally was handled in the same manner. Multiple digital copies were made and stored in a secure location.
Trustworthiness
Adhering to issues of trustworthiness provides credibility to this research study
(Patton, 1990). Trustworthiness is established through addressing internal and external validity, reliability, and confimability.
“…validity is the degree to which the finding is interpreted in a correct way”
(Kirk & Miller, 1986, p.19) and is referred to as the studies credibility (internal validity) and transferability (external validity). Essentially, validity asks if the researcher sees what he or she thinks. Credibility establishes if the data are authentic.
Has the phenomena been represented accurately?
Reflecting on issues specific to this study, I content that the study has credibility because an appropriate site and participants were used. The college is a typical representation of higher education as were the participants—instructor and students. Study criteria, developed prior to the investigation, guided the selection of site and participants. This study also has internal validity as it can stand the rigors of peer
86 examination. Study instruments, methods of collection, data, and analysis are described in detail. Weaknesses in the study were also addressed.
External validity is also achieved when considering issues of transferability.
That is, data are appropriate for applications or situations other than this study. Using the instruments and methods, this study could be conducted with similar groups of participants providing they met study criteria. The study’s 10-week duration yielded rich descriptions in audiotaped interviews, field notes, and relevant archived documents; and used a variety of data sources. This study established a significant amount of triangulated data where one piece of information had a dependency upon other pieces of data. Not only were there numerous accounts of evidence but the findings patterned triangulation—strategies that were used and identified and the beliefs and attitudes toward the use of the strategies. This study depends on triangulation as a verification of facts (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998).
“Reliability in qualitative observation revolves around detailing the relevant context of observation….discussed in revealing detail his experiences and the way he arrived at the methods used” (Kirk & Miller, 1986, p. 52). This study has reliability, referred to as dependability, as rational conclusions are drawn from appropriate and robust data. This study adheres to strict research protocols and demonstrates a consistency in design, data collection methods, description, and analysis that lead to a natural conclusion. These procedures were consistent throughout the study and replicable. Failure to replicate the study, as described by Jeffrey Johnson (1990) can be the outcome of an “incomplete disclosure of experimental design” (p. 16).
87 Confirmability of data description, analysis, and interpretation by key informants or other researchers ensures that the study is credible. Data were presented accurately and within the context of the content.
Field Dilemmas
Even with a well-constructed and purposeful study, field dilemmas occurred.
Five dilemmas are worthy of discussion: two having to do with collecting additional data, two with the inability to collect addition data, and finally issue with the process of organizing the data.
The original study design accounted for two formal exit interviews. I anticipated capturing primarily belief relating data with the two exit interviews. The key informant was aware of the interviews from the onset of the study; however, these were not adequate to capture data throughout the 10-week period. Informal, spontaneous dialog started early in the data collection process. The first spontaneous interview happened in the hall immediately following a class period. He openly expressed a need to download issues while they were fresh on his mind and felt comfortable having an open discussion as to something that he felt was of value and noteworthy. In retrospect, I feel this was a need to fill a void of control that as a key informant he must have been feeling.
My initial reaction was one of near panic. I viewed this as a violation of the
IRB and consequently did not tape record or take notes of that early discussion. I submitted an amended request to the IRB and was given permission to include informal interviews as a part of the data collection process. These became known as informal
88 interviews. The interviews occurring in the hall immediately following class were primarily initiated by the instructor, whereas, those prescheduled in his office were initiated by me. Regardless of the location, these informal interviews served two purposes: to build rapport and trust and to provide valuable data about the behaviors and beliefs towards the use of instructional strategies.
The second field dilemma was one where I had underestimated the need to collect data about the students. Within the first week of data collection, I had noted a difference in the demographics of the two groups of students. However, the data were antidotal without some formal collection of demographic data. Suspecting that this data could play a role in the description and analysis process of the study, I again approached the IRB committee about extending the perimeters of the study to include a demographic survey. Administered at the end of the data collection period, I captured the demographic data of those completing course requirements. Those completing the survey are indicative of the two groups at large.
Unexpected prior to data collection, was the instructors numerous phone calls with students registered for the online class. Dr. Samuel viewed phone contact as an essential element for success and an efficient means of communication. Emails were a commonly used tool for communicating between participants and instructor when taking an online course. However, because emails are not always addressed in timely manner or effective mode for communicating subtle differences in expectations or perspectives, Dr. Samuel required students of call him rather than email with concerns or problems. He provided, on numerous opportunities, his home and office phone numbers. When approached about capturing the phone conversations, primarily by
89 audiotaping them, he expressed that he was uncomfortable with the idea and felt it might inhibit student correspondence. Understanding his position, I did not pursue collecting this data. At times in interviews he referred to phone discussions that occurred between him and a student. The data were not robust in description nor was I able to confirm it through triangulation, therefore, was not used.
Potentially valuable data were lost in one-to-one interviews that the instructor pre-planned and scheduled with each student. Timed near the end of the quarter, Dr.
Samuel met with each student registered in the traditional and online class. The intent of the five-minute meetings was to discuss one-to-one the theme and strategies students were using for their final assignments. In trying to respect and not intrude in the naturalistic setting of the instructor’s office, I chose to remain outside in the hall while capturing the discussions on tape. The tape recorder was placed on the floor of his office between two chairs. Because of the poor proximity of the recorder, most discussions were not audible. A better solution would have been to place a small table between the two chairs thus positioning the recorder at a more advantaged position.
The final issue worthy of discussion is that I underestimated the scope of the study and vast collection of data. Collecting and transcribing data was an intense experience. I anticipated volumes of collected data, but it became reality once I had completed the data collection process and started to organize and categorize information. It was paralyzing and required a shift in perspective something I had not anticipated. To organize and categorize data I develop strategies that were appropriate for the data and aligned with my technical skills. As an example, the large quantity of apples were overwhelming until I divided it into for questions, classroom behavior and
90 beliefs, and online behavior and beliefs, categorized, and electronically copied spreadsheet workbooks individual questions. Eventually, I reduced the number of spreadsheets in each workbook so that I could focus on the primary patterns and pieces of evidence. This process was more time consuming than expected. From a technical perspective, I would consider collecting, transcribing, developing and organizing data in parallel with the latter two processes trailing by several weeks. Categorizing and organizing data into spreadsheets while collecting data could potentially have a negative impact: that of influencing the observations and my neutrality and objectivity toward the study. This would violate the very core of qualitative investigation.
Exit
Exiting from the classroom and online class was without incidence. Several students made it a point to encourage me with a quick “good luck” others simply said their good-byes or simply let the event close without any recognition. I did not receive any further communications from students. Dr. Samuel finished the data collection with a final exit interview and subsequent emails with grade distributions and the number of students completing class requirements. As requested, I plan to send Dr. Samuel a copy of the dissertation when completed.
Data Description and List
As anticipated in qualitative studies, I have collected a vast amount of data. The data consists of audiotaped and handwritten field notes, archived documents, surveys, emails, threaded discussions, and other digital resources. Data received digitally have
91 been copied on disk and paper for storage. Table 5, Data Description and Quantity, identifies the types of data collected, quantities, and brief descriptions.
92 CHAPTER IV
DATA DESCRIPTION, ANALYSES, AND INTERPRETATION
Introduction
“Frankly, I do online what I know works in the classroom.” The speaker of this quote, his instructional behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes, are the focus of this investigation.
This chapter describes and analyzes the instructional strategies used for face-to- face and online instruction. The strategies are described two ways—those used and observed in a naturalistic setting and those identified by the instructor. The analysis includes the instructor’s beliefs and attitudes toward using the instructional strategies in both learning environments.
Setting the Scene: Classroom Instruction Begins
It was a blustery January morning. A thin layer of ice covered the windshield of my car: It had to be scraped before heading for the 9:00AM class. Expecting the parking lot to be full, I gave myself plenty of time. I felt both excitement and anxiety as I drove to the college campus for the first day of class. Would I collect the appropriate data? Could I categorize and organize the data in a meaningful way? Could this play out to have limited use for what I am interested in? Taking a deep breath, I took comfort in knowing that qualitative research leads the investigator (Wolcott,
1994) so the only thing to do was move ahead and see where it led me.
93 Once in the college classroom with the players present, the drama was ready to begin. Seventeen students banded around three sides of the traditional-looking college classroom. There were a few exceptions: Alice and Curtis were sitting in the center of the room with Alice in the front row. The instructor, Dr. Samuel, stood at the front of the room and welcomed the students with a nervous smile and a friendly “glad to see so many of you back this quarter.” With a quick scan of room, he jumped into the prepared litany of course requirements and expectations for the freshman students in the English composition class. This quarter the course was defined as having one major difference from the prerequisite course—this quarter students would be writing based on text. The text-based short essays were found in required textbooks and online. “I’m going to ask you to read something and then respond to what’s your reaction.” There was also one movie that the students were required to view, preferably multiple times.
There were four assignments each requiring the students to write a position paper. Dr. Samuel preselected the short essays, articles, and movie, each focusing on a controversial, complex social issue. The issues were as follows:
· Two short essays of opposing views about the social and cultural
consequences of using the Internet
· A short essay and two films depicting racism in America
· Two short essays of opposing arguments about juvenile crime and
punishment
94 · Short essays and articles about two social issues: the effect of divorce on
children and gay marriages. For the final assignment, students chose one of
the two topics to write a response paper about
The course requirements were structured in such a way the each student had the opportunity to submit a thesis statement then write and revise a draft paper based on peer reviews and the instructor’s feedback prior to submitting the paper for a final grade.
I will give you the assignments and due dates. On the due dates I’ll ask you to
bring in two copies of your paper double spaced please. We’ll form a team of
three people and you’ll give the paper to two partners. You’ll write down
comments, helpful comments on a peer review form. They can also give you
verbal comments. After they’ve commented on your paper and you’ve comment
on theirs, take the paper home and can make any changes you want. You can
say, “I think this is a fine paper and I’m standing pat and not changing a thing.”
Or you can scrap it and start all over if you want. What you’re getting is input
from other people. Use it as you see fit. Then the following session you’ll bring
me a packet with the latest version and the earlier draft and the peer review
form. At that time I’ll do the same thing. I’m not ready to give it [student’s
paper] anything, but a temporary grade. Just an idea of what it’s worth. I’ll
return it to you with comments and you can revise it. At the end of the quarter,
you will turn in the portfolio with the paper with all the revisions that you care
to make on it. Is there anything you’d like to ask about the portfolio?
95 Designed using the portfolio method, each student was encouraged to reflect, revise, and edit papers while building a repertoire of stylistic options.
In addition to the four assignments, students were required to write 20 journal entries. The entries came from two sources: instructor-generated journal questions or students could write a journal entry on a topic of their choice provided that it was relevant to class discussions or readings. The instructor generated journal questions were in the Comp 102 booklet and would play a major role in generating group discussions.6
The pre-organized journal questions provided a framework for journal entries and for in-class group discussions.
Now there is a series of questions on the first reading. I’ll let you form some
groups and each group will have a question. And so for each day that you get a
reading assignment, I’ll give the groups a chance to get together and discuss the
particular question that I’ll ask you and see if you can reach some conclusion.
And I’ll ask someone in the group to report back and tell us what your
conclusions are. And then we’ll throw it out to the rest of the class to see if
we’re in agreement or disagree. And all of this is preparation really to get you
thinking about the topic. So when you read the essay this weekend, will you pay
6 The English Comp 102 booklet is a 17-page guide used throughout the quarter. The booklet, written by Dr. Samuel, was purchased at the college bookstore for $1.00. The booklet includes the syllabus, course description, policies, grading procedures, writing and journal requirements, and journal questions. The booklet is applicable for face-to- face and online instruction and was only available in hard copy.
96 particular attention to your question and come to class to discuss it. Is that
clear?
To ensure student participation, Dr. Samuel provided guidelines for forming groups.
What I’d like to do is give you a chance to form a group with three people in it
opposed to four. Please don’t go over four because it’s just too hard to speak
when there’s more than four. And I’d like there to be both men and women in
the group. This group is going to hang together throughout the quarter so I’d
like to get diverse points of view.
With the students in self-forming groups, Dr. Samuel was prepared to guide the students through the first of many group discussions.
Setting the Scene: Online Instruction Begins
By design, the online students met for one two-and-a-half hour session the first two weeks of the quarter in a traditional classroom setting. Idle chatter and soft laughter described the tone of the students as Dr. Samuel leafed through handouts and unclaimed portfolios from the previous quarter. In a style different from the face-to- face students, Dr. Samuel encouraged the students to chime in on providing him understanding as to who succeeds in an online course and the attributes of successful students. He continued to define attributes of successful students:
One of the things that I’ve noticed is that to succeed in the course is that
comfortable with computers. They have computers at home, they have a
modem at home, and they know how to get online. That part of it doesn’t
97 intimidate them so they don’t get stressed by the mechanics of the course. It
can be very stressful if it’s your first time and you’re sending emails and they
just never arrive. So, the other thing that I’ve noticed are the people who are
self-starters, who are disciplined, can say to themselves, “yes I have a due date
and I don’t have anyone hanging over my shoulder and I have to get it done.”
To ensure that students had sufficient computer skills, the second half of the class period was spent in the computer lab. Before leaving for the lab, a student shared with the class that talking with Dr. Samuel had kept her on the right track in a previous online course. He responded:
I’m glad that you brought that up because that was something that I forgot to
mention. One correlation to success in this class is your willingness to call me.
Not email--don’t think email me. Get on the phone and call me. And I’m going
to give you my phone number and ask you that any night, weekend, holiday
between 6:00 and 7:00 feel free to pick up the phone and call me. But don’t
think first, “I’m going to email me.” Email is very inefficient; it’s a very
inefficient way to transmit information. What happens is that some one will
email me with a question and it evolves a half hour of my writing and they write
back and say “that’s not what I was asking, I really meant to ask something
else.” In a few minute phone call I can give you as much information as a half-
hour of writing. So, I’d rather you not email me….If you’re really the type of
person who say’s “I really can’t do that, I just do not pick up the phone at
home” then I really have to suggest that you sign up for another class. Because,
a lot of what happens is that you have very quick questions and we don’t meet
98 on a regular basis. You may need information and you need it very quickly and
if you wait 24 hours, it’s to late. So let me write it [phone number] up here and
every time that I write back to you I put my phone number on it….Another
thing I’d like you to do is get phone numbers from each other. Because if you
can’t get me there’s a good chance that someone else in the class could help.
It was evident that developing a sense of community was important to the success of students and conversely, student success contributed to the good of the community. This aligns with Palloff and Pratt’s (1999) definition of community “…it is a mutually empowering act—a means by which people share with each other, work, and live collaboratively” (p. 26).
Prerequisites, course assignments, resources, and the portfolio method of grading were the same as those used in the face-to-face instruction. The process, however, of completing an assignment differed in that peer reviews were not used in the online course. Dr. Samuel explained in an interview that he found peer reviews to be problematic for the online students. Partners in the peer tutoring process had difficulty accessing each other’s work online in a timely manner causing anxiousness among students and ultimately having a negative impact on the community at large. The decision to not include peer reviews appeared to disadvantage the students receiving online instruction when compared to students in the face-to-face instruction; however, this would not be the case as described in the analysis.
A second difference in the online instruction was that students were required to post their responses to journal questions as online threaded discussions, whereas students in the face-to-face instruction wrote and turned in their journal entries for
99 credit. The distribution of the questions was handled similar to that of the face-to-face students as described by Dr. Samuel once in the computer lab with the students:
What I’ll do is give you each two numbers so write it down. It won’t be that
hard—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. This group right over here, this whole isle, would
you do number one and two? So every week, when you see one and two would
you respond to both of them? You people over there, you do three and four. Ok,
the rest of you guys over here are five and six. In a moment, I’m going to ask
you to go online and write just one of those journal entries….Put them on the
discussion board for everyone to see.
Armed with this information and basic instructions, students logged to computers, explored the Blackboard course, read the posted short essay, and responded to journal questions as threaded discussions. For the students participating in online instruction, the journal entries were in lieu of in-class group discussions. The students’ behavior in the computer lab substantiated Dr. Samuel’s assessment that in order to be successful in an online instruction, students must be self-starters. These students exhibited behaviors that I interpreted to be taking control of and assuming responsibility for their assignment. The journey, for these students, had started.
With the first day of classes completed, my assessment was that Dr. Samuel was presenting identical curriculum and assignments to both student bodies. The instructional strategies appeared to be the same regardless of the two mediums and unique attributes of the students. One noted difference, however, was the uniqueness of the two student bodies and Dr. Samuel’s attitude toward the two groups of students.
The face-to-face students appeared younger and more timid in the classroom
100 environment, whereas the online students appeared slightly older and more comfortable with the educational process. Dr. Samuel’s response was to provide more structure and explanation about the assignments and expectations to the face-to-face students and more general guidelines and freedom within the framework of instruction to the students enrolled in the online instruction.
Patterns of Instruction within the Context of Assignments
The description of relational data collected in the research study is organized as three sides of a triangle—three components that either come together for successful learning or disconnect indicating a gap in learning. The three-component relationship is shown in Figure 2.
1. What instructional 2. What instructional strategies
strategies were used? were identified?
3. What are the instructor’s beliefs and attitudes toward the use of instructional strategies?
Figure 4.1. The Organization of Relational Research Data
The first side of the triangle focuses on strategies observed and documented during instruction—face-to-face and online. These are the strategies Dr. Samuel used in instruction and are described in terms of observations, handwritten field notes, and archived documents.
101 The second side of the triangle focuses on effective strategies as identified by
Dr. Samuel using the Instruction Strategy Sorting Activity. A description of the activity along with the strategies identified as effective for face-to-face and online instruction are described in CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY. In this chapter, the identified strategies—face-to-face and online—are described in context of assignments and analyzed as to their effectiveness.
The third side of the triangle represents the instructor’s beliefs and attitudes toward the use of strategies for face-to-face and online instruction and are fundamental to the three-component relationship. Evidence will show that the beliefs and attitudes drive the use and identification of instructional strategies. If a belief does not support the use or identification of a strategy or the belief indicates a negative attitude toward the effectiveness of a strategy, then the three components do not support each other.
Consequently, there is a gap in the learning process. If a belief indicates a positive attitude or high confidence in the use and identification of strategies, then the three components support each other: three sides of the triangle come together and successful learning occurs. Data describing the instructor’s beliefs and attitudes was collected using the informal and formal interviews. The most robust collection of data, pertaining to beliefs and attitudes, were the two exit interviews.
To begin the description and analysis process, I started with the first two sides of the triangle—what instructional strategies did the instructor use and what strategies did he identify as being effective? Rather than discuss the instructional strategies as isolated events or in a linear sequence, I took a different tack—to zoom in on specific instructional events while providing an overview of how strategies were used across all
102 instruction. This technique worked well with the pattern of instruction consisting of four assignments. Each assignment consisted of multiple yet logical steps—use multiple resources to read about one topic with opposing views, develop a thesis statement, write, review, edit, and submit a response paper. And each assignment lasted for approximately the same number of class periods or weeks. The strategies that were used for instruction and those identified as effective are described within the context of the four assignments. Using one assignment and data collected from multiple sources, I describe one used and identified strategy for face-to-face instruction and repeat the process for online instruction. I continued aligning strategies to assignments until all data were exhausted.
The decision to use this pattern was made for two reasons: The instruction for both classes established a consistent pattern of assignments, and secondly, data were more meaningful when described within the context of a topic. All of the instructional strategies were used in all of the assignments; however, I chose to align the strategies with an assignment based on the robustness of data and most interesting examples. I chose to pair strategies in ways that would be logical for the reader. For example, I chose to describe and analyze “provide written feedback” for both types of instruction within the context of the first assignment. This logical pairing of strategies allowed for more cohesiveness and sequential description of data. The exception to pairing similar strategies was “using personal examples” and “provide models.” I used this dissimilar pairing because Dr. Samuel identified “using personal examples” as an effective strategy for face-to-face instruction, but not for online instruction and identified
“provide models” for online instruction, but not for face-to-face instruction. Describing
103 the two strategies within the context of one assignment enabled me to provide a rich description embedded in interesting and relevant data.
The following table aligns each instructional strategy along with the assignment in which it is described and analyzed.
Table 6
Instructional Strategies Described and Analyzed within the Context of Assignments
Assignment Instructional strategy used Instructional strategy and identified as effective used and identified as for face-to-face instruction effective for online instruction One: Provide written feedback Provide written Social and cultural consequences feedback of using the Internet
Two: Provide pre-organizers, Provide pre- Racism in America guiding questions, and organizers discussion groups
Three: Use personal experience Provide models Juvenile crime and punishment
Four: Conduct one-to-one Conduct one-to-one Effect of divorce on children or discussions discussions Gay marriages
During the sorting activity, the instructor selected six instructional strategies as effective for face-to-face instruction; therefore, three assignments have one strategy each and one assignment has three strategies. Providing pre-organizers, guiding questions, and group discussion are grouped together within one assignment.
Only four strategies were identified as being effective for the online instruction, therefore, one instructional strategy is described and analyzed with each assignment. A brief conclusion is provided following the description of each strategy. A summary
104 analysis of effective and ineffective instructional strategies concludes this section. The strategies are not in any ranked order.
Once completing the process of describing each instructional strategy within the context of an assignment and providing a summary analysis, the third component of relational data—beliefs and attitudes—are described. The final analysis aligns the instructor’s beliefs and attitudes toward the use of instructional strategies to those used and those identified as effective. The process is repeated for online instruction.
Assignment One: What Are the Social and Cultural Consequences of
Using the Internet?
The first assignment required students to read two short essays focusing on relationships that develop via the Internet. The two essays provided opposing views on the topic. One paper argued that the more time people spend online the more depressed and lonely they became. The opposing view was that Internet users from disparate places connect based on common interests and agendas. Having read both essays and participated in discussions, students were to formulate a position and prepare to write a response paper. Additional research on the topic and personal experiences could be integrated into the paper. Over a two-week period, students would write a thesis statement, drafts, reviews, and submit a final paper for grading.
Face-to-Face Instruction: Provide Written Feedback
When asked to select effective strategies during the Instructional Strategy
Sorting Activity, Dr. Samuel selected “provide written feedback” as the most effective
105 strategy used in face-to-face instruction. Throughout the assignments, Dr. Samuel provided written feedback to students after submitting a draft(s). When questioned about the importance of providing written feedback, Dr. Samuel responded, “Students can see if other people find their writing clear, if their logic is reasonable, if they are creating an argument rather than an opinion.” Written feedback provided the opportunity to acknowledge what the student had done well then continued by identifying areas for improvement: to add clarity, refine the paper, cite references, and make grammatical improvements.
Elizabeth, there are many fine things about this paper. You summarize the two
articles well and give examples derived from personal experience as well as
research. A few suggestions: Who is most at risk from online encounters and
what places on the Internet make you most at risk? Could you summarize your
feelings? Note: that the comments at the top of the paper refer to grammatical
errors…If you can’t spot the error, ask me for help.
Not all papers were deserving of such positive responses, but always were encouraging.
Tom, you have some interesting ideas, but the paper seems unfocussed, lacking
a central idea. Your central idea is that the Internet is being used for much more
than Rheingold envisioned. That’s a good thesis. But how does the opening of
the second paragraph reflect your thesis? Strikes me that it doesn’t. Instead it
introduces a new idea entirely.
Yet another student seemed to need additional help.
Mike, I like what you have to say here, but you are struggling to say it clearly.
Please take this to the Writing Lab and have them help you express your ideas,
106 then re-submit. I urge you to do this quickly because it will take a while to
overcome these problems.
At other times he ended his feedback by encouraging students to “please come by my office and let’s discuss how to improve this paper.”
Students had the freedom to revise the paper at will based on the feedback. One student opting not to make changes reported to him “I didn’t redo very much on my paper because I liked the way I presented what I was talking about: that there is a risk of being online.” Another student chose to take advantage of the written feedback by noting, “I took Professor Samuel’s advice by removing a lot of summarization from my paper.”
Dr. Samuel provided his feedback in short typed responses and provided me with copies. Written feedback was collected, coded, and organized as archived documents. The amount of written feedback remains constant throughout the first three assignments. There are 26 documented accounts of written feedback for the first assignment, compared to 23 and 20 documented accounts for assignments two and three respectively. Written feedback was not collected from the last assignment.
Table 7
Assignments and Documented Accounts of Feedback Collected in Face-to-Face Instruction
Assignment No. of documented accounts of written feedback collected One 26 Two 23 Three 20 Four Not collected
To review samples of written feedback from three assignments, refer to Appendix E.
107
Conclusion
Even though student enrollment declined from 23 to 18 throughout the quarter, the amount of written feedback in face-to-face instruction remained fairly constant, only declining by six documented accounts from the first to the third assignment. This indicates that the instructor maintained a level of confidence throughout the quarter that the feedback was beneficial. I can assume that his level of confidence was a result of the students’ positive response to the feedback. Considering the amount of feedback provided throughout the course and the extent of Dr. Samuel’s comments with each response, written feedback appears to be an effective instructional strategy in face-to- face instruction.
Online Instruction: Provide Written Feedback
Similar to the face-to-face instruction, Dr. Samuel identified “provide written feedback” as the most effective instructional strategy when teaching online. He did, however, qualify that it was equal in importance with “engage in one-to-one discussions” with students. The one-to-one discussions are described at length in context of assignment four.
When reviewing archived documents of written feedback, it became evident that feedback for online instruction is both technical and in response to students’ work.
There are 24 documented accounts of technical feedback provided from the instructor
108 to the students. The feedback is in the form of emails. Technical feedback informed students of where to find resources and clarify assignments. Dr. Samuel also used technical feedback to seek out students who had not participated regularly. The following are examples of technical feedback.
· “The essay is online. You can access it via a link in the second week of the
syllabus or click on this link: www.link.com.”
· “I apologize about any confusion regarding journal entries. Let me clarify:
you are responsible for two entries per week. Do the numbers assigned to
you.”
· “Sorry to hear you’re dropping out, Cassie. If you’ll fill out a drop form
and tack it to my door, I’ll sign and submit it for you.”
· “Who is this please? Is there a reason that email to you is coming back
undelivered?”
The written feedback pertaining to students’ work focused on thesis statements and draft copies of papers, whereas feedback to the face-to-face students focused exclusively on drafts. This may be explained in light of the instructor having more time to work with students one-to-one about their thesis statements in the traditional classroom.
Cindy, a thesis statement is a sentence (an argument) not a question. Your
thesis would be the answer to one of these questions. Call me on Sunday if you
wish.
109 Written feedback concerning drafts was similar in style and comments to that of the face-to-face instruction. Written feedback was provided to students via email with copies forwarded to me. Feedback was categorized, coded, and identified as archived documents.
The amount of written feedback to students regarding assignments was slightly higher than that of the face-to-face students. When the responses to thesis statements are separated into their own category, the numbers are more closely matched. There are
29 documented accounts of written feedback that pertain to assignment one.
Assignments two and three have 22 and 12 documented accounts of written feedback respectively. Also collected were four accounts of written feedback for assignment four. These, however, were collected electronically one week into the assignment, leaving the possibility that more were submitted the following week.
Table 8
Assignments and Documented Accounts of Feedback Collected in Online Instruction
Assignment No. of documented accounts of written feedback collected One 29 Two 22 Three 12 Four 4
To review samples of written feedback from the three assignments, see Appendix E.
The decline in feedback over the first three weeks may have been a response to the data collection methods. Written feedback, sent to students via email, was
110 forwarded to me on a weekly basis. It’s possible that I did not receive all the written feedback. It’s also possible that the number of responses to students declined over the quarter; however, this is less likely because of the high level of importance placed on it.
Conclusion
Written feedback to students enrolled in the online instruction appears to have a high level of importance and identified by the instructor as an effective strategy. There is sufficient observational and documented evidence to concur with his selection.
Written feedback appears to have value when communicating technical issues and guiding students’ ability to successfully write a thesis statement and response paper for grading.
Assignment 2: What Are the Realities of Racism in America?
Racism in America was the focus of the second assignment. Students watched a brief video, White Privileged: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack, portraying the inequitable practices in the retail and housing industries based on ethnicity and read a short essay describing the power of privileged white males. The essay was posted online: Students from both classes were required to access and print the essay. Finally, students were required to view a controversial Spike Lee film, Do the Right Thing, focusing on racism in America. A copy of the movie was on the college library shelves, otherwise students were required to rent the movie from a local video store or purchase it. Class participation required the students to reflect on the issue, take a position in
111 which they could discuss, defend, write a thesis statement, and develop a response paper. This assignment spanned over three weeks.
Face-to-Face Instruction: Pre-Organized and Verbal Questions Guide Group
Discussions in Instruction
Unlike the other sections in the chapter, this section describes three instructional strategies used in the classroom—pre-organized and guiding questions, and group discussions. These three strategies are intertwined to the degree that it would be difficult to describe any one in isolation.
A pre-organizer as identified by Dr. Samuel is “material for students to consider before they come to class.” Given that definition, The Comp 102 booklet is considered a pre-organizer. The booklet provided students with the syllabus, course description, grading procedures, and most importantly questions students responded to when writing journal entries. Each of the four assignments had six thought-provoking open-ended questions intended to stimulate the students’ thinking. Students wrote journal entries on the questions prior to discussing them in groups. The following are examples of journal questions students addressed after viewing the film in assignment two.
· Find examples of prejudice. Does one group exhibit more than another?
· Who in this film do you feel is most sympathetic? Least sympathetic?
· How do you feel about Mookie at the end? Has he done the right thing? Has
anyone?
112 Students used the pre-organized questions throughout the quarter when writing the required 20 journal entries. As described in the Comp 102 booklet:
Writing is like any other skill: the more you practice it, the better you become.
In the journal you will have the opportunity to practice writing without the
restrictions of audience, purpose, organization, edited standard English and
other requirements. The journal is writing done for you, not for another
audience. Basically, a journal is a place to talk to and listen to yourself, to
explore ideas, generate material to be used at a later time, to discover what you
know, think, and feel, as well as what you don’t know.
The disadvantage to assigning journal entries for the students in the face-to-face instruction, according to Dr. Samuel, was that they “don’t get a chance to see each others.” I did not have access to student journal entries; however, I can note that most students received credit for completion of the 20 entries.
When interviewed, Dr. Samuel described another benefit to using the booklet questions in the classroom—to encourage group discussion.
I assigned each group a question….Let me give you four or five minutes to
work on that. What I’d like to do is choose a spokesperson for today. Someone
who will summarize what you’ve said. What you agree on. I’d like the
spokesperson to tell us what the group has concluded and then anyone else in
the group can follow up with comments. Then we’ll throw it open to see if you
folks agree. If you disagree, let us know. OK, because often in disagreement
you’ll find interesting paper topics.
113 However, using the journal questions from the pre-organized booklet did not seem as successful as initially planned.
It was designed for that purpose [discussion]. I got away from it this quarter
more than before because I was teaching some new stuff and hadn’t devised the
questions that were really effective. So I got away from it….I got more into an
open discussion when I realized that I wasn’t happy with the questions.
Normally, I’ll stick very closely to the questions.
As evidence to this statement, during the first assignment, all six questions found in the booklet were assigned to groups for discussion topics when considering both points of view. By the time students were working on the second assignment, the instructor had shifted to guiding questions.
Dr. Samuel skillfully guided the students in a class discussion. The topic, racism, was introduced using guiding questions that were designed to pull students into discussion, yet spontaneous and flexible to accommodate student comments.
Let me ask you, how hard do you work? How much enthusiasm do you have for
your job? Does that explain why Mookie doesn’t care much about the
restaurant? Working at a pizzeria isn’t very inspiring is it?
Following a response from a student, Dr. Samuel continued to guide the students’ thinking with another question. “I think the question is why isn’t Mookie a better employee? Let’s talk a little bit about it…Can I ask you to get into your groups to discuss this?”
When participating in group discussions, students were provoked into defending their reactions to the topic. Integrated into these open discussions that were guided with
114 verbal questions were responses to the journal questions. Often the two types of discussions spilled from one to another to the level that I could not clearly identify when one started and the other ended. Dr. Samuel described the impact group discussions had on the students’ work:
You can tell that the general discussions have impact because when you read
them [papers] they’ll talk about things that were said in class, things that upset
them, things they agree with that were said in class. You can tell that you know
the face-to-face [instruction] has an impact.
Throughout the discussions, there were numerous examples of this type of verbal questioning and at times, it consumed most of the class period. It is reasonable that Dr. Samuel selected the use of guiding questions and group discussions as effective strategies.
Conclusion
There are sufficient data indicating that the use of pre-organized and guiding questions, and group discussions are primary strategies for face-to-face instruction. In addition to the observed and documented data collected, Dr. Samuel identified these strategies in the sorting activity as being effective.
I felt that the pre-organized journal questions were questionable when identified as an effective strategy because Dr. Samuel reduced his dependency on them to guide discussions. While being interviewed, he indicated that he was not satisfied with the questions and chose not to continue using them to guide discussions. Regardless of the impact the questions had on group discussions, the pre-organized journal questions
115 remained the focus of journal entries. Therefore, I conclude that pre-organized journal questions were an effective instructional strategy to provide opportunities to practice and improve writing skills.
Online Instruction: Pre-Organized Journal Questions
The purpose and requirements for the journal entries are described in the Online
Comp 102 booklet the same as they had been described for the face-to-face instruction.
The only change in copy included the day and time each week’s journal entries needed to be posted—Tuesday evening by 8 p.m.
When interviewed, Dr. Samuel described the importance of using the journal questions when instructing online. The aim was twofold—one was to develop writing skills and the other was to “get different perspectives on it [the topic]….These questions are geared to the paper…and will get you thinking about the paper so when you go to write you’re not a blank slate….You can draw on it [journal entries] as resources, you can quote each other if you want. But you’ll have ideas about how other people are thinking about it [topic].”
The intent of posting the journal entries was as follows:
What we want to see are different papers—you can see what others have put up
all ready. What students have to say in the journal entries is in lieu of class
discussion. …I don’t think that it has the same impact. And there are people
who would say that there are advantages to it. And I suppose there are some.
Students have a little more time to think. In class you ask them a question and
116 they have to answer it. But I don’t know that it has the impact that a discussion
has.
When asked if journal entries represented a type of discussion for the online students he responded:
It’s less effective. Because they come in [threaded discussions] at different
times and some students read them on Tuesday night and there’s only three or
four up there. Whether they ever check it again, I don’t know. So, I suspect it’s
less effective. I think people would benefit a lot from hearing more open
discussion.
In a later interview, he concluded, “This is their [online students] opportunity to see and hear what other students are writing about…Sure, they read each others journal entries. They’ll tell me that.” There were 35 journal entries posted in response to the six booklet questions focusing on the movie. Individual entries were read anywhere between 3 and 18 times each. The following are examples of a journal entry question and responses posted by the online students.
Question: Find examples of prejudice. Does one group exhibit more than
another?
Student response: I do not think that one group exhibited more examples of
prejudice than another. At times, people of the same ethnic group were mocking
each other. Some examples of prejudice in the movie include Sal’s explosion at
the end of the movie when he takes a baseball bat to the radio. In my opinion,
this was built-up anger from the many years his store had been in this
neighborhood and all the frustration he encountered.
117 Another student responded:
There were several examples of prejudice in the movie. Buggin Out felt like Sal
showed prejudice through the fact that he did not display black leaders on his
wall in the pizza place. He felt like Sal had no problem making a living off the
black people in his neighborhood so why couldn’t he promote some of the great
black leaders on his wall?
Conclusion
Using the Comp 102 booklet as a pre-organizing tool appeared to be an effective strategy for the online instruction. It provided students with information including the syllabus, expectations, policies, and grading procedures. The journal questions also appeared to be an effective strategy. When considering the intent of the questions—enhance writing skills and get different perspectives on the topic—they were also perceived as effective strategies. The third intent of the journal questions—to replicate group discussion—were somewhat questionable when considering the effectiveness. There is little evidence that students reflected on or integrated other students’ perspectives into their own.
Assignment 3: Juvenile Crime: Punishment or Rehabilitation
Given two short essays with opposing views, students were to choose and discuss their own position on the subject, develop a thesis statement, and write drafts and final papers on the topic. The assigned readings came from required textbooks. As
118 with previous assignments, additional research from publications or personal experiences along with citations was encouraged.
However, unlike the patterns established with other assignments, using this assignment, two different strategies were described—using personal experiences and providing models. This assignment was particularly interesting in lieu of the instructional strategy identified and used in face-to-face instruction—using personal experiences as students had quite a lot of experience to share.
Face-to-Face Instruction: Using Personal Experiences
Throughout the data collection process, there were many instances in which Dr.
Samuel provided his own personal experience to emphasize a point or generate discussion. I sensed that he was willing to be vulnerable, reflecting on his thoughts, experiences, and feelings in hopes that the students would internalize and use the technique as a tool to improve their writing skills. “You’re writers now, think as a writer.” He was equally interested in their experiences. “I find that [using personal experiences to illustrate a concept] really important; their personal experience and mine. The students don’t come prepared with an ideal perspective.” This assignment offered opportunities for the instructor to draw personal experiences from the students while encouraging them to use the experiences to enrich their response papers.
“This is a crucial issue with juveniles. Are we going in to treat and rehabilitate for what they’ve done wrong …or punish? What do you think?” Getting the students to open up required taking another step.
119 Did you come from a school with zero tolerance and did it make you feel safer?
Was it fairly applied or was it too Draconian—too harsh? Can somebody talk
to us a little bit about what went on in your high school?
Several students shared their experiences—one from an inner-city school in Los
Angeles and several from local high schools. William reflected on a personal experience:
Well, I remember when I was in elementary school and the police came to our
school and talked about gangs because that was the big thing then—gangs. And
my parents had to sign a release for us to go to this thing. They showed us like
gruesome pictures of people getting killed and stuff. And actually that kind of
frightened, um I said man I don’t want that. So, getting back to the point, I
don’t think, how can you rehab? “My name is such and such and I like to shoot
people.”
Dr. Samuel reinforced the legitimacy in using personal experience to illustrate a concept by confirming that using personal experiences was authentic evidence when writing a response paper.
“But how are the rest of us who may not have this personal experience going to
resolve this? How are we going to get this evidence? Some of you know people
in the system that you’re going to interview…. Personal experience is useful
and you’re welcome to do that in the paper. You have contacts. I’d interview
them.”
An advantage to face-to-face instruction is that the instructor has the opportunity to move the student along in their thinking process, whereas he doesn’t
120 know where the online students stand on an issue prior to reading their draft papers and can’t determine if there has been any change. When asked to clarify this statement in an interview, Dr. Samuel responded:
What I see from the evening students is product. And most of what I see from
the day students is process. How the evening students arrive at their opinions, I
really don’t know. But I also make the same kinds of comments, but I don’t
really watch their thought process.
Engaging students in personal experiences opens doors for change. Dr. Samuel describes his motivations.
Classes can get heated. I’m giving them an essay and they get all crazed and
want to execute 11 year-olds. In a way, I’m backing them into a corner and I’m
forcing them to take a stance because I want them to think. On the other hand,
the down side is once they commit to a position they become entrenched in it.
As an example of reflecting on personal experiences, Thomas recalled hearing a story from his mother:
My mother was telling me there was a, I tried to look it up to bring it to class,
like in the 50’s they put a kid in the electric chair and the chair was too big. I
don’t know if she was pulling my leg or not. If an 11 year-old can go to school
and learn arithmetic then he knows that, he should know, what happens after he
commits a murder. I say an 11 year-old is a good age because they know
between right and wrong.
Using a series of guiding questions and the following explanation, “Can we hear some other positions on this now? This is not fixed it’s just your initial positions.
121 As you read you may shift and that’s ok” Dr. Samuel was able to lead the discussion to where all the students, with the exception of Thomas, viewed the story as a strategy from a writer with possibly another agenda.
Conclusion
Throughout the course, there are sufficient data to indicate that the use of personal experiences to illustrate a concept is an effective strategy for face-to-face instruction. Data were collected using observations, archived documents, and interviews. Selecting the use of personal experiences as an effective strategy for face- to-face instruction aligns with behaviors demonstrated by Dr. Samuel in the classroom.
He did, however, exclude this as a selected strategy when considering online instruction.
Online Instruction: Using Models
The second strategy described using this assignment and identified as effective when instructing online is the use of models—examples for them to follow and of other students’ work. Using models to mirror assignments was first established in the electronic syllabus—week two. “For the model on how to use citations, click here.” In his first meeting with the students registered for the online instruction, Dr. Samuel described using models of students’ work:
122 Now at times I probably will send you copies of papers. I’ll look for papers that
are really interesting that I think other people will want to read. Um, I’ll ask
permission of the writer and I’ll send it to the whole class. You can see how
someone handled a particular topic.
When asked in an interview his rationale for providing models as part of his online instruction, Dr. Samuel responded:
An online strategy if for students to see a model. I send some out like the paper
by Mary Grace. The problem with models is that sometimes the question is so
narrow that when students see the model they copy that. So I try to come up
with enough variables that they are not all going to write the same paper. Like
use your personal experience. It minimizes some of the plagiarism…. I gave
them two models through the course and that’s because I had them…. I think
those helped a lot.
As evidence to the effect Mary Grace’s paper had on the readers, the following quote is offered. “Wow! I’m surprised at her openness—willing to be vulnerable. This paper feels therapeutic.”
When questioned about his reasoning for sending students models from the journal entries, he responded that those students “will often lapse into um gibberish— not take things very seriously if they don’t see a good journal entry. I show them a couple of journal entries where someone has taken it very seriously.” Included as evidence to this statement is an email originating from Dr. Samuel. He congratulated students for their fine journal entries posted as online threaded discussions. In his email he copied and responded to a particularly insightful entry. Since journal entries have
123 been described and analyzed, I have not included examples of student responses to journal questions in this section.
The number of journal entries posted as threaded discussions remained consistent at 32-42 postings per week through the first six weeks of instruction. After the sixth week, the number of entries declined weekly. In the first week of instruction,
33 journal entries were posted and read an average of seven times each. The novelty of posting on Blackboard could have driven this number higher than what was observed throughout the remaining three assignments. During the time allotted for the third assignment, 33 entries were again posted on Blackboard, and each entry was read two to five times. The decline in the number of entries read from previous weeks may possibly indicate a decreased interest in reading other students’ work. The reason for the decline is unclear; however, it is reasonable to assume the students became complacent or did not take responding to the questions seriously as Dr. Samuel had speculated.
Over the course of the quarter, online students posted 230 journal entries as threaded discussions and only four postings generated responses from other students using Blackboard. It’s possible that students responded to each other’s journal entries directly; however, there is no evidence to indicate this.
Conclusion
I conclude that using and identifying models as effective strategies when instructing online is appropriate, but with only a marginal effect. There is little evidence to indicate that circulating exemplary examples of work to be used as models
124 had much impact on the quality of work. Keeping in mind the infrequency of using this strategy, it could have a positive impact if done on a regular basis: one where students would anticipate the event on a weekly basis. Another approach to using this strategy is to enable students to request that their work be used as models. With more ownership and frequency, the strategy could be more effective.
Assignment 4: Does Divorce Affect Children or Should Gay Marriages Be Allowed?
Unlike the previous assignments, students could select between two different topics: the effect of divorce on children or the legitimacy of gay marriages. Students read articles and short essays found in the required textbooks. Both topics were discussed in class before students focused on their topic of choice. Similar to previous assignments, students were required to formulate a thesis, participate in the writing process, and turn in a response paper for grading.
Face-to-Face Instruction: Using One-to-One Discussions
Using the sorting activity, Dr. Samuel identified one-to-one discussions as an effective strategy for face-to-face instruction, but placed less emphasis on it than the previously described instructional strategies. He noted in an interview that he “simply says, ‘Bring in a thesis statement’ and that’s what we’re going to do. I’m going from person-to-person and in effect doing one-to-one.”
Discussing topics one-to-one with students occurred at different times in the writing process: while in the classroom, in the hallway, over the phone, and pre- scheduled office appointments. While in the classroom, one-to-one discussions occurred
125 regularly. Each assignment included one class period where Dr. Samuel circulated among the students to discuss progress. These conversations were conducted in a hushed tone with the instructor and student facing each other. The nature of the event made capturing conversations difficult; however, I documented parts of conversations starting with Dr. Samuel, “I think what your argument might be…I think this will work but reflect on…” and “Do you have a couple of ideas about the strategies the writer used?” The frequency of planned one-to-one discussions conducted in the classroom was documented throughout the four assignments. Unplanned classroom one-to-one discussions occurred frequently as Dr. Samuel moved from one discussion group to another while guiding discussions and clarifying issues.
Table 9
Frequency of Planned One-to-One Discussions Conducted with Face-to-Face Students
Assignment No. of students Description of the event participating in the one-to-one discussion One 13 of the 16 students Sixteen students were present. While working present in the independently at their desks, Dr. Samuel moved from classroom student to student discussing their topics. Three students were dismissed from class on the premise that they were not prepared to discuss their paper and needed to research the topic in the library. Each student was excused from the class following the one-to-one discussion.
Two 12 students present in Twelve students were present in the classroom, all the classroom participated in a one-to-one discussion with the instructor. Dr. Samuel moved from student to student quietly discussing their papers. Students were permitted to leave following the discussion.
Three 14 students present in Dr. Samuel met with each of the 14 students one-to-one the classroom discussing progress. Students were encouraged to go to the library if it would be more productive. Each student left following their one-to-one meeting with the instructor.
126
Four 18 students met Students signed up in advance for a one-to-one meeting individually with the with Dr. Samuel. The meetings were held in his office instructor in his office and lasted approximately six minutes each. The increase in the number of students participating in the one-to-one discussions may have been the result of having the students sign up in advance.
Occasionally, Dr. Samuel asked students to talk with him in the hall during class time. The one-to-one discussions in the hall lasted four to five minutes and were designed to help students struggling to develop thesis statements. There are six documented occurrences; however, the nature of the event made it difficult to capture actual conversations. When interviewed about the discussions, Dr. Samuel had the following explanation:
I’m trying to talk with students who are having problems. This is something
that I do better when I’m with them and I feel that I have more right to do it.
But what I’m finding is that these students are going to school full-time and are
working full time and I have to tell them that it’s not working….They’re all
[referring to students who participated on one-to-one discussions in the hall]
struggling and they’re all spotty attenders….I think that they’re going to do
very poorly. Well, I tell them, if you want to drop my class, let me know soon.
Um, but they don’t take me up on it.
Conversations from the prescheduled one-to-one discussions in Dr. Samuel’s office were not documented because of technical issues. Audiotaped recordings were of poor quality, making transcribing impossible. The one-to-one discussions in the instructor’s office were scheduled in the fourth assignment with all students attending.
127
Conclusion
During the sorting activity, selecting one-to-one discussion as an effective face- to-face strategy was almost an after thought. Initially he defined one-to-one discussions as those prescheduled in his office, but after thinking it through also considered the one-to-one discussions that occurred in the classroom. With hesitation, he agreed that it would be considered an effective strategy; however, he indicated that it would be the least of his selections. “Like several times I simply say, ‘bring in a thesis statement’ and that’s what we’re doing. I’m going from person to person and in effect I’m doing the same thing—one-to-one. Based on collected observed, documented, and interview data, I concur that this is an effective strategy—by the identification and use in the classroom.
Online Instruction: Using One-to-One Discussions
When considering online strategies, one-to-one discussions were identified during the sorting activity as the most effective strategy. This was perceived as an interesting shift from asynchronous communications—threaded discussions and email—to synchronous communications—in-person and telephone discussions. Dr.
Samuel described his rational in an interview:
I insist on it. I really want phone calls. I find that the ones that will call me are
the ones that do well. The ones who do not call me drop out….I find if they
don’t stay in touch with me, they are problems. I’m trying to think if anyone
128 has passed the course without calling me. I’d probably say no….If they’re not
staying in touch they’re not in the course. It’s purely that simple.
The importance of the one-to-one discussions over the phone was established in the syllabus—week four. “By Wednesday evening at 7 p.m. call me with your thesis statement—736-xxxx. Email it only if no other means is available.” He stressed the importance of calling him in his first meeting with the online students:
One correlation to success in this class is you’re willingness to call me. Not
email. Get on the phone and call me. And I’m going to give you my phone
number and ask you that any night, weekend, holiday between 6:00 and 7:00
feel free to pick up the phone and call me. Don’t think email….There are some
times where there’s so much to discuss, it’s just easier to discuss by phone, I
may just simply say [in written feedback] ‘please call me.’
As evidence to this practice, often the written feedback to students included Dr.
Samuel’s home phone number and a reminder to phone. The following table illustrates the number of requests for students to communicate via the phone.
Table 10
Documented Accounts of Written Feedback Including a Request for the Online Student to Phone
Assignment No. documented accounts No. of requests to call of written feedback One 29 10 Two 22 13 Three 12 6 Four 4 1
129 Dr. Samuel’s responses included “call me so we can talk” and “stay in touch before you start to write.” Because of privacy issues, phone calls were not recorded or documented.
While interviewing, Dr. Samuel described the importance of the time spent on the phone:
I do a lot more off line with these students. I mean they’ll call me and I’ll spend
anywhere from 5 to 20 minutes discussing their paper with them. I try to
schedule some um I’m going to have them come in [to the office]. It’s too short,
six-minutes.
Similar to the students in the face-to-face instruction, the fourth assignment required each student to meet with the instructor for a six-minute one-to-one meeting.
The intent was to discuss their final papers and to turn in their portfolios. Because of the poor quality of audiotaping, the one-to-one discussions were not documented.
Conclusion
Identified as one of the most effective strategies used in online instruction, one- to-one discussions with students by phone and in the office was considered a highly effective strategy. Based on interviews with the instructor and the high volume of documented contacts, I agree with Dr. Samuel that the success of an online student is dependent on the student’s willingness to remain in contact with the instructor.
Summary Analysis of Effective Strategies for
Face-to-Face and Online Instruction
130 Strategies identified by Dr. Samuel and observed as being used for face-to-face and online instruction are analyzed individually. Following this section is a description of a strategy that is considered ineffective in face-to-face instruction and was not used for online instruction. Strategies listed in the following table are ordered as described in this chapter, not particularly in order of effectiveness.
Table 11
Effective and Ineffective Strategies Used for Face-to-Face and Online Instruction
Face-to-Face Instruction Online Instruction Effective Provide written feedback Provide written feedback Use pre-organizers Use pre-organizers Use guiding questions Provide models Participate in group discussions Conduct one-to-one discussions Use personal experiences Conduct one-to-one discussions
Ineffective Peer reviews [Peer reviews] Did not apply Lecture Lecture
1) Provide written feedback: The intent of providing written feedback for face-to-face
and online instruction was the same—for students to see if other people found their
writing clear and their logic reasonable. Considering the nearly equal amount of
feedback to the students and the level of energy and focus invested in this strategy,
Dr. Samuel placed an equal amount of importance in this strategy when considering
both mediums of instruction. The only difference appears to be the medium in
which it was distributed—typed and handed back to the traditional students or
131 typed and emailed to the online students. Regardless of the method of distribution,
identifying this strategy as effective for both instructional mediums was valid.
2) Provide pre-organizers: The Comp 102 booklet was considered a tool to organize
materials in advance of the course. Regardless of the instructional medium, the
booklet was used throughout the quarter because of the pre-organized journal
questions. The intended use of questions found in the booklet was the same for both
mediums—to stimulate thinking used as the basis for journal entries. When
considering the face-to-face instruction, the journal questions initially guided group
discussions. However, because some of the reading materials were new, Dr. Samuel
“hadn’t devised the questions that were really effective,” causing him to wean away
from these, using instead the verbal guiding questions.
When questioned in an interview about the journal entries being a type of
discussion for the online students, he replied that it was, but less effective. The
effect of the pre-organized questions remained an effective strategy when writing
journal entries, but had diminished returns when considering the effectiveness of
group discussions. The only issue at hand was the use of different mediums—
handwritten journal entries compared to electronically posted digital journal entries.
The perceived advantage for the online students was that they were able to get
different perspectives on a topic by reading the other students’ posted journal
entries.
3) Guiding questions and group discussions: Identified as effective strategies for face-
to-face instruction, these strategies were effectively employed. Similar to the
advantage the online students had with the posted journal entries, the students in the
132 face-to-face instruction benefited from the guiding questions and group discussions
by hearing what other students thought about a topic. Another advantage for these
students was that these strategies were used to provoke students into taking a
position about a complicated issue.
When considering the three strategies—pre-organized and guiding questions,
and discussion groups, I find the outcome to be fairly equal between the two
different groups of students. The difference is using the strategies that the medium
accommodates.
4) Using personal experiences: This was an effective strategy used in face-to-face
instruction. Regardless if it was Dr. Samuel’s personal experience or that of a
student, the strategy helped students take a stand on an issue and develop logical
response papers. There was sufficient observed and documented evidence of its
effectiveness in the classroom. I found it interesting, however, that personal
experiences were not perceived or used as an instructional strategy for online
instruction. I can only speculate that it was because Dr. Samuel did not feel the
personal connection with the online students that he displayed with the traditional
students. As noted in an interview with the instructor, “the online class is
impersonal.” Perhaps with a more bonded relationship, he would have considered
adding value to the online experience by using personal experiences and
encouraging students to do likewise.
5) Using models: When instructing online, models were used as examples that students
could mirror their work against. Through interviews and data collection, instances
of model usage were documented. The effectiveness of using models is
133 questionable, as there is no evidence that it had a positive impact on the quality of
work. There is evidence, however, that the students valued reading a model of work
that Dr. Samuel circulated. One student replied, “Wow…this feels therapeutic.”
Therefore, I conclude that using models as a strategy is only marginal in
effectiveness. There was no value placed on this strategy when considering face-to-
face instruction.
6) Conducting one-to-one discussions: This strategy was identified as effective in face-
to-face and online instruction. It was not used to a lesser degree with the face-to-
face instruction, but was considered to have less impact. As evidence, when asked
to identify the most effective strategies for face-to-face instruction, Dr. Samuel did
not consider it at first. Reconsidering, he included it as an effective strategy, but
noted that he placed less emphasis on it.
When considering online instruction, face-to-face discussions were identified as the most effective strategy. This has major implications in the final chapter as it indicates a shift from traditional asynchronous communications and supports the premise that current technologies do not support effective synchronous communications.
There was a significant amount of evidence collected to support the instructor’s perception of this strategy. Even though the discussions could not be audiotaped due to technical issues, interviews and accounts of planned one-to-one discussions are documented. The primary difference is the medium in which they were conducted—in the classroom, hall, office, or via phone.
Summary Analysis of Ineffective Strategies for
134
Face-to-Face and Online Instruction
In addition to gaining insight into the strategies that were successfully employed, it is useful to consider strategies that were not successful. A strategy that is controversial in the analysis is that of peer review. Dr. Samuel describes the process of reviewing papers written by class peers:
Well, students are asked to read two papers besides their own. They’re to bring
a paper in and asked to read two others and to comment. I pass out evaluation
forms. What they’re trying to do is to see if they help each other….They have
something to measure their own against. Um, they’re permitted to borrow ideas
from someone else—and that’s a benefit to them. Often, they’re just stuck.
They run out of ideas and they say, “this looks good.” The other benefit that I
see is that I like for them to have more input into their writing than simply me.
It’s much more effective when other students say, “ya know, I can’t make heads
or tails out of your sentence.”
When interviewed and asked about the effectiveness of peer reviews, Dr.
Samuel responded:
Well, they [classroom students] do peer reviews, but they clearly take my
opinion more seriously than others. If I’d let them, they would skip the peer
review. It’s very difficult to get them to take it seriously.
He continued by giving an example of students not taking peer reviews seriously:
135 It was terrible—terrible. She was off topic and the two people [reviewing] did
not say, “how did you let this get through?” I couldn’t read it….I’m going to
have a hard time convincing any student that it’s in their best interest to
confront another student and say, “I don’t think that you have the right topic.”
Dr. Samuel found peer reviews problematic in earlier attempts that he does not consider using them for online instruction.
I tried this [peer reviews] when I first started teaching online. And I gave it up
immediately because I thought it was hopeless….Ya know, they have to get the
papers in to each other and for weeks they’re out of town. They’re busy, they
just can’t get the paper and get the paper read and get it back. I got these
hysterical phone calls. I just don’t want to deal with it. So, I gave it up. I said,
“Ok, you don’t have to read each others’ papers just send it to me.”
For each assignment in the face-to-face instruction, class time was provided for students to read and comment on another student’s work—overall four of the 28 instructional days were spent conducting peer reviews. This strategy, however, was not selected as an effective strategy when considering face-to-face or online instruction, nor did I collect data indicating that it had significant value to the students. Therefore, I conclude that peer reviews should not be used as a part of an instructional approach.
Using the current instructional model, it seems reasonable that peer reviews are not a part of online instruction based on the fact that they were stressful and counterproductive to the students.
A second strategy that I’ve identified as not effective is lecture. This strategy, unlike peer reviews, is less clear cut. When observing the face-to-face instruction,
136 limited time was spent lecturing and it was primarily done to introduce the course and recall prior learning. Dr. Samuel used lecture when recalling where the class had left off.
OK. The first paper On Line and Bummed Out, by Jerry Adler, writes that the
more time subjects stay online the more depressed and lonely they were by the
end of the experiment. Rheingold, in the Virtual Community, if you remember
disagrees.
Another time, Dr. Samuel used lecture as a strategy to assist students in developing a writing skill—thesis statements.
Now later, I think it’s Friday, I asked you about summarizing. That’s the time
to have a thesis statement. Do you all know what a thesis statement is? It’s a
single sentence that tells what it is you’re arguing in your paper. So if you
could have hat on Friday. If you have a good thesis statement then your paper is
going to go smoothly. My experience is, if you don’t have a good thesis
statement in my head before I start writing, then it’s not very clear what I’m
trying to say….But if it’s possible you want to have a good idea about what it
is you want to say before you start writing or else you’ll be sitting at the
typewriter or computer and…
Dr. Samuel used lecture as a primary source of instruction once while teaching a grammar lesson in face-to-face instruction. He provided a handout with grammatical examples for students to follow along. Using the examples, students searched their own papers looking for the same type of errors. Lecturing consumed about one-half of the class period and was supported with students actively looking for grammatical errors in
137 their draft papers. The rest of the class period was spent in one-to-one discussions reviewing students’ papers. A lesson in grammar was not included in the online instruction.
Lecture was used as a strategy while instructing the online students on two occasions—first two weeks when student met face-to-face and later in the quarter with audio clips posted online.
Approximately one-third of the first class period was spent lecturing, “Let me tell you how the course will be run and please stop me to ask questions as we go along.
There are four papers over the quarter and a lot of the materials that I give you are in the book….” The second class meeting included only a brief lecture clarifying journal entries and the assignments. “Now you can take some aspect of those essays. You don’t have to deal with the whole essay. But, I want you to briefly summarize…”
Posted in the online syllabus were two audio lectures: one on the video Do the
Right Thing and the second entitled Teacher’s Comments. In both instances, it was not determinable if students accessed or integrated the lecture into the writing process.
Interestingly, Dr. Samuel referred to lecture while discussing online instruction in an interview.
I think English lends itself fairly well. I can lecture them—that’s the primary
thing. Lecturing, telephones, and I think that’s enough to get them through the
course.
The instructional strategy “lecture” was not included as a choice in the
Instructional Strategy Sorting Activity. It was not perceived as used enough in instruction to include in the activity; therefore, it was not an option. In retrospect, I
138 would include “lecture” as an activity selection; however, do not believe it would change the final analysis of this study. The strategy “lecture” was not observed as a frequently used strategy in the face-to-face or online instruction. I have included a discussion about this strategy in CHAPTER V.
Beliefs and Attitudes Toward the Use of Instructional Strategies for
Face-to-Face Instruction
This section is designed to describe the third component of relational data— beliefs and attitudes—using data collected from interviews. Understanding the beliefs that lead to attitudes is fundamental to the three-component relationship because the beliefs and attitudes drive the use and identification of instructional strategies in the two learning environments.
Beliefs that lead to negative attitudes imply that the instructor uses a strategy for reasons other than believing that it is effective or essential to successful learning.
There are unlimited reasons why an instructor would use a strategy that is not perceived as effective or essential for successful learning such as it is a requirement, other instructors have experienced success using the strategy, it’s accepted practice, or it was successful in another instructional situation or environment. Regardless of the reason, there is a gap in learning.
Beliefs that lead to positive attitudes support the use of a strategy because it is perceived as effective and supports the learning event. When the three components support each other, three sides of the triangle come together and successful learning occurs.
139 Attitudes, toward the use of strategies in face-to-face instruction, consist of three parts, each reflective of the three beliefs—behavioral, normative, and control. In this section, each of the three attitudes is evaluated based on the beliefs beginning with behavioral, then normative and control.
Using the framework provided by the Theory of Planned Behavior, the formal exit interviews concentrated on three foci: behavioral, normative, and control beliefs.
The intent was to identify the instructor’s beliefs as indicators of attitudes.
The three foci—behavioral, normative, and control—are described in context of interview data and concluded with a brief summary. A summative analysis is provided for face-to-face instruction using the Category Dissemination Model. The process is repeated for online instruction.
Arriving at Dr. Samuel’s office at our prescheduled time, we started with the exit interview for face-to-face instruction.
Behavioral Beliefs
To describe behavioral beliefs, interview questions were designed to identify the instructor’s perceptions of the advantages and disadvantages of strategies used for face-to-face instruction. The three closely intertwined issues discussed in this section are the familiarity Dr. Samuel had with students, instructional strategies, and collaborative learning.
Familiarity with Students in Face-to-Face Instruction
140 Dr. Samuel found teaching in the classroom to be stimulating and displayed genuine warmth toward the students in face-to-face instruction. Often classroom discussions were punctuated with laughter and friendly gestures of concern.
Recognizing his students by face had an advantage as noted in his acknowledgement of showing preference to these students:
The day [face-to-face] students do it [get behind on assignments] also. Um, but
again the big factor is that I have faces. When Annie came to me, I had not seen
her for two weeks. I thought that she had dropped the course, she’s in the day
class. But she came to me and said “I had an operation.” And of course, I know
her, and I’m not going to throw her out now. I had her last quarter. With the
evening [online] students I’m less tolerant just because I don’t know them. It’s,
um, I don’t have faces with them. I get more harsh I guess.
Discussing another situation, this time involving email addresses of the online students, Dr. Samuel again expressed a preference:
They [online students] had written in ‘xx.edu’ rather than ‘[email protected].’ So I
wrote to them and asked them to correct it. Well, I wrote to them on Sunday
and they haven’t corrected it yet and I’m not too surprised. I realize that’s the
difference between the online and face-to-face students. Face-to-face I know the
students. I know them by face. I would have changed it, I would have gone into
Blackboard and changed it. But I’m not going to do that for the online students.
The preference shown to the face-to-face students may not have been entirely based on his familiarity with them as indicated in the following statement:
141 I’m probably more tolerant if they [face-to-face students] do something wrong.
And you realize you mother the face-to-face because you don’t want tension all
quarter.
Instructional Strategies Used in Face-to-Face Instruction
We spent a considerable amount of time in the formal exit interview discussing instructional strategies. Dr. Samuel was asked to define instructional strategies. With little thought, the words rolled off his tongue as though he had anticipated the question.
Along with the definition, he offered an example of where using a strategy did not produce the desired effect:
Well they’re methods to get students to think through a particular problem or
method like in a writing class. Um, what I want them to do is think like writers.
So what I’m focusing on is how would you [not audible] perceive a writer? I
tried it some this quarter but not very successful…when I asked students to
write to a writer I still got a lot of rant. I though that was a strategy to not get
them to rant.
Dr. Samuel was also willing to recall the type of situation where using a specific strategy did not achieve the desired effect and ways he turned around undesired behaviors with the use of a strategy:
Oh sure, it happens all the time especially if you get into some of these hot
issues. Students get upset, or I’ve pushed them too hard or I’m controlling them
rather than inviting them. There are times that I walk out of the classroom and
think that it didn’t go very well: that there’s only an appearance of learning
142 going on. And in a situation like that, I try to have them in small
groups….That’s a strategy that I find very effective. But then again, most of
it’s [small group discussion] done, um, it’s a face-to-face strategy where I see
that a lot of people want to speak at once or if not one is speaking.
When asked if he believed that the use of appropriate strategies improved student performance, he responded, “Oh sure.”
Collaborative Learning and Face-to-Face Instruction
While discussing instructional strategies, the effectiveness of collaborative learning was questioned.
There’s an online MBA program from another university. Notre Dame has
introduced an MBA program. It’s an online course. Now it’s an entirely
different audience that I have to deal with. A lot of the strategies would not
work—like collaborative learning. I’ve just not found that really helpful.
Now I’ve heard of people doing things like um forming study groups
and stuff like that and frankly I just don’t want to get into all the work that’s
involved. Students drop. I don’t know who’s in the class half of the time. I got a
note from a student who says “I’m dropping the class.” Do I really want to put
her in a group and have them say why isn’t she helping us? I’ve heard that a lot
about collaborative learning and that’s a prejudice of mine and it should be
noted in this whole thing because every student I’ve ever talked has hated
it….What happens is you have one student who is doing a lot of work, usually
it’s a woman, middle aged woman who’s really serious. They you get some guy
143 who’s on one of the teams who hardly ever show up and gets the same grade as
everyone else. Um you’ve got one student who’s totally out of it and is never
there. That’s collaboration. And how are you going to evaluate it? Evaluate
each other? That’s not their job. I just haven’t found collaboration very
effective.
Reflecting back to the Instructional Strategy Sorting Activity, I noted that peer reviews had not been identified as an effective strategy. Considering this strategy an example of collaborative learning, I questioned Dr. Samuel about it.
The collaborating—no. And even in class I have a hell of a time getting
them to peer review each others papers. Very difficult. They’re best interest
does not lie in peer reviewing each other’s papers. Puts them in a very tough
spot.
Recognizing this problem, he gave the students an out. “If you’re doing a peer review and something is slipping through, call me over.” By doing so, students would turn it over for him to take care of. I did not document any accounts of students taking advantage of his offer.
Conclusion
Determining the first part of attitude toward the use of strategies in face-to-face instruction focused on Dr. Samuel’s behavioral beliefs—the familiarity with students, instructional strategies, and collaborative learning. His salient behavioral beliefs are discussed before concluding an attitude.
144 Dr. Samuel believed that familiarity with students and that “having faces” was an advantage when using strategies in face-to-face instruction. I correlate his familiarity with students with his willingness to use and identify personal experiences as an effective instructional strategy—one eliminated from his online instruction. When discussing relationships, control was not an issue as he was able to establish and maintain continuous synchronous communications and stayed abreast of student progress through class, group, and one-to-one discussions. This, however, is not the case when analyzing his behavioral beliefs toward online instruction.
When discussing Dr. Samuel’s beliefs toward the use of instructional strategies in face-to-face instruction, he expressed advantages to using strategies and easily identified examples of the successful application of a strategy.
Dr. Samuel believes that collaborative learning is a disadvantage and is hated by students; however, what he describes is actually cooperative not collaborative learning. When describing his beliefs towards instructional strategies, he is quoted as saying that the collaborative strategy “small groups” is effective. “I try to have them in small groups….That’s a strategy that I find very effective.” On the other hand, he identified peer reviews not effective as “it’s difficult to get them to take it seriously.”
The difference between cooperative and collaborative learning is discussed in
CHAPTER V. In spite of this conflict in semantics, I conclude that Dr. Samuel perceives collaborative learning as a disadvantage, thus reflecting negative attitude. If he believes that collaborative learning is not effective and hated by students, then he will not be prone to explore new or additional collaborative strategies.
145 In spite of Dr. Samuel’s belief that collaborative learning is a disadvantage, his overall behavioral attitude is positive. I anticipate that he will continue to be a positive influence because of his enthusiastic outlook, caring relationship with students, and continued use of effective strategies.
Normative Beliefs
To determine the second part of attitude toward the use of strategies in face-to- face instruction, interview questions focused on his normative beliefs—the impact of other people. When interviewing, we discussed college administration, department head, peers, and other experts in the field of teaching. There was significantly less data collected for normative beliefs than behavioral beliefs. It appeared to be less of an issue—less impact was noted when considering the influence of others had on Dr.
Samuel’s use of strategies. When asked if there were times when peers had influenced his use of strategies, he responded:
Oh sure. Talking to a peer the other day—assignments that they’ve used that
are effective, sometimes there are strategies that they’ve used that are effective.
They may say they tried an assignment and it worked very well so I’ll give it a
try. Although it probably doesn’t happen as much as it used to. I’m not trying
stuff as much as I used to. I tend to find what works for me…I think I’ve been
willing to try things that people have suggested and if they don’t work I have no
hesitation of not using it. As I’ve said, there’s a lot of collaborative work going
on and I guess I’m not I’ve not had very much success with face-to-face so I
146 don’t expect much of it online so I haven’t done it. But I think that a lot of
people teaching online are doing a lot of it.
His statement that “I’m not trying stuff as much as I used to.” is indicative of
an attitude that is revealed later in this section using additional statements.
His response when asked if he was accountable to department heads or supervisors for strategies that are use in the classroom is as follows.
What the department has defined is the curriculum. Um they ask you to abide
by it but then you can amend part of the curriculum without penalty. I try to do
the kinds of papers that we have all decided are desired. But I’m not
accountable to the chair.
Pursuing the issue of accountability, I asked if he developed lesson plans or formally documented instructional strategies.
To show to someone else? No. Unless I’m interested in writing it out, does it
work and try it again. Do you mean kind of like a journal and say this works
well or this hasn’t worked well? There’s no kind of documentation.
Conclusion
Normative beliefs—those of his peers, administration, and students—are considered when determining Dr. Samuel’s normative attitude. The normative beliefs are discussed before concluding on his subjective norm.
The opinions of peers have an impact on the strategies Dr. Samuel uses as he was willing to try then discard, if warranted, strategies peers recommended. There has been minimal influence by peers in recent years.
147 The college administration has had limited impact on his instruction as there appears to be freedom within the structure of a defined curriculum to design instruction.
The third component, when evaluating his normative beliefs, are the students.
Dr. Samuel displays a strong sense of accountability to the students as observed in his dedication and concern for their success.
Overall, based on the normative beliefs, I conclude that Dr. Samuel attitude reflects a willingness to listen and react to those who can influence his instructional choices; however, he did not feel that other instructors valued his expertise and experiences learned from instructing online.
Control Beliefs
To determine the third part of attitude, behavior control, toward the use of strategies used in face-to-face instruction, questions focused on perceived constraints or limitations that identify the control he has over successful face-to-face instruction.
Similar to the normative beliefs there is less data than that of behavior beliefs. This is in part because it seemed to be less of an issue to Dr. Samuel. He discussed the classroom, training, and the instructor’s length of tenure.
When asked if he thought that the classroom was conducive to the strategies that he had identified, he responded, “Yes I think, um I think most. Well you know the strategies that I use in the classroom.” He did not identify any barriers to using instructional strategies in the classroom, but noted that the Internet might open doors for student groups. However, most of what he had seen at conferences, pertaining to
148 using the Internet for student groups, was relevant to upperclassmen. “It’s not relevant to me.” I found this comment interesting, as he did not take advantage of the Internet or
Blackboard to form student groups when instructing online, but indicated that he would do so in the following quarter. This may be an issue of technology and training and less about beliefs.
Training is the second issue discussed and categorized as a control belief. Dr.
Samuel discussed attending conferences, but had not found them very insightful. When asked if he had any training for strategies used in the classroom, he responded:
Well, when I first started teaching…I think most of the stuff that I thought was
really interesting and novel I did in my first five years and then after that I kind
of developed a groove and coasted a lot….I don’t see myself as putting that
kind of energy into it.
From Dr. Samuel’s perspective, this was acceptable. “Yeah, well people are still doing it…” He concluded the first exit interview by saying, “Teaching the online course has been the most interesting change over the last couple of years.”
Conclusion
Control beliefs—barriers of instruction—lead to the third part of attitude.
Discussed first are the control beliefs concluding with the attitude.
When discussing barriers that the classroom presented toward the use of instructional strategies, I had anticipated that the arrangement of desks would be identified as a barrier to group discussions; however, Dr. Samuel did not identify any classroom elements as barriers to instruction. Students were constantly moving their
149 desks around to accommodate the groups then moving them back into a row formation before leaving. Considering the 50-minute class period, I calculated that rearranging the desks took four to five minutes per period. Because he had the same classroom for three consecutive periods where he taught the same course, a more suitable arrangement would have been to move the desks only twice—once at the beginning of the three-hour time frame and again at the end. However, Dr. Samuel’s perspective was that the classroom was conducive to the strategies he used.
Inadequate training and conferences identified as “not very insightful” was considered a barrier to instruction when evaluating Dr. Samuel’s control beliefs.
The final element considered when evaluating the instructor’s control beliefs was length of tenure. As he stated, “most of the stuff that I thought was really interesting and novel I did in my first five years and then after that I kind of developed a groove and coasted a lot….” It appears that he uses what he is familiar and comfortable with and has not changed over time. In part, this appears to be an accurate statement, as his instruction remains teacher-centered when using the strategies of lecture, guiding questions, and personal examples. However, he has also integrated student-centered strategies—one-to-one and group discussions. His statement of doing interesting and novel things in his first five years can be explained in terms of how he perceives himself in the classroom. Though it is not entirely accurate, he perceives himself as the center of instruction and having control over the instructional event. This perception is in conflict with that of instructing online where the students are the center of instruction and the instructor is a facilitator.
150 I conclude that the instructor’s control beliefs led to a moderately negative attitude when considering barriers—classroom, training, and tenure—that are determinants of success or failure.
Category Dissemination Model Displays Relational Data for
Face-to-Face Instruction
The domain display Category Dissemination Model classifies the instructor into one of four categories based on the analysis of the relational data—strategies used during instruction and those identified, and the beliefs and attitudes toward the use of strategies in face-to-face instruction. The model’s Y axis is labeled Use and
Identification of Instructional Strategies and is aligned with the first and second component of relational data—use and identification. The X axis is labeled Beliefs and
Attitudes representing the third component of relational data—beliefs and attitudes. As described earlier, when the instructor’s beliefs and attitudes drive the use and identification of instructional strategies, successful learning occurs. That is, a strategy was used in instruction, identified in the sorting activity as effective, and the instructor displayed a positive attitude toward the use of the strategy. When considering the face- to-face instruction, the graph is plotted in the upper-right quadrant—positive use and identification of strategies and a positive attitude towards the use of the strategies.
151
(Y axis) Use and Identification of Instructional Strategies: Behavior
“…a strategy I find very effective…”
“Oh, sure,” appropriate strategies
(X axis) improve student performance. Beliefs and Attitudes
Figure 4.2. Category Dissemination Model
Summation of the Strategies Used and Identified in
Face-to-Face Instruction
When considering face-to-face instruction, Dr. Samuel was observed using the following strategies as the primary means of instruction:
· Written feedback
· Pre-organize
· Guiding questions
· Group discussions
· Personal experiences
152 · One-to-one discussions
· Peer reviews
· Lecture
Not all of these were identified as effective strategies using the Instructional
Strategy Sorting Activity. Consequently, peer reviews and lectures were considered ineffective and the remaining six were considered effective. The issues of collaborative learning, the use of peer reviews, and lecture are discussed in CHAPTER V. The six remaining strategies are plotted in a positive direction on the Y axis: They were used in the classroom and identified as effective.
Summation of the Beliefs and Attitudes Toward the Use of Strategies
in Face-to-Face Instruction
The instructor’s salient beliefs led to an overall positive attitude when analyzing his behavioral and normative beliefs. An analysis of his behavioral beliefs indicates a positive attitude when considering the advantages of using strategies in face-to-face instruction.
The instructor displayed normative beliefs—responses to other influential people that led to a positive attitude.
Finally, analyzing Dr. Samuel’s control beliefs led to a moderately negative attitude when discussing the impact of classroom barriers and training. His negative beliefs seemed to be more of complacency—“developed a groove and coasted a lot.”
Overall, I conclude that an analysis of Dr. Samuel’s behavioral, normative, and control beliefs reflect positive attitudes toward the use of instructional strategies in
153 face-to-face instruction. There appears to be a strong motivation to comply—a positive attitude toward the strategies used in face-to-face instruction, a positive attitude toward the influence of others, and a moderately negative attitude toward physical barriers of success. I believe his intent is to continue teaching with the strategies he currently uses.
I do not anticipate any changes in his face-to-face instruction. The final analysis of face-to-face instruction is that successful learning occurs in the classroom. The instructor’s beliefs and attitudes drive the use and identification of effective strategies.
Beliefs and Attitudes Toward the Use of Instructional Strategies for
Online Instruction
Having completed the third component of relational data, the beliefs and attitudes for face-to-face instruction, this section was designed to describe the instructor’s beliefs and attitudes toward strategies used for online instruction.
Understanding the beliefs and attitudes is fundamental to the three-component relationship in that the beliefs and attitudes drive the use and identification of instructional strategies used in online instruction. When the three components support each other, successful learning occurs.
Foci are described in context of interview data and concluded with a brief summary. Following the three foci is a summative analysis using the Category
Dissemination Model.
Behavioral Beliefs
154 To determine the first part of attitude, interview questions were designed to identify the advantages and disadvantages of using strategies when for online instruction. Tightly woven into the issue of instructional strategies are issues of the instructor’s relationship with students, lack of control, and collaborative learning.
Therefore, to adequately evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of strategies used when instructing online, the other issues could not be ignored.
Impersonal Relationship with Students in Online Instruction
“…part of it is the impersonality of it. I don’t know these students. I don’t know who they are. I don’t feel the same affection, warmth to them. Um, I realize that’s my problem…” “The online class is impersonal.” “…it’s an impersonal system and I resent being in the position of their mothers.” “I feel like I don’t have that familiarity.” “I don’t have that much contact with the evening [online] students.”
Unquestionably, Dr. Samuel did not feel the same connection with online students as felt toward the classroom students. He did, however, view them as having positive attributes and speculated on criteria for success:
The ideal student is someone who has a job, has a family, understands
responsibility and is probably middle aged. They’re very comfortable with
computers. They’re willing to call me. There are a lot of students who really
don’t want to call me. There are some students who will just not call me. The
only time they’ll call me if I’ve written repeated emails and said “call me, call
me, call me” and I will not respond any other way. And then, they’ll call me.
155 They’re more tolerant, they’re more willing to consider diverse
opinions…I think on some levels especially when you get into controversial
issues that they [online] have more time to reflect….They’ll reflect and they’ll
have a little more time to do their journal entries and they don’t have to commit
publicly. I think that it helps students who tend to be a little more introverted.
And, um, don’t need classroom interaction. It’s usually people who need
validation as much as anything. Just someone to say “yeah, you’re a good
writer.” They’re older students.
The older students will write better papers and grasp it quicker, yeah.
Well they’re older students, they’re better writers, um to a great extent their
age—writing skills are a function of age. There’s a remarkable study done that
would make you crazy because what it says is that 30 year-olds will write
better than 20-year olds, even if they are out of school. Just by virtue of that
maturity, that perspective, and whatever. So you can almost guarantee that the
30-year old is a better writer than the 20-year old. The outcomes are better
because they are older students….And that’s, in my mind, the justification as to
why I’m willing to do it.
Lack of Control in Online Instruction
One of Dr. Samuel’s greatest concerns about online instruction was his lack of control—it’s a self-selecting group of students, lack of adherence to ground rules, and the loss of instruction.
156 The [online] course seems very successful in attracting students and that’s part
of my reservation about it. Right now I’m getting lots of petitions to take it: it’s
getting more popular. And it’s very hard to say no to students and they write
these long stories about why they need this course.…It’s a self-selecting bunch.
Maintaining a contact via the phone is an important strategy used in the online course. One-to-one discussions about technical and content issues are discussed regularly over the phone. As described earlier, this strategy cannot be underestimated.
Maintaining contact was a ground rule established in the first week of the course; however, Dr. Samuel had little control when enforcing the rule.
Here’s a student with a sick child. She does not have a correct email address,
she has submitted no papers, her phone is out of order, her cell phone doesn’t
work. And, she started sending me numbers I can call her at as though I’m her
secretary. I’m suppose to track her down somehow. I need to communicate that.
I’m sure for them it’s just not an issue….It’s a dilemma that I face—to not to
let Katie stay in the course and I’m not inclined to let her stay in now. On the
other hand, I’m torn. I can’t do that. So what I do is fume.
When you lose control of a student in the evening, it’s hard to track
them down. She’s got a wrong email address. I had to go and find her email
address. And that takes time. I had to write to people, I had to call people up to
locate her and that takes time.
When asked if this feels like an unfair burden, he responded:
Yeah, it is. And they’re breezy when they call. I think part of the problem is
that they missed the first few days or they dismiss it. They don’t seem to realize
157 that I need to keep in touch with them….I get calls day and night. I said six to
seven—that doesn’t mean anything. If [students] have to come home from work
and make dinner and put kids to bed what are you going to do? You call at nine
and apologize. I understand that and that’s a disadvantage. It kind of makes me,
um, there’re times at 9:00 at night that I don’t want to answer the phone, but I
do it.
Recognizing this issue as a disadvantage to online instruction and recognizing the frustration it was causing, Dr. Samuel looked for solutions.
I need to do more about coaching them. How to handle situations. Don’t wait
until two weeks later to tell me your child is ill. But that’s what they do. Their
kid’s sick, but they don’t think, ‘maybe I need to contact my teacher.’ And I get
very frustrated. These [online students] are faceless people. When I’m pissed at
them, I’m pissed at an abstraction. So I react differently. And I get more
frustrated with evening students when, I feel like I lose control and I suppose
that’s an important issue for me. I don’t like it when a student misses three
weeks. I don’t know what to do about it. What are the rules? I know why they
took the course, because they don’t want to be there all the time. But they
haven’t been in class for three weeks. Normally, I’d throw them out of the day
class. But I can’t do that. I do feel a loss of control with the evening class. It’s
more important to have a sense of control than with the day [face-to-face] class.
And I think that effects my instruction. I hope that’s useful to you.
When discussing the lack of control Dr. Samuel was experiencing with the online class, I probed into how he felt when instructing online.
158 Well, it depends on what you mean. I don’t know when I’m instructing online.
The only time that I’m instructing online is in [another] quarter because I break
the class into two groups and we meet online in chat room and we talk. I feel
like I’m instructing then….The rest of the time I feel what I’m doing is
commenting on papers. Because that’s what I’m doing—I’m grading….When it
comes to real teaching or instruction, people who need supervision, I don’t think
this [online course] is a good thing. And my fear is that 18 year-olds are going
to start taking the course and it’s not designed for them. My experience has
been that 18 year-olds not do as well as older students….If I thought that I was
going to get a lot of 18 year-olds then I wouldn’t do it. I’d say this is just a
farst. It’s not education at all.
Instructional Strategies Used in Online Instruction
When considering the advantages and disadvantages of online instruction, Dr. Samuel and I discussed instruction and the strategies he used. We began with how it made him feel when instructing an online course.
I think teaching the online course has been the most interesting change over the
last couple of years….Um, you don’t have the sense of audience that makes
teaching fun. It’s not as much fun for the teacher if that’s…um, it’s not much
fun for the teacher.
I came to this online stuff very late in my career. I think if I had been
younger, I would have spent more time thinking through what’s required. At
159 this stage in my life, I’m not really taking courses and thinking about pedagogy
and the like. Had I been younger, I suspect I’d had better strategies on how to
teach students in different situations. I think most of the strategies that I’ve
learned, worked on, devised are the results of physical confirmations. I don’t
think I’ve done much that addresses particularly online students. I don’t think
that I’ve thought it though like a younger teacher would. There’s a whole new
methodology, a new approach.
When asked to consider the value of strategies used online in terms of student success, he responded:
Some really approximate the class just using a different medium. When I
comment on their papers I do pretty much what I’d do on the paper except it’s
in digital form and I send it back to them….I haven’t seen any quantitative
evidence some thing that online does that you can’t really accomplish in class. I
can see work-arounds to accomplish some of the same things….But I don’t see
anything about the online that makes it rich and wonderful. It gives students an
opportunity to work at their own pace—their own time. I see it as essentially
that.
Collaborative Strategies Used with Online Instruction
When discussing collaborative learning as a part of online instruction, Dr.
Samuel’s beliefs were similar to those expressed in face-to-face instruction.
Collaborative learning was described in terms of peer reviews—a strategy tried and abandoned.
160 …I said it gives me an opportunity to be involved with the evening students. I
tried that [peer reviews]. I tried this when I first started teaching. And I gave it
up because I thought it was hopeless. There may be teachers who can do it, but
it’s very draconian.
I guess I’m not predisposed to a lot of collaboration. I think that there
are a lot of teachers that are much—who spend [can’t hear] and I just don’t
sense that it works well. I don’t do much of it either way. Another teacher might
try to do a lot more. I know people who do it and sometimes it gets coercive like
it’s part of your grade and you have to do it. I don’t know I’m just not
comfortable with it.
He was able to discuss the types of problems he encountered with peer reviews:
I don’t want a phone call at 9:00 or 10:00 or 11:00 at night saying ‘what am I
suppose to do, she’s out of town? A week’s gone by and I haven’t heard from
her.’ What am I going to do? I’ve tried calling this person up start admonishing
her?
What you have to do the problem is that they don’t have the kind of
lead-time. Ya know they have to get the papers in to each other and for weeks
they’re out of town. They’re busy they’re just can’t get the paper can’t read the
paper and get it back. [Inaudible] hysterical phone calls. I just don’t want to
deal with it. So I gave it up. I said “ok, you don’t have to read each others’
papers just send it to me”…. I really don’t want the aggravation. But maybe
younger people are willing to do it, but not me.
161 I inquired at this point if he came across a technical issue that might be a barrier to the students conducting peer reviews, such as not being able to access the paper digitally. He stood firm on his beliefs that it was an issue of students not working cooperatively and that it did not fit his instructional style.
Online students? I can’t get them to work together. Now I know that there are
people who do it, but the ones that I hear about those who are teaching
undergraduates are using draconian measures—this is a part of your grades and
if you don’t do this there are penalties. Now frankly, I don’t want to walk
around doing that—it’s just a lot of trouble for me. Keep track of what they do
and what they’re not doing. That’s a bookkeeper. There’s only so much energy
that I can put into this.
An alternative to conducting peer reviews with the online students is to provide models of work. These, however, do not come without their own set of problems.
But what I will do is send it [a well-written paper or journal entry] out as a
model. Now I’m limited to what I can do with that too. Because I don’t—well,
it’s a topic that’s broad and there’s lots of ways to approach it and that’s fine.
They’re getting some ideas….If it’s [model] on papers that are narrowly
defined, then they [online students] have a paper to plagiarize. You know. So I
try, especially in the evening class, to give them broad topics. So if I send them
a model they’re not going to copy it.
162
Conclusion
Evaluating Dr. Samuel’s behavioral beliefs—the perceived advantages and disadvantages of using instructional strategies—led to the first of three attitudes. First, each issue is described in terms of being perceived as an advantage or disadvantage before concluding with the attitude.
The two issues he seemed most passionate about are his lack of relationship with students and lack of control, both of which are considered disadvantages. Even though online students were identified as better writers and typically having better outcomes than the classroom students, Dr. Samuel described the online students as faceless. Consequently were not given the same benefit of ‘mothering’ he was willing to invest in the face-to-face students.
He also noted that instructing online lacked a sense of audience and was not fun. I propose that this lack of connection with his online students contributed to not including personal experience in his online instruction. With varied techniques, discussed in CHAPTER V, he could have a more connected relationship with students that would complement the eliminated strategy.
The lack of control is also perceived as a disadvantage to online instruction.
Similar to the traditional class, the instructor does not have control over who registers for the online course; however, the stakes are higher because online students need to be more self-reliant. Even with an older group of students, issues of communication continue to burden the instructional process. Control, in the face-to-face instruction, is
163 less of an issue because the instructor has a natural setting for synchronous communications. Because of technical issues and the instructor’s lower expectation of successful synchronous online communications, he senses a lack of control when describing online instruction. Using a hybrid model of online instruction—requiring online students to meet for three class periods—and the requirement that students contact him by phone are effective compromises to the dilemma.
Using strategies online that were proven successful in face-to-face instruction is considered a disadvantage because the most appropriate techniques for online instruction were not considered. It is not that using pre-organizers or journal questions posted as threaded discussions were ineffective, in fact they’ve been identified as effective, but creative and innovative ways to develop rich and meaningful dialog were not considered.
The decisions that he made in preparing for an online course are reflect his beliefs about online synchronous communications. He used online instructional strategies that he had successfully employed as a classroom instructor over the many years that spanned his career including the dependency on phone calls. Asynchronous communications were successfully implemented as providing written feedback via email was used and identified as effective. As discussed in the final chapter, there is tension between using what is familiar and changing his beliefs and attitude in order to teach using the new paradigm.
I conclude that the instructor’s behavioral beliefs toward online instruction lead to a negative attitude of low expectations.
164
Normative Beliefs
To describe normative beliefs that lead to the subjective norms, the instructor was asked to discuss the impact other people had on perceptions toward designing and instructing an online course. Similar to the data collected when describing face-to-face instruction there is less data focusing on the normative beliefs. Following the questioning pattern used for face-to-face instruction, I asked about the influence the department head or college administrators had when considering the strategies used for online instruction. Dr. Samuel noted, “The department has a curriculum, but it doesn’t tell you [not audible] like they’ll say second quarter ‘text based’ you know.” There wasn’t any difference between their expectations between the face-to-face and online class. He was not evaluated based on the strategies use.
The discussion moved on to the influence that peers, experts in online instruction, and authors of books could have on his decisions.
Oh sure. Not so much my peers because they’re not teaching it [online]. Um,
well, I have colleagues outside of the department that are teaching it [online].
But, yeah, we talk. We’ve talked about getting together formally but we talk
about problems that we’re encountering, satisfactions or dissatisfactions of the
course, solutions. One of the things that’s interesting I’ve discovered, we’ve been
doing it for four or five years now, is that no one has ever volunteered to teach a
second online course in a quarter—no one has ever done it. And I know why. It’s
time consuming. It’s very time consuming. They’re in your life….But we do
165 talk, and I do read about it and there are it comes up a lot online in mailing
groups. You know, what strategies they’re using for online courses.
I pursued by asking if he could provide examples where input from a colleague influenced the strategies used for online. He reiterated his position on collaborative learning:
You know, I’m sure there have…I’m trying to think of them. I think I’ve been
willing to try things that people have suggested and if they don’t work I have no
hesitation of not using it. As I’ve said, there’s a lot of collaborative work going
on and I guess I’m not I’ve not had very much success with face-to-face so I
don’t expect much of it online so I haven’t done it. But I think that a lot of
people teaching online are doing a lot of it…Within the college you don’t get a
whole lot of cross-pollination. You have to go outside of the college. It’s not
exactly competition. You don’t want to go to someone and say ‘how do you do
this?’ So, I find that even though I probably have as much experience as anyone
with this, no one ever comes to me and says ‘how do you do this?’ They want to
learn on their own or go somewhere else to find out. It’s like Bush asking Bill
Clinton for tips on running the government.
Unexpectedly, the interview took a turn and we started discussing online course as being consumer driven and how an online experience can change the consumers’ perspectives about education.
I suppose it can reinforce some notions about self-reliance. Ya know, you don’t
have someone hovering over you. I think it can be …I think it gives them
flexibility that they value. If there’s an educational value, I’m not sure. I tend to
166 see these online courses as consumer driven. I don’t see them as serious efforts
of educational reform.
When asked to describe the notion of consumer-driven education, Dr. Samuel continued:
Well, consumers want it [online courses]. People want things that fit into their
schedules and the colleges are willing to accommodate them. This is not
anything new—we’ve done it with evening courses. I don’t think a whole lot of
evening courses is the ideal way to communicate stuff. Except with older
students: their maturity you can count on. Day students need a little more
parenting. And I think it’s a better model. You get the students when they’re
fresh and you have 50 minutes as opposed to an evening class when, you can’t
educate for three hours. They’re good for an hour—they’re distracted. Frankly,
I don’t think much of them [online and evening courses] as an educational
model. It’s not the way that I really want to teach….I understand why the
college makes them [online and evening courses] and of course I’m
participating. And if I really thought they were useless, I wouldn’t do it at all. I
think that they can work, but I don’t think that they are ideal.
Conclusion
Determining Dr. Samuel’s subjective norm toward the use of strategies in online instruction focused on Dr. Samuel’s normative beliefs—the influence others had on his use of strategies. After analyzing the beliefs, this section is concluded with the attitude.
167 The exchange of information about the use of strategies between peers was perceived as limited. Likewise, it did not appear that he had influenced other instructors, at least directly, due to the lack of cross-pollination of information.
Pragmatic neutrality describes his beliefs when discussing consumer-driven education.
Therefore, I conclude that his attitude, based on normative beliefs, is negative.
Control Beliefs
To determine the third attitude, Dr. Samuel was asked to discuss his control beliefs—the resources and opportunities that identifies the control the instructor feels over the success or failure of online instruction. When interviewed, Dr. Samuel discussed training, technology, and his tenure.
Dr. Samuel has not had any training specific to the use of strategies with online teaching. He has, however, had release time and attended conferences.
I had one quarter of release time—one course of release time to kind of research
it and to find out how other people were handling it [online instruction]. And I
did some of that…. I took some time and found out what other people who were
teaching online where doing….And one of the things that made it easy for me is
I was very interested in the Internet. I had written columns about it. I was
teaching workshops in it. So it was very natural for me. I’ll tell you, within the
college you don’t get a whole lot of cross-pollination. You have to go outside of
the college. It’s not exactly competition, you don’t want to go to someone and
say, “how do you do this?” So I find that even though I probably have as much
experience as anyone with this, no one ever comes to me and says “how do you
168 do this?” They want to learn on their own or go somewhere else to find out. It’s like Bush asking Bill Clinton for tips on running the government.
I’ve attended a couple of conferences but not a lot. I’m really in the twilight of my teaching….I think the next person coming along will probably be younger and more energy than I have. I think what I’ve done more than anything is adapted face-to-face strategies that I’m comfortable with to the evening [online] class.
I don’t see any particular advantage of online. Mostly what I’m trying to do is simulate a lot of the stuff that I do in the day class. Now maybe a young teacher coming through is trained differently and would see this as offering something that is unique and different and needs to be developed. But what I’m trying to do is simulate what goes on in my day class.
I came to this online stuff very late in my career. I think if I had been younger, I would have spent more time thinking through what’s required. At this stage in my life I’m not really taking courses and thinking about pedagogy and the like. Had I been a lot younger I suspect I’d had better strategies on how to teach students in different situations [referring to online] I think most of the strategies that I learned, work on, devised are result of physical confirmations.
Most of them came from curriculum….I don’t think I’ve done much that addresses particularly online students. I don’t think that I’ve thought it through like a younger teacher would. There’s a whole new methodology, a new approach.
169 Blackboard is the software program used by the university and can be accessed outside of the college as well as in the college labs and libraries. Dr. Samuel discussed the perceived advantages and disadvantages of the technology:
Well, you’re asking about my [online] class, my discipline which lends itself
fairly easily to what we’re doing rather than other disciplines where there are
labs….I think English lends itself fairly well. I can lecture them—that’s the
primary thing. Lecturing, telephones, and I think that’s enough to get them
through the course. I’d say I think that the technology is there.
Now students don’t get a chance to talk to each other and I think that’s
probably one of the things about college—is that lots of people are interested in
talking to people. I don’t know how to communicate whether they ever discuss
this among… if there’re ever any other calls out there where someone says
“What did you think about this?” I don’t know if that ever happen online.
He felt that the Blackboard environment supported the instructional strategies that he considered valuable for online instruction.
Um, I like the fact that I can make announcements but I tend to rely on
email. I think that’s a really nice feature—bulk email. I don’t know how often
they come online to check the syllabus so it’s a nice feature. I like the fact that I
can use a dynamic syllabus. A lot of the features I don’t use. I don’t use drop
boxes. I don’t use it for grading. I like the chat room feature but I’d like even
more for the students to be able to [not audible] Um, I don’t think they archive
which would be a nice feature. Archive the chat rooms online. Um, I like the
170 fact that in the chat room you can copy and paste although it would be nicer if
you could just email.
When asked if one-to-one discussions could be facilitated in a chat room, he responded, “No, I wouldn’t consider that. Just use the telephone. It’s all local calls. I don’t know why I’d want to use the chat room. I can’t imagine why you’d want to do it.” Considering students who were taking the course long distance, he noted, “yeah, but I think it’s very inefficient and people need to be able to ask for clarification.”
Dr. Samuel discussed a disadvantage of technology—specifically chat rooms:
There are some students who hold back. And I don’t take attendance [used chat
room for Comp 103]. I think an online course takes a lot of bookkeeping that
I’m not willing to do. But if you going to try get students to take it seriously
you’re probably want to do things like, “did the students really come to the chat
room—it’s a requirement of the course.”
Technical barriers are identified as follows:
I’ll get emails from students who say things like “I couldn’t get my journals up
because the system was down.” I think if you’re rigid, you’re really not terribly
flexible, this is not the situation for you…I suspect that most of the people that
I know are pretty flexible—steam doesn’t come out of your ears because you do
get a lot of that. So the technology is a hindrance.
I use a broadband because I do not want a slow modem. I do not want
log into the university and find out that there are no ports available. I think if
you’re going to do online, you’re going to want to spend the money—get a
high-speed connection. Not rely on the university.
171
Conclusion
Determining the behavior control attitude required an analysis of the instructor’s control beliefs—resources and opportunities that are determinants to the success or failure of instruction. Following an analysis of training, technology, and tenure, an attitude is identified.
Resources available via the Internet were described as, “I think the Internet is a resource with online groups, mailing groups that addresses all sorts of problems. I haven’t availed myself as much….” Again we see this tension that pulls between his interest in the Internet and commitment for the good of the community pulling against his need to communicate directly with students.
He considered the features available advantageous to instructing English
Composition, however, when discussing past experiences of using chat rooms with another course, he concluded that it required too much bookkeeping.
Earlier in the study, Dr. Samuel stated that teaching the online course was the most interesting thing he had done; however, coming to it “very late in my career” is perceived as a disadvantage. “At this stage in my life I’m not really taking courses and thinking about pedagogy and the like. Had I been a lot younger I suspect I’d had better strategies on how to teach students in different situations” supports his statements that he uses strategies that are familiar to him based on the face-to-face instruction.
I conclude that the instructor perceives issues that are relevant to his control beliefs leading to a positive attitude toward the use of strategies in online instruction.
Category Dissemination Model Displays Relational Data for
172
Online Instruction
The Category Dissemination Model is used to classify the instructor into one of four categories based on the analysis of the relational data—strategies used during instruction and those identified, and the beliefs and attitudes toward the use of strategies in online instruction. As described earlier, when the three components support each other, successful learning occurs. The instructor’s beliefs and attitudes drive the use and identification of instructional strategies.
Through an analysis of the online data, it was determined that strategies used in instruction were identified as effective during the sorting activity. These behaviors are graphed on the Y axis in a positive direction. The instructor displayed a negative attitude graphed on the X axis.
(Y axis) Use and Identification of Instructional Strategies: Behavior
“I insist on it [strategy]…they’re the ones [students] who will do well.”
(X axis) “I don’t see anything abut the online that makes it rich and Beliefs and Attitudes wonderful.
Figure 4.3. Category Dissemination Model
173 Summation of the Use and Identification of Strategies
Used in Online Instruction
When considering online instruction, Dr. Samuel was observed using the following strategies as the primary means of instruction:
· Written feedback
· Pre-organize
· Models
· One-to-one discussions
· Lecture
Similar to identifying effective strategies for face-to-face instruction, not all of the strategies were identified using the Instructional Strategy Sorting Activity.
Consequently, lectures were considered ineffective. The remaining four strategies were considered effective and are plotted in a positive direction on the Y axis.
Summation of the Beliefs and Attitudes Toward the Use of Strategies in
Online Instruction
The instructor was considered to have negative behavioral, normative, and control beliefs that led to negative attitudes.
An analysis of his behavioral beliefs indicated negative attitudes when considering his lack of contact with students and lack of control: These were the two issues he seemed most passionate about. Instructing online and collaborative learning were viewed as disadvantages. An analysis of his normative beliefs, those influenced by
174 others including consumers, were viewed as disadvantages. Issues that comprise the control beliefs—training, technology, and tenure—were perceived as disadvantages, thus indicating a negative attitude.
Overall, I conclude that Dr. Samuel exhibits a negative attitude toward the use of instructional strategies in online instruction. Without intervention and a significant change in his belief system, I conclude that Dr. Samuel’s intent is continue his current practices online even though he does not find the experience satisfying.
The final analysis of online instruction is that there is a gap in successful learning. How can it be explained then, that the online students scored higher than the face-to-face students using the same curriculum and grading practices? The online course experienced a 30% reduction in course completion when compared to the traditional classroom. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the students unable to overcome this gap in instruction dropped the course. The students with the highest probability of success completed the course. Descriptors for these students would include self-reliant, more experienced, and better writers as an outcome of being older.
Similarities and Differences in the Instructional Strategies Used for
Face-to-Face and Online Instruction
An outcome of the study was that the instructor essentially used one pattern of instruction for face-to-face and online instruction. Dr. Samuel simulated online what he understood to be successful in the classroom. The pattern consisted of strategies that had been successfully used in the classroom over many years of a teaching career.
175 When accepting the challenge to instruct online, Dr. Samuel pulled from his experience and implemented the strategies he knew to be successful.
The difference, however, were the two mediums. Because of his age and he was near the end of his teaching career, the instructor was not motivated to exploit creative and innovative instructional techniques for online instruction. It was perceived that younger instructors would be more motivated to seek out and implement more effective techniques when instructing online.
The other interesting phenomenon was that he was clearly not supportive of collaborative learning, yet used several strategies that are conducive to collaboration.
All but one of the collaborative strategies was successfully employed in face-to-face and online instruction, and one strategy was not—peer reviews.
When instructing online, Dr. Samuel used strategies that he knew worked in face-to-face instruction, in part, because learning online was not his academic experience. He had a very traditional higher education. H circumvented his lack of experience by using the face-to-face strategies that were collaborative. Inadvertently, he used strategies that current literature identifies as effective for online instruction.
However, what he had not done was accommodate the paradigm shift required of technology because of a negative attitude. He did not believe that online instruction could be as rewarding for him and the students as that of face-to-face instruction.
Using two mediums—face-to-face and online—was the primary difference. As described in this study, each medium benefits students in two very different ways and tends to attract students in a self-selecting manner. Dr. Samuel is committed to the success of each group of students for two different reasons. The fundamental difference
176 is that he had different attitudes when considering the benefits of online instruction— benefits for him and the students.
177 CHAPTER V
IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The intent of this final chapter is to interpret the insight gained in such a way that others will find it valuable—particularly other instructors who deal with the tension of instructing in two different mediums. I intend to write the implications in such a way that all participants’ perspectives are respected.
Understanding the Instructor
Dr. Samuel began his career at a time when he and other instructors of higher education were not faced with the dilemma of designing online instruction with professional experience limited to face-to-face instruction. Only at the end of his career has he been challenged to design online instruction.
Initially, he structured his role as an instructor on the premise that his students mirrored his collegiate experience—full-time students living on campus. They were experiencing what he understood from his own experience. Lecture was the primary means of instruction. However, opened to new methods of instruction and willing to try and integrate strategies, he became a favored and respected instructor.
Dr. Samuel noted in an interview: “Teaching the online course has been the most interesting change over the last couple of years.” However, it came with a price.
How could he remain true to his experience and beliefs as a classroom instructor while trying to accommodate a new medium? How could he maintain the integrity of relationships when he felt unfamiliar with the online students? Could he maintain
178 control over an environment that, by its own nature, attracted self-reliant adult students? His needs and expectations, as a traditional college instructor, had been challenged, yet he continued to remain open to suggestions and accessible to students.
He described a rationale of duplicity. Unlike classroom instruction, he could not relate to and extract from his own experience; “this wasn’t how I learned.” When he applied the strategies that he knew worked in the classroom, the outcome was not satisfying. To be successful, he needed a supportive administration and an education on how to design a successful learning environment using a new medium. It is false to assume that successful instruction in one environment guarantees success in a different medium as can be seen from the 52% of students who did not complete the online course. To think otherwise guarantees failure.
The Youngest Participants
The classroom students were there because of their life stage in life. They had completed high school, had few opportunities worth exploring, and had even fewer academic options. Over ambitious, high-on-life zealots are not descriptors I’d use for most of these students. Being in class seemed to be just another pace in life—another step following the last.
Perhaps coached by parents to continue their education or persuaded by school counselors, these students more closely reflected high school behaviors than those expected of college students—passive in their learning, reluctant to take a stand outside of the expected, and opinionated about issues they knew very little about. But then
179 again, they were freshmen and just beginning to open their eyes to life outside of their own worldly womb.
I witnessed growth during the short 10-week period. The students learned that it was OK to chuckle at Dr. Samuel’s quips, started to build trust with other members in their discussion groups, and opened up to the class by revealing personal experiences that were used in support of a position or assignment topic. Experiencing a divorce, describing what being a single parent was like, living with a mother who was in a gay relationship, and for many, being raised in a single parent home with divorced parents who used their children as prizes in a tug-of-war game were topics discussed by students.
Reflecting back over the experience, I realize that the students were there to learn more than writing and critical thinking skills though they may have not been aware of it; they were there to have their eyes pried open so that they could begin to see the world around them. A world where there were varying truths and perspectives, where they were expected to be active contributing members of a community of learners and accountable for their contributions.
Those Who Had Traveled Around the Block Before
Struggling with work requirements, hopes of improving their personal or professional status, and disillusions with where they were in life, the students enrolled in the evening online course had been around the block. Older and seemingly more aware of life’s requirements, these students had made a deliberate decision to be there.
They seemed to be less happenstance. They had jobs, spouses, and children depending
180 on them for time, energy, and stability. For some of these students, previous attempts at college had failed or been cut short, and now was their opportunity to redeem what had been lost.
Perhaps because of their life experience or a few additional years that had afforded them the ability or willingness to be reflective, these students were more insightful in their responses. They were willing to draw on life experiences and take stands on controversial issues. The argument can be made that these types of responses are outcomes of online instructional environments. Students had more time to reflect and were willing to be more expressive when they are faceless. However, my interpretation paints a different picture.
Because of life’s demands on their time, these students had less time to reflect.
They simply reacted to a question, perspective, or situation and moved on. I contend that they were more expressive, willing to consider the perspective of others and integrate or contrast it to their own, because of maturity. Not only do their writing skills improve as an outcome of being older, as Dr. Samuel discussed, but they also trusted their own instincts and beliefs and were willing to take a stand.
Similar to the classroom students, the online students enrolled in the class to improve writing skills and to increase critical thinking skills. They were held accountable for the same academic outcomes. They, however, were less accountable to the community at large and more focused on their own accomplishments.
181
As for the Researcher
I came to this experience as a novice qualitative researcher. The burden to paint the picture in an honest and revealing way has been a responsibility not taken lightly.
The three outcomes of this study are 1) to identify tensions that exist in the instructor’s behaviors and beliefs when considering two instructional mediums, 2) to identify and develop multiple levels of converting face-to-face instruction to that of online, and 3) to provide techniques and strategies needed for online instruction that are considered a framework for professional training.
Conducting this study provided insight into the lack of training provided to instructors of undergraduate courses. When converting his face-to-face instruction to online, Dr. Samuel was given time to “find out how other people were handling it
[online instruction].” However, formal training was not offered or considered, and conferences about online instruction focus on graduate level courses. Instructors need professional training to integrate the design of online instruction with effective instructional strategies and the use of collaborative tools. Using appropriate strategies supported with collaborative tools, enhanced sense of student identity, and adequate training can increase successful learning for online instruction. Training strategies are integrated into each of the following sections and can be converted into professional training for instructors of higher education faced with the daunting task of converting face-to-face instruction to online.
182
Tensions
One of the most interesting aspects when describing and analyzing the research data was to witness the unfolding of tensions. These can be described as the instructor’s willingness and desire to take a step forward but then to move backward, to extend beyond his comfort zone only to move back into it. The tensions were instrumental in understanding the Developmental Levels of Conversion and are discussed in terms of 1) familiarity versus unfamiliarity with students, 2) direct versus indirect instruction, 3) collaborative versus cooperative learning, and 4) synchronous versus asynchronous communications.
Tension One: Online Students Have Faces, Too
Online discussions and other collaborative strategies are enhanced when there is a familiarity among students. Unlike larger university MBA programs that draw students from around the world, the online program in this study consisted of students with limited diversity in age, location, and motivation. Some of these students knew one another from other classes and educational experiences. I propose that if given the opportunity to build relationships, they would not have remained faceless. Given opportunities, these students would have become more interested in one another’s perspectives thus being more compelled to integrate multiple perspectives into their own. There would be a shift from product to process.
Given the opportunity, a stronger connection could have been made between the instructor and students. I propose that if given a personal connection, the instructor
183 would have incorporated “providing personal experiences” into effective online strategies as done in face-to-face instruction. The following are recommendations that would increase the familiarity of students and instructor.
1) Develop an online activity where students introduce themselves and discuss
their strengths, accomplishments, or likes and dislikes. For example,
following the first week of instruction, students could write a brief
paragraph introducing themselves online. A framework of criteria could be
provided in advance. Students could be paired with another student to
respond online or “cross introduce” each other during the second week of
instruction. Because the course was designed as a hybrid course—meeting
in person for the first two weeks of instruction—time could be provided in
class to complete the activity.
2) For each assignment, the instructor could post an audio clip describing a
personal experience relating to the topic.
3) Students could be encouraged to post personal experiences online relating to
topics.
4) Additional resources could be provided online that would incorporating
various perspectives.
Tension Two: Direct Versus Indirect Instruction
184 Both direct and indirect instruction involves the three domains of instruction based on Gagne’s nine events of learning. The first domain focuses on objectives, the second on instruction, and the third on student evaluation. When considering the two mediums of instruction—face-to-face and online—the objectives and evaluation were consistent; however, the middle layer of instruction was missing for the online students.
The following two examples clearly identify the dissimilar approach, one reviewing thesis statements and the other providing a lesson in grammar.
When developing thesis statements, Dr. Samuel helped both groups of students by responding to partially developed statements with reflective questions or comments such as “Is this what the author was trying to say?” or “What we’re seeing is an intriguing idea. We need to see it worked out a little bit.” For the classroom students, this was done face-to-face. The online students received his comments either during phone conversations or in emails. Dr. Samuel advantaged the classroom students by providing an additional lesson on writing thesis statements. Given the criteria that a thesis statement should narrowly define the paper and be in complete sentence form,
Dr. Samuel had several students write their statements on the board. Using these statements, he generated class discussion as to weaknesses in the statements and suggestions about improvements. Detailed instruction on thesis statement development was not provided for the online students. It should be noted, however, that developing a thesis statement was an objective of the previous quarter, and this lesson was being considered review. Instruction on thesis statement development (review) could have been accomplished with an interactive lesson. For example, Dr. Samuel could have
185 posted partial statements on Blackboard and had students complete the statements while responding to the merits of others.
Another example of instruction that was provided to the classroom students but not the online students was grammar. Providing a worksheet and a lesson in grammar helped the classroom students improve their papers. Following the grammar lesson, students participated in peer reviews that provided additional support. The online students did not have the same advantage but could have benefited from an interactive lesson. Without the interactivity, defined earlier as the “contemporary distance learning experience,” (Wagner, 1997, p. 19) the instructional component was compromised, which is perhaps the core cause for the dependency of synchronous communications.
The traditional classroom was perceived as the better educational model when compared to the online classes. The instructor depended on the maturity of the students in the online course to bridge the gap created by the less preferred medium. As Dr.
Samuel explained, he was faced with online instruction late in his career, when he was less interested in thinking about new pedagogy. Dr. Samuel recognized that there were new approaches and methodologies for online instruction, but he generally tried to approximate face-to-face instruction. However, this was not always possible without interactivity.
In his attempts to learn how to instruct online, Dr. Samuel tried strategies used and recommended by other professors; however, this provided minimal support or knowledge when it came to designing online instruction. Today as a seasoned veteran of online instruction, Dr. Samuel’s experience and advice is rarely solicited from younger and less experienced faculty members. This conflicts with the reality that
186 instructors learn how to use technology and software packages such as Blackboard from other faculty members and require the support of the administration.
Tension Three: Collaborative Versus Cooperative Learning and Supporting Technologies
I found a fundamental disconnect between the way collaboration was perceived by the instructor and the way it is defined by thought leaders. Dr. Samuel perceived collaborative learning as a learning method where multiple students take responsibility for producing one product with one grade being distributed across all team members.
Little, if any, consideration is given to division of labor and authentic individual evaluations. It appears that his experience included students evaluating each other. He struggled with this concept.
What happens is you have one student who is doing a lot of work, usually it’s a
woman, middle-aged woman who’s really serious. Then you get some guy
who’s on one of the teams who hardly ever show up and gets the same grade as
everyone else. Um you’ve got one student who’s totally out of it and is never
there. That’s collaboration. And how are you going to evaluate it? Evaluate
each other? That’s not their job. I just haven’t found collaboration very
effective.
Research points to a definition quite different from Dr. Samuel’s. What he describes is more closely aligned with cooperative learning—a “highly structured subset of collaborative learning” (Millis & Cottell, 1998, p. 11). A technique commonly associated with cooperative learning is the creation of groups where all
187 members contribute to one another’s learning. Appropriate heterogeneous grouping is predetermined by the instructor and based on a set of criteria, ability, gender, and ethnic diversity is preferred. Cooperative learning focuses on project learning where students can receive a group grade or individual grades. Learning is viewed as an active process where members are responsible for their own learning and that of peers.
Power shifts from the instructor to the learner, thus defining the instructor as the facilitator not the authority figure (Millis & Cottell, 1998).
Similar to cooperative learning, collaborative learning is student-centered; teaching and learning are shared responsibilities between the instructor and students.
The two methods of learning—cooperative and collaborative—diverge at this point.
Among the attributes of collaborative learning is the practice of small-group activities where members express diverse perspectives and reflect on the assumptions of others.
“Sharing a workload or coming to a consensus is not the goal of collaboration; rather, it is to develop, compare, and understand multiple perspectives on an issue….The goal is to search for and evaluate the evidence for the viewpoint” (Duffy & Jonassen, 1992, p. 28).
Another important difference between cooperative and collaborative learning is that collaborative learning evaluates the learning process along with the final product.
Collaborative learning requires understanding the process students cognitively move through in the thinking process. Dr. Samuel discussed his ability to move the face-to- face students along in the thinking process but not the online students. Dr. Samuel perceived instructing the classroom students as process, whereas, instructing the online students was perceived as product. This plays an important part of understanding the
188 tension between the face-to-face and online instruction when essentially, the same strategies were employed.
Group discussions are considered an effective collaborative strategy and were successfully used in face-to-face instruction. Dr. Samuel’s deference against collaborative learning was primarily misguided when considering the true nature of collaborative learning, not cooperative learning. He successfully used collaborative learning in the classroom and achieved the desired outcomes. When instructing online, he attempted to use the same strategy but considered it “less effective.” I conclude that using the group discussion was appropriate; however, the execution of using threaded discussions did not maximize the full potential of the strategy. It is an issue of technologies. Understanding possible alternatives includes a discussion on maximizing the power of threaded discussions and alternative technologies.
Posting threaded discussions is a commonly used technique of online learning and is supported by Blackboard software. The program enables students to post a response or comment. Other students enrolled in the course access the comments and are able to add their responses. Multiple responses are “threaded” with one following the previous. Having participated in multiple threaded discussions, I find them valuable in replicating a discussion. One student makes a comment followed by comments from other students clarifying a point, adding supporting evidence, or providing a different perspective on the topic. I must clarify, however, that this process took place at the graduate level, as it commonly does with online MBA programs. Is it realistic to assume that undergraduate students can successfully engage in online threaded discussions?
189 Based on the undergraduates’ self-selecting profiles, the students registered for online courses are typically older and have more life experience than the traditional undergraduate students. I contend that expectations for online threaded discussions can be equally as rich and beneficial for undergraduate students as they are for graduate students based on three issues.
1) Demographic evidence collected for this study.
2) Dr. Samuel’s contention that the maturation process constitutes better
writers.
3) Learning characteristics of adult learners.
Restructure the Way Threaded Discussions Are Executed
Executing threaded discussions successfully requires different approaches. The following suggestions can increase the robustness of threaded discussions.
1) In the initial meeting of online students, emphasize the need to respond to
one another’s posted threaded discussions. An innovative technology, which
is discussed later, relieves the instructor from “bookkeeping”
responsibilities such as keeping track of how many and how often students
respond to a question or add to a threaded discussion. Alternative low-tech
methods such as copying threaded discussions into Excel and using the
“sort” command provide the same type of student data.
2) Provide a practice example for the students while in the computer lab
during the initial meeting.
190 3) Throughout the four assignments, the instructor should respond to threaded
discussions as though he was also participating in the online discussions.
4) Post the journal questions online rather than in the English 102 Comp
booklet. This drives the students directly onto Blackboard where they read,
contemplate, and react to the question. It also focuses their attention on the
posted responses from other students.
5) Reduce the number of questions and restructure each question to reflect an
opposing view about one issue. Short essays and articles were carefully
selected to reflect opposing views on a topic. However, the current
questions for each topic do not necessarily draw the students into reflecting
on opposing views of an element within the topic. The questions as they are
currently written draw the students’ focus into one author’s position on a
topic then the other. My recommendation is to focus on one element as it
plays out across both articles, thus providing two opposing views about one
issue that students can reflect on and react to. Students would provide
different perspectives on one topic. For example, when considering the third
assignment topic, Juvenile Crime: Punishment or Rehabilitation, a question
would be as follows:
Describe the differences and similarities between the way Collier and
Fuentes define “juvenile delinquent.” Using a situation that you’re
familiar with or have read about, defend one author’s definition.
6) Always include a “call to action.”
191
Supporting Technologies
Effective collaborative strategies are somewhat limited without the enhancement of collaborative tools. The lack of tools or inadequate tools create barriers to collaborative learning. Currently, Blackboard provides chatroom capabilities; however, the instructor was reluctant to use the feature. As described by Dr. Samuel,
“there’s always been a major drawback….The problem that I had in the past was that there were limitations on the length of a document. And so often you cut half of it off.
The other problem was that it didn’t work well with Macs…There are better chat rooms elsewhere.” However, chat rooms outside of Blackboard can present security problems.
Given more collaborative tools, students could communicate and collaborate instantly, securely, and more effectively. Consider collaborative tools such as instant messaging, webcasts, document editing and sharing, and digital white boards. Software packages enable the presenter to split the screen to accommodate two mechanisms—a webcast and a PowerPoint presentation as an example. Online document management tools enhance collaborative learning and make strategies such as “peer review” effective. Students could digitally share papers, respond to thesis statements, or add perspective using an editing or document management tool. Software enhancements could provide security for file sharing, online discussions, virtual team meetings, interactive calendars, and direct contacting. Collaborative tools streamline the instructor’s responsibility by tracking student activity, thus reducing the instructor’s workload and freeing time for more interaction with students.
192 It is my observation that adult learners in undergraduate courses are not necessarily looking for a community in addition to the learning experience. These students, as evidenced in the demographics survey, have communities within their homes, families, and work environments. I contend that adult learners register for online courses, even at the undergraduate level, for reasons other than developing a community. If online instruction is more appealing to adult learners, then providing the learning environment that meets their academic needs is of higher value than providing a community. Older students will flourish in appropriately designed learning environments—designed with appropriate strategies and collaborative tools supporting the learning process.
Tension Four: Synchronous Versus Asynchronous
Prior to beginning the data collection process, I anticipated a greater importance on digital communications—primarily emails. However, Dr. Samuel stressed the importance of phone calls with students. The value place on phone calls has a major implication. At the heart of the issue is his need to shift from synchronous to asynchronous communications and the implications from the compromised layer of instruction.
Synchronous, or same time communication is what the instructor designs and responds to in the classroom. As described by Dr. Samuel, teaching face-to-face was stimulating. He responded and felt comfortable with the audience. The students in the face-to-face instruction benefited because he knew them by face and conducted many one-to-one discussions to guide and facilitate learning. However, there was tension
193 between how he was able to instruct face-to-face with students and how he was able to instruct online.
When teaching online, he felt a lack of control. He did not have the same type of familiarity with the students nor did he have a digital mechanism for one-to-one communications other than email, which he identified as being problematic. Therefore, he placed limited value on email. Feeling a lack of control seemed particularly problematic. He compensated for his need to control by creating a bridging mechanism—phone calls.
Developmental Levels of Conversion (DLC)
An outcome of this study is the identification of multiple levels of converting instruction from the classroom to online; currently five levels have been identified.
Each level of conversion requires training for the instructor and students along with more sophisticated technology. Instructors typically fluctuate between levels that are indicative of experiencing the tensions as previously described. Dr. Samuel demonstrated two of the levels—Level I and II. I have inferred from the study that there are three additional levels.
· Level 0: No inclination to use online instruction.
· Level I: This level is described as primarily face-to-face instruction with a
component of online research. Students were encouraged to use the Internet when
gathering information to support of their response papers. Dr. Samuel provided
194 classroom students a URL to a website he had preselected as pertaining to the
topic. Outside of the classroom, students accessed the Internet for online
information and then cited resources in their papers. Digital communication—
email—is considered an element of DLC Level I conversion.
Depending on the strategies used, this design can be the most teacher-centered
of the levels and the design where instructors can experience the most control.
Depending on the maturity level of students, this is considered most appropriate for
those needing more hands-on guidance and assistance.
· Level II: This level is identified as a hybrid of face-to-face and online instruction.
The emphasis is still on the face-to-face instruction with an increased dependency
on the online component. The face-to-face instruction, as designed by Dr. Samuel,
occurred in the first two weeks and in the last week of the quarter. This was
purposeful as described in CHAPTER IV. Other Level II designs can include
multiple class meetings with students timed sporadically throughout the quarter. A
common design at this level includes once-a-week, face-to-face instruction with
weekly assignments that are completed at a time and location designated by
students. Level II of DLC includes the digital aspects of the previous stage plus
digital syllabus, bulk email, additional resources, and threaded discussions. This
level can include audio clips and should include verification that students know how
to access them and have the technical capabilities to do so.
Instructors using the level begin to experience less control, and the students
begin to exert more control over the learning process. Instructors may begin to feel
195 unfamiliar with students because of the reduced time spent in the classroom. This,
however, can be compensated for with innovative and creative techniques described
later in this chapter.
· Level III: This level is still fashioned as a hybrid model of instruction but has a
reduced dependency on classroom instruction and an increased focus on online
instruction. It includes the digital aspects of previous stages plus audio or video
clips, digital postings, and synchronous communications such as instant messaging,
conferencing, and chart rooms.
The instructor experiences more of a facilitator role than previously described,
and students become more autonomous in their success. At this point, the
relationship among students has shifted to a greater dependency of collaboration of
ideas and perspectives.
· Level IV: Instruction is entirely online. Digital capabilities include all of the above
digital capabilities plus document and management collaboration tools and
instructional tools such as digital white boards.
Instructors are facilitators with a high dependency on the students to actively
participate and assume responsibility for their success as well as the success of
others.
Compliance to these levels enables an instructor to shift from face-to-face instruction to that of robust and meaningful online instruction. Each level is built upon the previous. The levels require a shift in perspective, integration of collaborative tools,
196 and often retraining. It’s possible that some instructors, without intervention, will remain at Level I or II and never progress to the next level. A higher level cannot be implemented without first successfully implementing the previous. It is also possible that the levels are content dependent, with some disciplines lending themselves more naturally to the levels of conversion. These questions can only be answered in future research studies and are considered areas for future investigation. When considering the rate of conversions from face-to-face instruction to online, the identification and development of the Developmental Levels of Conversion has tremendous implications that warrant additional research.
Additional Areas of Study
· Reproduce the study focusing on disciplines other than English Composition.
· Compare the use of appropriate strategies based on instructional design (ID)
theories rather than learning theories.
· Conduct research focusing on training for instructors designing and instructing
online. Develop an intervention program for instructors interested in shifting their
instruction from face-to-face to online. Include training to successfully implement
each of the stages of DLC.
· Conduct research focusing on training students interested in taking online courses.
Develop an intervention program for students at each stage of DLC.
A Discussion About the Theory of Planned Behavior
197 In reflecting on this study and decisions made throughout the process, it would be negligent to not include a discussion about the Theory of Planned Behavior. The theory provided an interesting framework around which to structure the study. It also provided a way to gain insight into an issue beyond the level generally seen—what behaviors are exhibited and what are the outcomes. This theory enabled me to uncover the salient beliefs that led to attitudes concerning the use of strategies. This offered a perspective generally not discussed when reviewing current literature about online instruction.
At the same time, the theory had two shortcomings—confusing naming conventions and limited room for analysis that did not neatly fit into categories. The naming mechanism of “behavioral, normative, and control” in itself was confusing.
Behavioral and control are both nouns, whereas, normative is an adjective. Reading the three terms together leaves the reader feeling like something is a mismatch or missing.
When considering the attitudes, the behavioral attitude is called “attitude,” the normative attitude is called “subjective norm,” and the control attitude is called
“control norm.” I chose to identify the three types of attitude as “parts.” Writing is an art, and learning to accurately express the relation between components certainly proved a challenge.
The second shortcoming of the theory was its construct of narrowly defined categories such as “advantage” or “disadvantage” and “barrier” or “not a barrier.”
Often in qualitative research, data does not fit neatly into categories with tight constraints—issues are less black or white and more often shades of gray. At times I found myself in conflict as to adhere to the absolute of a theory category or describe the
198 fullness of data even when it did not fit neatly into a category. I chose to error on the side of qualitative research, trusting that a robust and rich description would yield out.
199 Bibliography
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202 Palloff, R., & Pratt, K. (2001). Lessons from the Cyberspace Classroom: The Realities of Online Teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers.
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203 Appendix A
Research Study Demographics Survey Face-to-Face Instruction
Age:
Educational training beyond high school (include military training, technical, previous college, other):
Number of months or years in the educational training beyond high school (not including current academic year):
Number of hours per week that you work at a job:
Number of dependent children in the household:
204 Appendix B
Research Study Demographics Survey Online Instruction
Age:
Educational training beyond high school (include military training, technical, previous college, other):
Number of months or years in the educational training beyond high school (not including current academic year):
Number of hours per week that you work at a job:
Number of dependent children:
How would you describe your computer skills before enrolling in this course? (underline or bold selection) a. None b. Novice c. Intermediate d. Expert
205 Appendix C
Exit Interview
Beliefs and Attitudes Toward Face-to-Face Instruction
[Behavioral beliefs]
How do you define instructional strategies?
Do you believe that the use of instructional strategies improves student learning in a classroom situation? Why?
Do you believe that classroom instruction facilitates the use of instructional strategies?
What are the advantages in using instructional strategies?
What are the disadvantages in using instructional strategies?
[Normative beliefs]
Does your department head encourage the use of instructional strategies in the classroom?
Do you ever work collaboratively with other instructors to develop lesson plans? If so, are instructional strategies discussed?
Are your lesson plans or syllabi ever evaluated by the department head?
What criteria are used to evaluate the instruction?
[Control beliefs]
Describe the available resources that enable you to use instructional strategies in your classroom.
Describe any professional training that you’ve had specific to instructional strategies?
What are the barriers to using instructional strategies in your classroom?
206 Appendix D
Exit Interview
Beliefs and Attitudes Toward Online Instruction
[Behavioral beliefs]
Do you believe that the use of instructional strategies improves student learning in online instruction? Why?
Do you believe that online instruction facilitates the use of instructional strategies? Why or why not?
Describe the advantages of using these strategies for online instruction.
[Normative beliefs]
Does your department head encourage the use of instructional strategies in online instruction?
Do you ever work collaboratively with other instructors to design online instruction? If so, are instructional strategies discussed? How do you document the design process?
What criteria are used to evaluate the instruction?
[Control beliefs]
Describe how Blackboard enables you to use instructional strategies in your online instruction.
What capabilities does Blackboard provide that you’ve not taken advantage of?
Describe the training you’ve received to support the design of online instructional environments.
What are the barriers to using instructional strategies in your online courses?
207 Appendix E
Face-to-Face Instruction: Samples of Written Feedback
Assignment One Written feedback provided to students
Sample 1 I was impressed with your experiment, Darci. Yours was an inventive approach that yielded some valuable insights. With a few changes, this will be an excellent paper.
Check Adler’s essay again. He isn’t saying, “we live in a completely depressed world caused by the Internet.” You next sentence indicates that you conducted an experiment with a pre- formed opinion, which will make readers skeptical of your findings. Better to state that you conducted an experiment to test his theory rather than to state that you went online to prove him wrong. Finally, it’s not clear why you felt “in control of the conversations.” You were asking questions without stating your purpose, but are you in more control than if you had said, “I don’t know how to use email; can somebody help me?”
Sample 2 You have a wonderful opening, and your paper is perceptive and very well written. The argument, though, that exists between Adler and Rheingold centers on whether the Internet produces a sense of community or isolation. While you make several excellent points, it would be better if you could relate them to the central issue. How, for example, do weather reports relate to community?
Note that the comments at the top of the page refer to grammatical errors found on the present page. If you can’t spot the error, ask me for help.
If grammatical errors abound on your paper, take it to the Writing Lab, which is in the Computer Lab across from the library.
Assignment Written feedback provided to students Two
Sample 1 You make an interesting argument that Sal is not a racist, and you convince me. But that’s not the same as saying that he may have some unexamined racial issues. How would you respond if someone argued as follows: Sal has more than one reason for not displaying pictures of the Brothers on the wall. Yes, it is an
208 Italian pizzeria--that’s one reason--but the movie also suggests that Sal doesn’t admire Blacks. He may pity them as he does Da Mayor, but he does not admire them. Why won’t he put Blacks on the wall, even one? Is having a restaurant with all white pictures more important than pleasing his customers? Or is Sal suggesting that he can’t find any African-Americans to admire?
Sample 2 Rob, this is a fine paper. I like your perceptive analysis of Radio Raheem as a fallen hero destroyed by his hate. Do you see him as also representing the tension between the philosophies of Malcolm X and MLK? They too contrast attitudes of love and hate (at least “violence”).
Please check spellings and eliminate sentence fragments. I’d be happy to see a re-write.
Assignment Written feedback provided to students Three
Sample 1 Cassey, you have gathered some valuable data indicating that rehab is effective with teens. But I am confused about whether you are advocating punishment or rehab for these teens. Those are different approaches. Adult prisons do not rehab. For the most part, they punish. This assignment asked you to summarize the views of Fuentes and Collier. Instead, you summarized an article in the Washington Post. Was the assignment unclear to you? I’d be happy to discuss this paper with you after class or in my office.
Sample 2 A fine paper, RJ. You explore the complexity of the problem, pinpoint the failures of the present judicial system, and explore reasonable alternatives.
In any discussion of punishment versus rehab, the reader would like to know whether any data exists regarding the outcomes of each. A reader would be much more inclined to favor Collier’s argument if studies showed that rehab was not effective.
Assignment Data specific to written feedback was not collected. Four
209
Appendix F
Online Instruction: Samples of Written Feedback
Assignment One Written feedback provided to students
Sample 1 This is a moving paper, Sasha. Your experience effectively supports Rheingold’s contentions about the Internet. It sounds as if you received a good deal of emotional support as well. I suggest quoting a few of the responses, some that a reader might find interesting.
Sample 2 I like the material you added. It gives the reader a very real
sense both of your ordeal and your relief.
But the following paragraph seems out of place where it is
now. Can you find a better place for it?
[inserted paragraph written by the student] Please proofread this paper, re-submit, and I will assign it a temp grade. I'd rather you checked it to eliminate minor, but distracting, errors.
Assignment Two Written feedback provided to students
Sample 1 This is a very perceptive paper, Karen. I liked your strategy of contrasting your early reaction to the film with your more reflective one. You do a fine job of presenting the many facets of Sal's character. At the end, is there evidence that he recognizes his role in the riot?
Please allow a day to elapse between writing a paper and submitting. Otherwise, you will miss errors in proofreading.
Sample 2 Adam, you have several excellent insights into this movie. Still, I hesitate to grade this as it stands. Your thesis
210 involves the difficulty in knowing what the right thing is in Lee's movie, but you frequently wander from that subject. In your paragraph on Radio Raheem, for example, you only insert that topic in the last sentence but neglect explaining it. What was the "right thing" for RR? Paragraphs two and three ignore your central idea, as well. The movie is rich with ideas--as your paper demonstrates-but I suggest focussing your paper on your thesis and resisting the temptation to wander.
Call me if you'd like to discuss possible revisions.
Samuel, 736-xxxx
Assignment Three Written feedback provided to students
Sample 1 Tania, you have a good grasp of the issues raised by the two authors and use evidence well. You offer some intriguing solutions to the problem. I wonder, though, how you intend to hold parents responsible for their children's behavior. That approach raises many issues: would the parents get trials? (The courts are over-crowded now) Would they get jail time or fines? Would you end up punishing mostly single moms? Would non-custodial fathers also be responsible?
What did you mean when you wrote: "Now I believe that adults are expecting their children to grow up in such an expedited manner that children fail to know their limits?” How does this result in crime?
fused sentence spelling apostrophes comma splice
Samuel, 736-xxxx
Sample 2 Josh, you express your ideas very clearly, and you marshall evidence well.
A few comments: You indicate that between 1999 and 2000, Singapore's juvenile crime rate dropped 37.1%. Was that in response to tougher punishments? If so, that would strengthen your argument. If not…
211 Fuentes argues for rehab rather than punishment. Do you believe that rehab is ineffective?
American readers might object that Singapore laws are not simply harsh but designed to oppress civil rights. It's not always easy to distinguish between a civil rights demonstration and a riot. In addition, how will we define a gang? Is any motorcycle club a gang? Are the girl scouts a gang? The Guardian Angels in New York used to patrol the subways to protect people, but they had no official status with the law and, in fact, were designated a gang by the police.
Are sexual offences worth 10 years in jail? From your account, it seems that Singapore is dedicated to order, not to civil rights. Do you think that the Singapore model will be an easy sell in this country or are you simply arguing that more stringent punishments would be an effective way to miniminze teen crime?
Finally, I'm puzzled by your depiction of adult jails as country clubs. One episode of OZ on HBO was enough to induce me not to take any illegal deductions on my taxes this year. The shower rooms were especially persuasive.
proofread apostrophe fragment
Samuel, 736-xxxx
Assignment Four Written feedback provided to students
Sample 1 A fine paper, Emily, well researched and eloquently expressed. Your interviews effectively support your views. It's evident that you have given this subject a good deal of thought.
The only question I have--and you need not incorporate this into your paper--is whether your research supported the views of Sheff and Putnam. I don't have the text before me, but I don't believe that Sheff's parents were behaving uncivilly after the divorce. His complaint had to do with things like travel and disruptions in his life. Did any of your interviewees reside with one parent, then another?
212 Be that as it may, this is fine work, Emily.
--Samuel
Sample 2 Jane, you nicely focus on the civil rights aspect of the gay marriage issue, and this is clearly written. Your major argument, though, is that society seems poised to accept gay marriage, so there's little point in opposing it. That approach may work well with folks who are not ideologically opposed to gay marriage, but it won't prove effective with opponents. (The assignment asked you use opponents as your audience.) Notice that all three writers we read focus on the social benefits or drawbacks of permitting gay marriage. They realize that they must give us a reason to assent or deny. How is it in society's interest? As I read your argument, you seem to be pressing a case for granting rights to gays rather than arguing for marriage. How would you react if someone said, "OK, let them have the legal rights of marriage but not the status of marriage?
apostrophe semicolon
Samuel, 736-xxxx
213 Table 3 Chronological Order of Data Collection for Face-to-Face and Online Instruction
Face-to-Face Instruction: Behaviors and Beliefs Online Instruction: Behaviors and Beliefs
Week Field notes Archived documents Field notes Archived documents
1 CFN: 1_04_02 English Comp 102 booklet Syllabus
2 CFN: 1_07_02 The Virtual Community and journal questions
CFN: 01_09_02 Thesis Summary OFN: 01_09_02 English Comp 102 handout booklet Online and Syllabus Bummed Out Thesis Summary handout and journal Online and Bummed Out questions and journal questions
CFN: 01_11_02 Citation handout Journal entries Emails: technical feedback 3 CFN: 01_14_02 Peer review HFN: 01_14_02 handout
White Privilege: OFN: 01_16_02 Unpacking the OFN: 01_16_02 Invisible Knapsack
CFN: 01_18_02 Student feedback Journal entries Emails: technical feedback Emails: student feedback 4 CFN: 01_21_02
CFN: 01_23_02
CFN: 01_25_02 Quiz IFN 01_25_02 Journal entries IFN 01_25_02 Student feedback Emails: technical feedback Emails: student feedback
214
Face-to-Face Instruction: Behaviors and Beliefs Online Instruction: Behaviors and Beliefs
Week Field notes Archived Field notes Archived documents
documents
5 CFN: 01_28_30
CFN: 01_30_02 Peer review Online audio handout lecture: Do the Sample student Right Thing essay
CFN: 02_01_02 Student feedback IFN: 02_01_02 Journal entries IFN: 02_01_02 Emails: technical HFN: 02_01_02 feedback Emails: student feedback 6 CFN: 02_04_02 Grammar HFN: 02_04_02 handout
CFN: 01_06_02 Strategies for writing paper
CFN: 02_08_02 Strategies IFN: 02_08_02 Journal entries IFN: 02_08_02 Emails: technical for writing paper feedback Emails: student feedback Student feedback 7 CFN: 02_11_02 CFN: 02_13_02 HFN: 02_13_02 CFN: 02_15_02 Transitional IFN: 02_15_02 Journal entries IFN: 02_15_02 Expressions Emails: student feedback Student feedback 8 CFN: 02_18_02 Discussion questions
CFN: 02_20_02
CFN: 02_22_02 Student feedback IFN: 02_22_02 Journal entries IFN: 02_22_02 Emails: technical feedback Emails: student feedback 9 CFN: 2_25_02
CFN: 2_27_02 Guidelines: Audio lecture:
215 Submitting Your Teacher’s Portfolios comments
216
Face-to-Face Instruction: Behaviors and Beliefs Online Instruction: Behaviors and Beliefs
Week Field notes Archived Field notes Archived documents
documents
CFN: 3_01_02 Student feedback Journal entries Emails: technical feedback Emails: student feedback 10 CFN: 3_04_02
EFN: 03_06_02 EFN: 03_08_02
217 Table 4
Components of the Research Study Correlated with Data Collection
Face-to-Face Instruction: Behaviors and Beliefs
Component 1 Component 2
Field notes Documents Field notes Documents
CFN: 01_04_02 English Comp 102 HFN: 01_14_02 None CFN: 01_07_02 booklet IFN: 02_01_02 CFN: 01_09_02 HFN: 02_01_02 CFN: 01_11_02 Syllabus HFN: 02_04_02 CFN: 01_14_02 IFN: 02_08_02 CFN: 01_18_02 The Virtual Community HFN: 02_13_02 CFN: 01_21_02 and journal questions IFN: 02_15_02 CFN: 01_21_02 IFN: 02_22_02 CFN: 01_23_02 Thesis Summary IFN: 03_01_02 CFN: 01_25_02 handout EFN: 03_06_02 CFN: 01_28_30 CFN: 01_30_02 Online and Bummed Out CFN: 02_01_02 and journal questions CFN: 02_04_02 CFN: 02_06_02 Citation handout CFN: 02_08_02 CFN: 02_11_02 Peer review handout CFN: 02_13_02 CFN: 02_15_02 White Privilege: CFN: 02_18_02 CFN: 02_20_02 CFN: 2_25_02 Unpacking the CFN: 2_27_02 Knapsack CFN: 3_01_02 CFN: 3_04_02 Quiz
Peer review handout
Sample essay
Grammar handout
Strategies for writing paper
218
Transitional Expressions handout
Discussion questions
Guidelines: Submitting Portfolio
Student feedback
Online Instruction: Behaviors and Beliefs
Component 3 Component 4
Field notes Documents Field notes Documents
OFN: 01_09_02 None IFN: 02_01_02 None OFN: 01_16_02 IFN: 02_08_02 IFN: 02_15_02 Online audio IFN: 02_22_02 greeting IFN: 03_01_02 EFN: 03_08_02 Online audio lecture: Do the Right Thing
Online audio lecture: Teacher’s comments
______1 The five components of the research study. Behavior: Describe the use of instructional strategies used in the classroom. Beliefs, attitudes, and intentions: Examine beliefs, attitudes, and intentions toward the use of instructional strategies in face-to-face instruction. Behavior: Describe the use of instructional strategies as design elements for online classroom. Beliefs, attitudes, and intentions: Examine the beliefs, attitudes, and intended behaviors toward the use of instructional strategies applied to the design of online instructional environments.
219
Table 5
Data Description and Quantity
Data Quantity Description Audiotapes 23-one hour Face-to-face instruction was audiotaped on a tapes regular basis. The 23 tapes, once transcribed, range from four to seven double-spaced pages. One tape is blank.
Added to the end of each tape are strategies and anomalies in instruction observed during the class period.
Audiotapes 4-five minute Informal hall interviews were captured using tapes audiotaping. Each conversation lasted only minutes; therefore, the length of transcribed tapes varies only slightly—two to three typed, double- spaced pages.
Audiotapes 7-15 to 20 Informal office interviews lasted between 15 and minute tapes 20 minutes. Transcribed tapes vary from seven to eight pages each.
Audiotapes 2-one hour Exit interviews, lasting one hour each, yielded 12 tapes transcribed pages each.
Handwritten 50 pages Placing a greater emphasis on the audiotapes, I field notes for took about 50 pages of handwritten notes. Bound the face-to- in a notebook, the notes are chronological in order, face dated, and described the overtone of each class. instruction Documented were the strategies, instructional events, and interesting points that the tape would not capture. Though not consistently done, I noted the number of students in attendance.
Handwritten notes were typed and frequently added to the end of the audiotaped transcription for the same day.
Handwritten 20 pages I opted to take handwritten field notes only when field notes for the online class met in the classroom. Similar to the online the traditional class, the notes identified the tone of instruction the class, events, and brief snippets of
220 conversations.
Threaded 230 journal Copied directly from Blackboard, I have 230 discussions responses journal responses that were posted by the online students as threaded discussions. The Blackboard format was very useful as it indicates, next to each posting, the number of times the posting had been accessed.
Digital data was copied onto disks and on paper for storage.
Journal entries were not collected from the classroom students, as they were written at the students’ leisure and turned into the instructor. Because an analysis of the journal entries was not a part of the study, I did not attempt to collect them. Collecting data on the number of entries and the rationale for the strategy was of higher importance.
Written 69 responses Sent to me electronically, I have 69 documented feedback to the accounts of written feedback provided to the face-to-face students in the face-to-face instruction. Each students account is coded with a student number and stored on disks and hard copies.
Written 91 responses Stored electronically and in hard copy are 91 feedback to the accounts of digital feedback from the instructor to online students the online students. The feedback includes 24 accounts of technical issues.
Misc. digital 100 pages There are approximately 100 pages of copied resources digital resources including Blackboard resources such as technical support, news, featured links, and the student, instructor, and training centers.
Archived 60 pages The most robust document used in this research documents study is that of the English Comp 102 booklet. Being essentially the same for both classes, the booklet includes course description, grading procedures, writing and journal entry expectations, and journal questions.
In addition to the booklet, I have documented
221 syllabus, handouts, and reading resources.
Archived Brochures Collecting publicly distributed brochures, documents and bulletins, guides, and publications from the publications community and college was helpful in setting my expectations and writing descriptions.
222
223