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Introduction Part I the Pre-Colonial Maghreb Notes Introduction 1. Routledge World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Drama, Volume 4, ed. Don Rubin (London: Routledge, 1999). 2. For example, M. M. Badawi: Modern Arabic Drama in Egyptt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), Early Arabic Drama (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Philip Sadgrove: The Egyptian Theatre in the Nineteenth Centuryy (Durham: University of Durham Press, n.d.). 3. Salma Jayyusi and Roger Allen (eds), Arabic Writing Today: The Drama (Cairo: American Research Center, 1977); Salma Jayyusi and Roger Allen (eds), Modern Arabic Drama (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); Salma Jayyusi (ed.), Short Arabic Plays (London: Interlink, 2003). 4. Taher Bekri, De la literature tunisienne et maghrébin (Paris: Harmattan, 1999). All translations from French and Arabic sources are by the authors, unless otherwise noted. 5. Ibid., 5–13. 6. M. M. Badawi, “Arabic Drama Since the Thirties,” in Modern Arabic Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 402. 7. The only book-length study of drama in the Maghreb in English is the highly informative, but rather narrowly focused Strategies of Resistance in the Dramatic Texts of North African Women Dramatists by Laura Chakravarty Box (London: Taylor & Francis, 2004). The only English-language collection of drama from this region yet to appear is Four Plays from North Africa, ed. Marvin Carlson (New York: Martin E. Segal, 2008). 8. M. Flangon Rogo Koffi, Le Théâtre Africain Francophone (Paris: Harmattan, 2002). Part I The Pre-Colonial Maghreb Chapter 1 The Roman Maghreb 1. Michael Brett and Elizabeth Fentress, The Berbers (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996), 50. 2. Trudy Ring, Adele Hast and Paul Challenger, International Dictionary of Historic Places. Volume V: Middle East and Africa (London: Routledge, 1996), 466. 3. Apuleius, Florida, XVIII, 3–5. 4. Debra Bruch, “The Prejudice Against Theatre,” The Journal of Religion and Theatree 3:1 (Summer, 2004), 3. By the third century, Christianity gained more territory within the Roman Empire, thereby posing a greater menace to the state and its stage. The North African theologian (formerly Amazigh) Tertullian (155–220) in his De Spectaculis, denounced theatre and drama as untrue, and maintained that Christians must for- swear the theatre when baptized. The Council of Trullo in 692 banned all pagan festivals, including theatrical performances. 5. The inaccurate, but widespread characterization of Islam as an essentially negative force in relation to theatre will be dealt with in a special section on this subject in Part II of the present study. 222 Notes 223 6. Augustine, Confessions, Book III, trans. and ed. R. S. Pine-Coffin (Baltimore, MD: Penguin, 1961), 55–6. 7. Augustine, The City of God: Against the Pagans, trans. and ed. J. W. C. Wand (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), 26–7. Chapter 2 Orature 1. Jacqueline Kaye and Abdelhamid Zoubir, The Ambiguous Compromise: Language, Literature and National Identity in Algeria and Morocco (London: Routledge, 1990), 15. 2. Jacques Berque, Arab Rebith: Pain and Ecstasyy (London: Al Saqui, 1983), 4. 3. Kamal Salhi, “Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia,” in Martin Banham (ed.), A History of Theatre in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 39. 4. Kaye and and Zoubir explore the problematic diglossic situation of Morocco along with the cultural and geographic diglossia. For them, “the Arab conquest of Morocco had brought writing in its trail but it did not convert Morocco into a written cul- ture. Instead there developed, as in other Arab and Arabized cultures, a splitting or diglossia. While classical Arabic was to remain the model, and its formulaic grace of thought and expression survived embedded in everyday speech, Moroccan Arabic developed alongside but not in competition with Berber because as an unwritten language it could not impose itself.” See Ambiguous Compromise, 10. 5. Debora A. Kapchan, “Gender on the Market in Moroccan Women’s Verbal Art: Performative Spheres of Feminine Authority” (unpublished), 4. See also Deborah A. Kapchan, Gender on the Market:Moroccan Women and the Revoicing of Tradition (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996). 6. Salhi, “Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia”, 42. 7. Youssef Rachid Haddad, Art du conteur, Art de l’acteurr (Louvain-la-Neuve: Cahiers theatre Louvain, 1982), 15. 8. Fes 555–6, quoted in Ch. Pellat entry, “hikaya” in the Encyclopedia of Islam, ed. B. Lewis et al. (Leiden: Brill, 1960–2009) III, 372. 9. Camille Lacoste-dujardin, Le Conte kabyle: étude ethnologique (Paris: François Maspero, 1970), 23. 10. Pellat entry, “hikaya,” III, 367–77. 11. Dan Ben Amos, “Towards a Definition of Folklore in Context,” in Americo Paredes and Richard Bauman (eds), Towards New Perspectives in Folklore (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972), 10–11. John Miles Foley, a scholar of orality, writes: “What precisely does it mean to say that a work of literature is oral? What does orality or the lack of it have to do with the making of literature or with its interpretation? These are, of course, relatively new and unfamiliar questions; not very many years ago they and questions like them could not have been posed, not to mention thoughtfully considered or even answered. For it is only recently that the assumption that literature must in all cases fulfill to the letter its etymol- ogy from letter (Latin: Littera) has been shown to be inaccurate, and that the rapidly developing field of oral literature research and scholarship has begun to assert itself.” Introduction to Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research (An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography), (New York: Garland, 1985), 2. 12. Ruth Fennegan, Oral Literature in Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970), 3. 13. Walter J. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Wordd (London: Methuen, 1982), 4. 14. Sabra Webber, Romancing the Real: Folklore and Ethnographic Representation in North Africa (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991). 224 Notes 15. Marie Maclean, Narrative As Performance: The Baudelairean Experimentt (London: Routledge, 1988), 1. 16. Friederike Pannewick, “The Hakawati in Contemporary Arabic Theatre, in Angelika Neuwirth et al. (eds), Myths, Historical Archetypes and Symbolic Figures in Arabic Literature (Beirut: Hassib Dergham, 1999), 337–48. 17. Ibid., 342. 18. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (Harmonds- worth: Penguin, 1967), 193. 19. Ibid., 193–4. 20. Ibid., 194. 21. Erika Fischer-Lichte, The Transformative Power of Performance: A New Aesthetics, trans. Iris Jain Saskya (London: Routledge, 2008), 75. 22. Quoted by D. Reig in Ibn al-Jawzi. La pensée vigile (Paris, 1986), 134. 23. See W. Raven’s entry, “sira,” in the Encyclopedia of Islam, ed. P. J. Bearman and Mark Garborieau (Leiden: Brill, 2002), IX, 660–3. 24. See, for example, M. C. Lyons, “The Arabian Epic: Heroic and Oral Storytelling,” Comparative Literature 49:4 (1997), 359–70. 25. See the entry by Pellat and others, “kissa” in the Encyclopedia of Islam, V, 185–207. 26. Haddad, Art du conteurr, 28–43. 27. M. Sammoun, L’Expérience radicale dans le théâtre arabe, Unpub. Diss., Paris, 1990, quoted in Pannewick, “The Hakawati,” 339. 28. See Pellat’s entry, Encyclopedia of Islam, III, 367–77. This also contains information on related forms like the sira and nadira. 29. See the chapter on “hikaya” in Shmuel Moreh, Live Theatre and Dramatic Literature in the Medieval Arab Worldd (New York: New York University Press, 1992, 85–122). 30. Majid El Houssi, Pour une histoire du théâtre tunisien (Tunis: Maison Arabe du Livre, 1982), 160–4. 31. See Boratav’s entry on “maddah” in the Encyclopedia of Islam, V, 951–3. 32. Lufti Abdul-Rahman Faizo, The Cycles of Arabic Drama: Authenticity versus Western Imitation and Influence, unpub. diss., University of Colorado, Boulder, 1985, section on the madih, 26–30. 33. Reinhardt Dozy, Supplement aux Dictionnaires Arabes (Leiden: Brill, 1927), 150. 34. Fazio, Cycles, 26. 35. See Brockelmann and Pellat’s entry on “makama” in the Encyclopedia of Islam, VI, 107–15. 36. Moreh, Live Theatre, 105. 37. See Pellat’s entry on “nadira” in the Encyclopedia of Islam, VII, 856–8. 38. Much study has been done on the popular Djera character in his various forms. The most complete study is by the prolific writer on Algerian literature, Jean Dejeux, Djoh’a: héros de la tradition orale arabo-berbere: hier et aujourd’hui (Sherbrooke, Quebec: Naaman, 1976). Metin And, in his Drama at the Crossroads: Turkish Performing Arts Link Past and Present, East and Westt (Beylerbeyi, Istanbul: Isis Press, 1991), explores the background of this character, along with the similar Molla Nasreddin of Iran, arguing that they are derived from Nasreddin Hoja, a well-known popular character in Anatolian folk-tales. He also speculates on the relation of this performance tradition to international performance work from India (via the Romany, or gypsy, culture) and Indonesia. 39. An example of the continuing insistence on correctness in the name of Islam is the appeal to boycott Bilmawn’s (Bujlud) masquerade that is conceived of by con- servative Sunni scholarship as a pagan relic. Abdellah Hammoudi, a Moroccan Notes 225 Cultural Anthropologist, foregrounds the Fqih’s position with regard to the ongoing masquerade during an interview in his village mosque, where the Fqih commented that “It’s a practice of corrupt people (fasiqin). They take advantage of this occasion to settle their scores. Someone who has an old score to settle with someone else uses this situation to beat him up. And there is more to it than that, I swear before God; here like everywhere else, the masquerade is the opportunity to make a contact with a woman one has desired for a long time.” In Abdellah Hammoudi, The Victim and Its Masks: An Essay on Sacrifice and Masquerade in the Maghreb, trans. Paula Wissing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 88. Chapter 3 The Halqa 1. Joachim Fiebach, “Theatricality: from Oral Traditions to Televised Realities,” Substance 31:2–3 (1998–9), 17.
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