PHILOSOPHICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL traditionally studying human intellect. PROBLEMS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Machine realisation of such games as chess and checkers is often mentioned as O.K. Tlkhomlrov a cogent indicator of machine Intellect Institute of Psychology USSR existence, Psychology obtains data, that Academy of Sciences, 37-a one and the same problem may be solved by Vavilov St., 117312 Moscow man and computer using different prin ciples and that similarity of formal re The paper presents discussion of in sults estranged (written or typed) from terrelation between human intelligence the solving system can not serve as a ba and computer functioning. Differences are sis for "diagnosing19 that computer has demonstrated between heuristic search of human intelligence (1)• artificial intelligence and human intel Between the heuristic search analys ligence actirity. "Machinocentrism" as a ed in the theory of artificial intelli trend of comaring human and machine func gence on the one hand and human intellect tions is strongly criticised. Three prog activity on the other there are Important rams of artificial intelligence develop differences which should not be ignored. ment are analysed. It is demonstrated The first difference is connected that the goal of approximation to human with the fact that the so called heuris intelligence is being set under condi tic search is described in artificial in tions of either disregarding or restrict telligence works in relation to the prob ed use of psychological data about human lems having precisely defined initial si intelligence. A real recreation of human tuation and precisely defined goal, while intelligence in the work of computer is it is characteristic of man to form goals being associated with simulation of needs, and to distinguish initial and subsequent emotional regulation of search, goal-for search situations. Broadly admitted is mation, selective reflection of the si the opinion that artificial intelligence tuation. It is stated that representation investigations have not yet developed a of man and his intelligence as "just a universal method for sophisticated formu machine" makes up the basis of the speci lation of problems. fic form of natural-scientific materia The second difference is connected lism which is being developed in bounds with the nature of "operators" transform of artificial intelligence as a scientific ing one situation into another". In human trend. Psychological problems arizing in intellectual activity this "transforma connection with origin ans use of artifi tion" may have qualitatively different cial intelligence are also formulated. psychological structure being realized by a goalful action, by an impulsive action Analysis of theoretical principalee or by a consolidated skill. It is also si of artificial intelligence as a scienti gnificant to differ two types of "opera fic trend obtains critical importance. tors" practical behavioural acts (drawing Comparison of human intellect and machine near and moving off, manipulations etc.) functioning, exposure of their similari and gnostic or investigation acts (exami ties and differences is one of the most nation, observation of relations in the significant approaches to this trend ana situation, implementation of its proper lysis. Yet this analysis would be impos ties before realization of practical acts) sible without addressing philosophy and "Operators" of the second type are usual psychology - the sciences that have been ly ignored in artificial intelligence
932 works. the thins that do "favour discovery" in The third difference concerne "sta human intellectual activity the most im tes". When describing "states" man uses portant ones are not mentioned as a rule. not only such forms as lines of symbols, Thus for instance the state of maximum vectors, two-dimensional arrays, trees mobilization of psychic activity named and lists, but also images, meanings and "inspiration" is ignored. senses, the most important peculiarity Enumerated differences are impor of which is their object relatedness. tant in evaluating significance of arti Apart from the space of "problem states" ficial intelligence works and show that a human being also has a space of states perfection of heuristic search in arti of himself as of a subject solving the ficial intelligence may be unrelated to problem and it is not irrelevant to the any significant approximation to human problem-solving activity. intelligence structure. The forth difference consists in "Artificial intelligence" is a ra the fact the so called "heuristic search pidly developing trend. Therefore fore methods" of human intelligence and of ar cast of its development and validity eva tificial one are different by nature. Hu luation of these forecasts gains more and man "intensification of search" depends more importance. Psychology also contri not only on "specific information about butes to solution of these problems. the problem" but also on the motives of Approximation of machine problem-sol problem-solving activity, on the psycho ving methods to human ones is often pro logical state of the solver, on his at nounced as a strategic goal in the field titude and so on. Generally speaking it of artificial intelligence. depends on the subject. Thus there are In an attempt to achieve this goal also subjective factors that "assist in many authors resort to comparison of hu finding the solution". It is characterise man intelligence and computer potentials. tic of man to regulate his search not on Yet this comparison frequently suffers ly by syntactic and semantic rules, but from downright one-sidedness. One of the rather by sense factors. It is not only most typical cases here is evaluation of the execution of evaluation functions man from, so to say, "machine view-point" that takes place in human intellectual ("machinocentrism"). It means that first activity - in the course of problem-solv of all only those characteristics of man ing there also accure their formation. are pointed out that are obtained by a These "evaluation functions" say also be machine. The further analysis considers different by nature (emotional and ver here only the degrees to which these cha bal evaluations, generalized and eitua- racteristics are represented in human tive ones). beings. Thus "rapidness" "working memory" Even this enumeration shows that "arithmetical problems1 solution" and psychology analyses a wider range of the "speed and accuracy of information input problem than the so called theory of heu and storage" are being discussed. Accord ristic search does. Furthermore it is ne ing to this approach the group of human cessary to point out that "restricted characteristics which is not represented count" is rather freely interpreted here in machines remains out of the analysis! as "heuristic" in the meaning of "favour the group includes needs, motives, goal- ing discovery", for "discovery" is inter formation, emotional regulation of acti preted as a solution of any problem by a vity. mode shorter than complete count. Among Strongly restricted enumeration of
933 differences results in a rather dering a huge number of interconnections. conclusion that neither of the mentioned Sometimes papers mention such pecu differences is in principle insuperable liarities of human activity as "selec (2) in approximating machine potentials tion of essential data", "retrieval of to human intelligence; after this the essential information", yet do so wi conclusion is made that there are quite thout any refernces to the fact that hu fair chances to build a machine cleverer man information "essentiality" is deter than a man and at last it is stated, that mined by relation of the infonnation to in case we are able to construct a machi the individual's needs which may change ne cleverer than ourselves, it will be in the course of one concrete problem - able in its turn to project a still cle solving. There is also an opinion expres verer one. We should bare in mind anyhow sed according to which the obvious fact that the most important differences have that an organism has needs is although just not been encluded in the list of the not denied but considered as something "in principle insuperable" ones. outer in relation to behaviour organiza Pull accounting of human intellectu tion. As for psychology, "mental energy" al activity peculiarities is also needed (Spearman) is sometimes pronounced to be for a more precise evaluation of "machined a "general factor" of mental endowments characteristics. Thus it is necessary for and "mental activity", "need in activi example to restrict the habitually menti ty" is considered as its main component oned machine advantage of "rapldness" tor (3). These components and factors are it is valid only for "routine" work.When interpreted here not as something outer dealing with creative work, that ie the in relation to the activity, but as a one including the processes of goal and most essential constituent of human in intention formation, we may say that no tellectual activity. As it has been matter how long this work is carried out shown by experimental investigations,the by man, it is carried out "quicker" then need is connected not only with final by machine, for it is not able to carry goal statement, but also with problem- out this work at all. solving, with organization of the search Even in case scientists underline per se. advantages of man over machine, human in Three programs of artificial intel telligence is often approached by them ligence developments may be pointed out unilaterally. Thus among obvious human as pithy. The first one states that the advantages the "volume of parallel infor increase of memory volume and of inter mation handling" is often mentioned, yet relations between its elements would being abstracted from such important cha lead to the development of machine crea racteristic of the activity as its reali tive potentials. This opinion is open to zation by not only parallel but also qua criticism for cases are known when the litatively heterogeneous processes. Inter increase of human memory volume and of action of concious and unconcious compo interrelations between its elements did nents in the structure of human intellec not at all lead to the increase of hie tual activity may serve here as an examp creativity (4). Therefore this condition le. Furthermore this position is someti may not be approched as the most impor mes reduced to only quantitative charac tant one. teristics, that is to indication that The second program declares the brain possesses a considerably greater highest importance of finding out know quantity of solving elements related by ledge and concept systems used by a hu-
934 man in solving a certain class of prob artificial intelligence we may state that lems with their further introduction in the three described programs of artifici to machine (transference of "semantic in al intelligence development suggest modi formation"). In this context knowledge fication (alteration) of the characteris is understood as an ability to answer tics which in human intelligence should questions. If a system answers a questi be qualified as "outer quality" ("incre on, it obtains knowledge. This is the so ase of memory volume, of interconnections called empirical definition of knowledge. between its elements; increase of formal The method of finding out knowledge need knowledge volume; increase of formal me ed by man in solving a certain class of thods of search reduction"). If strate problems, which is usually used by arti gic goal of artificial intelligence as a ficial intelligence specialists,consists scientific trend - recreation of human in self-observation in the process of intellectual activity methods - does not learning by themselves. become senseless in this absolutely real To evaluate this program it is ne situation, then we should speak about cessary to take into account the fact new, that is the fourth program of arti that for very long psychology differs ficial intelligence development. The formal and comprehended (meaningful) point of it is to attempt to simulate knowledge. needs, emotional regulation of search, In the bound of artificial intelli goalformation, selective reflection of gence knowledge gets formalistic inter the situation. pretation and thus bears only superfici The frequently declared thesis that al resemblance to genuine human know at present there is no theoretical limit ledge. of intelligence degree that can be ever The method used by artificial intel achieved by a machine should be essenti ligence specialists in finding out human ally amended: if the fourth program of knowledge (observation of learning by artificial intelligence development is themselves processes) used in the course in question the point at present issue of problem-solving is strongly limitted. should be not presence or absence of li The thing is that in any human action mit B i.. tue implementation of the prog- there take place concious and unconcious rrun, but the very possibility to start components including generalizations. its realization, i.e. embodiment of inner The third program of artificial in essential characteristics of human Intel* telligence development accentuates the ligence in the work of a computer. simulation of human "heuristics" yet in "Emancipation" of works of artifici doing so it ignores the above mentioned al intelligence from psychology of intel differences between machine and human ligence revealed in the course of our heuristic methods. comparative analysis does not restrict Therefore we may point out a very progress in the field of hard- and soft essential peculiarity of artificial in ware developments, yet it sets a rather telligence as a scientific trend: its significant limit in possible interpreta strategic goal - approximation to human tions of gained practical results in intelligence - is Bet by either neglect their relation to human intelligence. ing or restricted use of psychological The question of human and artificial data about human intelligence. intelligence interrelation is discussed On the basis of psychological ana by many authors in the context of philo lysis applied to comparison of human and sophical problems. There are direct at-
935 tempts to relate identification of human bearing new characteristics in relation and artificial intelligence to materia to the matter which has not yet passed lism. In this light the analysis of what this stage of development. Concrete psy materialism namely is advocated by en chological investigations demonstrating thusiasts in the field of artificial in qualitative peculiarity of human intel telligence gains principal importance. lect in comparison with the functioning It is well known that there exist of existing and practicably projected different forms of materialism (as well computers prove and enrich dialectical as of idealism). The pre-Marx materia materialism. lism is usually characterized by the at The term "artificial intelligence" tribute "mechanistic" "metaphysical" and applied to computer functioning is no mo "vulgar": words with meanings only part re than a metaphor analogous to word com ly intersected. To characterize some binations "artificial hand" and "artifi forms of materialism the concept of "na cial eye" applied to mechanical manipula tural-scientific materialism" is used. tors and T.V. cameras realizing the func The term "mechanistic" has two meanings tion of tracing. The difference between - specific and a more general ones. The natural and artificial hand, as well as first is related to the form of materia between natural and artificial eye is lism connected with classic mechanics, selfeviuwnfc and does not raise Keen dis the latter - to any method of "reducing" cussions, yet the* difference between ar complex phenomenon to its more simple tificial and human intelligence is not constituents. Representation of man and obvious for many scientists and some his intellect as "just a machine" serves times is deliberately minimized. There the basis for the particular form of na fore we should take into account the dan tural-scientific materialism which is ger of "literalism in understanding the being developed in bounds of artificial metaphor". intelligence as a scientific trend. This Instead of mechanical borrowing of materialism is mechanistic in the above concepts and methods from artificial in mentioned broader meaning of the word, telligence psychology should concentrate yet on the other hand it is a new form on a more intense development of its own of mechanism for not the laws of mecha problems arising in connection with ori nics, but the laws of "information hand gination and use of artificial intelli ling" are taken here as central. In other gence. These problems Include analysis words it is the particular form of me of artificial intelligence use influence chanism that is being changed but not on human intellect, analysis of psycholo its main principle. gical after-effects of computerization One of the central theses of dia (5). Talks about intellect augmenterB lectical materialism is the qualitative are not usually supplied with real analy peculiarity of different movement forms sis of psychological after-effects of of the matter; antireductionalism is these "augmenters1" use in human activi characteristic of it. The alternative ty- "cither machine or soul should be reso Approaching artificial intelligence lutely rejected for it contradicts the as a tool of human activity it is neces essence of dialectics. Neither "machine" sary to bear in mind that it gives "aug nor "soul" but psychic as a qualitative mentation" only in potential and that the ly peculiar phenomenon originated at a opposite potential - that is of "weaken oertain stage of matter development and ing" - does not automatically fall away;
936 what is more, it comes into reality un zation of human activity conditions."Op der poor organization of computers1 use. timization" of activity conditions is Furthermore the tool itself may be diffe often achieved by "discoordination" of rent (type of the machine, type of the man and machine characteristics - for program, type of the communication vdth example by setting conditions of free the machine) which lead to qualitatively work rythm or of free access to the ma different variants of "augmentation".We chine. Extention of human creative po should also take into account that human tentials is one of psychological indica intellect may/be rather different and tors of artificial intelligence use ef hence wisdom and stupidity, intellect of fectiveness. The thesis of human thin a scientist and intellect of an astrolo king peculiarity in comparison with com ger would be augmented. Artificial intel puter information handling is the metho ligence "augments" not all components of dological principle of the automatic sys human intellect, but only the "machine- tems' projecting theory (7). like" ones, making first of all their And, finally, perspective is the "allies" out of them. Therefore we problem of artificial intelligence use should speak not about just an intellect in the investigation of the human one augmentatin but rather about its struc (computerization of psychological expe ture transformation (6). Intellect aug riment D ). mentation should be approached in a broader context of mental development. We think that between the science The computer frequently appears to be of psychology and artificial intelli not just a tool of some abstract intel gence as a scientific trend should be lect, but a tool of real personalities set new relatione. Artificial intelli striving for self-assertion using means gence should to a greater degree take in of high prestige range. Activity motives to account data of psychological science of personality may be both socially va in evaluation of its practical achieve lid and egoistic. ments, in the works of computer develop Effectiveness increase of artifici ment perspective programs, in increas al intelligence use by means of consi ing effectiveness of computer use. An dering peculiarities of human creative actual problem of psychology is critical activity makes up a separate scientific assimilation on the ground of dialecti problem. Wot only cybertetics but also cal materialism of the processes connect psychology makes up the theoretical ba ed with the development new natural- sis of mental labour automatization. scientific materialism form represented Effective use of psychological science by artificial intelligence theorists and in solution of actual problems of tech thus the further development of concept nological progress is to be associated apparatus allowing to Reflect the speci not with its "technologization" and "en ficity of pfeQrckic activity regularities* gine erizat ion" but on the contrary with its "psychologization". The problem of References "coordination" of man and machine chara I) O.K.THXOMHpOB "CTpyKTypa MHCJIHTejIiHOft cteristics is often met in technological seHTejiBHocTH ^ejioBeKa". H3lla- literature. We would like to stress the TejtbCTBO MocKOBCKoro yHBep- scantiness of the way the problem is put CHTeTa, 1969. and also the illegality of identifying 2) H.C.CaTepjiemii "HeJiOBeKonoflodHtie Ma- this problem with the problem of optimi UIHHH. HejioBe^ecKne cnocodHo-
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