Izumi Kuroishi Research 4-18-7, Kyodo Mathematics for/from Society: The Role of Setagaya-ku Tokyo JAPAN the Module in Modernizing Japanese [email protected] Architectural Production Keywords: Ikebe Kiyoshi, Abstract. This paper presents an examination of the process of the Le Corbusier, Modulor, development of module in the works and theories of Japanese module, measurements, architect Ikebe Kiyoshi (1920-79). Ikebe based his idea of module standardization, Japanese on the belief that “Beauty is Mathematics.” He applied his ideas of architecture module in various ways from the 1940s to the 1970s. Analyzing his ideas and works against their historical background, the social and creative meanings of the idea of module and of mathematics in architecture will be re-examined. This allows us to see how Ikebe developed his ideas of module from a characteristic mathematical approach, and how he developed his idea of mathematical logic into his creative theories based on the flexible nature of people’s lifestyles and social conditions. Going beyond the cultural and social differences and the limitations of Le Corbusier’s Modulor, the idea of module as the method for organizing human space in a harmonious manner was reframed in Ikebe’s works, and was developed in a more flexible mathematical way. Introduction In 1946 Le Corbusier created a drawing of his idea of Modulor with the aim of enabling effective industrial mass production of architecture by unifying three factors in the architectural module: human scale; the visual harmony of the Golden section; and the imperial/metric measurements based on the Fibonacci series. Nevertheless, in a 1997 survey of Japanese architects by the periodical Kenchiku Gijutu, most responded negatively to the idea of the module, and many recognized it as a fixed numerical system based on abstract mathematics. (To be more precise, the responses were “it disturbs the freedom of design by equalization of measurement”; “it equalizes the quality of space”, and “it disturbs the variety of designs”.) On the other hand, the idea of standardization of measurements has been consistently important in the creation of architecture and public spaces, and particularly in mass social housing in global society.1 However, architects hardly make any significant contributions towards resolving these difficult issues because their profession has become oriented toward formal design. The narrowness of architects’ understanding of the idea of module and their inability to contribute to the discourse on social housing are concomitant, and signify the divisions within architectural design, production systems, the reality of human life, and the representation of social ethos. By referring to the Greek notion of modulus, Heidegger [1971] explained that selection of measurement is a human attempt to create a society based on benevolence. In that sense, the idea of module implies the symbolic role of mathematics in creating social ethos in architecture. In order to resituate the architectural profession within the social context, it is important to re-examine the idea of module in a wider perspective. Nexus Network Journal 11 (2009) 201-216 NEXUS NETWORK JOURNAL –VOL. 11, NO.2,2009 201 1590-5896/09/020201-16 DOI 10.1007/s00004-007-0087-1 © 2009 Kim Williams Books, Turin In this paper, I will examine the process of the development of module in the works and theories of Japanese architect Ikebe Kiyoshi (1920-79), who examined the idea of module based on his belief that “Beauty is Mathematics.” Ikebe applied his ideas of module in various ways from the 1940s to the 1970s. Through an analysis of his ideas and works against their historical background, the social and creative meanings of the idea of module and of mathematics in architecture will be re-examined. This study clarifies how Ikebe developed his ideas of module from a characteristic mathematical approach, and how he developed his idea of mathematical logic into his creative theories based on the flexible nature of people’s lifestyles and social conditions. Going beyond the cultural and social differences and the limitations of Le Corbusier’s Modulor, the idea of module as the method to organize human space in a harmonious manner was reframed in Ikebe’s works, and was developed in a more flexible mathematical way, influencing future architecture. The Modulor of Le Corbusier For the purpose of this study, I would like to briefly summarize Le Corbusier’s explanation about the factors and the process of organizing his idea of Modulor as described in his book Le Modulor [1954]. Le Corbusier started working on the validity of the Golden section in designing architecture and discussed the ideas of standardization for an architectural unit and its system of mass production in L’ Espri Nouveau from the beginning of the 1920s. With a group ASCORAL (Assemblee de Constructeurs pour une Renovation Architecturale) in 1942, which opposed the average value measurement system between imperial and metric of the Association Francaise de Normalisation (AFNOR), he began working on the unification of the proportion grid, the Golden section and human scale. After World War II, they put absolute size into the geometrical analysis of the proportion grid, and discovered that the Fibonacci series could organize the measurements derived in his system. Subsequently Le Corbusier started to advocate his idea of Modulor worldwide as a set of measurements to unify the imperial and metric measurements for the industrialization of architectural production, thus applying it in his projects, such as the Unite d’habitation in Marseille from 1945 to 1947. Here, I would like to point out two issues. First, in the concept of Modulor, Le Corbusier’s idea of mathematics was mainly geometrical. The Fibonacci series was appropriated into his system after his application of absolute size into the system. Second, his idea of Modulor primarily aimed at realizing the unification of imperial and metric measurements, not by a convenient averaging method, but by his universal ideology for architecture. The background of the creation of a national module in Japan Shaku, a 30.303-cm. module system,2 was originally introduced into Japan from China, and was developed in the apprenticeship system based on the dominant role of carpenters and on their canonical rules. The shaku module was further elaborated in the Edo period by master carpenters for the organization of a coherent structural system called Kiwari (sizing of timbers).3 Later, the columniation systems of Kiwari were developed further in Hashirawari (arrangement of columns).4 Particularly in the Sukiya style, the placement of the Tatami mat in the whole area of the room became common, and the sizes and arrangement of the Tatami mat became systematized in Tatamiwari. In this process, the size of the Tatami mat became unified and linked to the measurement of the Japanese body. Thus, the structural and material balances of Japanese architecture were closely 202 IZUMI KUROISHI – Mathematics for/from Society: The Role of the Module ... united with its spatial proportions, functions, ornamentations, detailed arrangement of facilities, and human scale. However, the shaku module differed according to geographical area. Examples are Kyoma in the western part of Japan, which is based on the distance between the surfaces of column and has a 6.3 shaku module, and Inakama in the east, which is based on the distance between the centers of columns, and has a 6 shaku module. The sizes of the Tatami mats differ accordingly. The cutting of timbers and the application of Kiwari, Hashirawari and Tatamiwari were all controlled by the carpenters, whose knowledge tended to be based on their local and conventional resources and networks, which were different from mechanical standardization. Discussions to establish a national module After the Meiji reformation, the Japanese government built many institutional buildings in Western styles, and the metric system became symbolic not only of creating fire resistant cities but also of rationalizing and modernizing architectures, and of people’s lifestyle. In order to industrialize the nation, the government continuously tried to replace the shaku module with the metric system and to modernize the traditional carpentry system. In 1919, the government tried to establish a national module of weights and measures, and a standardization of industrial production based on the metric system. The Japanese Architectural Academy also tried to change the Kyoma to a 2-meter module. But, during World War II, the Wartime Architectural Standard based on the shaku module was revived to protect the cultural identity of Japanese architecture. After the war, the Kenchiku- Kijunho (Architectural Standard Law) and the Kyotu-Jutaku-Kensetu-Shiyosho (Common Specifications for Housing Construction) were established by the government to legitimate the meter module in 1950. Thus, influenced by social and political conditions, the traditional shaku and the meter modules were each approved in turn. Inspired by the translation into Japanese of Le Corbusier’s Le Modulor in 1953 [Yoshizaka 1976], another academic committee for the creation of a national module was started in 1954. Their discussions focused on the following three points; whether to select the shaku module or the metric module; methods for industrialization and standardization of architecture; and the selection of the modular coordination. However, opinions about whether to select the shaku or the metric modules were highly diversified according to the members’ occupations and interests. In the summary of these discussions, they agreed on a definition of the idea of a module,5 but could not reach any recommendation for unifying the two modular systems. In 1955, the Jutaku Kodan (Institution of Public Housing) was established to supply public housing for the suddenly increased demand for housing all over Japan. Despite such conclusions by the committee, the Japanese government legitimized the JIS meter module, and prohibited the usage of shaku module in 1958.