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Dietary Supplements and Sports Performance: Minerals

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Dietary Supplements and Sports Performance: Minerals Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2(1):43-49, 2005. (www.sportsnutritionsociety.org) Dietary Supplements and Sports Performance: Minerals Melvin H. Williams, Ph.D., FACSM Department of Exercise Science, Old Dominion University. Address correspondence to [email protected] Received April 20, 2005 /Accepted May 15, 2005/Published (online) ABSTRACT Minerals are essential for a wide variety of metabolic and physiologic processes in the human body. Some of the physiologic roles of minerals important to athletes are their involvement in: muscle contraction, normal hearth rhythm, nerve impulse conduction, oxygen transport, oxidative phosphorylation, enzyme activation, immune functions, antioxidant activity, bone health, and acid-base balance of the blood. The two major classes of minerals are the macrominerals and the trace elements. The scope of this article will focus on the ergogenic theory and the efficacy of such mineral supplementation. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2(1):43- 49, 2005. Key Words: sport nutrition, dietary supplements, minerals, sports performance INTRODUCTION Minerals are essential for a wide variety of metabolic and physiologic processes in the This is the second in a series of six articles human body. Speich and others recently to discuss the major classes of dietary reviewed the physiological roles of minerals supplements (vitamins; minerals; amino important to athletes, noting that minerals acids; herbs or botanicals; metabolites, are involved in muscle contraction, normal constituents/extracts, or combinations). The hearth rhythm, nerve impulse conduction, major focus is on efficacy of such dietary oxygen transport, oxidative phosphorylation, supplements to enhance exercise or sport enzyme activation, immune functions, performance. antioxidant activity, bone health, and acid- base balance of the blood 1. Because many MINERALS: ERGOGENIC THEORY of these processes are accelerated during exercise, an adequate amount of minerals is Minerals represent a class of inorganic necessary for optimal functioning. Athletes substances found naturally in a variety of should obtain an adequate amount of all foods. The human body needs about twenty minerals in their diet, for a mineral different minerals in order to function deficiency may impair optimal health, and properly. The two major classes of minerals health impairment may adversely affect are the macrominerals and the trace sport performance. Maughan and others elements. In the United States, note that iron and calcium are the two Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) micronutrients most likely to be low in the and Adequate Intakes (AIs) have been diet, particularly in young athletes 2. In developed for 3 macrominerals and 9 trace support of this viewpoint, Ziegler and others elements. recently noted that dietary intake of both iron and calcium was inadequate in female Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition©. A National Library of Congress Indexed Journal. ISSN # 1550-2783 Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2(1):43-49, 2005. (www.sportsnutritionsociety.org) 44 figure skaters during the competitive season decreases in bone mineral density in the 3. Although all minerals may play a role in a spine than in the femur, even though they variety of metabolic and physiologic had similar energy, calcium and protein processes, this presentation will focus on intakes compared to eumenorrheic runners. those minerals that have received research The National Institutes of Health consensus attention or consideration relative to effects panel on osteoporosis indicated that on physical performance or health of the supplementation with calcium, along with athlete. vitamin D, may be necessary in persons not achieving the recommended dietary intake MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS: such as these female athletes 6. Additionally, EFFICACY athletes with amenorrhea should consult with their physician regarding the need for Calcium. About 99 percent of the calcium drug or hormonal therapy to help prevent in the body is stored in the skeletal system, osteoporosis. while the remaining one percent is present in other cells, such as muscle cells. Although Phosphates. Phosphates are incorporated this muscle cell calcium is involved in a into many compounds in the body that are variety of physiologic processes associated involved in energy metabolism, such as ATP with energy metabolism and muscle as an energy substrate, thiamin contraction, calcium supplementation is not pyrophosphate as a vitamin cofactor, sodium considered to possess ergogenic potential phosphate as a buffer, and 2,3- because, if necessary, the muscle cells may diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) for RBC draw on the vast reserves stored in the bone function. All of these roles could provide tissue. However, as noted above, young ergogenic potential, but the most researched women involved in weight-control sports, theory involves the effect of phosphate salt such as figure skating and distance running, supplementation on 2,3-DPG. Increased may have inadequate dietary intake of levels of 2,3-DPG could facilitate release of calcium. Additionally, exercise may oxygen from hemoglobin in the red blood increase calcium losses. For example, cell and possibly enhance aerobic endurance Dressendorfer 4and others examined the exercise performance. Previous studies have effects of 10-week intense endurance generally, but not universally, shown that training, including volume, interval and phosphate salt supplementation increases tapering phases, on serum and urinary serum 2-3-DPG levels. Most recently, minerals levels. They found that urinary Bremner and others found that a 7-day calcium increased and serum calcium phosphate loading protocol would increase decreased below the clinical norm following erythrocyte phosphate pools and 2,3-DPG 7. the high-intensity interval phase, but these changes were reversed following the About a dozen studies have been conducted tapering phase. Thus, it appears that with phosphate salt supplementation and calcium excretion may be increased with their effects on physical performance, and high-intensity training. the results are clearly equivocal. However, no study has reported decreases in Inadequate calcium intake and increased performance, and four studies from calcium losses may predispose one to independent laboratories have shown osteoporosis. This may be especially so in remarkable similarities relative to increased women who develop the female athlete triad levels of VO2max following phosphate (disordered eating, amenorrhea, supplementation and improved performance osteoporosis). For example, Gremion and on bicycle ergometer exercise tests such as a others 5 recently noted that long-distance simulated 40-kilometer cycle time trial 8-11. runners with oligo-amenorrhea had greater Although these results are impressive, Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2(1):43-49, 2005. (www.sportsnutritionsociety.org) 45 Tremblay and others 12 indicated that a metabolism of oxygen for aerobic energy number of confounding variables in production during endurance exercise. The previous research have been identified and benefits of iron supplementation may more controlled research has been depend on the iron status of the athlete. recommended. Research conducted during the past 10 years has also been equivocal, Iron Deficiency Anemia. In their review, but some favorable effects have been shown. Beard and Tobin indicated that the For example, Goss and others recently prevalence of iron deficiency anemia is reported that although phosphate likely to be higher in athletic groups, supplementation did not affect physiological especially in younger female athletes, than responses during exercise at about 70-80 in healthy sedentary individuals 17. They percent VO2max, the rating of perceived note that it is likely that dietary choices exertion (RPE) was lower suggesting a explain much of a negative iron balance, but beneficial psychological effect 13. there may be other reasons as well. For example, in a recent study Jones and others Magnesium. Magnesium is a component of reported hematuria in middle-distance track over 300 enzymes, some involved in the athletes after intense interval workouts 18. regulation of muscle contraction, oxygen Hematuria was observed after 45 percent of delivery, and protein synthesis. Several the workouts, and 90 percent of the athletes studies have investigated the effect of experienced post-workout hematuria at least magnesium supplementation on once. Moreover, Schumacher and others performance. Lukaski noted that some compared blood markers of iron status earlier studies have shown that magnesium among various male athletic groups and supplementation improved strength and found a marker in endurance runners, as cardiorespiratory function in healthy persons compared to endurance cyclists, that and athletes, but also noted it is unclear as to suggested runners may experience more whether these observations related to hemolysis due to foot impact 19. Other improvement of an impaired nutritional possible causes of iron loss in athletic status or a pharmacologic effect 14,15. individuals include myoglobin leakage, Lukaski also noted that the study designs gastrointestinal losses, sweat losses, and limit conclusions about dietary heavy menstrual losses 20. Such losses recommendations needed to optimize could eventually lead to iron deficiency performance. Newhouse and Finstad 16 also anemia. noted that
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