Is Consent in Medicine a Concept Only of Modern Times?

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Is Consent in Medicine a Concept Only of Modern Times? J Med Ethics: first published as 10.1136/jme.27.1.59 on 1 February 2001. Downloaded from Journal of Medical Ethics 2001;27:59–61 Is consent in medicine a concept only of modern times? P Dalla-Vorgia, J Lascaratos, P Skiadas and T Garanis-Papadatos National University of Athens Medical School, International Hippocratic Foundation and the National School of Public Health, Athens, Greece Abstract excellent knowledge of human life, and also deep feelings, which express Plato’s desire for the Although the issue of consent in medical practice has 5 grown immensely in recent years, and it is generally improvement of life and true happiness for people. believed that historical cases are unknown, our The book presents much variety, as it discusses research amongst original ancient Greek and legal issues and also historical, theological, ethical Byzantine historical sources reveals that it is a very and aesthetic theories. old subject which ancient philosophers and physicians Plato makes a distinction between real doctors have addressed. Plato, in ancient Greece, connected and others who are doctors’ assistants who are also consent with the quality of a free person and even called “doctors”. The latter might be free-born or before him, Hippocrates had advocated seeking the slaves who acquired their art by experience, under patient’s cooperation in order to combat the disease. In the direction of their masters and not from the Alexander the Great’s era and later on in Byzantine study of nature, as the free-born doctors learned times, not only was the consent of the patient necessary their art and then taught it to their children and but physicians were asking for even more safeguards apprentices. Since patients may be either slaves or before undertaking a diYcult operation. free men, the slaves were treated by doctor-slaves Our study has shown that from ancient times who did not give the slave any information about physicians have at least on occasion been driven to his illness nor accept any discussion about it. The seek the consent of their patient either because of free-born doctor, however, treated mainly free men. respect for the patient’s autonomy or from fear of the He asked for information from the patient himself consequences of their failure. and from his friends about the commencement and (Journal of Medical Ethics 2001;27:59–61) the course of the illness. And after having gathered Keywords: Consent; history of medicine; medical ethics all the necessary data, he informed the patient—so http://jme.bmj.com/ far as possible—about the nature of his illness and did not give him any prescription until he had Introduction gained the patient’s consent, and only then did he The doctrine of consent in medicine, in both the attempt to make the patient well, soothing him with context of therapy and research, has been debated advice and preparing him persuasively.6 particularly vigorously since the second world war. In Gorgias too, Plato uses the concept of persua- The main issues discussed include the need for sion of the patient by the doctor and stresses the informed consent on the one hand, a prerequisite fact that a rhetor (a person trained to speak in pub- on which lawyers are very strict, and the necessary lic) might have better results.7 This may be on September 27, 2021 by guest. Protected copyright. flexibility of its application on the other hand, on interpreted as meaning that persons specifically which most physicians insist, in order to meet the 1 trained to obtain consent, or doctors who have spe- needs of individual patients. There is contempo- cific training in this, could be better at this task. rary agreement that consent has to be informed, One of the fundamental principles of Plato’s voluntary and given by a person who is able to philosophy is that the “knowledge of good” is understand to what he or she is consenting. inherent in every human being. According to Plato However, medical consent is not only a concept the patient knows what is “good” for him, and thus of modern times, as is often thought and believed 2–4 the role of the physician is to help this hidden by many authors. Our research amongst the knowledge emerge from the patient’s soul by using original texts of ancient Greek and Byzantine the proper arguments. In this way, persuasion is authors revealed that consent was already an also used by Plato in his book The Statesman8 where important issue at that time. he says, however, that if a physician does not persuade, but forces his patient to do the right Material thing, though it be contrary to the written precepts, In the course of his dialogues in Laws Plato refers to such behaviour would not be called “unscientific the issue of consent, as a means to prove the and baneful error”. This of course gives us the more correctness of his thoughts. The Laws is considered common view of the paternalistic practising of the last work of Plato, and although it has been medicine in ancient Greece. criticised for some weak points, because of his old It is worth noticing that Plato requires consent age, as a totality it presents intellectual maturity, from the free man in contrast to slaves. In this way www.jmedethics.com J Med Ethics: first published as 10.1136/jme.27.1.59 on 1 February 2001. Downloaded from 60 Is consent in medicine a concept only of modern times? he shows the relation of consent to autonomy of the able pains. In the account of John of Ephesus,19 this person as the expression of his right to self disease was caused “by the stones which his determination and free will. Furthermore, the intestines produced”. With cries of agony the information given to patients or healthy research emperor was begging the physicians to release him subjects and their ability to say “yes” or “no” to from the unbearable pains or even to kill him.19 20 therapy or research are closely connected with what The physicians were not eager to operate because it is to be a free person. In our times, when every they were afraid they would be punished if they person is free, regardless of sex, education or social failed. Finally they found a way to proceed and not status, consent in therapy and research is necessary, be held responsible if the emperor died. Besides his even though the medical profession sometimes reassurance that there would be no serious advocates, for the benefit of the person concerned, consequences or danger for them if he died during a modified informed or true consent. the operation, they requested, as John of Ephesus19 Hippocrates, the father of scientific medicine, in relates, that the scalpel for the operation should be his book Epidemics I,9 even before Plato, said that given them by the emperor’s own hand. That would the patient must cooperate with the physician in be a gesture which declared “his own free will for combating the disease. Such cooperation could of the surgical intervention” according to the tradition course mean a patient had to obey all his physician’s at that time.20 orders, but it could also mean that the patient, in The same symbolism for the seeking not only of order to cooperate, had to be informed and to give patient consent but of patient request is found in consent. later texts such as the Miracula Sancti Artemii (Miracles of St Artemios, 7th century) and the Life of St Lucas Stylites. Nor is this seeking of a request Defensive medicine from a patient confined to powerful patients, as in In ancient Greece we also see an early appearance the previous examples. The anonymous author of of what we now call defensive medicine. The the Miracles of St Artemios21 praises the power of that following cases show that not only the consent of saint to heal diseases of the testicles and hernias. At the patient was necessary, but that physicians the same time, he actually blames Hippocrates and sometimes asked for even more safeguards before his successors, the physicians, because, when they undertaking a diYcult operation. are going to operate on someone for what we in The first case relates to Alexander the Great, who modern times understand to have been hernias, suVered an almost fatal disease during his cam- they ask for the consent and indeed the request of paign in Asia. Physicians were afraid to treat him the patient by their request for the symbolic gesture because of the severity of the disease, because of the of the latter oVering “the sword” (the lancet) to the known strictness of the emperor, and also because 10 surgeon. In this way, if God heals the patient, the of the intrigues of that time. Finally, an eminent doctor boasts; but if not, the doctor is not military physician, Philip of Acarnania, undertook considered responsible. http://jme.bmj.com/ the treatment of Alexander, under strong pressure from Alexander and after the emperor had openly declared his trust in him.11–15 The second case also concerns Alexander the Authentic therapies Great.16 Alexander was seriously wounded during Later on, in the 10th century, when subdeacon the siege of a town of the Mallians in India (326 Sergios developed a swelling on the face which the BC). There are several descriptions of the emper- physicians could not cure, he went to the Church of or’s operation but all historians agree on the sever- St Lucas Stylites, to be treated.
Recommended publications
  • The Holistic Hippocrates: 'Treating the Patient, Not Just the Disease'
    King, Helen. "The Holistic Hippocrates: ‘Treating the Patient, Not Just the Disease’." Hippocrates Now: The ‘Father of Medicine’ in the Internet Age. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2020. 133–154. Bloomsbury Collections. Web. 24 Sep. 2021. <http:// dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350005921.ch-007>. Downloaded from Bloomsbury Collections, www.bloomsburycollections.com, 24 September 2021, 04:27 UTC. Copyright © Helen King 2020. You may share this work for non-commercial purposes only, provided you give attribution to the copyright holder and the publisher, and provide a link to the Creative Commons licence. 7 Th e Holistic Hippocrates: ‘Treating the Patient, N o t J u s t t h e D i s e a s e ’ I n t h i s fi nal chapter I want to look at the Hippocrates of today not through specifi c uses in news stories or in quotes, but through the invocation of his name in holistic (or, as we shall see, ‘wholistic’) medicine. Holism today presents itself as a return to a superior past, and brings Hippocrates in as part of this strategy. Th e model of the history of medicine implicit – or sometimes explicit – in holistic users of Hippocrates is one in which there was a golden age until ‘the turn away from holism in medicine allowed diseases to be located in specifi c organs, tissues or cells’.1 While there is something in this where ancient medicine is concerned, with its basis in fl uids rather than organs, this is of course also a tried and tested strategy for convincing an audience of the value of a ‘new’ thing: you claim it is ‘old’, or ancient, or just traditional.
    [Show full text]
  • Squaring the Circle a Case Study in the History of Mathematics the Problem
    Squaring the Circle A Case Study in the History of Mathematics The Problem Using only a compass and straightedge, construct for any given circle, a square with the same area as the circle. The general problem of constructing a square with the same area as a given figure is known as the Quadrature of that figure. So, we seek a quadrature of the circle. The Answer It has been known since 1822 that the quadrature of a circle with straightedge and compass is impossible. Notes: First of all we are not saying that a square of equal area does not exist. If the circle has area A, then a square with side √A clearly has the same area. Secondly, we are not saying that a quadrature of a circle is impossible, since it is possible, but not under the restriction of using only a straightedge and compass. Precursors It has been written, in many places, that the quadrature problem appears in one of the earliest extant mathematical sources, the Rhind Papyrus (~ 1650 B.C.). This is not really an accurate statement. If one means by the “quadrature of the circle” simply a quadrature by any means, then one is just asking for the determination of the area of a circle. This problem does appear in the Rhind Papyrus, but I consider it as just a precursor to the construction problem we are examining. The Rhind Papyrus The papyrus was found in Thebes (Luxor) in the ruins of a small building near the Ramesseum.1 It was purchased in 1858 in Egypt by the Scottish Egyptologist A.
    [Show full text]
  • Hippocrates: Facts and Fiction 1. Introduction
    Acta Theologica Supplementum 7 2005 HIPPOCRATES: FACTS AND FICTION ABSTRACT Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, is reviewed as a historical person and in terms of his contribution to medicine in order to distinguish fact from fiction. Contem- porary and later sources reveal that many (possibly untrue) legends accumulated around this enigmatic figure. The textual tradition and the composition of the so- called Corpus Hippocraticum, the collection of medical works written mainly in the 5th and 4th centuries BC (of which possibly only about five can be ascribed to Hip- pocrates himself) are discussed. The origin of the Hippocratic Oath, and the impact of the Hippocratic legacy on modern medicine are considered. 1. INTRODUCTION This article considers the historicity of Hippocrates, the Father of Me- dicine, distinguishes fact from fiction and assesses his contribution to the discipline in the context of the many myths, which are shown by both contemporary and later sources to have arisen about this enig- matic figure. The textual transmission and compilation of the Corpus Hippocraticum, a collection of medical texts written mainly in the 5th and 4th centuries BC (of which only perhaps five can be ascribed to Hippocrates with any degree of certainty), will also be discussed. Fi- nally, the origin of the Hippocratic Oath and the value of the Hippo- cratic legacy to modern medicine will be examined. Hippocrates has enjoyed unrivalled acclaim as the Father of Medi- cine for two and a half millennia. Yet he is also an enigmatic figure, and there is much uncertainty about his life and his true contribution to medicine.
    [Show full text]
  • Modern Commentaries on Hippocrates1
    MODERN COMMENTARIES ON HIPPOCRATES1 By JONATHAN WRIGHT, M.D. PLEASANTVILLE, N. Y. PART I ERHAPS it is not the only way, but disturb us if Plato is thought by the young one of the ways of judging of the lady at the library to have written some­ excellence of a work of science or thing on astronomy or if the man who literature is to take note of the preaches in our church thinks Aristotle discussion the author has elicited in wasless a monk. We ourselves may be unable talentedP readers and the stimulation of to get up any enthusiasm for either. But the faculties thereby evidenced. In the when we learn that all these men have by conceit and braggadocio of Falstaff, aside their words tapped the ocean of thought in from his being the butt of jokes, we every era of civilization since they lived perceive he is conscious of the quality of and at their magic touch abundant streams his mind when he says he is not only witty of mental activity have gone forth to enrich himself, but is the cause of wit in others. the world, when we once realize what an There is no standard of truth whereby ever living power they still exercise over the the accuracy of theory and practice of one best minds which humanity produces, then age can be judged by another, though there what Dotty says about Ibsen or what Bill are underlying general principles which per­ Broker thinks of Kipling, that the Reverend sist as much perhaps by their vagueness Mr.
    [Show full text]
  • Thales of Miletus Hippocrates I Replaced Superstition with Science. I
    ® Name: ____________________ Lesson # 1: Crosscutting Concepts in Science hb g7fcj 1. Scientists observe, question, 2. Science gives us a language 3. Patterns can demonstrate a investigate, and seek to to communicate information cause-and-effect relationship. understand our universe. about phenomena and patterns. Causation means a caused b. Explanations and descriptions often require empirical data. Which phenomena below Macroscopic to microscopic Empirical means… means… demonstrate causation? Every time I theories to evidence-based. wash my car, it data. rains. hair features beard/cloak Helium rises so very large to abstract. my helium balloon very small. floats. hair features beard/cloak 4. Scientific data sometimes 5. Causation – a clear link 6. Correlation - a relationship shows a correlation or showing something directing that you see between two association between causes something else to occur. factors or conditions that may observations or phenomena. appear to be related. Which events demonstrate a Find an example of causation Find an example of a correlation? below. correlation below. The more you I didn’t step on any cracks in the I think waffles taste better with study, the better sidewalk, so my mom didn’t melted butter and your grades. break her back. blueberries. eclipse icon magnet olives Combining 2 primary Pushing the brake People who watch lots colors results in made the car stop. of television eat lots a secondary color. of junk food. magnet eclipse icon olives 7. My dog barks for a few 8. Grandma drinks fresh 9. My brother is allergic to minutes every night. My orange juice almost every wool. If he wears something neighbor always takes an morning and she is rarely sick.
    [Show full text]
  • Who Wrote the Hippocratic Oath?
    West of England Medical Journal Volume 106 (iv) December 1991 Who wrote the Hippocratic Oath? Ian Bailey, MD, FRCP the is the remains of a transferred I shall suggest that the author was neither Hippocrates nor It is probable corpus library BC of Cos. It has its Pythagoras; that the oath was written later than Hippocrates with to Alexandria around 325 by Praxagoras late Pythagorean influences. I shall trace its descent through origins from Cos, Cnidos and other sources; it has been copied the eastern Greek and Arab tradition after its incorporation into and modified; Hippocrates has been heroised and much to him which is written others. The Galen, its emergence into western Europe in the 10th and 11th attributed by Hippocratic centuries, its division from Galenism after the work of Vesalius works were incorporated into Galen, translated into Syrian and of were thus and Harvey; its emergence in Sydenham, the English later Arabic. The thoughts antiquity incorporated Oath was taken Arab doctors.11 Hippocrates, and in Boerhaave and its modern re-emergence into Islam; the Hippocratic by are 10th to 12th through Osier and 20th century ethical writing. I shall draw on The earliest existing manuscripts from the the experiences of a Swann Hellenic cruise on "The Legacy century AD "Vaticanus Graecus" in the 12th century, 12th mention the Oath12 of Hippocrates", 3-17 May 1989,1 and upon a number of "Marcianus Venetus" in the century books, notably Edelstein "Ancient Medicine".2 and an arabic version of Galen written in the 9th century was Pythagoras was born in Samos in the 6th century BC at a discovered in Cairo in 1971.
    [Show full text]
  • Medicin and Philosophy in Direct Dialectic Relation During The
    Medicin and Philosophy in Direct Dialectic Relation During the Classical and Late Antiquity1 Medicina e Filosofia em Relação Dialética Direta Durante a Antiguidade Clássica e Tardia Medicina y Filosofía en Relación Dialéctica Directa Durante la Antigüedad Clásica y Tardía Sophia KARYMPALI-KYRIAZIS 2 Abstract: Medicine and Philosophy, in classical antiquity mainly, coexisted and joined hands as activities of the human intellect, with one exerting fruitful influence on the other in the course of time. The influence of philosophy on ancient medicine is generally accepted, as the theories of pre-Socratic philosophers from the 6th century BC for the interpretation of the world and human nature were the main inspiration for the formulation of the first medical texts. Natural philosophers from Ionia, such as Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Anaximenes and Heraclitus, through their theories, laid the foundations towards future medical advances. Hippocrates of Kos, with his medical treatises in “Corpus Hippocraticum” was greatly influenced by the philosophical thought. Hippocrates is considered the “father of medicine” because he broadened the medical knowledge of his time and laid the foundations of medicine as science, releasing it from magic and superstitions. Plato and Aristotle refer to Hippocrates in their works and speak with respect about him acknowledging his enormous contribution to the healing of serious diseases. In the ancient world, Asclepius, who was considered a great healer of many serious diseases, was worshiped as the patron god of medicine. In his honor temples were erected and next to them great therapeutic centers, the well known “Asclepieia”, scattered in many cities of Ancient Greece and Asia Minor.
    [Show full text]
  • Hippocrates Now
    Hippocrates Now 35999.indb 1 11/07/2019 14:48 Bloomsbury Studies in Classical Reception Bloomsbury Studies in Classical Reception presents scholarly monographs offering new and innovative research and debate to students and scholars in the reception of Classical Studies. Each volume will explore the appropriation, reconceptualization and recontextualization of various aspects of the Graeco- Roman world and its culture, looking at the impact of the ancient world on modernity. Research will also cover reception within antiquity, the theory and practice of translation, and reception theory. Also available in the Series: Ancient Magic and the Supernatural in the Modern Visual and Performing Arts, edited by Filippo Carlà & Irene Berti Ancient Greek Myth in World Fiction since 1989, edited by Justine McConnell & Edith Hall Antipodean Antiquities, edited by Marguerite Johnson Classics in Extremis, edited by Edmund Richardson Frankenstein and its Classics, edited by Jesse Weiner, Benjamin Eldon Stevens & Brett M. Rogers Greek and Roman Classics in the British Struggle for Social Reform, edited by Henry Stead & Edith Hall Homer’s Iliad and the Trojan War: Dialogues on Tradition, Jan Haywood & Naoíse Mac Sweeney Imagining Xerxes, Emma Bridges Julius Caesar’s Self-Created Image and Its Dramatic Afterlife, Miryana Dimitrova Once and Future Antiquities in Science Fiction and Fantasy, edited by Brett M. Rogers & Benjamin Eldon Stevens Ovid’s Myth of Pygmalion on Screen, Paula James Reading Poetry, Writing Genre, edited by Silvio Bär & Emily Hauser
    [Show full text]
  • Hippocrates' Quadrature of the Lune, Part 2 Euclid's Proof of The
    Math 305, Section 1 • Mathematics from a Historical Perspective • UNM, Fall 2008 Hippocrates’ Quadrature of the Lune, Part 2 Euclid’s Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem, Part 1 Question Set 2 Due: 9.10.2008 Chapter 1 (cont.) √ √ √ 1. Construct the numbers 2, 3and 5 using a compass and an unmarked straight-edge. Briefly outline the steps followed in your constructions. √ 2. If a is a constructible number, then a is also constructible. √ (a) Explain how you would use a compass and unmarked straight-edge to construct a from a. (b)√ The number π is transcendental. Use this fact together with the result you explained in (a) to show that π cannot possible be a constructible number. 1 3. Explain why two line segments of lengths 1 and 2 3 (same unit of measure) respectively are commensurable. 4. Statement: “a semi-circle is squarable.” Prove or disprove this statement using ideas from Chapter 1 in Dunham’s Journey through Genius. State precisely what results does your argument uses as they become relevant in your reasoning. 5. What is, in your opinion, the most surprising thing you have learned in this Chapter 1 of Dunham’s text? Describe in no less than half-a-page, your emphasis should be in the mathematics. Chapter 2 1. Briefly describe how the following five proper names (of people and places) were connected: Socrates, Plato, Eudoxus, the Academy, the great Alexandrian Library, Euclid. 2. How were Eudoxus and Hippasus historically connected through mathematics? 3. Discuss how Eudoxus method of exhaustion can be seen as a “geometric forerunner of the modern notion of limit” used in Calculus.
    [Show full text]
  • Hippocrates, on the Infection of the Lower Respiratory Tract Among The
    Tsoucalas and Sgantzos, Gen Med (Los Angeles) 2016, 4:5 General Medicine:Open access DOI: 10.4172/2327-5146.1000272 Mini Review Open Access Hippocrates, on the Infection of the Lower Respiratory Tract among the General Population in Ancient Greece Gregory Tsoucalas1* and Markos Sgantzos1,2 1History of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece 2Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece *Corresponding author: Gregory Tsoucalas, History of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece, Tel: 00306945298205; E-mail: [email protected] Rec date: June 15, 2016; Acc date: October 05, 2016; Pub date: October 11, 2016 Copyright: © 2016 Tsoucalas G, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Abstract Hippocrates and his followers, confronted with the infection of the lower respiratory tract, having understood that pulmonary diseases had a high rate of prevalence and mortality among the general population of the ancient Greek communities. He had used the "four humours theory" to explain its origin. Our study, reviewed Corpus Hippocraticum, in order to synthesize various fragments of different works, to compose the hallmarks in bronchiolitis, pleurisy, peripneumonia, pneumonia with their lethal complication empyema and to present the fatal lung infection, the pulmonary phthisis (tuberculosis). Vivid descriptions of the symptomatology were given, alongside with the efforts for treatment. Hippocrates was the first to use comparative hearing of both lungs, and the physician who have established thoracocentesis for the empyema's drainage, combined with parenteric nutrition and endotracheal intubation.
    [Show full text]
  • What Does Hippocrates Mean? the Historiographical Construction Of
    What does Hippocrates mean ? The Historiographical Construction of the Greek physician as the ‘Father of Medicine’ Hélène Castelli To cite this version: Hélène Castelli. What does Hippocrates mean ? The Historiographical Construction of the Greek physician as the ‘Father of Medicine’. The Postgraduate Journal of Medical Humanities, 2016, 3, p. 39-51. hal-01415732 HAL Id: hal-01415732 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01415732 Submitted on 13 Dec 2016 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. 39 What does ‘Hippocrates’ mean? The Historiographical Construction of the Greek physician as the ‘Father of Medicine’ Hélène Castelli (Université Paris) Thomas Lilti’s 2014 film Hippocrate presents the beginnings of the career of a young physician in a Parisian hospital. Despite this, Hippocrates himself is completely absent from the film: ‘Hippocrate’ is used as a synonym for ‘Medicine’. Who hides behind this name? ‘Hippocrates, a Greek physician of the fifth century before Jesus Christ, has long been considered the Father of Medicine’ wrote Jacques Jouanna at the beginning of his important biography of Hippocrates.1 Indeed, historians of ancient Greek medicine usually work on the Hippocratic Collection, a set of sixty medical treatises transmitted under his name.
    [Show full text]
  • From Hippocrates to the Early Eastern Christian Fathers
    CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by University of Wales Trinity Saint David Cures of the body and cures of the soul: from Hippocrates to the early Eastern Christian Fathers. Nikolaos Angelou September 2012 SUMMARY This study examines the differences between Hippocratic medicine and Eastern Christian medical notions in relation to the human body and mind in health and disease. The aim is to demonstrate that there were two major reasons why the two traditions valued dissimilarly the body and the soul. First, their differing religiosities were reflected in their contrasting ideas about the function of secular and religious cures. By definition, secular medicine is attached to the physical whereas religion dwells mostly in the spirit. Second, the holistic attitude of Hippocratic cures towards the body and the soul in contrast to the dichotomy in favour of the soul that Christianity became known for is largely due to the diverging interpretation of pagan Greek philosophy. Although the Greek philosophical tradition was all-pervasive for intellectuals in both sides, its various theories did accommodate the distinct interests of Hippocratic medicine and of Christian medicine. Hippocratism expressed itself in terms of practical philosophy. Christianity adopted a contemplative outlook of the person. Primary sources such as the treatises of the Hippocratic Corpus, the writings of Galen, the Holy Scriptures and the work of eminent Eastern Christian theologians provide considerable evidence to make the case for these arguments. Secondary sources will be compared against the primary ones and will assist to highlight wider cultural implications surrounding, interacting with and, often, connecting the two movements.
    [Show full text]