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Philosophical and Psychological Problems of Artificial Intelligence

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Philosophical and Psychological Problems of Artificial Intelligence PHILOSOPHICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL traditionally studying human intellect. PROBLEMS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Machine realisation of such games as chess and checkers is often mentioned as O.K. Tlkhomlrov a cogent indicator of machine Intellect Institute of Psychology USSR existence, Psychology obtains data, that Academy of Sciences, 37-a one and the same problem may be solved by Vavilov St., 117312 Moscow man and computer using different prin­ ciples and that similarity of formal re­ The paper presents discussion of in­ sults estranged (written or typed) from terrelation between human intelligence the solving system can not serve as a ba­ and computer functioning. Differences are sis for "diagnosing19 that computer has demonstrated between heuristic search of human intelligence (1)• artificial intelligence and human intel­ Between the heuristic search analys­ ligence actirity. "Machinocentrism" as a ed in the theory of artificial intelli­ trend of comaring human and machine func­ gence on the one hand and human intellect tions is strongly criticised. Three prog­ activity on the other there are Important rams of artificial intelligence develop­ differences which should not be ignored. ment are analysed. It is demonstrated The first difference is connected that the goal of approximation to human with the fact that the so called heuris­ intelligence is being set under condi­ tic search is described in artificial in­ tions of either disregarding or restrict­ telligence works in relation to the prob­ ed use of psychological data about human lems having precisely defined initial si­ intelligence. A real recreation of human tuation and precisely defined goal, while intelligence in the work of computer is it is characteristic of man to form goals being associated with simulation of needs, and to distinguish initial and subsequent emotional regulation of search, goal-for­ search situations. Broadly admitted is mation, selective reflection of the si­ the opinion that artificial intelligence tuation. It is stated that representation investigations have not yet developed a of man and his intelligence as "just a universal method for sophisticated formu­ machine" makes up the basis of the speci­ lation of problems. fic form of natural-scientific materia­ The second difference is connected lism which is being developed in bounds with the nature of "operators" transform­ of artificial intelligence as a scientific ing one situation into another". In human trend. Psychological problems arizing in intellectual activity this "transforma­ connection with origin ans use of artifi­ tion" may have qualitatively different cial intelligence are also formulated. psychological structure being realized by a goalful action, by an impulsive action Analysis of theoretical principalee or by a consolidated skill. It is also si­ of artificial intelligence as a scienti­ gnificant to differ two types of "opera­ fic trend obtains critical importance. tors" practical behavioural acts (drawing Comparison of human intellect and machine near and moving off, manipulations etc.) functioning, exposure of their similari­ and gnostic or investigation acts (exami­ ties and differences is one of the most nation, observation of relations in the significant approaches to this trend ana­ situation, implementation of its proper­ lysis. Yet this analysis would be impos­ ties before realization of practical acts) sible without addressing philosophy and "Operators" of the second type are usual­ psychology - the sciences that have been ly ignored in artificial intelligence 932 works. the thins that do "favour discovery" in The third difference concerne "sta­ human intellectual activity the most im­ tes". When describing "states" man uses portant ones are not mentioned as a rule. not only such forms as lines of symbols, Thus for instance the state of maximum vectors, two-dimensional arrays, trees mobilization of psychic activity named and lists, but also images, meanings and "inspiration" is ignored. senses, the most important peculiarity Enumerated differences are impor­ of which is their object relatedness. tant in evaluating significance of arti­ Apart from the space of "problem states" ficial intelligence works and show that a human being also has a space of states perfection of heuristic search in arti­ of himself as of a subject solving the ficial intelligence may be unrelated to problem and it is not irrelevant to the any significant approximation to human problem-solving activity. intelligence structure. The forth difference consists in "Artificial intelligence" is a ra­ the fact the so called "heuristic search pidly developing trend. Therefore fore­ methods" of human intelligence and of ar­ cast of its development and validity eva­ tificial one are different by nature. Hu­ luation of these forecasts gains more and man "intensification of search" depends more importance. Psychology also contri­ not only on "specific information about butes to solution of these problems. the problem" but also on the motives of Approximation of machine problem-sol­ problem-solving activity, on the psycho­ ving methods to human ones is often pro­ logical state of the solver, on his at­ nounced as a strategic goal in the field titude and so on. Generally speaking it of artificial intelligence. depends on the subject. Thus there are In an attempt to achieve this goal also subjective factors that "assist in many authors resort to comparison of hu­ finding the solution". It is characterise man intelligence and computer potentials. tic of man to regulate his search not on­ Yet this comparison frequently suffers ly by syntactic and semantic rules, but from downright one-sidedness. One of the rather by sense factors. It is not only most typical cases here is evaluation of the execution of evaluation functions man from, so to say, "machine view-point" that takes place in human intellectual ("machinocentrism"). It means that first activity - in the course of problem-solv­ of all only those characteristics of man ing there also accure their formation. are pointed out that are obtained by a These "evaluation functions" say also be machine. The further analysis considers different by nature (emotional and ver­ here only the degrees to which these cha­ bal evaluations, generalized and eitua- racteristics are represented in human tive ones). beings. Thus "rapidness" "working memory" Even this enumeration shows that "arithmetical problems1 solution" and psychology analyses a wider range of the "speed and accuracy of information input problem than the so called theory of heu­ and storage" are being discussed. Accord­ ristic search does. Furthermore it is ne­ ing to this approach the group of human cessary to point out that "restricted characteristics which is not represented count" is rather freely interpreted here in machines remains out of the analysis! as "heuristic" in the meaning of "favour­ the group includes needs, motives, goal- ing discovery", for "discovery" is inter­ formation, emotional regulation of acti­ preted as a solution of any problem by a vity. mode shorter than complete count. Among Strongly restricted enumeration of 933 differences results in a rather dering a huge number of interconnections. conclusion that neither of the mentioned Sometimes papers mention such pecu­ differences is in principle insuperable liarities of human activity as "selec­ (2) in approximating machine potentials tion of essential data", "retrieval of to human intelligence; after this the essential information", yet do so wi­ conclusion is made that there are quite thout any refernces to the fact that hu­ fair chances to build a machine cleverer man information "essentiality" is deter­ than a man and at last it is stated, that mined by relation of the infonnation to in case we are able to construct a machi­ the individual's needs which may change ne cleverer than ourselves, it will be in the course of one concrete problem - able in its turn to project a still cle­ solving. There is also an opinion expres­ verer one. We should bare in mind anyhow sed according to which the obvious fact that the most important differences have that an organism has needs is although just not been encluded in the list of the not denied but considered as something "in principle insuperable" ones. outer in relation to behaviour organiza­ Pull accounting of human intellectu­ tion. As for psychology, "mental energy" al activity peculiarities is also needed (Spearman) is sometimes pronounced to be for a more precise evaluation of "machined a "general factor" of mental endowments characteristics. Thus it is necessary for and "mental activity", "need in activi­ example to restrict the habitually menti­ ty" is considered as its main component oned machine advantage of "rapldness" tor (3). These components and factors are it is valid only for "routine" work.When interpreted here not as something outer dealing with creative work, that ie the in relation to the activity, but as a one including the processes of goal and most essential constituent of human in­ intention formation, we may say that no tellectual activity. As it has been matter how long this work is carried out shown by experimental investigations,the by man, it is carried out "quicker" then need is connected not only with final by machine, for it is not able to carry goal statement, but also with problem- out this work at all. solving, with organization of the search Even in case scientists underline per se. advantages of man over machine, human in­ Three programs of artificial
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