ISFM Orlando 2009: “Best Practices in Frontier Mission” Religious Conversion in Hindu India: The Complicated Case of Manilal C. Parekh by Parimal Roy
Introduction indu seekers in India who are attracted by Christ question the need for conversion to become Christians. The nuance here has little to Hdo with “turning” to Christ and much to do with what conversion means. There is something about conversion that causes Hindus, particularly upper caste Hindus, to maintain a safe distance from Christianity. Certainly there are already upper caste adherents to Christ in the Indian context who have tasted God’s power to heal and perform miracles in their lives in the name Editor’s Note: A version of this paper of Jesus Christ and who, for various reasons, do not wish to associate with was originally presented by Parimal Christian churches. One such Hindu was Manilal C. Parekh (1885-1967). We Roy at the 2009 Orlando meeting of the International Society for Frontier will briefly consider his life in the pages that follow. Missiology, September 17, 2009. H. L. Richard (president of the Parekh’s Brief Biography Rethinking Forum and researcher on Manilal Parekh has left us an account of his life both in English and in Gujarati. South Asian culture and religion) gave The English language autobiography is a brief sketch while the Gujarati account the response (pp. 171-73), which was 1 followed by a question and answer is fairly comprehensive. He was born in 1885, in Rajkot, Gujarat. His family session (pp. 173-74) during which both religion was Jainism but his father had adopted Vaishnavism. It is interesting to Roy and Richard took part. note that an atheistic Jainism and a personalist, theistic Vaishnavite tradition not Parimal Roy is currently a doctoral only coexisted but remained part of their family religiosity. Their upbringing student at Fuller Theological Seminary. was in more of an eclectic popular religiosity. He also provides pastoral leadership at the Church of India, Alhambra. He Early influences on his life included his reading ofThe Use of Life by Lord was an associate professor at Leonard Avebury and The Imitation of Christ when he was fifteen. The former awakened Theological College, Jabalpur in his moral hunger and the latter, his spiritual hunger. He was introduced to K. India. He was also involved with evangelism among students as well C. Sen through Sen’s writings. Sen influenced Parekh significantly. Sen was a as in grass-root social organizations. reformer and a renowned leader of the Brahmo Samaj, who “made it the mis- His interest in conversion has led sion of his life to harmonise all the religions of the world, and he made this syn- to his study of Manilal Parekh and c Christian Proselytism in India. His thesis Christo-centric.”2 Parekh was widely read. Reading Cardinal Newman, publications include A Bibliography he felt the need for “certitude in my faith. The Brahma Samaj was too subjec- of Original Christian Writings in tive in its faith and belief.”3 India in Gujarati (Bangalore, SSC, 1991), as well as articles in the Global Parekh did not enjoy good health. But these bouts of illness became times for Dictionary of Theology, Dictionary of South Asian Christianity, and in drawing closer to God. During one such bout, he read the entire Bible. He also popular periodicals. read a book in Gujarati about Swami Narayana (1781-1830),4 a great exponent International Journal of Frontier Missiology 26:4 Winter 2009•165 166 Religious Conversion in Hindu India: The Complicated Case of Manilal C. Parekh of Vaishnavism. Both readings con- Discipleship to Christ and critiqued Keshub Chunder Sen, whom verged on the truth of incarnation for Christocentric Theism he highly respected, because Sen opted the redemption of humanity, something In 1918 he embraced Christianity and out of “Hinduism” as a religion when that Brahmo Samaj did not teach. was baptized in an Anglican Church in the Brahmo Samaj Marriage Act was 8 Parekh, an original thinker and a Bombay. For about a year he remained enacted in 1872. He preferred the dis- maverick spiritual seeker, was enthused an active member but soon began to be ciples of Christ to remain in their own not so much with the political side of disillusioned by the westernized and community and witness while totally nationalistic fervor as with the deep materialistic attitude of the church. rejecting mass conversion as prosely- 9 spiritual thirst for lasting peace of He severed all ties with the churches tism. Even as a Christian, he believed heart within oriental religious tradi- and missions, but remained commit- that Christianity should remain moksh tions. His spiritual journey led him ted to Jesus Christ. He called himself a dharma (a salvific and a spiritual reli- from atheistic religion to personal “Hindu disciple of Christ” and desired gion) rather than samaj dharma (a social theism, on to incarnational theism to establish a “Hindu Church of religion). He advocated caste separation and ultimately to samanvaya (a spiri- Christ.” He gave his home in Rajkot a and approved of the social segregation tual harmony) of theistic religions. new name: “Oriental Christ House.”6 of races in the U.S. that he had seen 10 Parekh knew Mahatma Gandhi but during his visit. parted from many of his ways. Like Baptism as Discipleship Gandhi, Parekh mulled over the idea In 1924, Parekh wrote an article of swadharmagraha (“insistence on the in which he discussed the spiritual religion of one’s birth”). He called it Parekh was significance and value of baptism. He Hindu swadharmagraha and differed attracted by the had severe criticism for the church. from Gandhi in that he sought to He believed that the church of his create a kind of eclectic religion. “In my world renouncing times had become Westernized and “Hindu swadharmagraha” a large place aspects of materialistic. It had become a com- was given to Christ, and to “prophets” munal body that was more political from outside India—not, however, as the Gospels. and social than spiritual. Culturally it the prophets of foreign religions, but was anti-national. The church had lost as God’s own messengers.”5 While its identity as “Christian.” In fact, he Gandhi directed his apologetic against expressed his desire to start a Hindu claims made for Christianity as a mor- Parekh was attracted by the world Church of Christ, but refrained when ally superior religion that could help renouncing elements in the Gospels, he learned that some Christians were improve national life (he was interested that discipleship to Christ is a path of attempting to do just that and decided in keeping Christianity away), Parekh renunciation and selflessness in the instead to become a part of it.11 was actually bringing together the service of others. Christian disciple- He applied the term “Christendom” spiritual wealth of Christianity and ship is not so much performing rituals to describe the characteristics of the other such theistic religions together as following Christ. This emphasis Christian community and the church while insisting on remaining a Hindu. on Christ led him eventually to reject (which for him are one and the He retreated from politics and did not historical Christianity, the local church, same), which were then expanding use religion for political or material and western lifestyles that were associ- all over the world. The “Christendom ends. He desired spiritual meaning in ated with becoming a Christian. He saw mentality” fueled the superiority of life and in his spiritual thirst explored no need to separate himself from Hindu Christianity (in its Western form) over various religions but did not think society. He remained a Hindu and everything native in the Indian con- them to be samabhava (of equal value worked for the uplift of the depressed text. It despised the religious, socio- or worthy of equal respect). He rejected classes. He was perhaps one of the few cultural, and political arrangements atheistic and monistic religions and to interact with the Harijan (literally, within India. In Parekh’s words, sought samanvaya (a spiritual harmony) people of god, a name Gandhi gave of theistic religions. Finally, he got bap- to the depressed class people), even It has come to mean absolute sever- tized and declared himself a disciple of eating with them and worshiping with ance from one’s own community, Jesus Christ. He did not leave cultural them, while believing the preserva- from one’s own birth and kin, from Hinduism and transcended culture and tion of caste differences.7 For Parekh, one’s national, cultural and even spiri- tual heritage, all of which are very society in his spiritual quest to address the term “Hindu” denoted more than often nearer to the Spirit of Christ deeper issues of life. In his spiritual a religious affiliation. A “Hindu” was wanderings he tasted water from than the so-called Christendom of the anyone who subscribed to Indian Christian community in India.12 many rivers. cultural heritage. In this, he candidly
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Parimal Roy 167 He thought that Christianity had e felt that baptism was needed, but the practice mixed with “absolutely unessential and even anti-Christian elements.” He needed to be clipped of its unnecessary ritual identified them as “western civiliza- accumulations. tion, European culture and foreign 13 H imperialism.” The church in India of pressure from the dominant Hindu and a privilege from Christ to reveal at the time of Parekh, the church that community by accommodating to its the name of Christ. In this respect, he Parekh knew, stood condemned in his socio-cultural surroundings without felt that baptism itself was needed, but eyes and in the eyes of some of his con- giving up the faith.14 Unlike Buddhism the practice needed to be clipped of the temporaries as a compromised entity. in India, which eventually would unnecessary ritual accumulations. The church wore Western garb. Like an become an expanding missionary alien potted plant, it had been planted religion throughout much of the Far Baptism and Christendom in Indian soil. It had compromised with East, the church in India during those Mentality Western culture and remained a stum- first fifteen centuries failed to spread What connection did he see between bling block for many high caste Hindus. the gospel beyond its own insular com- imperialism and the Hindu disciples The church would need to change munity, caste providing a cohesive and not desiring baptism in the Christian before Hindu disciples would agree to cementing force. Could evangelism church? Parekh thought the answer come in or before the church could ask have scattered Christians by attract- laid in the development of what would them to come in. The result was that ing persecution? Could persecution be called a Christendom mindset. some Hindu disciples of Christ hesi- have been an acceptable option for the In the West, Christendom gave rise tated to enter the church or become a insulated minority Christian commu- to cultural Christianity, a form of member and therefore hesitated to take nity in southern India? By taming the Christianity where to be a Westerner baptism. Some Indian Christian lead- gospel under caste practice (which held and European meant to be a Christian. ers argued that baptism should not be powerful sway in social relations with Church membership was taken for required of these Hindu disciples, while cultural and religious significance), granted. In such a situation baptism others thought that baptism should be did that early Christian community was reduced to a ceremony of naming, done away with altogether. in India succumb to some form of and had little spiritual significance. What would it have looked like had the Christendom mentality? The important thing was to bring church or Christian faith directly come people into the circle of faith, by faith from Jerusalem to India without going Baptism as Confession or by force. Bosch identifies this kind the route of the West? How would it Parekh suggested that baptism was of mindset in the medieval paradigm have felt if India had experienced God vital to Christian faith, for Christ of missionary practice, where the oper- directly, without God being chan- commanded it. It is a sign of a public ative scriptural text was Luke 14:23, 18 neled through Western conceptual testimony and therefore integral to “and compel them to come in.” spiritual life. “Baptism is the most conduits? Of course, India did receive Speaking in his own times and unequivocal and open confession of Christianity from the beginning of the situation, Parekh opined that, the discipleship of Christ, if nothing Christian faith, but the community “Already European and American more on the spiritual side be granted that grew from that time on continued Christendom has discredited on its behalf.”15 to thrive without noticeably making Christianity with its mutual wran- any further disciples. It is believed that Parekh’s own spiritual experience at the glings, economic and imperial expan- St. Thomas evangelized the people time of his baptism is worth recalling sions and exploitation, and wars on a who eventually came to recognize the here. He said that he was given, as if world wide scale.”19 Could Parekh’s Syrian Patriarchate and called them- by “a flash of revelation from God” the perception be wrong? Generally selves Syrian Christians. The growth adhikar (“authority,” “power,” “creden- speaking, the perception Parekh held of that community down through tial,” “privilege”) to reveal, to preach, is a representative Hindu perception. the centuries was more biological and to confess the name of Christ, and to nuptial than spiritual. It lacked zeal make prophetic pronouncement by the True Discipleship in spreading the gospel. By accom- authority of Christ “only an hour after Disciples of Christ should remain modating caste practices, the Christian his baptism.”16 He continued, “Hence in their own community, professing community in India in the early true baptism makes the disciple of Christ and accepting persecution in the centuries of the common era could Christ at once a shishya (a disciple), name of Christ, if that were their lot. remain a close-knit community within an acharya (a priest, a teacher) and a Such steadfastness, Parekh calls true a closed and bounded set of relation- prophet.”17 Baptism is an authority from Satyagrahi (in the nationalist move- ships. Eventually, it survived centuries Christ to confess the name of Christ ment satyagraha had the connotation
26:4 Winter 2009 168 Religious Conversion in Hindu India: The Complicated Case of Manilal C. Parekh of “protest,” but in its literal sense it not a rite of entering into the church. religion of personal theism” or “a reli- means the demand for truth to prevail). It reflected in the fact that his asso- gion of mystical devotion.” Christianity This would bring credibility to faith ciation with the church did not last was simply a part of this new spiri- in Christ. Given sufficient time, such long. His critical attitude kept him tual harmony or synthesis—part of opposition might cease and Hindus away from the church for a long time. samanvaya, a harmony of all theistic would be positively impacted. Even He was thus deprived of Christian religions. He once again changed though no one else in his family was fellowship. The cause of his negative the name of his house to “House of baptized, Parekh himself continued and attitude toward the missionary work Harmony.” Harmony for him did not practiced discipleship to Christ.20 of conversion made him a contro- mean equality of all religions. He versial figure among missionaries believed that truth matters and it is Parekh criticized the practice of 23 24 extracting converts into a distinct and the Indian Christians, yet he found in his Bhagavata Dharma. community, as that seemed to create remained a significant thinker in the His new religion was organized around a new caste. He felt that even if Christian community. a personalist strand of religious beliefs. the community was not willing to Parekh’s significant departure from the It had Christian flavor but was not retain converts, they should not close church raised the issue of the neces- exclusively or even largely centered doors of relationship from their side. on Christ. Attracted to the Swami Converts, as disciples, should act out Narayana sect, he found in their satsang of love for Christ toward the commu- (fellowship, communal worship) a meet- nity to which they belonged. Converts He did not mind ing point of people of different cultic who cross over to Christianity and if converts did not and religious convictions that did not adopt a Western lifestyle, create violate their caste affiliations, or require prejudice against Christianity in the worship idols or keep them to give up their social ties.25 minds of Hindus. He did not mind if caste, but they should be He recognized that the bhakti (devo- converts did not worship idols or keep tion) movement on the Indian caste, but they should be culturally culturally sensitive to 21 subcontinent had had a mellowing sensitive to Hindus. Hindus. effect on that region’s rigid socio- Resentment against religious sphere. The Bhakti strand Conversion and Church: of Hindu religion was based on Vishishtadvaitavad (a philosophy of The Menace of Proselytism sity of the local church for conversion qualified/modified non-duality), one Are conversion and proselytism the to Christ. Parekh realized the need of the highest Indian philosophical sys- same? Parekh gives a useful distinction for spiritual fellowship and desired a tems. This highest of religious streams between the two. He says, Hindu church of Christ, culturally watered the parched souls of the lowli- whereas the former (proselytism) leads accommodating to Hindu culture. The est of the lowly. The Bhakti movement to the growth and development of a established church was unable to offer was in some sense a protest against distinct social and political community, that even though it may have experi- discrimination and the hierarchy of the latter (conversion) emphasizes mented with accommodating aspects the caste structure. It sought to level chiefly the spiritual aspects of life and of Christian faith to Hindu culture people of all castes and classes and bind helps in establishing the Kingdom of here and there. The failure of the everyone into one common human fra- Heaven which does not lie in eating, established church to provide cultural ternity.26 Bhakti in some ways bridged drinking and marrying but in Christ- continuity has led many converts today Christian mysticism and Vaishnavism, like life, love and service.22 to refuse to join a local church because but his earlier experience with rejecting Parekh rejected proselytism as a it does not witness to Christ in their Brahmo Samaj and leaving historical means for Christianity to grow in language. For them conversion means Christianity led him to conclude that India. In fact, he termed it “a great commitment to Christ and not to a conversion to Christianity is unnec- and growing menace.” Parekh saw visible church. essary since it entails “exclusiveness every conversion involving material and communalism.”27 benefit to the convert as an act of Formation of Harmony of proselytism. He saw the mass move- All Religions: The Bhagwat Must Conversion Involve ment to Christianity as proselytism. Dharma Severing Relations? Mass movements simply gave numeri- His spiritual journey took a new turn In the Indian context it is customary to cal growth to Christianity. Parekh with his study of Zoroastrianism. hear of conversion stories in which con- made his intentions clear at the time That study sowed the seeds of what he verts either choose to leave the commu- of his baptism. Baptism for him was came to call the Bhagavata Dharma “a nity they belong to and sever their ties
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Parimal Roy 169 with their communities or the com- munity excommunicates the person hile he favored spiritual conversion, who has left them. But when a caste he wanted social and religious ties left group converted there was more sup- port for the converts. Caste provided undisturbed. social cohesiveness among caste groups W mind. Even food habits would be when it involves non-idol worship and that was seen as helpful to Christian affected, let alone the dressing and not sacrificing to idols. faith. As Forrester reports “caste keeps grooming, and the rest. the converts in the church.”28 Three It seems that Parekh was moving advantages can be noted. One, caste Conversion in the Indian context has in the direction of emphasizing the saves a convert from “social disloca- raised the question of what converts spiritual benefits of following Christ tion.” Two, it provides a more “compel- bring of their former religious-cultural as opposed to the materialism of ling testimony.” Three, it preserves affiliation to Christianity. The danger Christendom and the communalism indigenous practices rather than of syncretism exists but it should not of Hindu people. He wanted to lose “denationalize” a convert. Its absence be overstated. If Hindu converts find himself in the spiritual bhakti (ecstatic is felt as an impediment to the higher it meaningful to speak of Christ and devotion) of Christ in the early years caste groups embracing Christianity. to articulate their faith in familiar lan- of conversion, but slowly veered off Conversion may easily proceed if the guage and terminology, and to practice toward a theistic eclecticism of his whole caste were to accept the new their devotion with familiar forms Bhagwat dharma. faith.29 It was the experience of the and gestures, then Christian praxis church and the missionaries in the must make that accommodation on Conclusion nineteenth and twentieth centuries grounds not just practical but theologi- The case study on the life of Parekh that many more Indians were attracted cal. Incarnation is a strong paradigm to has shown us many valuable insights to Christianity than were actually con- consider in favor of accommodation. into the church’s evangelistic and missionary work. His venture into verted. What potential converts feared It is interesting to note that, when Christianity was due to his attraction most was excommunication from their Parekh embarked on his spiritual to Christ. Charges of “forced conver- caste.30 In other words, this means the journey and his path took him away sion,” “disloyalty,” “lack of patrio- fear of caste can keep converts away from the roots in his own religion, he tism,” and “de-nationalization” are from Christianity. was neither excommunicated from his not brought up in reference to Parekh. caste or religion nor did he choose to Why is there resistance to conversion Positively, there is much for a con- sever ties with his birth community. in India from high caste Hindus? vert to gain in remaining connected Parekh was highly sensitive to Indian Why are there so few conversions with his own community. So long culture and the riches it had to offer from high caste or upper caste Hindus as his life was centered on Christ, to Christian faith. He enjoyed the in India? The answer could be mani- he generated a fascinating conflu- support of his community throughout fold. Culturally, they wish to cling on ence of Hindu and Christian strands his spiritual journey, as he moved from to traditional customs and mores of attractive to Hindus and Christians one religious group to another. He the Hindu culture. They do not wish alike, and in this he stood within the recognized that (change to leave the way of living, thinking, dharmantar tradition of Hindu-Christianity. It of religion) was after all unnecessary, and relating as was practiced by their is to the credit of Christian leaders and the reasons he pointed to were its ancestors. Such sentiments are noble, and missionaries that they supported exclusiveness and communalism. Thus when it has to offer the highest in Parekh in this venture and journeyed while he favored spiritual conversion, humankind. But culture cannot be with him in his discipleship to the he wanted social and religious ties left made absolute. Each culture has its Lord Jesus Christ. Sadly, his leaning undisturbed. In the Indian context it own flaws. Cultural practices that are away from the centrality of Christ (a meant not upsetting caste organization. less than humane, if not inhumane, judgment that is made here hesitantly) By articulating his praxis of baptism as must be given up for more humani- and his isolation from the Christian discipleship to Christ, he showed that tarian concerns. Child marriage and community contributed to his being baptism might not involve a change the plight of widows, including the neglected by the Christians of his of religion, a severing of social ties, or immolation of a deceased’s wife on time. The pastoral care of those who neglect of cultural mores. Hindus can the funeral pyre, were some major are turning to Christ is of utmost be better Hindus by following Christ concerns that would be culturally importance in Christian nurture. addressed in the light of Christian in their cultural environment. The plu- faith. However, there was fear that rality of Hindu tradition would be able Parekh was a man of free spirit and conversion would entail day-to-day to absorb Christ followers with their did not find it easy to be confined practices that were alien to the Indian distinct patterns of worship, especially within a particular framework, be it 26:4 Winter 2009 170 Religious Conversion in Hindu India: The Complicated Case of Manilal C. Parekh denominational churches, Western here between Parekh’s spiritual vision of the References Cited Christianity, or other religious tradi- Bhagwat dharma and the life and teachings Bosch, David J. tions. He broke free from all that of Swami Narayana. Sri Swami Narayana 1991 Transforming Mission: Paradigm asphyxiated his spirit. He was not (A Gospel of Bhagwat Dharma or God in Shifts in Theology of Mission. Redemptive Action) (Rajkot, Sri Bhag- American Society of Missiology afraid to examine the spiritual sources wat Dharma Mission House [Harmony Series, No.16. Maryknoll, NY: that might feed his soul or to experi- House], 1936) xvii+350pp+index) Orbis Books. ment with spiritual eclecticism. 5 Parekh, Autobiography, 201. Boyd, Robin H. S. 6 1975 An Introduction to Indian Christian Parekh’s interpretation of his baptism Ibid., 4-5. 7 Ibid., 393-395. Theology. Delhi. Indian Society for as discipleship to Christ may pave the Promoting Christian Knowledge 8 M. C. Parekh, The Brahma Samaj: A and Indian Theological Library, way for understanding and respond- Short History (Rajkot: The Author, Orien- ing to conversion from Hinduism to Trivandrum. tal Christ House, 1929), 109-111. Copley, Antony. Christianity in our time. “Discipleship 9 Parekh, Autobiography, 452f. 1997 10 Religions in Conflict: Ideology, to Christ” transcends cultural and Ibid., 14. Cultural Contact and Conversion 11 legal bindings that attach to terms Parekh, “An Autobiographical In Late Colonial India. New like “conversion” and “becoming a Sketch,” 26. Delhi: Oxford University Press. 12 Christian” in an environment that is Parekh, “The spiritual significance Forrester, Duncan B. and value of baptism,” National Christian charged with hostility towards certain 1980 Caste and Christianity: Attitude Council Review, (September 1924), 324- and Policies on Caste of Anglo- forms of Christianity. It is hoped that 329 in Robin H. S. Boyd, (ed.) Manilal C. Saxon Protestant Missions in a deeper study into the life of Parekh Parekh 1885-1967 and Dhanjibhai Fakirbhai India. London and Dublin: would bring out much that is relevant 1895-1967 (Bangalore: The Christian Curzon Press Ltd. in learning about how best to minister Literature Society for the Department Stauffer, Milton (ed.) to Hindu disciples of Christ. of Research and Post-Graduate Studies, 1928 The Indian Approach to India. United Theological College, 1974). London: SMC. Parekh has pointed to the need for 13 Parekh, “The spiritual signifi- Parekh, M. C. cultural continuity in the church along cance,” 57. 1928 The Indian Approach to India, the lines of a national Hindu church. 14 Duncan B. Forrester, Caste and London: SCM. How it would be received in times like Christianity: Attitudes and Policies on Caste 1929 The Brahma Samaj: A Short History. Rajkot: The Author, of Anglo-Saxon Protestant Missions in India ours when identities are more set than Oriental Christ House. before remains to be seen. Perhaps (London: Curzon Press, 1979), 12, 14. 1936 Sri Swami Narayana (A Gospel 15 Hindu disciples of Christ would create Parekh, “The spiritual signifi- of Bhagwat Dharma or God in cance,” 57. new forms of being the church and in Redemptive Action). Rajkot, 16 Ibid., 58 Sri Bhagwat Dharma Mission that the established churches would 17 Ibid. House [Harmony House]. have to be more open, receptive and 18 David J. Bosch, Transforming Mis- 1947 Christian Proselytism in India—A supportive. IJFM sion: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission. Great and Growing Menace. American Society of Missiology Series, Rajkot: The Author, Harmony Endnotes No.16 (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, House. 1963 Ek Bhagwatni Atmakatha: 1 1991), 236. M. C. Parekh, “An Autobiographi- Bhagwatkrupana Samsmarano 19 Parekh, “The spiritual signifi- cal Sketch,” in Robin H. S. Boyd, (ed.) (Autobiography of a Bhagavata: Manilal C. Parekh 1885-1967 and Dhan- cance,” 59. Shri 20 Reminiscence of God’s Grace). jibhai Fakirbhai 1895-1967 (Bangalore: Ibid., 60. Bhagwatdharma Mission Series. The Christian Literature Society for the 21 Ibid. Rajkot: Bhagwatdharma Mission Department of Research and Post-Grad- 22 Ibid., 58. House. uate Studies, United Theological College, 23 M. C. Parekh, Christian Proselytism 1974 “An Autobiographical Sketch,” 1974), 22-31. As well as, M. C. Parekh Ek in India—A Great and Growing Menace in Robin H. S. Boyd, (ed.) Bhagwatni Atmakatha: Bhagwatkrupana (Rajkot: The Author, Harmony House, Manilal C. Parekh 1885-1967 Samsmarano (Autobiography of a Bhagavata: 1947). and Dhanjibhai Fakirbhai Reminiscence of God’s Grace). Shri Bhagwat- 24 Boyd, Introduction, 7. 1895-1967. Bangalore: The 25 Christian Literature Society for dharma Mission Series (Rajkot: Bhagwat- Ibid., 6 and 14. the Department of Research and 26 Milton Stauffer, ed., The Indian dharma Mission House, 1963). iv + 472. Post-Graduate Studies, United (London: SCM, 1928). Hereafter, Parekh, Autobiography. Approach to India Theological College. 2 Parekh, “An Autobiographical 27 Boyd, Introduction, 10. Sketch,” 24. 28 Forrester, Caste and Christianity, 16 3 Ibid., 25. 29 Ibid., 16-17. 4 Parekh wrote a very favorable biogra- 30 Antony Copley, Religions in Con- phy of Sri Swami Narayana in English and flict: Ideology, Cultural Contact and Conver- subtitled it A Gospel of Bhagwat Dharma. sion in Late Colonial India. New Delhi: One can see the spiritual affinity that flows Oxford University Press, 1997, 54.
International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard (Respondent) 171 H. L. Richard’s Response to Parimal Roy’s her father, she said “No, no. That is simply not true.” So Religious Conversion in Hindu India: these are sad stories and bad stories. Parimal mentioned Brahmabandhab Upadhyay (which is an almost unpro- The Complicated Case of Manilal C. Parekh nounceable name for Americans), another absolutely ome of you are probably thinking, “This doesn’t fascinating story. I don’t know if Rick Brown is still here, seem to be adding up. This is supposed to be about he made some of those linguistics things sound so easy the S best practices, so what was the best practice in that other day. This guy wrote a song to Christ which is “Jaya presentation?” And the answer to that is, we don’t really deva jaya deva narahari.” Jaya is praise, deva is ‘god’, nara have any “best practices” in the Hindu world. I think about is ‘man’, hari is ‘god’. “Praise to god, the man-god.” That’s what Brad shared in introducing last night, that 30 or 40 very nice in that translation. The only problem is, the word years ago there were ideas, and probings and dreams, but he is using for God is hari. If you ask any Hindu what is
What are we going to do about these things? This is not an isolated study of one man who went through this kind of struggle. It’s a terrible, tragic story. there was no data in the Islamic world. Now there is data, the meaning of the word hari, it is ‘god’, but if you ask who is now there are movements, now there are best practices hari, it is Vishnu or Krishna. That term is so overwhelmingly studies. That does not exist in the Hindu world. One of associated with Vishnu/Krishna. This guy had the linguistic the things that has struck me in my fringe contact with boldness to apply that name and other names of Krishna to the discussions and debates in the Islamic world is that we Christ. That song is sung on the latest album of Aradhna. If now have Muslim-friendly Bible translations, and more- any of you are into contextual music I’m sure you are familiar Muslim-friendly Bible translations, and some hot feelings with Aradhna. It’s the main song on this album and the between those two camps. How many Hindu friendly Bible words and translation are in this package [held up on dis- translations are there in the world? Zero. How many are in play] if you are interested in these kinds of things. They went process? Only one that I know of. to the India Missions Association and said “We are afraid To me that is the response to Manilal Parekh. What are of the response from Indian Christians if we sing Jaya deva we going to do about these things? This is not an isolated narahari. Will you give us permission, give us your blessing?” study of one man who went through this kind of struggle. And they said, “Yes, you have our blessing, you can sing It’s a terrible, tragic story. I went out over a decade ago to that song.” These things are complicated and difficult. This Rajkot, to his home place, to try to find his descendants, man, Brahmabandhab Upadhyay, died as a Hindu and was and found two granddaughters (and their mother, who cremated as a Hindu. He was Roman Catholic, and he later was very aged and didn’t know any English, so I didn’t was re-evaluated by Roman Catholics, why he went through relate to her). And probing what they remembered, when I the kinds of things that Manilal Parekh also went through. told them the story of how their grandfather was baptized Subba Rao, who just died in 1982 in Andhra Pradesh, was and was a significant Christian leader for some decades, anti-Christian, anti-church, anti-baptism, anti-priests and they said, “No, no, no, that is not true, you don’t under- pastors in particular, and he was a lover of Christ. That stand.” And there was no way for me to correct them; they sounds impossible. You read the book; there are so many understood their side of the story and didn’t understand the contradictions in this guy’s life and thoughts that by the truth. A terrible tragedy as far as I am concerned. end you will marvel how it would be possible for such a That was not even the first time I had met that kind of strange guy to have lived. But he influenced hundreds and situation. I once located the sister-in-law of the famous thousands; I think probably the most effective evangelist sitarist Sri Ravi Shankar. Her husband, Uday Shankar, among “clean” caste Hindus in the 20th century was this was a famous classical dance artist in India, for some time guy. He would not organize any church or institute any more famous than his younger brother Ravi Shankar. This sacraments, he had a very low view of the Bible. He was woman’s father was a disciple of Jesus, and not a semi- challenged, “Why don’t you read the Bible more?” He said, backslidden one the way Manilal Parekh was. He became “I went to college, I read those books. I don’t keep read- more bold in his profession of Christ in his later years. ing those books over and over again.” Sometimes when he But when I tried to tell her the story about the baptism of “quoted” the Bible his “quotes” were really off base. So this
26:4 Winter 2009 172 Response to Religious Conversion in Hindu India is a big problem, not something that I am recommending. and Buddhist worlds and there’s not a cloud in the sky. But why do we have these problems? Which is where we were in the Muslim world 40, 50 Let me get away from the unorthodox guys and quote years ago. There was not a cloud in the sky. Considering N. V. Tilak instead. N. V. Tilak, who died in 1919, wrote the Hindu world, if you get to the right place and you this (marked “most confidential”) to a close friend. look far enough out you can see a cloud the size of a man’s hand. Does that mean that the showers are going I am really tired of missions and missionaries. These with their to come in the Hindu and Buddhist worlds? I don’t agents form an institution which is day by day degenerating. They are guided by selfish motives, they are slaves to self- know; surely only with a massive amount of energy. sufficiency, pride and the world. Excepting those who join the You look at what has happened in the Muslim world flock and live in and for worldly motives, no other person can the last 30 years, the people, the time, the energy, the do anything for their country as long as they depend on these lives laid down. Dare we think something can happen
If you get to the right place and you look far enough out you can see a cloud the size of a man’s hand. Does that mean that the showers are going to come . . .?
petty lords and their satellites. There is no end to their under- in the Hindu and Buddhist worlds without that kind of hand dealings, there is no end to their dependence on their commitment? I think it’s just as likely that that cloud is flatterers. I am educating my wife so that I may one day be going to dissipate as any likelihood that it’s a sign that free of this missionary-Christianity, missionary injustice, and serve my country and lead her to Jesus just as he guides me. the showers are going to fall in the Hindu and Buddhist worlds. I just appeal to you that we have to start to deal And here’s the punch line to me: “Missionaries and mis- with these issues and wrestle with these issues. sion agents can never do more than what money can do.”1 Money can do a lot, and money can do a lot of good. But I I’m sure that all of you are committed and engaged think the kingdom of God really begins where the power people, but as you meet new people coming up looking of the dollar ends. for a challenge, where is the challenge? There are still a thousand challenges in the Muslim world, there’s no So what do we do in the Hindu world? I think John way to downplay that, and in the tribal world, and in Ridgway has given suggestions, and Manilal has given the Christian world. In this country there are so many suggestions, and I think we need to far more radically cri- challenges. But we have got to see a new focus, a new tique historic Christianity, colonial Christianity, as it was effort at the Hindu and Buddhist worlds or we are just taken into India. We need to far more radically think what going to continue to tell these stories of a few brilliant it means to be Hindu. Some of you I hope have noticed individuals who go through massive frustrations. By the book back there on the table in the corner, Imagined far my largest learning in twenty plus years trying to Hinduism. That is basically what we are dealing with. engage seriously with Hindu issues is from the Hindu Those of you who have studied Hinduism in secular insti- converts, just listening to their stories. I was listening tutions, you have studied about this imagined Hinduism; to another one just a few days ago, and there is never a in the evangelical world we still have not caught up to happy story of a Hindu convert. They might be happy the illusion and we continue to promote and react to the in the church, or they might be happy in their home, imaginary. From the academic world comes this expression, but you cannot be happy in both. It’s not possible, by an Australian scholar, a brilliant exposé. His book title because the forms of Christianity and the structures is Imagined Hinduism, describing the process by which of Christianity do not allow it. Which is what John “Hinduism as a single world religion” was concocted in the Ridgway has been emphasizing for us. Stay out of those 2 colonial era. forms of Christianity, stay out of those forms of church, I want to mix two analogies for you, two familiar phrases, stay with your people and the church has got to grow up and compare the Muslim world and the Hindu/Buddhist within there. The movement for Christ has got to grow world. The Muslim world I think is exciting. We have up within “Hinduism,” the kingdom of God has got to case studies, we have data, we have movements. We can grow up within “Hinduism.” As we are seeing in excit- say it’s raining, it’s drops of rain. “Mercy drops” are falling, ing ways, this is at least beginning to happen in parts in yet “for the showers we plead.” You come to the Hindu the Muslim world.
International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard, Parimal Roy 173
So that is my response to the story of Manilal. To me it is a hoped they could be energized, and be more active in their powerful rebuke to us, because we could bring people here profession of Christ. It’s only a few that I met, and they today to tell the same kind of story, going through the tended to have found a place, a comfort zone in between same kinds of issues, the same kinds of struggles that that Christianity and Hinduism where everyone saw them as man went through 80 and 100 years ago. Why does that a freak. They really didn’t want to rock the boat again. still go on? And of course there are a lot of reasons for They’d already rocked it and it had started to calm down. that, a lot of complications for that, but we’ve got to find a Again, this is very few cases that I ran into. That is your better way forward. Thank you for listening to that. classic secret believer. They’re all over India. They’re very Oh, I need to say this. Preparing to share here I kept hard to discern, because you never know when you are rebuking myself and reminding myself to say something dealing with a secret believer and when you are dealing positive. So here’s something positive. You know the old with a lover of Christ who is just a syncretist, because
The tragedy of conversion is that the yeast is pulled out of the lump, and there’s no leaven, no influence in Hindu society. We create this holy huddle . . . a new caste . . . saying, “Sell your shirt to buy that book”? You don’t even they are all over the place. You’d have to do the kind of have to buy the book, Rory has already given it to you for free. research that Hoefer did to sort them out. And that study It’s right in your packet, right in your IJFM. “Impacting the was from the late ‘70s and early ‘80s. Hindu Diaspora in North America” by Timothy Paul.3 Read Rory’s editorial forward where he warns you that you are going Floor to be shocked when you read that paper. It dismantles our What would you say is the difference in Dhanjibhai entire way of thinking about evangelism. And if you want to Fakirbhai? It seemed like he was consistently a Christian impact Hindus you have to just forget about all of the evan- and managed to keep his Hindu identity. gelism packages you have ever heard. Forget them all. Study Parimal Roy this, and then talk with Hindus and see if this is not the way He actually became a member of the church and in that that we should be sharing the gospel with these people. This is respect he openly shared his faith. What is interesting a gem, this is a gold nugget, and I urge you to read that. about him is that he also shared that faith with his Hindu friends and in the language that his Hindu friends would Questions from the Floor be able to understand. We have two books here written Floor by him, Shri Krist Gita and Hriday Gita. Both of them are poems that he wrote based on the life of Christ, in Brother, I like the way you responded to these things. I heard the format that the Hindus have their Gita, their sacred what sounded to me something like a cloud the size of a small scripture. He was openly fellowshipping with Hindus. And hand in the distance. It was the study in South India of I found that probably that was one way you could reach to a the churches that Ralph Winter, bless his memory and soul, Hindu friend with the gospel. extrapolated to a million or thirty million, I don’t know which it was, Hindus in south India that were churchless H. L. Richard Christians, that were authentic sincere followers of Christ His descendants are all Christians and all in the church. that had not been baptized, did not go to church. What about There’s a study in an earlier IJFM, it’s on my table back that? Is that a small hand or a hoax? there, of 50 converts in South India, mostly in Tamilnadu, 5 H. L. Richard studying their relations. The children of the convert are almost completely isolated from the Hindu world. The That is not a hoax, but that’s a complex subject. I moved grandchildren are completely isolated from the Hindu to Chennai and lived there for five years mainly to try to world. And that is the tragedy of conversion. The tragedy follow up on that study of Herb Hoefer, and I did semi- of conversion is the yeast is pulled out of the lump, and nars with Herb there and tried to get others involved.4 there’s no leaven, there’s no influence in Hindu society. And I certainly met people who fit that description. They We create this holy huddle, which in Hindu society is were complicated cases who did not respond to what I nothing more than a new caste within one or two genera- was sharing with them in the way that I had hoped. I tions. So that was Dhanjibhai, he was a good convert and 26:4 Winter 2009 174 Religious Conversion in Hindu India: Q & A from the Floor
a good churchman and a wonderful man, and he wrote these books, but he didn’t let the Christians publish them in Gujarat, he got that done in the secular market. Then he set up a trust of three Christians and three Hindus to try to carry on that literary legacy. So he was trying to transcend the communalized Christianity, the ghettoized, compartmentalized Christianity. But that’s almost impossible to transcend. Floor I also heard it said that Parekh thought that the caste system was a valid part of Hindu culture. What about idolatry, what about widow burning? Was there no appreciation for the thought that widow burning might have continued on much longer than it did had it not been for people like William Carey? It sounds like they are [unwilling to give] any credit at all [to] the Christian influence. H. L. Richard You get an action–reaction kind of thing here. So if you come in and say how great the missionaries were, you’re going to get a reaction. But even the most fanatic anti-Christian Hindus will acknowledge that Christian education and Christian hospitals have done a great service to the country. One of the tragedies is that this is the strength of Christianity. What is the strength of Christianity? It is institutions. Is that the strength of Christianity? Is that what we consider true Christianity? Isn’t it spirituality? If you say that to a Hindu he will burst out laughing. That is a joke. Christianity’s strength is institutions. We just have a massive job to undo some things and get the real message out there. Endnotes 1 N. V. Tilak, quoted from H. L. Richard, Following Jesus in the Hindu Context. William Carey Library, Pasadena, 1998, p. 52. 2 Geoffrey A. Oddie, Imagined Hinduism: British Protestant Missionary Constructions of Hinduism, 1793-1900. Sage Publications, New Delhi, 2006. 3 Timothy Paul, “Impacting the Hindu Diaspora in North America,” International Journal of Frontier Missiology 26:3, July-Sept. 2009, pp. 129-133. 4 Herbert E. Hoefer, Churchless Christianity. William Carey Library, Pasadena, 2001. 5 P. and S. Kannan, “A Survey of Disciples of Christ from Non-Dalit Hindu Homes,” International Journal of Frontier Missions 18:4, Winter 2001, pp. 165-169.
International Journal of Frontier Missiology