Giant Vehicles

Volume 3, Issue 4, Winter2004

GIANT VEHICLES

Magdi A. Said Goddard Space Flight Center Wallops Island, VA 23337

Willi W. Schur Physical Science Laboratory New Mexico State University Field Engineering Office: GSFC-WFF Wallops Island, VA 23337

Amit Gupta, Gary N. Mock, Abdelfattah M. Seyam*, and Thomas Theyson College of Textiles NC State University Raleigh, NC 27695-8301

Abstract

Science and technology development from balloon-borne telescopes and experiments is a rich return on a relatively modest involvement of NASA resources. For the past three decades, the development of increasingly competitive and complex science payloads and observational programs from high altitude balloon-borne platforms has yielded significant scientific discoveries. The success and capabilities of scientific balloons are closely related to advancements in the textile and plastic industries. This paper will present an overview of scientific balloons as a viable and economical platform for transporting large telescopes and scientific instruments to the upper atmosphere to conduct scientific missions. Additionally, the paper sheds the light on the problems associated with UV degradation of high performance textile components that are used to support the payload of the balloon and proposes future research to reduce/eliminate Ultra Violet (UV) degradation in order to conduct long-term scientific missions.

Keywords: Scientific Balloon, Payload, High Performance Fibers, UV Resistant, Tendon, Gore

* Communicating Author

INTRODUCTION relational aspect of the NASA standard size 39 million cubic feet zero pressure balloon Scientific balloons are very large structures and the Washington Monument is shown in capable of carrying scientific payloads of up Figure 1 for both, launch and float to 3,600 kg to an altitude of 35 km. A configurations. That figure also

Article Designation: Scholarly 1 JTATM Volume 3, Issue 4,Winter 2004 demonstrates the fact that the volume of the environs of black holes have been imaged in lifting gas at float altitude is about 200 to hard x-rays for the first time with balloon- 300 times that of the gas volume at launch borne telescopes of novel design which pave altitude. Figure 2 shows a stratospheric the way for future higher sensitivity studies balloon during launch operations. (and surveys) of these regions of cosmic extremes. Many scientific experiments involving outer space and upper atmosphere observations Generally, floating large payloads on a can be conducted from air buoyant platforms balloon platform costs significantly less than in the upper atmosphere, the scientific boosting such payloads into orbit. Most balloons, rather than from orbiting space experimenters, however, require constant probes and satellites. Most notable missions altitude for taking measurements. While that use these large platforms are: (1) the this altitude keeping requirement does not epochal flight of the BOOMERANG pose any difficulties in the polar regions experiment (and then MAXIMA) to measure where during the summer season the balloon the angular distribution of extremely subtle has 24 hours exposure to the sun, at mid- variations in the temperature of the cosmic latitude, diurnal variations in the thermal microwave background (CMB) radiation as radiation environment cause significant mapped on the sky enabled the first, and changes in the state of the lifting gas. most convincing, evidence for the growth of Unconstrained, the lifting gas in the balloon primordial structure in the universe; (2) expands during daytime and contracts cosmic ray experiments from balloons have during nighttime. If that is allowed to probed the isotopic composition of matter happen, then the balloon undergoes large produced (e.g. supernova remnants) where altitude excursions over the diurnal cycle. cosmic recycling is occurring; (3) the near-

Figure 1 Balloon characteristics

Article Designation: Scholarly 2 JTATM Volume 3, Issue 4,Winter 2004

Figure 2 Zero Pressure Balloon in Launch Configuration

There are two options that all but eliminate gas in a quasi-fixed volume. In that case, these altitude excursions during the mission. the gas pressure in the lifting gas rises with One is to carry ballast and corresponding the temperature in the gas, hence the excess lifting gas and allow the gas to vent differential pressure on the envelope rises as the temperature in the lifting gas rises and the restraining force required of the with the rising sun (Figure 3 shows this type pneumatic envelope exceeds many-fold the of balloon at float altitude with the vent restraining force required of a similar size ducts extending to below the nadir of the venting balloon (commonly called zero balloon), and then to drop ballast during pressure balloon). The pressurized balloon night time when the lifting gas cools and (commonly called super-pressure balloon) contracts. This is the way all large-payload- could in principle float indefinitely at almost capacity scientific balloons to date operate. constant altitude if gas leakage could be Limitations on the amount of ballast that can completely eliminated. be carried limits the duration of mid-latitude flights from one to three diurnal cycles. These are short duration flights. The other option is to contain the lifting

Figure 3 Zero Pressure Balloon at Float Altitude

Article Designation: Scholarly 3 JTATM Volume 3, Issue 4,Winter 2004 BALLOON DESIGN Spherical Balloons and Fabrication CONSIDERATIONS Challenges

Standard Zero Pressure Balloon Current scientific super pressure balloons are made of polyester film, which is In the zero-pressure balloon the maximum significantly stronger than the polyethylene apex pressure rises with the linear size of the (PE) film that is used in the zero pressure balloon. In addition, current zero pressure balloons. However, with the customary balloons are constructed in a manner that design, it only allows for the construction of requires the skin to participate in the global relatively small balloons that carry load carrying function. These two aspects significantly smaller payloads to much combine so that the film strength lower altitudes than are achieved by zero- requirement in current zero-pressure pressure balloons. Payloads for these super- balloons rises quadratically with the linear pressure balloons ranged from about 50 kg size of the balloon. The payload forces are to 100 kg. The design of these balloons is a introduced at the nadir, picked up by the sphere made of polyester gores that are load tapes, and transmitted into the butted and taped at the gore seams. Payload pneumatic envelope via the load tapes that introduction into the pneumatic envelope is are heat sealed to the gore seams. These via a load skirt, a conical arrangement of load tapes are anchored to the nadir fitting at straps that are anchored to the balloon skin the bottom of the balloon and the apex at the tangent intercept of the cone and the fitting at the top. The apex fitting is usually meridional seam tapes. The load a plate with sufficient real estate to introduction detail, the “bear-paw patch”, is accommodate some instrumentation and a a stress raiser. It introduces in its vicinity a pressure valve. The load carrying elements structural “hot spot”. Very exacting, hence of the load tapes are polyester strands that expensive, construction techniques are are embedded in a polyethylene sheath. required to fabricate a spherical balloon lest Typically, the fabrication of the load tapes randomly distributed additional stress raisers creates some wavy-ness in these strands, due to manufacturing imperfections will about up to 3%, so that load uptake by the occur on the pneumatic envelope. strength fibers requires significant straining in the balloon skin. The design shape of Development of Pumpkin Shape Super- these balloons, the so-called natural shape, is Pressure Balloon derived from the assumption of zero hoop- stress in the film in the fully inflated state at High strength, high stiffness, low weight float altitude. The construction of these fibers (high structural efficiency fibers) balloons, however, prevents realization of enable a different design scheme for this design assumption. Zero-pressure stratospheric super-pressure balloons, one balloons have been flown with up to 4,000 which has been contemplated in the late kg to altitudes of about 37 km. The fully 1960s and reported on in 1970 [1], and re- inflated shape of these balloons resembles examined in the succeeding decades [2,3], the shape of an onion. but essentially shelved until 1998 when proposed for the Ultra-Long-Duration Balloon (ULDB) project, and analytically demonstrated as technologically feasible for large scale balloons by Schur [4]. This is the so-called pumpkin Shape balloon (Figure 4).

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Figure 4 Lobed ULDB, Pumpkin Balloon Shape Model of 48 Gores

High structural efficiency fibers enable a structural lack of fit between the tendons significant leap in capability for scientific and the gore seams, the film stress resultants stratospheric balloons. Their high strength can be made uniform. This results in a and high stiffness relative to their mass structurally efficient design in which the allows them to be used as the primary strength of each structural element is nearly pressure confining structural element for the uniformly exhausted. This is quite different lifting gas. These high strength fibers are from the spherical design where the load twisted into yarns, which are then braided introduction detail introduces a structural into ropes. These ropes are the load ”hot spot” that dominates the skin strength tendons. The skin of the pneumatic envelope requirement. Similarly to the current zero can be relegated to the role of gas barrier pressure designs for stratospheric balloons, and to local pressure load transfer to the the tendons are anchored on the top plate primary structural elements, the load and a bottom plate. The latter plate supports tendons. In this design scheme, the strength the attachment to the flight train assembly, requirement for the skin grows linearly with which in turn holds the suspended payload. a local parameter, the bulge radius, while in the spherical balloon the strength The ULDB is still in its development phase. requirement for the skin grows with the There are a number of technological hurdles radius of the sphere. That is, in the pumpkin to be overcome. Three of these involve the shape balloon, the skin strength requirement, opportunity for undesired and dangerous and hence the areal density of the balloon stable equilibrium states at full inflation and skin, is independent of balloon size. There pressurization to occur. These are states at are several additional advantages to the which the stress resultants in the film design scheme of the pumpkin shape envelope significantly exceed the predicted balloon. Single orientation materials can be (design) stress resultants for the made significantly stronger than sheet or symmetrically deployed configuration. bulk material. The heterogeneous structure Similar problems arise in other compliant of the pumpkin balloon is also significantly structures particularly when, during the more tolerant to fabrication imperfections evolution to full deployment, control of the than the spherical design, allowing designs deployment path is given up, and the system with nominally smaller factors of safety than proceeds on its path autonomously under the would be used for spherical designs. There influence of environmental force systems are no structural “hot spots” in the design; that can only be bounded by estimates but the stress resultants in the tendons are nearly not fully predicted. Good designs do not uniform. By suitably balancing the structural exhibit this problem. The difficulty here is stiffness of the film and the tendons and in knowing which design features constitute

Article Designation: Scholarly 5 JTATM Volume 3, Issue 4,Winter 2004 a good design. The three aspects that need construction techniques, balloon film to be resolved are: 1) there must exist a optimization and load tendon development. robustly stable, cyclically symmetric In the proposed design of the super pressure equilibrium state at full inflation and balloon, the ultimate size of the balloon is pressurization, and, if in addition, other limited by the performance characteristics of stable equilibrium exist, then 2) design the tendons of braided yarns. The skin features must ensure that even under the carries the pressure load to adjacent tendons influence of environmental perturbation the within the total structure. Hence the tendons inflation path will always autonomously need to be structurally efficient (strong) and lead to the desired equilibrium, and 3) lightweight. Therefore, it is advantageous to deflation and re-inflation and re- construct the tendons out of the highest pressurization due to the diurnal cycle will strength to weight ratio fibers available. not cause the balloon to depart into one of After reviewing several commercially the undesired equilibria. NASA sponsored available high performance fibers, four analytical and empirical investigations are fibers were identified. These are Zylon PBO currently underway to gain sufficient fiber supplied by Toyobo Ltd. of Japan, understanding and to establish guidelines Kevlar aramid fiber supplied by Dupont, and design thresholds, which will lead Spectra ultra high molecular weight consistently to well-designed pumpkin shape polyethylene supplied by Honeywell, and super-pressure balloons. Vectran supplied by Celanese Acetate LLC.

Other technological questions that are as yet High Strength Fibers not fully answered relate to the high Zylon (PBO) structural efficiency load tendons. Zylon is a new high-performance fiber The Role of Tendons to ULDB Success developed by Toyobo Co. Ltd. Zylon consists of rigid-rod chain molecules of poly Along with the development of a design for (p-phenylene-2, 6-benzobisoxazole) or PBO the new balloon, a number of technical [5]. The chemical structure of PBO is shown issues have been addressed including new below [6]:

PBO has strength and modulus almost types of fibers, AS (as spun) and HM (high double that of a p-aramid fiber. Zylon shows modulus). HM is especially different from 100°C higher decomposition temperature AS in modulus and moisture regain. than p-aramid fiber [7]. The limiting oxygen Properties of Zylon AS and HM fibers are index (LOI) is 68, which is the highest depicted in Table 1. among organic super fibers. There are two

Article Designation: Scholarly 6 JTATM Volume 3, Issue 4,Winter 2004 Table 1 Properties of Zylon fiber [7] Properties ZYLON AS ZYLON HM Filament dtex 1.7 1.7 Density (g/cm3) 1.54 1.56 Tensile strength (cN/dtex) 37 37 Tensile modulus (cN/dtex) 1,150 1,720 Elongation at break (%) 3.5 2.5 Moisture regain (%) 2.0 0.6 Decomposition temp. (0C) 650 650 LOI 68 68

Kevlar polycondensation of p-phenylene diamine (PPD) and terephthaloyl chloride (TCL) in a Kevlar aramid fiber is based on poly (p- dilalkyl amide solvent [7]. Kevlar has the phenylene terephthalamide) (PPT-T). PPT-T following structure [8]: can be prepared by the low-temperature

Kevlar was introduced by DuPont in the Para-structure gives it high strength and 1970s and is supplied by DuPont Textile modulus [7]. Fibers. It was the first organic fiber with sufficient tensile strength and modulus to be Today, there are many grades of Kevlar used in advanced composites. Originally available: Kevlar yarns for tire, Kevlar 29 developed as a replacement for steel in (all-purpose yarn), Kevlar 49 (high modulus radial tires, Kevlar is now used in a wide yarn), Kevlar 68 (moderate modulus yarn) range of applications [9]. and Kevlar 149 (ultra-high modulus yarn). The first two have similar tensile properties The rod form of the Para-aramid molecules while the rest have higher tensile modulus and the extrusion process make Kevlar and a higher degree of crystalline fibers anisotropic (they are stronger and orientation. Table 2 shows the differences in stiffer in the axial direction than in the material properties among the different transverse direction). In comparison, grades of Kevlar fibers. graphite fibers are also anisotropic, while glass fibers are isotropic. The aramid ring gives Kevlar thermal stability, while the

Article Designation: Scholarly 7 JTATM Volume 3, Issue 4,Winter 2004 Table 2 Properties of different grades of Kevlar fibers [7] Kevlar Density, Tensile modulus, Tensile Strength, Tensile Elongation, % Grade g/cm3 g/denier g/denier 29 1.44 970.27 42.1 4.0 49 1.44 1531.39 42.1-47.9 2.8 149 1.47 2174.34 39.746 2.0

Kevlar is a very crystalline polymer, where UV Light Stability of Kevlar the phenyl rings of adjacent chains stack on top of each other very easily and neatly, Since Kevlar is self-screening, its light which makes the polymer even more stability depends on the thickness of the crystalline, and the fibers even stronger. exposed textile structure. Very thin Kevlar Overall, Kevlar is an outstanding high- 49 fabric, if exposed directly to very high strength, high-modulus fiber. Its tenacity intensity sunlight for an extended period, (strength per linear unit density) is greater will loose about half its tensile strength [7]. than all conventional fibers. Its strength is In thicker items, such as the 13 mm (half- relatively insensitive to temperatures up to inch) diameter rope, the majority of yarns 0 Tg (~280 C) and is dimensionally stable. are protected by the outer layer and strength loss is minimized (Table 3).

Table 3 Strength of 13 mm rope from Kevlar 49 in terms of exposure period to Florida Sun [7] Product Break Load Strength Retained (%) Unexposed 14,400 lb (64,100 N) ---- 6 months 13,000 lb (58,000 N) 90 12 months 11,600 lb (51,600 N) 81 18 months 9,950 lb (44,300 N) 69 24 months 9,940 lb (44,200 N) 69 Spectra resulting in ultra-high orientation and close packing [11]. The high tenacity of Spectra Spectra is a high-strength, lightweight, fiber makes it eight to ten times stronger extended-chain polyethylene fiber supplied than steel and 40 percent stronger than by Honeywell Specialty Fibers and has the aramid fiber [7]. The properties of Spectra highest strength to weight ratio of any man- 900 and 1000 are listed in Table 4. made fiber [10]. It is prepared by the gel- spinning process, in which the polymer is Spectra 1000 fiber, the second in a series of dissolved in a solvent (10% polymer + 90% Spectra fibers, was developed to meet the solvent), which results in a gel. This gel is needs for increased performance. It is then stretched 1,000 times and thereby all available in a multitude of deniers for use in the folded polyethylene chains are a wide range of applications [10]. Spectra straightened and oriented along one axis. 1000 fiber has 15%– 20% higher tenacity After that the solvent is removed, allowing than that of Spectra fiber 900 (Table 4). the chains to come close to one another

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Table 4 Properties of Spectra 900 and 1000 fibers [10] Properties Spectra 900 [4800 denier] Spectra 1000 [1300 denier] Tensile strength (g/d) 25.5 35 Tensile modulus (g/d) 785 1150 Elongation (%) 3.9 3.4 Density (g/cm3) 0.97 0.97 Filaments 480 240 Denier per filament 10 5.4

Vectran state, thus the term “liquid crystal polymer.” Upon extrusion of the molten polymer Vectran fiber comes under the class of through small spinneret holes, the molecular aromatic polyesters and is a polyester- domains align parallel to each other along polyarylate fiber. The chemical formula for the fiber axis. The process is schematically the Vectran fiber is shown below [12]: [12] shown in Figure 5. The highly oriented and packed chain molecular structure of Vectran fiber gives rise to excellent mechanical properties.

This fiber is based on the HBA/HNA copolyesters where HBA stands for p- hydroxybenzoic acid and HNA stands for p- hydroxynapthoic acid. The actual monomers are p-acetoxybenzoic acid and 2-acetoxy-6- napthoic acid. The polymer is prepared by the melt polymerization at approximately 250-2800 C for about 4 hrs [7].

Vectran is a high-performance thermoplastic multifilament yarn spun from Vectra liquid crystal polymer (LCP). Currently, Vectran is the only commercially available melt spun LCP fiber. The presence of three aromatic rings in one single repeat unit makes the polymer chain highly rigid and a perfectly Figure 5 Schematic of Molecular Chain linear rod-like molecule and, hence, Vectra Structure of Vectran Fiber comes under the category of Liquid Image courtesy of Vectran Fiber Crystalline Polymers (LCPs) [12] in which case the molecules position themselves into randomly oriented domains. The polymer exhibits anisotropic behavior in the melt

Article Designation: Scholarly 9 JTATM Volume 3, Issue 4,Winter 2004 Properties of Vectran Fiber minimal moisture absorption, excellent chemical resistance, low coefficient of Vectran fiber exhibits exceptional strength thermal expansion (CTE), high dielectric and rigidity. It is five times stronger than strength, outstanding cut resistance, steel and ten times stronger than aluminum. excellent retention properties at high/low Vectran fibers possess unique properties. temperatures, outstanding vibration damping These are high strength and modulus, characteristics, and high impact resistance excellent creep resistance, high abrasion and good shock absorbency. Some typical resistance, excellent flex/fold characteristics, values are shown in Table 5.

Table 5 Properties of 1,500 denier/300 filament yarns from Vectran HS and M fibers [12] Properties Vectran HS Vectran M Tensile strength* (g/denier) 23 9 Tensile modulus* (g/denier) 525 425 Elongation at break* (%) 3.30 2.00 Melting point (0C) 330 276 Moisture regain (%) < 0.1 < 0.1 Density (g/cm3) 1.4 1.4 Chemical resistance Hydrolytically stable. Resistant to organic solvents Stable to acids (< 90% conc.). Stable to bases (< 30% conc.) * ASTM D885, 10 in. gauge length, 10% strain rate, 2.5 tpi twist

Vectran HS is the high strength reinforcement fiber and Vectran M is a high performance matrix fiber.

The Need for Improved Tendon public by newspaper articles and news broadcasts [13,14,15,16] about not so bullet PBO and the other high strength fibers are proof vests that underperformed at less than subject to ageing mechanisms that half the guaranteed service life. significantly degrade the fiber strength. Environmental conditions that promote As a structural material there is little degradation, degradation rates, interaction industrial experience with PBO fibers in between the degradation mechanisms, all general and PBO ropes in particular. must be well understood to implement Reliable use for critical strength components measures that delay/eliminate damage and to requires that a guaranteed minimum strength assess the damage that is accumulated threshold can be established that takes all during fabrication, storage, and service life degradation effects into account. Such a exposure. Scrupulous accounting of strength threshold is used by the designer to exposure conditions and exposure times qualify the design. In the case of a well- must be implemented from fiber drawing to designed pumpkin-shape super-pressure decommissioning of the service product, and balloon, the tendon is nearly uniformly must be supplemented by testing at least up loaded over its entire length. For the ULDB to the end of manufacture of the service pumpkin shape super-pressure balloon with product. That this has not been done, at expectations of at most one failure in a fleet least not been done consistently, has been of 100 balloons, this means that at most one recently brought to the attention of the substandard strength location per 4,500,000

Article Designation: Scholarly 10 JTATM Volume 3, Issue 4,Winter 2004 m of rope is allowed. (Currently, ULDB has Anti UV Treatments 290 tendons that are each about 160 m in length.) And this must be guaranteed with Different approaches have been chosen for an acceptable high level of confidence. Any making the fibers UV resistant: acceptance testing is performed well before the end of service life. Therefore reliable 1. Self polymerizing: This includes predictive rules for projection of end of finishes with suitable chemical service life strength from a known earlier structure to allow their application state must be available, exposure during from a water base, and then dried storage, transportation, and in service and cured at a temperature range of conditions must be conservatively estimated 120-1300 C. This should form a thin and actual exposure must be scrupulously layer with high UV absorption. The tracked. chemistry of such finishes would not allow interaction with the fiber. Fiber Protection to Improve Performance Approximately 80% by weight of the added chemical will be an active The critical issue to be addressed is: “Can a UV absorber. This chemical can be lightweight, flexible coating be developed to applied to any substrate and will not protect the fibers from UV degradation?” encapsulate the entire bundle; rather The objective would be to design a coating, it will encapsulate individual which can be applied to the surface of the filaments when applied to a yarn. fiber and would provide a high level of The total add-on should be about protection against the negative impact of UV 1%-2%. exposure for a 100-day period. The coating should be non-migrating and possess a high 2. Diffusion Application: This type of level of coverage uniformity so as to finish is similar in action to disperse minimize the potential of damage to dyes in polyester. Surface-applied unprotected areas on the tendon. Along with UV absorbers would diffuse into the protecting the fiber, some attention has to be fiber structure. This technique is paid to secondary performance issues used in the automotive industry to including: achieve higher light fastness.

Will the coating be stable under the near 3. Polymer filled with 30-40% UV space conditions to which the fiber will absorber: - This is silicone or be exposed? acrylate filled with UV absorber.

Will the coating impact the frictional 4. Combination of dyeing and surface behavior of the fibers (fiber/metal and application. fiber/fiber friction)? The application technique used for tire cord To what extent is the surface coating treatment technology, which benefits from susceptible to abrasion damage? low penetration with the yarn bundle, could be employed in order to keep stiffness low Does the coating process impact any and retain reasonable abrasion resistance. other critical fiber performance property? Another approach comes from the cosmetics industry and sunscreen development. Use of The aim is to stabilize the high strength high-load, small particle size ZnO in the sub fibers without creating other problems that micron range results in a clear coating slow down the development of the program. without light scattering. A reactive

Article Designation: Scholarly 11 JTATM Volume 3, Issue 4,Winter 2004 silicone/acrylate binder system to hold the and the two film layers. The fabric of that particles in place is needed. test balloon was more than twice as strong as the PE film of the current ULDB design It is also suggested that a fluorescing agent scheme. The hurdles to overcome for the be incorporated into finishes to judge the impregnated fabric is making it application quality in terms of finish impermeable to helium and finding reliable application uniformity around and along ways for gore seam construction. filaments since the cost of failure is high; therefore a reasonable effort should be made CONCLUSION to ensure quality. This should help establishing a quality control procedure The Balloon Program Office (BPO) since non-uniform finish applications on the provides support for scientific investigations yarn/filaments may lead to spots that are sponsored by the NASA Office of Space vulnerable to UV- a matter that may cause Science. The BPO has entered a new phase weak spots and failure of the yarn and, of research to develop an Ultra Long hence, the braided cords. Duration Balloon (ULDB) that will lift payloads of up to 3,600 kg to altitudes of up Solving One of the Technological to 40 km. The flight duration is targeted to Hurdles, Introducing Another ranges between 30 to 100 days. Attaining these target durations requires the The current ULDB concept uses a nominally development of a super-pressure balloon 38 µm thick linear low density tri-laminate design. The use of textile structures have PE film. Polyethylene balloon film is a already been established in these missions in preferred pneumatic envelope material for the form of either the PE film in the ULDB stratospheric balloons because it remains or the high strength fibers in the load ductile down to the lowest temperatures tendons. To improve the mission encountered in the stratosphere. Its low cost performance, new lightweight textile and heat sealing characteristics, which is a structures with protective UV treatment relatively fast and cheap process makes it need to be developed. NASA and NC State highly desirable for these giant structures. University College of Textiles are Current performance specifications would undertaking a research program to address be satisfied with a 290-gore balloon. Should these issues. Our next publications will deal it turn out that the need for robust with understanding the mechanism of UV deployment of the balloon into the design degradation of high performance fibers and configuration at float places an upper identifying finishes and methods of finishes threshold on the design that is less than 290 applications that will reduce/eliminate such gores, then one possible alternative is using degradation. a lightweight composite textile structure that is made impervious to the lifting gas by impregnation with a suitable matrix REFERENCES material. One small test balloon with 134 gores and a fabric film composite has been 1. Justin H. Smalley "Development of flown. The skin of that test balloon was a the E-Balloon", National Center for composite made of polyester fabric as a load Atmospheric Research, Boulder carrier, laminated with adhesive to two Colorado, June 1970. layers of film. These films, a polyester film 2. M. Rougeron, "Up To Date CNES and a polyethylene film serve to improve the Balloon Studies", Centre Special de stability and barrier properties of the Toulouse, ca. 1978. structure. Much of the weight and costs of 3. N. Yajima, “A New Design And that composite that made it unattractive for Fabrication Approach For Pressurized ULDB were associated with the adhesive Balloon”, COSPAR 1998.

Article Designation: Scholarly 12 JTATM Volume 3, Issue 4,Winter 2004 4. Willi W. Schur, “Analysis Of Load 10. www.spectrafiber.com Tape Constrained Pneumatic 11. Kent. A. James (Editor), “Riegel’s Envelopes,” 40th Handbook Of Industrial Chemistry,” AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC 10th ed., Kluwer Academic/Plenum Structures, Structural Dynamics and Publishers, New York 2003. Materials Conference and Exhibit, St. Louis, MO, April 1999 12. www.vectranfiber.com 5. www.toyobo.co.jp/e/seihin/kc/pbo/ 13. Dallas Morning News, TX, Oct. 22, 2003 6. http://www.mat.usp.ac.jp/polymer- th composite/30 -yamashita.pdf 14. Fox News, Oct. 20, 2003

7. Yang, H. H., “Aromatic High 15. Pittsburgh Post Gazette, PA, Oct. Strength Fibers,” New York, J. Wiley, 18, 2003 c1989. 16. Montana Forum, MT, Oct. 1, 2003 8. http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/ar amid.htm 9. www.dupont.com/kevlar

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