Language Across Borders: Toward Asean and Beyond

LANGUAGE ACROSS BORDERS: TOWARD ASEAN AND BEYOND

May 24th, 2012 Jasmine Executive Suites Hotel, Bangkok, Thailand Department of Western Languages Faculty of Humanities Srinakharinwirot University

Foreword

The Department of Western Languages has been organizing conferences pertaining to language and literature for many years. The purpose of the conference is to provide opportunity for researchers, teachers and students to share ideas on relevant topics with the aspiration of stimulating innovative and effective approaches to the teaching and studying of English language, language teaching and literature. This year’s conference expanded the content to reach the concepts of “Language across Borders” to form firm stepping stones toward ASEAN and any other broader context as well as to contribute to our strong ASEAN community, with language education as a means for sustainability. With Associate Professor Dr. Aaron Smith, Illinois State University, USA, Professor Dr. Joseph A Foley, Assumption University, Thailand and Mr. Damon Anderson. A Regional English Language Officer, U.S.A.as the keynote speakers, the conference attached much attention from interested students, lecturers, and scholars. We hope that outcome of the event and the selected papers published in the conference proceedings will contribute to the development of language education and literary study and will also encourage a collaborative network among university scholars, lecturers and students in the related fields in Thailand. On this occasion, I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to all speakers, participants and particularly all the organizing staff who devoted their efforts to make this academic conference a success.

Prapaipan Aimchoo Ph.D Chair of the Department of Western Languages Faculty of Humanities Srinakharinwirot University

Table of Contents Page

Forward ...... 1 ...... Table of Contents...... 2

The Conference Schedule...... 4

Keynote Lecture on “Teaching English in Thai Universities and ASEAN Community”...... 6 ...... Professor Dr. Joseph Foley A Survey of Language Tools Used in L2 Writing, With a Special Reference to Online Tools ...... 12 ...... Pornpol Wuttikrikunlaya

The Effectiveness of Using Children’s Literature to Enhance Students’ Critical Thinking Ability ...... 20 ...... Nopparat Kantapikul

Listening Strategies of EFL Non-English Majors ...... 37 ...... Yiqi Wang

Using Communicative Active Activities to Develop EFL Students’ Speaking Ability ...... 42 ...... Pranee Nanthaboot

Promoting Discussions of Cultural Identity through Film: ‘The Others’ ...... 53 ...... Asst. Prof. Amporn Sangiamwibool

The Effect of Learning Based on KWL – Plus Technique on Reading Comprehension of 62 Aattayomsuksa III Students at Watracha – O Rot School ...... Panida Samaikomsun

Factors Affecting English Listening and Speaking Abilities ...... 71 ...... Yossawadee Jindamai

The Effects of Communicative Activities on Vocabulary Development of Kindergarteners ...... 79 ...... Sirin Vungsangoungij

Needs for Professional Development of Secondary School English Teachers under Nakhon 89 Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization ...... Salinee Bowonrattanapat

An Analysis of Miranda’s Roles in The Tempest ...... 102 ...... Nupong Phusri

The Effects of Pre-Writing Activities on Grade Six Students’ Writing Performance ...... 109 ...... Arunee Jiwprasat

The Use of Task-Based Learning to Improve English Listening and Speaking Abilities of 122 Mathayom 1 at Piboonprachasan School ...... Jidapa Promruang

Watpathumwanaram School Students’ Reactions towards School- Based English Curriculum ...... 128 ...... Lalada Ruangcharoon

Cultural Identity Loss of the Main Characters in Chinua’s Achebe’s Things Fall Apart 138 and V.S. Naipaul’s Half a Life: A Post-colonial Analysis …...………………………………………...... Chatuporn Insuwan

Using Task-Based Language Learning Activities to Enhance Speaking Abilities of 149 Pratom Suksa 5 Students ...... Gesorn Pongsawang

Effects of the Concentrated Language Encounter (Model III) on Matayomsuksa 5 Students’ 157 Writing Ability ...... Supattareeya Lopeung

The Use of Task-Based Learning Activities to Develop English Speaking Ability of 167 Prathomsuksa 6 at Piboonprachasan School ...... Kesda Thanghun

Developing Thai University Students’ Writing Ability through Electronic Feedback ...... 175 ...... Suwitchan Un-udom

Environmental Awareness in Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony: Literature that Inspires the 189 Appreciation and Concern for the Environment ...... Asst. Prof. Dr. Supaporn Yimwilai

The Effects of Using Brain-Based Learning Activities to Improve English Speaking 193 Ability on Prathomsuksa Six Students at Watsamrongnua School ...... Paiwan Jampamoon

Effects of Using Multiple Intelligence Theory Based Activities on English Reading Comprehension 205 and Students’ Interest in Learning English of Matthayomsuksa III Students at Taweethapisek School ...... Taweesak Sukeemok

A Comparative Study of the Grammar-in-Context Approach and the Grammar Translation 217 Approach in Tense Usage for Thai EFL Students ...... Ms. Proyfon Wongchaochan

Man and Technology: Alienation in Ray Bradbury’s “The Murderer” ...... 225 ...... Artittaya Phumphiboon

Committee ...... 232

LANGUAGE ACROSS BORDERS: TOWARD ASEAN AND BEYOND May 24th, 2012 Jasmine Executive Suites Hotel, Bangkok, Thailand

Schedule

08.30 – 09.00 Registration 09.00 – 09.15 Opening Ceremony 09.15 – 10.15 Keynote Lecture on “Teaching English in Thai Universities and ASEAN Room Community” by Professor Dr. Joseph Foley Sakura 10.15 – 10.30 Coffee Break 10.30 – 10.50 Oral Presentations (Parallel) Room 1. A Survey of Language Tools Used in L2 Writing, With a Special Jasmine 3 Reference to Online Tools by Mr. Pornpol Wuttikrikunlaya 2. The Effectiveness of Using Children’s Literature to Enhance Students’ Jasmine 4 Critical Thinking Ability by Mr. Nopparat Kantapikul 3. Listening Strategies of EFL Non-English Majors by Yiqi Wang Jasmine 5 10.50 – 11.10 Oral Presentations (Parallel) Room 1. Using Communicative Active Activities to Develop EFL Students’ Jasmine 3 Speaking Ability by Ms. Pranee Nanthaboot 2. Promoting Discussions of Cultural Identity through Film: ‘The Others’ Jasmine 4 by Asst. Prof. Amporn Sangiamwibool 3. The Effect of Learning Based on KWL – Plus Technique on Reading Jasmine 5 Comprehension of Mattayomsuksa III Students at Watracha – O Rot School by Ms. Panida Samaikomsun 4. Mother Language-National Language: Language Selecting Process in Jasmine 6 Southeast Asia by Mr. Pipad Krajaejun and Dr. Thanida Phromprasit 11.10 – 11.30 Oral Presentations (Parallel) Room 1. Factors Affecting English Listening and Speaking Abilities by Jasmine 3 Ms. Yossawadee Jindamai 2. The Effects of Communicative Activities on Vocabulary Development Jasmine 4 of Kindergarteners by Ms. Sirin Vungsangoungij 3. Needs for Professional Development of Secondary School English Jasmine 5 Teachers under Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization by Ms. Salinee Bowonrattanapat 4. An Analysis of Miranda’s Roles in The Tempest by Mr. Nupong Phusri Jasmine 6 11.30 – 11.50 Oral Presentations (Parallel) Room 1. The Effects of Pre-Writing Activities on Grade Six Students’ Writing Jasmine 3 Performance by Ms. Arunee Jiwprasat 2. The Use of Task-Based Learning to Improve English Listening and Jasmine 4 Speaking Abilities of Mathayom 1 at Piboonprachasan School by Ms. Jidapa Promruang 3. Watpathumwanaram School Students’ Reactions towards School- Jasmine 5 Based English Curriculum by Ms. Lalada Ruangcharoon 4. Cultural Identity Loss of the Main Characters in Chinua’s Achebe’s Jasmine 6 Things Fall Apart and V.S. Naipaul’s Half a Life: A Post-colonial Analysis by Chatuporn Insuwan 12.00– 13.00 Lunch 13.00 – 13.20 Oral Presentations (Parallel) Room 1. Using Task-Based Language Learning Activities to Enhance Speaking Jasmine 3 Abilities of Pratom Suksa 5 Students by Ms. Gesorn Pongsawang 2. Effects of the Concentrated Language Encounter (Model III) on Jasmine 4 Matayomsuksa 5 Students’ Writing Ability by Ms. Supattareeya Lopeung 5

3. Students’ Perspectives on ELT at a Rajabhat University, Thailand by Jasmine 5 Ms. Kalaya Suwankayee 4. The ASEAN Community: Opportunity for Success or Potential for Jasmine 6 Failure? by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rapin Subaneg 13.20 – 13.40 Oral Presentations (Parallel) Room 1. The Use of Task-Based Learning Activities to Develop English Jasmine 3 Speaking Ability of Prathomsuksa 6 at Piboonprachasan School by Ms. Kesda Thanghun 2. Developing Thai University Students’ Writing Ability through Jasmine 4

Electronic Feedback by Mr. Suwitchan Un-udom Jasmine 5 3. Environmental Awareness in Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony: Literature that Inspires the Appreciation and Concern for the Environment by Asst. Prof. Dr. Supaporn Yimwilai 13.40 – 14.00 Oral Presentations (Parallel) Room 1. The Effects of Using Brain-Based Learning Activities to Improve Jasmine 3 English Speaking Ability on Prathomsuksa Six Students at Watsamrongnua School by Ms. Paiwan Jampamoon 2. Effects of Using Multiple Intelligence Theory Based Activities on Jasmine 4 English Reading Comprehension and Students’ Interest in Learning English of Matthayomsuksa III Students at Taweethapisek School by Mr. Taweesak Sukeemok 3. A Comparative Study of the Grammar-in-Context Approach and the Jasmine 5 Grammar Translation Approach in Tense Usage for Thai EFL Students by Ms. Proyfon Wongchaochan 4. Man and Technology: Alienation in Ray Bradbury’s “The Murderer” Jasmine 6 by Ms Artittaya Phumphiboon 14.00 – 14.15 Coffee Break 14.15 – 15.15 Panel Discussion “Research and Language Teaching Sustainability Room Development” by Associate Professor Dr. Aaron Smith from Illinois Sakura State University, U.S.A. and Mr. Damon Anderson. A Regional English Language Officer, U.S.A. 15.15 – 15.30 Closing Ceremony

Keynote Speech

Teaching English in Thai Universities and the ASEAN 2015 Community

Professor Dr. Joseph Foley, Assumption University

In today's complex world, literacy means far more than learning to read and write in order to accomplish particular tasks. Instead, literacy is a form of social action where language and context eo-participate in making meaning (Halliday, 1978; Lemke, 1989). However, the sort of literacy required at university level calls for a kind of meaning-making involving participation in many kinds of institutions of today's world. An individual's or indeed a soci ty's growth demands an ever-expanding knowledge and control over meaning-making in new contexts and through new linguistic resources.

Learning how to write in a second language is one of the most challenging as ects of second language learning. Perhaps this is not surprising in view of the fact that even or those who speak English as their first language, the ability to write effectively is something th t requires extensive and specialized instruction and which has consequently spawned a vast fresh nan composition industry in American and British universities. Indeed within the field of se eo d and foreign language teaching, the teaching of writing has come to assume a much more entral position than it occupied thirty or forty years ago.

In terms of Thai Universities preparing for ASEAN 2015 and beyond, the ab' ity to communicate ideas and information effectively through the global digital network is crucia ly dependent on good writing skills in English. Writing has been identified as one of the essential skills in the world that is more than ever driven by text and numerical data. As a result there is an active interest today in new theoretical approaches to the study of written texts as well as approaches to the teaching of second language writing that incorporate current theory and research findings.

Issues in Language Pedagogy The theory that informs current educational practice is often constructed as a debate between proponents of mutually exclusive views that are often set up in terms of 'meaning' versus 'form'.

Such narrowly articulated controversies, however, fail to provide teachers with guidance about the effective ways to focus on language as students will have to read, write and speak in English withinthe ASEAN2015 community.

Discussions of writing pedagogy, for example, are often polarized around a discussion between 'writing as a product' and 'writing as a process' approach (Kroll, 2001). Supposedly,the 'product' oriented pedagogy is concerned only with the text that students produce and pays no attention to the process and stages that the writer and text are engaged in. On the other hand, 'process' writing approaches are said to be concerned only with assisting students in brainstorming, drafting, revising and editingwithout teaching the form or grammar. But this distinction presents a false dichotomy. Both process and product are important in writing instruction. Without a focus on form and attention to different register expectations [ What the text is about, who is involved andwhat role language is playing, for example in the language used in classifying reports, sequential/factorial/consequential explanations, procedures, and so on (Foley, 2012: 141)], process oriented approaches can LANGUAGE ACROSS BORDERS: TOWARD ASEAN AND BEYOND

2 easily become trivialized. Students may not be pushed to attempt unfamiliar genresor text types if they are only encouraged to be expressive and write on topic that they have great familiarity with such a personal recounts or story-telling. This deprives students of the opportunities to learn more than they already know and means that students are not prepared for writing in areas that would give them the flexibility to communicate effectively within the new job market of ASEAN 2015. On the other hand, focus on 'product' alone, without consideration of the contexts of writing and the 'process' through which a text is developed, can result in formulaic responses that do not attain the full range of meanings that the student is capable of. 'Products' and 'processes' need to be considered together, with the product of the process in focus throughout as the students are challenged and assisted in their writing in the more advanced register features of the job market using English.

In teaching reading, educators are similarly presented with a polarized controversy regarding the appropriate approach, with debates, at least in early schooling about whether to teach 'phonics' or 'whole language' (Ediger, 2001). The phonetic movement assumes that learning the sound- letter correspondences will make good readers, and the tasks that are typically required of students in learning to read through phonics approaches include an abundance of worksheets, short answers, and activities that require little production of extended discourse. [ see Intra Sipasidh arguments for this approach http://englishclinic research.wikispaces.com/file/view/drintira’s+paper-english-final-unesco.pdf

'Whole language' approaches, on the other hand, stress the importance of a meaning-based approach to reading and argue against a focus on form. But neither of these approaches prepares students for reading the difficult texts they encounter in the later years of schooling especially at university. 'Phonics' can trivialize the reading process by reducing reading to decoding, especially in English where there is not a one-to-one correspondence between the phoneme and the grapheme. 'Whole language' approaches, without a focus on the language of the text, can deprive students of valuable tools for understanding. In either case, teachers who have been trained to use these approaches may not be equipped to raise students' awareness about the linguistic features that construe different kinds of meanings in different types of texts.

The emphasis in schools and indeed universities is too often on mechanical tasks such as spelling tests and form based grammar drills, while texts that truly lead to success at university level and in the work place, such as well-developed explanations, discussions and arguments, are not explicitly presented and analyzed for their language features. In fact, much is left implicit in issues related to language. In too many writing programs, the typically writing assignment is a first and final draft, written in class. Students often receive instruction about writing only after the writing tasks are completed, meaning that writing is more often assessed than taught (Applebee 1984a). Teachers' feedback on student writing tends to focus on correction of errors at the sentence level or generalized comments on content, and writing is often corrected by teachers in ambiguous and inconsistent ways (Romaine, 1984). This is highly problematic in terms oflearning a language, because even when 'errors' are corrected, students' writing may still not realize the registers that are expected in the genres they write.

Writing course that take 'process' approaches all too often focus only on personal genres. Teachers are encouraged to draw on students' personal experience and allow them to write in the registers they are comfortable with, on the grounds that pushing students to write in a more'academic' styles forces them to conform to models that are not in their cultures and do not bring out their own personalities. There is also the argument that that through frequent

LANGUAGE ACROSS BORDERS: TOWARD ASEAN AND BEYOND

3 opportunities to write about what they are interested in, their writing will develop and mature. The metaphor that has often been used was that of 'simply water the flowers in the garden and they will bloom naturally'. 'Watering' is necessary but the flowers have to be supported by 'scaffolding' to help themdevelop to their full potential(Bruner, 1978; Vygotsky, 1986).

The following is an example of freshmen students writing in a Thai university where there was no scaffolding in terms of genre or academic discourse provided in the course.

LANGUAGE ACROSS BORDERS: TOWARD ASEAN AND BEYOND

To illustrate just one aspect of the linguistic analysis indicated in this student's writing. He/she was describing a picture (which was being used as a prompt). In terms of language, the nominal group is an important tool in such forms of writing. It provides information about people, places and things and also expands the meanings in the texts. The ability to construct complex nominal groups is essential in academic discourse, as in the following: 'When a kite is tilted, there is less air pressure on the upper surface' (Foley 2011: 23). The 'lexical strings' of the nominal groupshaveno complex nominal groups which would be normally expected in descriptive texts (see Minwong, 2012; Zhong,2012 for a detailed linguistic analysis of university students' writing). What is produced is a text that is unacceptable at this level.

Students typically work within a very narrow range of genres in primary and secondary levels of schooling, getting little experience and practice with more complex forms of writing (as in this case the nominal group) that will be demanded of them in university and beyond. Teachers need to create opportunities for students to write different kinds of texts and help them focus on how these texts are most effectively constructed so that students can extend their repertoires and make register choices that realize new and more challenging genres.

All students need to be able to address questions directly, defend those parts of their writing that are open to argument. These are not abilities that students will develop without assistance (scaffolding), as performing these functions requires academic register features that are not part of oral language competence. Students may be fluent in spoken English and still lack basic resources for reading and writing academic registers (Cummins, 1980). If it appears that the students' English is fluent, their problem may be viewed as cognitive; that they lack the intellectual skills they need for success. University students are often placed in courses where they work through grammar exercise books, where low-level course focus on discrete skills that the students seem to lack, even when the students often have well-developed reasoning abilities which the courses never allow them to demonstrate. 7

Learning English in Universities The notion of cultural mismatch has been used to explain students' failure in primary and secondary school and consequently at University. But it is not enough to identify mismatches between their home culture (Thai in this case )and what they learn at university and then allow the students to work in the genres of their home culture. Students to engage in the wider culture of ASEAN and beyond have to develop new ways of making meanings that are both' transcultural' as well as being 'multilingual'. As regardsEnglish this will involve new forms of expression in English as the lingua franca of the wider community. Ways of making meaning vary across social groups and national communities that are functional for those social groups and communities. The contexts and power relationships are different, and forms of interaction that do not correspond to meanings and roles of participants are unlikely to be successful. Attempts to replicate simply 'Thai' approaches, for example, in the world of business are unlikely to work unless adjustments are made to external demands. Schools and even more,universities need an approach that provides meaningful experiences within a variety of cultures with a focus on the linguistic features of the English students read and write within the domain of these new experiences.

The basic populations of our universities are students who have received limited exposure to English outside ofthe school or university. Certainly, students in more urban areas have greater LANGUAGE ACROSS BORDERS: TOWARD ASEAN AND BEYOND

6 exposure than those from rural areas. However, these students need meaningful input and opportunities to engage with texts and tasks in purposeful ways if they are to develop new language resources. They need interaction with knowledgeable interlocutors (not necessarily so- called 'native speakers') in ways that enable them to explore and negotiate the meanings they want to convey and understand the meanings that other social groups and cultures wish to convey.

Classroom patterns have been traditionally focused on whole-class teacher-student interaction, such as the initiation-response-evaluation (IRE) sequence (Sinclair &Coulthard, 1975) or using Wells, (1993) terminology, initiation-response-follow up (IRF). This has been criticized as a barrier to providing students with the negotiation skills that promotes their development of (in this case) the language they are learning. Criticism comes from the observation that most responses by the students are single words or short phrases that only a limited number of students volunteer to participate. Also that instruction and practice in formulating linguistic and elaborated responses is typically not provided. That the teachers' interpretations are always dominant, as they control clarification questions and which topics introduced by the students will be followed up in subsequent discussions, limiting students' opportunities to negotiate meaning or pursue their own questions or ideas (Mehan, 1978; Schleppegrell&Simich-Dudgeon, 1996).

Other researchers have looked at the activities differently, showing that the IRF sequence can function in different ways in the classroom. Whether or not this participation structure is effective in helping students learn depends on how the teachers use it and at what point in the lesson (Wells, 1993; Christie 2002). The IRF interaction can scaffold the development of new knowledge using new linguistic forms, and small group work then provides opportunities for students to experience and discuss together the new concepts they are learning.

The kind of language students hear and read at university is also an important element in promoting academic discourse. Often students whose reading skills are weak are given simplified readers that do not present the same content or language complexity as material they might be reading in their subject areas. From this perspective, texts used in English language instruction need to be good examples of real genres that the students might be using in their subject areas. This suggests that teachers need to be conscious of the features of the texts they teach and engage in activities that make those texts meaningful (Williams,1998). Teachers need to use academic registers and help students understand new ways of using language. Students cannot learn academic registers and academic content when the spoken explanations they hear lack the technical vocabulary they need to develop language resources for work in their different academic subjects.

LANGUAGE ACROSS BORDERS: TOWARD ASEAN AND BEYOND

Content knowledge and skills cannot be separated from the linguistic means through which that knowledge and skill is developed. Chamot & O'Malley, 1987;Mohan, 1986 in research into the teaching of English as a foreign! second language have shown that approaches using content- based language instruction can be enriched through an understanding that language and content are never separated; that 'content' in university contexts is always presented and assessed through language. In addition, as the difficulty of the concepts we want the students to learn increases, the language that makes those concepts also becomes more complex and distanced from ordinary uses of language. Such an understanding implies that focus on language itself is important for helping students learn the concepts of their subject areas. Classrooms can provide contexts for language development when students areengaged in exploring new ideas and content through meaningful experiences and activities. They can then be assisted in developing spoken and written language that draws on features of academic registers that are functional for presenting and discussing news ideas and content. Teachers need to be aware of and explicitly teach the strategies they expect students to use in classroom interaction, helping students develop skills for questioning and discussion that enables them to develop linguistic capacities that display their knowledge. If students are unable to draw on the meaning-making resources of academic registers they are unable to demonstrate what they know.

Second language research suggests that a focus on form can be important for students' language development (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Ellis, Basturkmen. & Loewen, 2001). Informed by a theory of language that is discourse and meaning-based, a focus on language can be brought to learning even as new content is introduced. Students can learn how the close interaction between grammar and discourse organization enables them to create effective texts and develop the diverse voices they need to produce texts for different contexts and situations. By making the lexical and grammatical expectations for academic assignments explicit, teachers can help students make more effective choices in approaching different writing tasks.

Lessons can also help students understand how linguistic choices make texts the kinds of texts they are. University textbooks are often constructed in ways that do not make meaning explicit (Beck, McKeown, & Gromoll, 1989; McKeown, Beck, Sinatra, & Loxterman, 1992). Students need to be able to work with dense and difficult language in order to understand such texts. Explicit analysis of the linguistic structure of texts can help students understand how language construes particular contexts and ways of thinking. This is what we have referred to earlier as scaffolding, 'guidance through interaction in the context of shared experience' (Martin, 1999). Scaffolding requires a visible pedagogy (Bernstein, 1996) that provides teachers with the expertise and makes the criteria for success explicit to students (Not 'Could do better Naamtip " or '6/10' on a written assignment). From a linguistic perspective, recognizing that particular texts are valued in particular social contexts, such as universities, suggests that universities need to provide opportunities for students to develop an understanding of what those value texts achieve and how the social meanings they make are construed in grammatical and lexical choices. Too often students experience an invisible pedagogy, where teachers manage classroom tasks and interaction without being clear about the content to be learned and the criteria for success. Invisible pedagogies do not push students to move beyond what they already know. For example,in language artscurriculums where students are often expected to read literature and adopt positions that are their 'own' in response to what they are reading, without any explicit analysis of the texts they are reading that would reveal the many and varied embedded cultural meanings found in the text. Explicit pedagogies foreground the patterns and relationships in language and practices being taught. LANGUAGE ACROSS BORDERS: TOWARD ASEAN AND BEYOND

It is not enough to have 'standards' that students need to meet. Teachers need to be informed about the linguistic challenges of those standards and have the tools to deal with the linguistic complexities that they represent.

Veel (1997: 161) suggests that academic registers construe 'distinctive and favored ways of thinking about the world; ways which we recognized as "scientific," "logical" and 'rational". Similarly, Lemke (1987: 305) argues that 'what we call "thinking logically" is for the most part simply using language ... : according to genre patterns ... and to teach "logical thinking" is simply to teach the uses of these genres'. Instruction can help learners gain access to educational discourses of the kind they might not otherwise become familiar with in their daily lives, at the same time providing them with conceptual tools for reflection on language as they engage in activities that help them develop new knowledge.

In order for students to engage in critical dialogue they need to understand how the ideas, beliefs, and attitudes that make up a world view or political positions are embedded in texts and literacy practices (Hasan 1996). Understanding the power of the academic registers enables students to be able to question and challenge the ideologies that these discourses embed. Knowledge about academic language gives students access to participation in social contexts in which new knowledge is shared in the various university disciplines. Learning to use academic registers is necessary if students are to make the kinds of meanings that are expected in universities systems. Getting control of the academic registers can enable students who may be marginalized in an ASEAN 2015 where English is the lingua franca, to participate in constructing new careers for themselves. A functional linguistic analysis as briefly described here, provides a framework to enable students to develop strategies in order to be competitive in the way that English is going to be used in the new ASEAN 2015 community.

Conclusion What this paper has attempted to argue is for a greater awareness about the linguistic expectations of universities to be ready for ASEAN 2015 and beyond. This will involve new ways of thinking about what is valued in communities within the wider framework of the ten countries that make up ASEAN. This will also involve making the expectations of education explicit in a way for educators to examine those expectations. Looking at our teaching methods and evaluating their effectiveness for the purposes of our students' futures can help make educators more conscious of the real expectations that underlie the learning activities we engage in and lead to a reassessment of what is valued by the larger ASEAN and beyond. This means engaging at many levels, for examplein humandevelopment, economy, trade, and tourism, to mention just a few but also being awareof maintaining your identity of being Thai.

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A Survey of Language Tools Used In L2 Writing, With A Special Reference To Online Tools

Pornpol Wuttikrikunlaya Western Languages Department, Srinakharinwirot Univeristy

Abstract This study surveyed language tools used in L2 writing, with a special reference to kinds of online tools and purposes of using those tools. 132 copies of the questionnaire were administered to freshmen science students who were studying the English Preparation Course in a Thai university in May 2011. The findings showed that when the respondents wrote an English essay, 107 of them (81.06%) consulted the Internet for two broad types: solutions to language problems and searching content. Most of them (89.72%) consulted Google Translate for solutions to language, and 42.06% of them searched Google for content. Most of their purposes of using those tools were to deal with the meaning (around 60-80%) and searching for information or websites (68.22%). These findings could be pedagogically implied that the teachers who teach writing to science students should be aware of their writing in which the students tend to use online tools.

Rationale of the study Language tools, from my observation in the classrooms, have been heavily used by L2 writers at present. They have transformed from paper, electronic to online. Online tools can be categorised into two broad types: tools which support solutions to language problems and tools which support searching for information. The first type is such as dictionaries, thesauruses, grammar checkers, spell checkers, and machine translations. Monolingual and bilingual dictionaries deal with the spelling, meaning, and usage of words. Thesauruses offer a synonym of words. Grammar checkers help writers check the usage of words while spell checkers examine the spelling of words, and machine translations translate more than the word level. The second type is related to search engines and encyclopaedias. Search engines can be used to lead the searched word into a website. Encyclopaedias present the information in an article form.

Most surveys into language tools have explored the use of dictionaries only in the paper, electronic and online forms in general. They used the questionnaire as the main instrument to collect the data, ranging from dictionary purchase and ownership (Boonmoh & Nesi, 2008; Hartmann, 2000; Ryu, 2006), difficulties of dictionary use (Chan, 2005; Hartmann, 2000; Ryu, 2006), dictionary skills training (Hartmann, 2000), information looked up in dictionaries (Chan, 2005; Marin-Marin, 2005; Ryu, 2006; Yanping, 2005), purposes of looking up in dictionaries (Ryu, 2006; Yanping, 2005), features of dictionaries (Ryu, 2006; Taylor & Chan, 1994) to frequency of dictionary use (Taylor & Chan, 1994; Yanping, 2005).

Some surveys, furthermore, have looked at dictionary use in reading (Min & Shoujing, 2009; Weston & Musto, 2011) In Min and Shoujing, the questionnaire asking about strategies of using dictionaries was used to collect the data. It consisted of six main questions starting from pre-dictionary stage, determining a problem word, selecting a dictionary, locating a headword, extracting relevant information to post-dictionary stage. They, in addition, compared the look-up behaviours of the good and bad learners. Weston and Musto, in a similar way, compared top five and bottom five students from the low level reading classes.

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The findings showed that good readers had a dictionary and like to use it frequently. They could comprehend the questions from the passages they read better than poor readers.

Some researchers, likewise, survey dictionary use in a test (Legac & Horvatic, 2009; Vrbinc & Vrbinc, 2004; Yang & Chen, 2007). Legac’s and Horvatic’s questionnaire was somewhat similar to that of Vrbinc and Vrbinc. The questionnaire asked about identification of part of speech, grammatical properties of words and dictionary use, lexical items expected in a dictionary, selection of appropriate prepositions, understanding polysemous words in contexts, deciphering the IPA. In contrast, Yang and Chen’s study used the questionnaire to ask about types of dictionary use, frequency of use and perceived usefulness of dictionaries. They, then, compared high and low proficiency groups of students in terms of their frequency of dictionary use and perceived usefulness of dictionaries.

Few surveys have investigated the use of the other kinds of tools, especially the use of tools in L2 writing. The surveys do not reflect the reality of language tools used by L2 writers at present. More studies about language tools used in L2 writing need to be examined. Thus, this study aims to do a survey of Thai students’ use of language tools in writing an English essay with a special reference to online tools in order to raise awareness for the teachers of writing and provide pedagogical implication in the future.

Research questions 1. What language tools do Thai students use in writing an English essay? 2. What online tools do Thai students use in writing an English essay? 3. What are the purposes of Thai students’ use of online tools? 4. What are Thai students’ attitudes toward using online tools?

Research methodology The research methodology is separated into four sections: subjects, the instrument, procedures, and data analysis.

1. Subjects The subjects were 132 freshmen who were studying the English Preparation Course in a Thai university last May. It was the course for those who got less than 40 marks for the university entrance examination (O-NET). Tables 1 and 2 show frequency and percentage of the subjects’ gender and faculties as follows:

Table 1: Frequency and percentage of the subjects’ gender Gender Frequency Percentage Male 66 50.00 Female 66 50.00 Total 132 100

Table 2: Frequency and percentage of the subjects’ faculties Faculties Frequency Percentage Engineering 62 47.00 Education 40 30.30 Science 27 20.50 IT 3 2.30 Total 132 100

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Based on Tables 1 and 2, half of the respondents were male (66) and female (66), studying in four faculties including Engineering (47%), Education (30.3%), Science (20.5%), and IT (2.3%).

2. The instrument A set of questionnaires was the only instrument used in the study which comprised three sections. The first section included the subjects’ background information such as gender and faculties. The second section was related to language tools and L2 writing such as the use of pocket electronic dictionaries and online dictionaries, and the third section concerned with online tools used in L2 writing. In the third section, there were the questions about kinds of online tools, purposes of using those tools, and students’ attitudes towards using those tools.

3. Procedures 132 copies of questionnaire in Thai were distributed to first-year students who were studying the English Preparation Course in a university last May. They studied in four classrooms. The researcher and his PhD peer each taught two classrooms. In the researcher’s classrooms, the students returned their questionnaires after finishing completing them. In the meantime, his PhD peer was asked to administer the questionnaires in the other two classrooms. She returned the questionnaires to the researcher after her students finished completing them. Then, the data in the questionnaires was translated, in preparation for analysis.

4. Data analysis The data analysis is divided into two sections: the first is the analysis of the quantitative data whereas the second is that of the qualitative data. The quantitative data such as language tools used in L2 writing, and kinds of online tools and purposes of using online tools, is counted as frequency and calculated into percentage. However, the qualitative data (attitudes towards using online tools) is analysed by coding into three categories: good, neutral or bad attitudes. Then, it is counted as frequency and calculated into percentage.

Findings and discussions Table 3: Language tools used in L2 writing Language tools Frequency Percentage Internet 107 81.06 Pocket Electronic Dictionaries 65 49.24 Paper Dictionaries 54 40.90 Mobile Phones 15 11.36 CD-ROM Dictionaries 7 5.3 Remark- The students can tick more than one items.

The students tended to use the Internet (81.06%) when they had problems in writing an English essay. This result was somewhat contrary to that of the study conducted in Thailand by Boonmoh & Nesi (2008). They found out that most of the science students preferred pocket electronic dictionaries (PEDs) to other kinds of language tools such as paper and online dictionaries. It might be because the Internet, at that time, was slow, inconvenient and unavailable to the students, so most of the students still used PEDs as their preference because of the speed and portability.

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Table 4: Broad kinds, kinds and names of online tools used in L2 writing Broad kinds of Kinds of online tools Names of online Frequency Percentage online tools tools Tools which Dictionaries Oxford 32 29.91 support solutions Longdo 17 15.89 to language Cambridge 6 5.60 problems Sanook 1 0.93 Machine Translations Google Translate 96 89.72 Tools which Search Engines Google 45 42.06 support Encyclopaedias Wikipedia 31 28.97 searching for content Note- The students can tick more than one tools.

Those who reported when they had problems in writing an English essay (they could tick more than one tools), most of them consulted Google Translate (89.72%). It was a kind of machine translations which could translate at the word level, phrasal, clausal, sentential or even paragraph levels. This result could raise much awareness for the teachers of writing that the students relied highly on this kind of tool.

Table 5: Purposes of using online tools in L2 writing Kinds of online tools Purposes of using online tools Frequency Percentage Dictionaries 1. Translate an English word into Thai 84 78.50 2. Translate a Thai word into English 78 72.90 3. Check meaning 65 60.75 4. Check word usage 39 36.45 5. Check spelling 25 23.36 Machine Translations 1. Translate at the sentential level 61 57.01 2. Translate at the clausal level 24 22.43 3. Translate at the phrasal level 23 21.50 4. Translate at the paragraph level 22 20.56 Search Engines Search information or websites 73 68.22 Encyclopaedias Seek information 45 42.05 Remark- The students can tick more than one items.

The students’ purposes of using online tools which belonged to high percentage dealt with the translation between Thai and English at the word level or checking the meaning for solutions to language (around 60-80%) and searching for information or websites when they wanted to look for content (68.22%). This result presented some misunderstanding of Thai students when they wrote an English essay. It was because when they knew a Thai word, but they did not know an English word, they translated it into English, considering its meaning only which was not sufficient. Spelling and word usage were the other two aspects apart from the meaning as Nation (2001) proposed ‘form,’ ‘meaning,’ and ‘use’ are the three aspects of vocabulary learning.

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Table 6: Attitudes towards using those online tools Attitudes towards using those online tools Frequency Percentage The students think online tools are good 75 70.10 The students think online tools are bad 27 25.23 The students think online tools are so-so 5 4.67 Total 107 100

Asked about the attitudes using the online tools used in L2 writing, the respondents opined in the three ways. Most of them (70.10%) thought the tools were good because they were convenient, fast, having examples of correct sentences, helping them write more easily, and providing many resources for rechecking a word. Also, they offered updated information on the websites. However, some of the respondents (25.23%) thought the tools were bad because the tools provided strange language, incorrect grammar, incorrect translation of idioms, and they did not want to rely on technology so much because they were not proud of themselves. For the last group of attitude using the tools, a few (4.67%) answered that the tools were so- so because they had to adjust some sentences drawn from the Internet, and the reliability of the tools was quite good, but it depended on the writers who choose the target information.

Conclusion When the respondents wrote an English essay, 107 (81.06%) of 132 respondents would consult the Internet. Those who reported that they used the Internet while writing an English essay consulted for solutions to language and looking for content. Most of them consulted Google Translate (89.72%), which was one kind of machine translations, for the tools which support solutions to language and Google (42.06%) for the tools which support searching for content. Their purposes of using online tools were translating between Thai and English languages or checking the English meaning for solutions to language and searching for information or websites when they wanted to look for content. Most of the subjects thought that those tools are helpful in their writing.

Pedagogical implication From the findings, the respondents quite heavily rely on online tools while writing an English essay, with a preference to Google Translate, kind of machine translation. The teachers of writing should be aware that when the students use of this tool, they should have strategies dealing with the tool such as pre-editing, post-editing or back translation, because the product quality of this tool is only 60% when compared to human translation. Therefore, if the students are not aware of its quality, they cannot produce the target language well. In addition, when the students search information via Google, kind of search engines, they should be taught to be aware of plagiarism. If the quantity of the searched content exceeds 80%, they are plagiarists, so they should know how to paraphrase or take some notes from the websites where they draw information.

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References Boonmoh, A. and Nesi, H. (2008). A Survey of Dictionary Use by Thai University Staff and Students, with Special Reference to Pocket Electronic Dictionaries, Horizontes de Linguistica Aplicada 6 (2), 79-90. Chan, A. (2005). Tactics Employed and Problems Encountered by University English Majors in Hong Kong in Using a Dictionary. Applied Language Learning, 15(1-2), pp. 1-27. Hartmann, R.R.K. (2000). The Exeter Case Study of Dictionary Use among University Students. Proceedings of Euralex 2000, Available online at http://www.euralex.org. Legac, V. and Horvatic, T. (2009). How Do Learners of English from the county of Medimurje Use Their Dictionaries? In R. Lugossy, J. Horvath, & M. Nikolov (Eds.), UPRT 2008: Emprical studies in English applied linguistics (pp. 165-189). Pecs: Lingua Franca Csoport. Marin-Marin, A. (2005). The Use of Dictionaries by EFL Learners at the Universidad de Quintana Roo, FONAEL 2005, Available online at http://www.geocities.ws/fonael/memorias_fonael.html. Min, C. and Shoujing, L. (2009). Dictionary Use in Vocabulary Learning: Focus on RUC Freshmen’s Reading Practice. CELEA Journal (Bimonthly), 32(1), pp. 65-76. Nation, I.S.P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: CUP. Ryu, J. (2006). Dictionary Use by Korean EFL College Students, Language & Information Society 7, 83-114. Taylor, A. and Chan, A. (1994). Pocket Electronic Dictionaries and Their Use, Proceedings of Euralex 1994, Available online at http://www.euralex.org. Vrbinc, A. and Vrbinc, M. (2004). Language Learners and Their Use of Dictionaries: The Case of Slovenia, EESE (3). Weston, O. and Musto, L. (2011). Dictionary Use in Reading, NJBE TESOL Conference, May 24 2011. Yang, M.-N. and Chen, S.-C. (2007). The Dictionary Consultation Behavior of Technology Institute Students, Samara AltLinguo E-Journal #2 (2007) – Applied Linguistics, Available online at http://samaraaltLinguo.narod.ru/ejournal/207_yang_chen_1.pdf. Yanping, D. (2005). A Survey of College Students’ Skills and Strategies of Dictionary Use in English Learning. CELEA Journal (Bimonthly), 28(4), pp. 73-77.

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APPENDIX The questionnaire used in the study is as follows:

A Survey of Online Tools Used in Writing an English Essay

My name is Mr. Pornpol Wuttikrikunlaya, a PhD student in Applied Linguistics Program at Liberal Arts Faculty, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi. The questionnaire is a survey about online tools used in L2 writing. You are assured that your information in the questionnaire is confidential.

The questionnaire is separated into three sections: the first section included the subjects’ background information. The second section was related to language tools and L2 writing, and the third section about online tools used in L2 writing.

First section: general information Please answer the following questions by (/) ticking in the proper spaces or answering in the spaces given.

Personal Information Gender _____ Male _____ Female Age: _____ Year of study: _____ Faculty: ______Major: ______English language subjects enrolled: ____ ENG 101 Grade earned ______ENG 102 Grade earned ______ENG 103 Grade earned ______ENG 104 Grade earned ______Others, please specify _____ Grade earned ____

University entrance examination score: ____

Second section: language tools and L2 writing Please fill in your information by ticking in front of the spaces provided:

1. When you have problems writing an English essay, you will consult ...(you can answer more than one items.) ____ paper dictionaries ____ pocket electronic dictionaries ____ CD-ROM dictionaries ____ Internet ____ friends ____ teachers ____ dictionaries in mobile phones ____ Others, please specify _____

(If you tick the Internet, please continue the third section) (If you tick others, please stop answering)

Third section: online tools used in writing an English essay Please fill in your information by ticking in front of the spaces provided or answering the questions in the spaces given: 1. How often do you use online tools in writing? ____ Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Occasionally 2. What kinds of online tools do you use in writing? (you can answer more than one items.)

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____ Dictionaries ____ Machine Translations ____ Search Engines ____ Encyclopedias ____ Grammar Checker ____ Others, please specify ______

3. What online dictionaries do you use in writing? (you can answer more than one items.) ____ Longdo ____ Oxford ____ Cambridge ____ Longman ____ Others, please specify ______

4. You use online dictionaries to (you can answer more than one items.) ____ translate English words into Thai ____ translate Thai words into English ____ check spelling ____ check meaning ____ check word usage ____ Others, please specify ______

5. What machine translations do you use in writing? (you can answer more than one items.) ____ Google Translate ____ Altavista ____ Yahoo Babel Fish ____ Others, please specify ______

6. You use machine translations to ____ (you can answer more than one items.) ____ translate at the phrasal level ____ translate at the clausal level ____ translate at the sentential level ____ translate at the paragraph level ____ Others, please specify ______

7. What search engines do you use in writing? (you can answer more than one items.) ____ Google ____ AOL ____ Yahoo ____ Others, please specify ______

8. You use search engines to ____ (you can answer more than one items.) ____ find information ____ find a website ____ Others, please specify ______

9. What encyclopedias do you use in writing? (you can answer more than one items.) ____ Wikipedia ____ Britannica ____ Others, please specify ______

10. You use encyclopedias to ____ (you can answer more than one items.) ____ find information ____ Others, please specify ______

11. What grammar checkers do you use in writing? (you can answer more than one items.) ____ spellchecker.net ____ Others, please specify ______

12. You use grammar checkers to ____ (you can answer more than one items.) ____ check grammar ____ Others, please specify ______

13. Do you think online tools help you write more effectively? ____ Yes, because ______No, because ______

Thank you for participating in the survey The researcher will apply your information to developing the teaching and learning.

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The Effectiveness of Using Children's Literature to Enhance Students' Critical Thinking Ability

Nopparat Kantapikul Dr. Prapaipan Aimchoo Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract Language development and thinking are closely linked and the developing of critical thinking skills should be an integral part of the language classroom. This study investigates the effective learning children's literature to enhance students' critical thinking ability of Thai EFL university students. It also focuses on an investigating the student's perception after children's literature instruction. The study used a pretest-posttest, one single group pretest- posttest designed with mixed method research design including quantitative and qualitative designs. Fifty third-year students majoring in English participated in this 16-week study. Data were collected through the pre and post critical thinking ability test, and students' critical thinking perception questionnaire. Overall, the results revealed that the students’ critical thinking ability on reading and write were significant improved. Students read the literary texts; poem and prose, as the supplementary texts. The teaching method for the group of students was similar. The findings also showed the significant gains from the pre and post critical thinking ability test. The questionnaire results revealed that the students regarded critical thinking as the methods as the important part of lifelong learning, especially at positive response towards the children’s literature based instruction towards the class activities.

Introduction Critical thinking has become a worldwide phenomenon in the modern world because of the changes in the advanced societies affected by the fast-growing of information technology. Teaching for critical thinking is therefore an essential goal of modern education because critical thinking equips students with the competence necessary for the changing world (Ku, 2009). In developing individuals and societies, ones need to be informative, selective, and creative and can apply knowledge and information useful for their daily lives. Critical thinking is then a key area to be cultivated and assessed in higher education since in most educational systems, undergraduate students are the target and the outcome of higher education provisions.

The major goals of higher education in most countries is to develop critical thinking skills and critical disposition in learners hoping that they can perform well within the society, behave in appropriate manner, and solve the problems when dealing with real situations (Pither & Soden, 2000; Tung & Chang, 2009; Ku, 2009; Fahim, 2011,Shaila & Trudell, 2010). In addition, learners need to organize, plan, monitor and evaluate their learning process both in the university environment and outside the classroom. Outside the classroom, they are required to think, to reason, to communicate and to continue thinking (Gardner, 2001). Therefore, to achieve the goal of modern education, educational institutes have to offer curriculum that students have the opportunity to develop their higher order thinking skills. It is believed that students with good critical thinking ability can be better prepared to complete and exercise their rights and responsibilities of citizens in a global workplace and community (Tung & Chang, 2009, p.288).

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The importance of teaching critical thinking has also mentioned in the national educational policy in Thailand. The National Education Act suggests educators to provide training in thinking processes, management, how to face various situations and the application of knowledge for obviating and solving problem. Moreover, teacher are suggested to organize activities for learners to draw from authentic experience which is drilling in practical work for complete mastery, enabling learners to think critically, acquiring the reading habit and developing a continuous thirst for knowledge (National Education Act of B.E. 2542 in Chapter 4, p. 11). Therefore, the intentions in the Act are the guidelines for the development of critical thinking among tertiary level Thai students. The statements aim to ensure that the learning process for students starts with curiosity, followed by planned learning activities. Through teacher-student interaction, it is also expected that students should be assisted to learn critical thinking skills, such as gathering knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation in classrooms where supportive learning environments are presented.

Research has shown there are many benefits of using literature to develop critical thinking in the ESL and EFL classes. For example, Erkaya (2005) integrated short stories in class and discovered that the students had high motivation, increased in the knowledge of literary texts as well as the development in higher-order thinking skills. Based on Bloom's Taxonomy and Wakefield's applied taxonomy, Ishikawa, Sasaki, and Yamamoto, (2011) developed the English courses that integrated critical thinking skills in a Japanese University. One example of the course objective is to develop the synthesis level of thinking skill using the poem and song to assign students to predict or hypothesize the author's intentions. Jarudom and Wasanasomsithi (2010) used drama and questioning techniques to promote critical thinking of Thai EFL learners, the findings of the study showed that these techniques were effective for enhancement of critical thinking, and the students' dispositions of critical thinking improved.

Since 1980s, numbers of research on children's literature have grown during the literature- based instruction movement took place in Western and in many countries in Asia. Teaching children's literature is claimed to be beneficial for learners as it provided sources of reading (Pearson, 1986), innovative learning tools (Vygotsky, 1978), and the tool through personal problem solving (Heppner & Krauskopf. 1987). Apart from being a source of reading, learning, and a tool for developing students' thinking skills, children's literature is therefore important as the conveyor of world knowledge, idea, values, and social accepted behavior (Puurtinen, 1998, p.2). Wu (2008) who developed strategies for teaching young adult literature discusses that using literature in the ESL classroom can foster critical thinking by offering students multiple perspectives, particularly in books dealing with the issues such as immigration, cultural differences, social upheavals, and so forth.

A number of researches have revealed that the level of critical thinking of Thai students graduating from a Thai university is unsatisfactory. There is some research conducted to enhance critical thinking ability in Thai students in primary level ranging to university level. However, Chaisuriya (2000) mentioned that it has been mostly conducted on outside the field of literature at the university level, particularly, in English major students. Thus, very few studies have been investigated about the teaching critical thinking through using children's literature in Thailand. The efficiency and correlations of explicating of critical thinking and children's literature course existed in the previous studies seems to be supportive as the background for this research. Therefore, this study could be beneficial to both EFL teachers and students. Then, the study would shed light on the significance of encouraging students'

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critical thinking ability in Thailand since the ability to think, read and write critically is required for those in the information-driven societies. Then, they need to perform well and successfully, and make right decisions in the any critical situations in their real life.

Purposes of the Study The study attempted to 1. investigate the effectiveness of using children's literature to enhance students' on reading and writing ability. 2. explore student's perceptions of critical thinking ability on reading and writing in the classroom.

Research Questions The research questions were addressed as follow 1. Do students who study children’s literature get higher scores on critical thinking ability on reading and writing? 2. What are the perceptions of students' critical thinking ability after using children's literature-based instruction?

Research Design This study uses a mixed-method approach combining quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis. The researcher conveniently selected Chiang Mai Rajabhat University (CMRU) as the study site. In class, the students participated three hours in each 16-week study.

Population and Participants The population of this study were Thai third-year undergraduate students majoring in English at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Chiang Mai Rajabhat University (CMRU) taken the ENG 2302 Children's Literature in the second semester of academic year 2011. The participants of this study were 50 third-year undergraduate students majoring in English in the second semester of academic year 2011. Three students who absented on the first day of the class will be excluded from the study because they had missed the pretest.

Research Instruments The research instruments used in collecting data are as follows: 1. The Pretest and Posttest Critical Reading and Writing Ability The test was designed to be used in assessing the critical thinking skills of third-year students. More specifically, the test used for to compare the difference of critical reading and writing ability of students before and after children's literature teaching. The test was constructed based on the level of critical thinking skills of the revised version of Bloom's Taxonomy. The critical reading skills assessed in the test were: a) identifying author's purpose and intent, b) identifying tone, attitude, and bias, c) reaching at conclusions, inferences, and implications, d) recognizing relations between text parts, and e) interpretation of "vocabulary in literature context". These skills, as stated in literature constitute the core skills of critical reading (Beyer, 1995; Axelrod, et al. 1999; Reichenbach, 2001; Green & Wolf, 2001). In the other hand, writing items were aiming at assessing students’ critical writing ability such as a clear and confident refusal to accept the conclusions of other writers without evaluating the arguments and evidence that they provide; a balanced presentation of reasons why the conclusions of other writers may be accepted or may need to be treated with caution; a clear presentation of your own evidence and argument, leading to your conclusion; and a recognition of the limitations in your own evidence, argument, and conclusion.

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2. Lesson plans and Class Activities The lesson plans also aimed at developing the prospective EFL students' critical reading skills and motivation for writing responses to literature studying. They included reading and writing selections chosen individually by teachers and students. Students will be asking to apply the process of Bloom's Six Step Learning Approach as their own reading and writing guideline as will be shown in the training procedures. As Wells (1990) indicates, children and young adults develop literacy (reading, writing, and thinking) by having real literacy experiences and getting support from more-experienced individuals, who may be adults or peers. Research clearly shows that literature-based instruction helps all students become better readers, writers, and thinkers (Tunnell & Jacobs, 1989). The lesson plans were inquiry-based, one type of literature-based instruction. Each lesson consisted of three steps: pre-reading, while-reading, and post-reading. At the pre-reading stage, the teacher asked questions related to the content in order to motivate the students to the lesson and elicit the students’ background knowledge. The students discussed in groups for sharing their ideas to their friends and report their answers to class. At the while-reading stage, the supplementary texts were given to the students. The students read and discussed if their answers from the pre-reading stage were correct or not. The students made changes in their answers if necessary. Then, the revised answers were reported to the class. At the post-reading stage, the students wrote the short answers with details supporting their answers.

3. Student's Perceptions of Critical Thinking Ability Questionnaire The student's perceptions of critical thinking ability questionnaire had divided into three main parts; the first part was designed to obtain the general opinions on reading and writing of the students including the understanding of the context, the understanding benefits of critical thinking, identifying the component parts of an argument for critical thinking, distinguishing argument from disagreement, and writing their response to literature texts in the class and at home. The second part was to obtain students' reading perceptions which employ in the class about how language was used more effectively to structure argument, how they evaluate and selective approach, recognize technique, reflect on issues in a structure ways, bringing logic and persuasive, etc. Finally, the third part of the questionnaire was designed to ask students about their point of view in a structured, drawing conclusion about whether arguments are valid and justifiable based on good evidence and sensible assumptions, being self-critical about their own understanding, interpretation and evaluation. The data obtained from the questionnaire were numerical ones.

4. Scoring criteria Critical thinking scoring rubric (Peirce, 2006) and TAKS short answer (McDonald, 2003- 2004) were used to assess students' critical thinking on writing from the written part of the pretest and posttest. Both scoring rubrics were also used for assessing students’ written answers from the post-reading stage, in-class written short answer and written homework.

Data Analysis The data were analyzed in according to research questions as follows: 1. To investigate the effectiveness of using children’s literature on students’ reading and writing ability, the data, the scores of the pretest and posttest were calculated for the means and standard deviation. Then the total mean scores of pretest and posttest of students were calculated to determine the significant difference between the total mean score of students. The significant different between the mean scores of students were used for investigating the effective learning of students on reading and writing.

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2. The scores from the writing part of pre and post critical reading and writing ability test belonging to the students was scored using William Peirce's critical thinking scoring rubric (2006) and Ana McDonald's TAKS short answer scoring rubric (2003-2004). Then the scores were analyzed by a computer software program to determine the means and standard deviations, and then the means scores of writing from the pre and posttest of students in both groups were compared using paired t-test.

2.2 Rater There were three raters who rated overall students’critical thinking ability on writing. The first rater was a university lecturer from Chiang Mai Rajabhat University, the second one who held Ph.D. in English was from Chiang Mai University, and the third one was an experienced teacher of English Writing from Maejo University. The raters had practiced scoring with TAKS Short answer scoring criterion and critical thinking rubrics. The scores of the rating were analyzed using Pearson Product Moment correlation to ensure inter-rater reliability. The correlation between rater 1 and rater 2, rater 1 and rater 3, and rater 2 and rater 3 was at 0.965, 0.963, and 0.966 for the pretest, as well as 0.966, 0.965, and 0.963 for the posttest. This shows that the correlation between the raters was high.

3. The scores from student's perception of critical thinking ability on reading and writing belonging to the students was analyzed to determine the means and standard deviations, and then the means scores of the questionnaire of students were analyzed using independent t-test with the computer software program.

Findings The following section presents the findings of the study.

The difference between the overall mean scores of pretest and posttest. The mean scores of the third year English Major students' critical reading and writing on the pretest and posttest were calculated using descriptive statistics for the means and standard deviation, and then the mean scores of the pretest and posttest of the participants were compared using a paired t-test in order to investigate the effectiveness of the using of children's literature to enhance students' critical thinking ability on reading and writing. Table 1 illustrates the comparison between the overall means scores on pretest and posttest of students.

Table 1 A Comparison of the Overall Mean Scores on Pretest and Posttest

Critical thinking ability score on reading and writing n M S.D. t p-value Pretest 50 20.32 5.77 -83.17 0.000* Posttest 50 32.40 5.78 * Significant at the .05 level (p>0.05)

Regarding Table 1, the results show a significant difference between the pretest and posttest of the third year students' critical thinking ability on reading and writing at the .05 level. The mean scores of posttest (M= 32.40, S.D.= 5.78) were higher than the mean scores of pretest (M= 20.32, S.D. = 5.77).

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The Improvement in Critical Thinking Ability after the Experiment In order to study the level of improvement in critical thinking ability on reading and writing after the experiment, the analysis of the pair t-test calculated on the mean scores of the pretest and posttest in all critical thinking levels of Bloom's Taxonomy. It was shown that there was a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the pretest and posttest in critical reading and writing. Table 2 and Table 3 illustrate the comparison between the means of reading and writing in the poem pretest and posttest scores. Table 4 and Table 5 illustrate the comparison between the means of reading and writing in the prose pretest and posttest scores respectively.

Table 2 The Mean Scores of Reading in the Poem Pretest and Posttest

Critical Poem Reading levels Pretest Posttest n (M) S.D. (M) S.D t p-value Remembering 50 0.74 0.44 1.78 0.42 -37.15 0.000* Understanding 50 0.96 0.60 1.24 0.88 -0.05 0.018* Applying 50 0.66 0.72 1.14 0.74 -0.68 0.000* Analyzing 50 0.44 0.58 1.26 0.88 -0.63 0.000* Evaluating 50 0.08 0.92 1.98 0.94 -0.70 0.000* Creating 50 0.36 0.49 1.20 0.73 -10.83 0.000* Over all 50 0.85 0.75 1.72 0.92 -9.74 0.000* * Significant at the 0.5 level (p>0.05)

As shown in Table 2, the mean scores of the posttest were higher than the mean scores of the pretest in all levels of critical thinking. The highest mean score of the pretest among the critical poem reading items was the mean score of remembering level (M=1.98) which was higher than the mean score of the pretest (M=0 .08). Table 3 illustrates the means scores of the writing in the poem pretest and posttest of the participants.

Table 3 The Mean Scores of the Writing in the Poem Pretest and Posttest

Critical Poem Writing levels Pretest Posttest n (M) S.D. (M) S.D t p-value Understanding 50 0.17 0.19 1.12 0.22 -73.48 0.000* Applying 50 0.20 0.20 1.14 0.26 -68.82 0.000* Analyzing 50 0.26 0.31 1.12 0.47 -25.04 0.000* Evaluating 50 0.26 0.25 1.18 0.37 -33.79 0.000* Creating 50 0.38 0.34 1.32 0.45 -32.10 0.000* Over all 50 0.25 0.26 1.18 0.35 -46.65 0.000* * Significant at the 0.5 level (p>0.05)

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As shown in Table 3, the mean scores of the posttest were higher than the mean scores of the pretest in all levels of critical thinking ability on writing. The highest mean score of the pretest poem writing items was the mean score of creating level (M=1.32) which was higher than the mean score of the pretest (M=0.38). Table 4 illustrates the mean scores of pretest and posttest prose writing items of the participants.

Table 4 The Mean Scores of Reading in the Prose Pretest and Posttest

Critical Prose Reading levels Pretest Posttest n (M) S.D. (M) S.D t p-value Understanding 50 0.26 0.44 1.00 0.73 -11.80 0.000* Applying 50 0.04 0.20 0.76 0.52 -11.22 0.000* Analyzing 50 0.16 0.37 0.92 0.63 -12.46 0.000* Evaluating 50 0.06 0.34 0.48 0.61 -5.96 0.000* Creating 50 0.44 0.50 1.34 0.66 -21.00 0.000* Over all 50 0.25 0.26 1.18 0.35 -46.65 0.000* * Significant at the 0.05 level (p>0.05)

As shown in Table 4, the mean scores of reading in prose posttest were higher than the mean scores of the reading prose pretest in all levels. The highest mean score of the pretest among prose reading items was the mean score of creating level (M= 1.34), which was higher than the mean score of the pretest (M = 0.44). Table 5 illustrates the mean scores of the writing in the prose pretest and posttest of the participants.

Table 5 The Mean Scores of the Writing in the Prose Pretest and Posttest

Critical Prose Writing levels Pretest Posttest n (M) S.D. (M) S.D t p-value Understanding 50 0.26 0.44 1.00 0.73 -21.48 0.000* Applying 50 0.04 0.19 0.76 0.52 -39.12 0.000* Analyzing 50 0.16 0.37 0.92 0.63 -20.28 0.000* Evaluating 50 0.06 0.23 0.48 0.61 -30.92 0.000* Creating 50 0.44 0.50 1.34 0.65 -29.05 0.000* Over all 50 0.19 0.35 0.90 0.63 -28.17 0.000* * Significant at the 0.05 level (p>0.05)

As shown in Table 5, the mean scores of the posttest were higher than the mean scores of the pretest in all levels of critical thinking on writing. The highest mean score of the posttest prose reading items among the prose writing items was the mean score of creating level (M=1.34), which was higher than the mean score of the pretest (M=0.44).

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Students' Perceptions towards the critical thinking ability on reading and writing from self-rating questionnaire To explore students’ perceptions towards the use of children’s literature, students were required to answer the student perception questionnaire by rating each item on five-rating scale from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’. Students’ self-rating scores of the perception questionnaires were analyzed and calculated for the mean and standard deviation and interpreted into five levels from very low to very high. The numerical values of one (1) for Strongly agree, two (2) for Agree, three (3) for Neutral, four (4) for Disagree, and five (5) for Strongly Disagree were assigned to these Likert-Scale items. Table 6 shows the perceptions of students’ critical thinking ability on reading and writing.

Table 6 Students’ Perceptions towards the critical thinking ability on reading and writing

Questionnaire Items n M S.D. Level 1. I feel comfortable pointing out potential and hidden idea in literary works. 50 3.52 1.13 High 2. I can remain focused on the exact requirements of an activity. 50 3.26 0.98 Medium 3. I know the different meanings of the word 'argument' in critical thinking 50 3.68 0.71 High 4. I can analyze the structure of poem and prose in literary works. 50 3.62 0.83 High 5. I can offer criticism without feeling this makes me a bad person 50 3.72 0.85 High

6. I know what is meant by a line of reasoning 50 3.84 0.97 High 7. I am aware of how my current beliefs might prejudice fair consideration of an issue 50 3.48 0.83 High 8. I am patient in identifying the line of reasoning in an argument 50 2.9 0.93 Medium 9. I am good at recognizing the signals used to indicate stages in an argument 50 3.66 0.91 High 10. I find it easy to separate key points from other material to apply for using. 50 3.40 0.75 Medium 11. I am very patient in going over the facts in order to reach an accurate view. 50 3.18 0.62 Medium 12. I am good at identifying unfair techniques used to persuade literature readers. 50 3.16 0.76 Medium 13. I am good at reading between the lines. 50 3.36 0.80 Medium 14. I find it easy to evaluate the evidence to support a point of view. 50 3.42 0.77 Medium 15. I usually pay attention to small details. 50 3.78 0.86 High 16. I find it easy to weigh up different points of view fairly. 50 3.30 0.58 Medium 17. If I am not sure about something, I will research to find out more. 50 3.40 0.80 Medium

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18. I can present my own arguments clearly 50 3.42 0.85 High 19. I understand how to structure an argument for critical thinking 50 3.40 0.78 Medium 20. I can tell descriptive writing from analytical writing 50 4.10 0.89 High 21. I can spot inconsistencies in an argument easily 50 4.00 0.92 High 22. It is a good opportunity for me to thinking critically. 50 4.20 0.83 High 23. I am aware of thinking while I study in other subjects. 50 4.34 0.74 Very High 24. I know why I need to learn materials evaluating 50 3.20 0.83 Medium 25. I know that the way for practicing critical thinking is very hard but worthy. 50 3.34 0.74 Medium Total 50 3.54 0.87 High

The overall mean scores of students' perception of critical thinking ability on reading and writing were high with the mean score at 3.54. The learners responded that I am aware of thinking while I study in another subjects. It was found that the learners had the highest positive perception while they are studying in another subjects, they are aware of steps of thinking (M=4.34).

Discussion Discussions of the results are presented the two major topics: (1) reasons for students' developments in critical thinking ability on reading and writing by the end of the semester, and (2) reasons why students have the perception in overall high on critical thinking ability on reading and writing towards using children's literature.

Reasons for students' developments in critical thinking ability on reading and writing by the end of the semester It is evident that the students developed their critical thinking ability on reading and writing throughout the semester. The following accounts for this development. First, reading has a good effect on writing performance. Therefore, reading before writing is beneficial to general students. Grabe (2003) pointed out that reading and writing had a strong relationship, and reading had an impact on writing performance. As he suggested, students learned how to organize a text, and collect information while they read the texts. This finding is in agreement with Krashen (2004), who suggests that questioning while reading contributes to better writing ability. The class activities results confirmed that the students were positive about the integration of reading and writing in literature class, and they agreed that reading literature as the supplementary texts had a positive effect on their critical thinking ability on reading and writing performance. The students were engaged with all the reading materials within the lesson plans and class discussion. Questions related to the content motivate the students to the lesson and elicit the students’ background knowledge. Students’ class discussion could develop students' overall critical thinking on reading and writing at a certain level. As Alvermann (1998) and Combs (1997) stated, by comparing and contrasting students' own ideas with their friends, students learned to think critically. This research was based on Bloom's taxonomy theory in which knowledge was built through step of learning. Students worked together in a discussion when students learned to elaborate their ideas from their competent peers. In class discussion, students learned to see the similarities and differences in their ideas, and this expanded students' views towards the topic. Thus, they began to think more critically.

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Other factor concerns inquiry-based approach. In this study, students had a chance to reflect on their own and their friends' ideas. They could use their life experiences and explore themselves while they wrote a short paragraph response. In a short writing, students did not have to think much about grammar, so they rather appreciated it. Grabe (2003) also stated that inquiry-based reading in combination with critical thinking on writing is an efficient way to improve students' writing. This finding is consistent with those of Applebee (1996), who emphasized that one of the most important things is questioning which traditional method for critical thinking is. Therefore, different kinds of questions contribute to how texts are read in different ways. His students were also showed and shared their experience in class when they studied a poem of Robert Frost. In other words, the process of inquiry urges students to read to make their own understandings. In doing so, students are likely to foster their capacity for critical thinking. Similarly, in Friedman’s study (2006), he suggested the way to questioning of the text, especially on the part of characters' actions, is a good approach to analysis and critique. One of the ways to practice thinking critically, students are focused to confront characters and authors' beliefs or their own

In summary, two factors influencing students' improvement in overall critical thinking ability on reading and writing were a reading-writing relation, and inquiry-based approach.

Implications The findings of this study have a number of important implications for EFL language classroom. The implications of this study are described in the following section. 1. Based on the findings previously discussed, the literary texts: poem and prose are worth using in teaching in college reading and writing class to help improve students' critical thinking ability on reading and writing because the two reading text types yielded significant difference results. The findings suggested that integrating reading in the writing class was beneficial, and desirable no matter what text types were used. Nevertheless, the texts used should have appropriate language level, and length. 2. Regarding the discussion, the results showed that the students could have the opportunities to share their ideas with their peers. It encouraged them to work together, to have more confidence, and learn from each other. Although the students in this study showed their lack of self-confidence, they reported that the critical thinking method is quite hard to realize. The results also suggested that students should take a good chance to bring the critical thinking method to use in daily life and other subjects. 3. This study showed that although Thai students have not studied the ways to think regularly since primary school. They have a positive learning solving problems with logical and method of thinking. This study shows that there should be more concern about critical thinking method and teaching steps of thinking in Thai education. Zhang and Alex (1995) bemoan the fact that in teacher-centered classrooms, students had controlled by teacher discourse and worksheets, the development of oral language. The teacher-centered is still not as open-minded method as the inquiry-based approach and using children's literature as the practical tools to motivate students’ thinking.

Recommendations The following are some recommendations for further studies: 1. This study supported that reading literary texts such as prose and poem was effective in terms of the tools to boost overall critical thinking ability on reading and writing. In an addition, literary texts in children’s literature seemed to have a better role in promoting critical thinking of Thai students. More studies are needed to confirm these results.

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2. Regarding the class activity and the feedback after discussion, the students showed positive interest on learning children’s literature in class and at home. In farther research, inquiry- based learning approach should be given to boost students’ technique to create the questions to ask themselves the questions in order to get more information. One technique used is to assign a group of students to do a group reading and writing project, but when it comes to the presentation, one of the group members will be randomly selected, and the entire group will receive the same grade from the presentation. This method can encourage students to actively participate in the discussion in learning. Moreover, students responded the positive interest out of the children’s literature questions by trying to find more details supporting their answers as their homework at home.

3. Regarding to the review that students were failing critical skills, this research showed that the Bloom's Taxonomy theory in critical thinking steps helped develop critical thinking ability on reading and writing. Due to the students' critical thinking ability on reading and writing was still at a low level at the first week, the test had carried on every week. Therefore, critical thinking skills could not improve much during a short period of time. Although the treatment has engaged students in only 10 weeks out of 16 weeks, it was considered as the suggestion for improving critical thinking ability. However, longitudinal study might provide more solid evidence of this teaching method.

4. Finally, the reading texts were used in this study also the retold and simplified version. The students, however, should read the original texts which are more distinct and practical for them to study. In the future research, the original text should be used as a primary source for the reading texts so that the students can elicit the real language and pattern of the literary texts.

References Alvermann, D.E., & Phelps, S.F. (1998). Content reading & literary succeeding in today’s diverse classroom. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon Axelrod, R. B. & Cooper, C. R. (1999). Reading critically, writing well: A reader and guide. New York: Bedford & St. Martin's. Beyer, B. K. (1995). Critical thinking. Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. Boonma, S. (2000). Development of interactive journal writing activities to enhance writing skills and motivation for Mathayom Suksa 5 student’s (Unpublished master’s thesis). Chiang Mai University, Thailand. Chaisuriya, S. (2000). A Relationship between Critical Thinking Abilities and Critical Reading Abilities in English Language of Mathayom Suksa Six Students in Schools under the Office of the Private Education Commission Bangkok Metropolis. Master’s Thesis. Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok. (Unpublished) Combs, M. (1997). Readers & writers in the middle grades (2nd ed). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Erkaya, O. R. (2005). Benefits of using short stories in the EFL Context. Asian EFL Journal, 8, 1-13. Fahim M., (2011). Critical Thinking in Education: Globally Developed and Locally Applied. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1( 11), 1632-1638. Grabe, W. (2003). Current developments in second language reading research. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 37-49. Gardner, H. (2001). To Open Minds: Chinese clues to the dilemma of contemporary

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education. New York: Basic Books. Basic Books Paperback with new introduction, 1991Green, S. W. & Wolf, I. K. (2001). Barron’s SAT I: How to prepare for the SAT(21st ed.). New York: Barron’s Educational Series, Inc. Heppner, P. P., & Krauskopf, C. J. (1987). An information-processing approach to personal problem solving. The Counseling Psychologist, 15(3), 371-447. Ishikawa, Y, Sasaki, D. & Yamomoto, S. J. (2011). Integrating Critical thinking Skills into the EFL Classroom. English Language Teaching Practice in Asia. 1(1), 127-137. Janudom, R. & Wasanasomsithi, P. (2010). Integrating Drama and Questioning Techniques (into a Teaching Model) to Enhance Critical Thinking in an EFL Class. The New English Teacher 4(2), 46-63. Kheoankeaw, S. (2003). Using reading logs writing activities to enhance writing skills and critical thinking of third year students at Rajabhat Instuitute Lampang (Unpublished master’s thesis). Chiang Mai University, Thailand. Krashen, S. (2004). The impact of popular literature study on literacy development in EFL: more evidence for the power of reading: System, 28(2), 2. Ku, K.Y.L. (2009). Assessing students’ critical thinking performance: Urging for measurements using multi-response format. Thinking Skills and Creativity. 4, 70-76. Retrieved from http://wwe.elsevier.com/locate/tsc. Office of the National Education Commission,(1999). National Education Act B E. 2542 [1999] and Amendments (Second National Education Act B.E. 2545 [2002]). Bangkok: Thailand.Government Printing Office, Office of the Prime Minister. http://www.onec.go.th/publication/law2545/nation_edbook.pdf Pearson, P.D. (1986). Twenty years of research in reading comprehension. T.E. Raphael (Ed.), Contexts for school-based literacy (pp. 43-62). New York: Random House. Peirce, W. (2006). Course assessment handbook. New York : Prince George’s Community College. Pitchers R.T., Soden R. (1998). Scottish and Australian teacher stress and strain: a comparative study. Education Psychology, 68(1), 269–79. Puurtinen, T. (1998): 'Syntax, readability and ideology in children's literature' in Laviosa (ed), 524-533. Reichenbach, Bruce R. (2001). Introduction to critical thinking. Boston: McGraw Hill. Shaila, M.Y & Trudell, B. (2010). From Passive Learners to Critical Thinkers: Preparing EFL students for University Success. English Teaching FORUM . 48(2). 2-9. Tung, Chi-An & Chang Shu-Ying. (2009). Developing Critical Thinking Through Literature Reading. Feng Chia Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, DEC (19), 287- 317. Tunnell, M.O., & Jacobs, J.S. (1989). Using real books: Research & findings on literature-based instruction. The Reading Teacher, 42(7), 470-477. Vygotsky, L.S. (1987). Thinking and Speech. In R.w. Rieber & A.s. Carton (ed.). The Collected Works of L.S. Vygotsky. New York: Plenum Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Thought and language (A. Kozulin, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Wells, G. (1990). Creating the conditions to encourage literate thinking. Educational Leadership, 47(6), 13-17. Wu, Y. (2008). Teaching Young Adult Literature in Advanced ESL Classes. The Internet TESL Journal, XIV(5), May 2008. Zhang, H. & Alex, N.K. (1995) Oral language development across the curriculum, K - 12. ERIC Digest. ED 389029.

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Listening Strategies of Non-English Major EFL Students

Yiqi Wang and Nattaya Puakpong Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand

Abstract This paper reports on an investigation into the listening strategies (LS) of EFL non-English majors (NEMs) at Kaili University (KU) in China. It aims to 1) examine the opinions of NEMs towards the use of LS on listening comprehension (LC). 2) the use of LS between high listening proficiency students (HLPS) and low listening proficiency students (LLPS) in different fields of study. 3) the use of LS between HLPS in different fields of study, and the use of LS between LLPS in different fields of study. All of the subjects are third-year university students from non-science-oriented (NSO) and science-oriented (SO) fields and they were grouped into high and low listening proficiency levels. The data were collected by means of a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview. The results indicated that 1) the students had favorable attitudes towards the use of LS on LC. 2) the significant differences were found in relation to the students’ listening proficiency levels in their fields of study. 3) there are significant differences between HLPS in different fields of study, and there is significant differences between LLPS in different fields of study. The results of this study could be a great help in the teaching of listening in English to EFL learners and teachers.

Keywords: listening strategies, Chinese university non-English majors, listening proficiency levels

Introduction The critical role of listening in language learning is widely acknowledged (e.g. Feyten, 1991; Rost, 1992; Oxford, 1993). However, in a foreign language environment, listening is considered more difficult for learners (Graham, 2006). In China, students learn English mostly through formal instruction, which means that their exposure to authentic input is typically limited and trying to comprehend it can be painful and frustrating. Attempts have been made by a lot of investigators to find out the factors that may influence second language listening comprehension. Among the identified factors, listener factor appears to have considerable impact on an individual’s listening comprehension. And current views of listening comprehension propose that listener actively processes language input (Rubin, 1994), they employ listening strategies to cope with the problems they meet and try to get better understanding of the oral text. Therefore, the investigation on listening strategies (LS) has been an important issue in language learning and teaching. There have been many research studies which pointed out that student use different LS to facilitate their listening comprehension (LC) (Goh, 1998; Vandergrift, 1996; O’Malley and Chamot, 1990; Jiang, 1994). In China, non-English majors in the universities are in the great portion of the English learners. They study in two different fields: non-science-oriented (NSO) and science-oriented (SO). College English (CE) is a compulsory course that both NSO and SO students take in the first two years of their university study. Unfortunately, CE teachers are in short supply along with the increasing enrollment of university students. Different non-English majors usually have their English class with the same English teacher, the same textbook and even the same teaching method. Moreover, they seldom have chance to do the listening practice in class. Therefore, it is worth investigating the real situation in the use of LS on LC by the non-English majors, namely, whether students’ view LS as positively or negatively on their LC, and whether there are differences with regard to their levels of listening proficiency and fields of study. Before teacher can hope to improve learner’s listening skills, they need to know the status quo of non-English majors’ use of listening strategies, and to be aware of the attitudes that the learners hold (Graham, 2006). In previous research studies, the majority of researchers explored LS used by different students and presented valuable results for language teaching and learning (DeFilippis, 1980; Murphy, 1987; Vandergrift, 1997; Goh, 1998;). Those studies mainly focused on the reported LS used by student different proficiency levels. However, few research studies have examined the LS used by students in different fields of study, especially in the Chinese EFL context. From the above mentioned factors, the research project was conducted to investigate the attitudes of NEMs towards use LS on LC, and the relationship between LS use and

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levels of listening proficiency in different fields of study. Thus, the following research questions are put forward: 1) What are the general attitudes of the non-English majors towards applying listening strategies in listening comprehension? 2) Do high and low listening ability students in different fields of study use listening strategies differently? If yes, what are they? 3) Do high listening proficiency students (HLPS) majoring in NSO and SO use listening strategies differently? If yes, what are they? Do low listening proficiency students (LLPS) majoring in NSO and SO use listening strategies differently? If yes, what are they?

Methodology 1. Participants The entire population of the non-English majors at Kaili University cannot be investigated due to the nature and process of the research methodology, because it will require large size of information, complex scheduling and time consuming (Robson,1993). Every year, the number of the non-English majors increases along with the extension of the enrollment at Kaili University. Approximately 3,000 non-English majors were enrolled in Kaili University in 2009. According to Khaimook’s (2004) sample size estimation formula, 280 non-English majors were included to answer the questionnaire and semi-structured interview. They are divided into high and low listening proficiency level according to their scores of CET4, which is the national examination for non-English major college students in China, it is official and used widely in China, so it is highly valid and reliable, and together with the teacher’s evaluation of the student’s listening proficiency. The students whose scores placed in the top 70 places (25% of the two hundred and eighty NEMs) and the teacher’s evaluation of high listening proficiency will be taken in the HLPS group, the ones whose scores placed in the bottom 70 places (25% of the two hundred and eighty NEMs) and the teacher’s evaluation of low listening proficiency will be taken in the LLPS group. For the students majoring in NSO, the students whose scores placed in the top 35 places (25% of the one hundred and forty NSOS) and the teacher’s evaluation of high listening proficiency will be taken in the HLPS group. The one whose scores placed in the bottom 35 places (25% of the one hundred and forty NSOS) and the teacher’s evaluation of low listening proficiency will be taken in the LLPS group. The same sorted way was conducted for the SO students.

2. Instruments The data were mainly collected through the use of questionnaire and semi-structured interview. In this study, questionnaire was employed as the main instrument to collect the data concerning students’ use of LS and students’ attitudes towards use of LS on LC. A researcher- generated questionnaire based on O’Malley and Chamot’s (1990) language learning strategy classification and Vandergrift’s (1996) classification of listening strategies was used. It consists of three main parts: Student profile, English listening strategies, and attitudes about English listening strategies. In part two, the listening strategies are classified into three categories: meta-cognitive, cognitive, and social/affective strategies. The validity of questionnaire questions and interview questions was checked and the value is 0.80, it means that all the questionnaire questions and interview questions were relevant to the present study.

3. Data collection The study was conducted at Kaili University (KU), which is newly founded comprehensive university located in the southwest of China. There are altogether 13 institutes at KU, they include Humanities, Music, Fine Arts, Education, Foreign Language, Adult Education, Tourism and Politics which belong to non-science-oriented field, and Mathematics, Physics, Computer and Information Science, Biology and Environment, Physical Education which belong to science-oriented field. The questionnaire and interview were conducted for one week. Before conducing the questionnaire and semi-structured interview, the students were told that the questionnaire were merely for knowing the normality rather than for learning evaluation in order to avoid any adjustment from them. A total of 40 students were purposively selected from the students who answering the questionnaire for the interview according to the “Criteria for Determining a Representative Interview Sample” and their

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fields of study. The information from the informants was also recorded by using both note-taking and audio-recording technique, MP3.

2. Data Analysis Analytical Framework The classification of LS of Vandergrift (1996) which includes three categories of listening strategies: Meta-cognitive, Cognitive and Social/affective strategies was chosen as the analytical framework in the study. Each category are further divided into several smaller ones: meta-cognitive strategies include planning (advance organization, directed attention, selective attention, self-management), monitoring, evaluating; cognitive strategies involve inferencing (linguistic inferencing, extra- linguistic inferencing, between parts inferencing), elaboration (personal elaboration, world elaboration, academic elaboration ), translation, transfer, repetition, resourcing, note-taking, deduction/induction, imagery; social/affective strategies are composed of questioning, cooperation, lowering anxiety, self-encouragement. There are totally 27 strategy items in the questionnaire. The reasons for choosing it as the framework are listed in the following. First, the classification of Vandergrift’s (1996) LS categories are based on O’Malley and Chamot’s (1990) listening strategy classification, which is deemed to be the best-known and most widely use paradigm in education to categorize and analyze the types of strategies. Second, for the purpose of the present study, it aims to explore the use of LS on LC with different listening proficiency level students majoring in NSO and SO. With the help of the categories, the data from the questionnaire and interview could be easily and clearly analyzed.

Analysis Procedures The data from the questionnaire was analyzed in a quantitative way. The data was sent to SPSS 16.0 to show 1) the general attitude in the use of listening strategies by the non-English majors; 2) the differences between the HLPS and LLPS groups majoring in NSO and SO in the use of listening strategies in LC; 3) the differences between the HLPS majoring in NSO and SO and the LLPS majoring in NSO and SO. Descriptive statistics was obtained to see the general attitude in the use of LS by NEMs. Independent-sample t-test was used to analyze the use of LS by high and low listening proficiency NSO and SO students, As aforementioned, the semi-structured interview aimed at investigating students’ attitudes towards using LS on LC, and the different use of LS between HLPS and LLPS. The data collected was analyzed and described in a qualitative way. In addition, the data from interview could also be the support for the data from the questionnaire.

Results and Discussion General attitudes of NEMs The first research question was answered with the data from the questionnaire and the semi-structured interview as well. Through the questionnaire, the researcher found that most of non-English majors believe that effectively applying listening strategies is very important for listening comprehension (Mean=4.62). The NEMs are sure that listening strategies can be taught (Mean=4.10). They strongly disagree that listening strategies can be naturally acquired (Mean=1.82).

Students’ Attitudes on Listening Strategies Mean Std. D N Listening strategies can be naturally acquired. 1.82 0.701 280 Listening strategies can be taught. 4.10 0.783 280 Effectively applying listening strategies is very important for 4.62 0.493 280 listening comprehension. Table 1 Standard Deviation and Mean Scores of Students’ Attitudes

As for the interview questions which could avoid the subjectivity of only using a questionnaire as the one instrument, the last second question item (Do you think it is necessary to apply English listening strategies for your listening comprehension? Why or why not? Do you think teacher has to instruct listening strategies?) in the interview were used to explore the students’ general attitudes towards

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applying LS on LC. When answer the two questions, most of the interviewees held the same attitudes that it is necessary to apply English listening strategies for listening comprehension. They also agree that a teacher has to instruct listening strategies. Therefore, the results of the questionnaire and the semi-structured interview have the same result and they could indicate that the NEMs have the positive attitudes on the use of LS. And they hope to be instructed listening strategies by the teachers in their English classrooms.

The using of LS between HLPS and LLPS This section is related to the second and third research questions. The answers to the questions were also provided by the data from the questionnaire and the semi-structured interview. 1. The using of LS between HLPS and LLPS majoring in NSO and SO 1.1The using of LS between HLPS and LLPS majoring in NSO The result of questionnaire showed that there are significant differences in using major category of LS: meta-cognitive, cognitive strategies and social/affective strategies between HLPS and LLPS majoring in NSO.

Listening Mean Std.D T-test Strategies HLPS(n=35) LLPS(n=35) HLPS(n=35) LLPS(n=35) P value Meta-cognitive 4.20 2.00 0.536 0.488 0.000 strategies Cognitive 4.82 2.20 0.251 0.627 0.000 strategies Social/affective 2.63 2.03 0.595 0.409 0.000 strategies

Table2 The Mean Score and Standard Deviation of the Three Categories of LS use between HLPS and LLPS majoring in NSO

From the interview data, the two groups report significant differences in the use of the following strategies: Planning, Selective attention strategies which belong to Meta-cognitive strategies, Inferencing, Elaboration, Deduction/induction and Resourcing strategies which belong to Cognitive strategies, Questioning for clarification which belongs to social/affective strategies. HLPS use the above listed strategies more often than the LLPS, the result from the interview has the same result with which the result of the questionnaire.

1.2 The using of LS between HLPS and LLPS majoring in SO The result of questionnaire showed that there are significant differences in using meta-cognitive, cognitive and social/affective strategies between HLPS and LLPS majoring in SO.

Listening Mean Std.D T-test Strategies HLPS(n=35) LLPS(n=35) HLPS(n=35) LLPS(n=35) P value Meta-cognitive 4.61 1.80 0.533 0.609 0.000 strategies Cognitive 4.51 1.70 0.659 0.556 0.000 strategies Social/affective 3.63 2.17 0.498 0.728 0.000 strategies

Table 4 The Mean Score and Standard Deviation of the three strategies of LS use between HLPS and LLPS majoring in SO

From the interview data, the two groups report significant differences in the use of the following strategies: Planning, Advance organization, Self-management which belong to Meta-cognitive strategies, Extra-linguistic inferencing, World elaboration, Translation, Note-taking and

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Deduction/induction strategies which belong to Cognitive strategies, Taking emotional temperature strategy which belongs to Social/affective strategies, the result from the interview has the same result with which the result of the questionnaire.

2. The using of LS between HLPS majoring in NSO and SO, and LLPS majoring in NSO and SO 2.1 The using of LS between HLPS majoring in NSO and SO Interestingly, significant differences have been found in using meta-cognitive, cognitive and social/affective strategies between HLPS of NSO and SO students from the questionnaire data.

Mean Std.D Listening T-test NSO SO NSO SO Strategies P value HLPS(n=35) HLPS(n=35) HLPS(n=35) HLPS(n=35) Meta-cognitive 4.20 4.61 0.536 0.533 0.020 strategies Cognitive 4.82 4.51 0.251 0.659 0.014 strategies Social/affective 2.63 3.63 0.595 0.498 0.000 strategies Table 5 The Mean Score and Standard Deviation of the three strategies of LS use between HLPS majoring in NSO and SO

In answering the interview questions, HLPS majoring in NSO report that they prefer to use selective attention which belongs to meta-cognitive strategies, resourcing which belongs to cognitive strategies, and questioning for clarification which belongs to social/affective strategies to help them do LC. HLPS majoring in SO report that they prefer to use self-management(meta-cognitive), deduction/induction(cognitive) and taking emotional temperature (social/affective) strategies to help them understand the listening materials.

2.2 The using of LS between LLPS majoring in NSO and SO There is significant difference in using cognitive strategies between LLPS Majoring in NSO and SO from the questionnaire data.

Mean Std.D Listening T-test NSO SO NSO SO Strategies P value LLPS(n=35) LLPS(n=35) LLPS(n=35) LLPS(n=35) Meta-cognitive 2.00 1.80 0.488 0.609 0.151 strategies Cognitive 2.20 1.70 0.627 0.556 0.001 strategies Social/affective 2.03 2.17 0.409 0.728 0.336 strategies Table 5 The Mean Score and Standard Deviation of the three strategies of LS use between LLPS majoring in NSO and SO

In answering the interview questions, LLPS of NSO students show that they would like to look up the dictionary or listen again which belong to cognitive strategies when they meet difficulties during listening. On the contrary, LLPS of SO students show that they usually use Chinese to memorize the whole content which belongs to transfer strategies (cognitive) when they meet difficulties in LC.

To sum up, from the results of the questionnaire and interview, we can see that differences do exist between HLPS and LLPS not only in NSO and SO fields of study, but also between HLPS majoring in NSO and SO, and LLPS majoring in NSO and SO. HLPS both majoring in NSO and SO use meta- cognitive and cognitive strategies and social/affective strategies more often than the LLPS. HLPS

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majoring in NSO and SO have their favorable listening strategies. Moreover, there is difference in using cognitive strategies between LLPS majoring in NSO and SO.

Conclusion The purpose of the study is to examine the opinions of NEMs towards the use of LS on LC, the use of LS between HLPS and LLPS in different field of study, the use of LS between HLPS majoring in NSO and SO, and the use of LS between LLPS majoring in NSO and SO. It is hoped to help English teachers to have a better understanding of listening strategies used by different non-English majors, because once the instructor know the situation of students’ listening strategy use, they will help students to enhance their listening comprehension ability and make greater progress in less time in English listening. Therefore, in the course of listening teaching or learning practice, after recommended to a number of strategies, students would be motivated to choose listening strategies flexibly and appropriately by themselves and be accustomed to using the combinations of them effectively.

References Booncherd, P. (1974). Evaluation by References Criteria, Concepts and Methods. Bangkok: Fundamental Education Division. Byrnes, H. (1984). The role of listening comprehension: A theoretical base. Foreign Language Annals, 17 (4), 317-329. DeFilippis, D.A. (1980). A study of the listening strategies used by skillful and unskillful college French students in aural comprehension tasks. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1980). Dissertation Abstracts International, 41, 2481A. Feyten, C. M. (1991). The power of listening ability: An overlooked dimension in language acquisition. Modern Language Journal, 75(2), 173-180. Goh, C. (1998). How Learners with Different Listening Abilities Use Comprehension Strategies and Tactics. Language Teaching Research, 2(2), 124-147. Graham, S. (2006). Listening Comprehension: The Learners’ Perspective. System, 34, 165-182. Jiang, Zukang. (1994). The relationship between listening strategies and listening comprehension, Foreign language teaching and research, 26.1: 51-58 Khaimook, K. (2004). Statistical method of estimating sample size [computer software]. Thailand: Suranaree University of Technology. Murphy, J.M. (1987). The listening strategies of English as a second language college students. Research and Teaching in Developmental Education, 4 (1),27-46. O'Malley, J. M., and Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R. (1993). Research update on L2 listening. System, 21, 205-211. Robson, C. (1993). Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientist and Practitioner- Researcher. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Rost, M., & Ross, S. (1991). Learner use of strategies in interaction: Typology and teachability. Language Learning, 41 (2), 235-273. Rost, M. (1992). Listening in action: Activities for developing listening in language teaching. New York: Prentice-Hall. Rubin, J. (1994). A review of second language listening comprehension research. Modern Language Journal, 78 (2), 199-221. Vandergrift, L. (1996). Listening strategies of Core French high school students. Canadian Modern Language Review, 52(2), 200-223. Vandergrift, L. (1997). The strategies of second language (French) listeners. Foreign Language Annals, 30, 387-409.

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Using Communicative Activities to Develop English Speaking Ability of Matthayomsuksa 3 students

Pranee Nanthaboot Dr. Somsak Kaewnuch Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of using communicative activities to develop English speaking ability of Matthayomsuksa 3 students at Watsantikaramwitthaya School, Ratchaburi. The participants were 30 Matthayomsuksa 3 students selected via random sampling. The students studied with the researcher in a speaking classroom for seven weeks, in which the teacher used various activities, such as describing and drawing pictures, mapping dialogues, gapping information, playing jigsaws, and spotting the differences. The instruments were five lesson plans, a pre-post speaking test, a teacher’s observation form, and a students’ opinion form. The data from the speaking test were analyzed using mean scores, standard deviation scores, and t-test scores for dependent samples. The data from the observation and opinion forms were described qualitatively. The result of this study indicated that the students’ English speaking ability after using communicative activities was much higher than it used to be, with a statistical significance at 0.05.

Keywords: communicative activities, English speaking ability

Introduction In this present globalized society, learning foreign languages is very important as foreign languages serve as important tools for communicating with others, seeking for knowledge, finding a job and creating understanding of cultures and visions of the world community.

The role of English in Thailand is quite important as it is in many other developing countries. The Thai government has long realized the importance of the English language as a major core subject in schools and universities. English has been a compulsory subject at all educational levels for several decades. Besides, the fact that Thailand has to prepare students to support ASEAN Community, English seems to be even more important. Students must speak English to communicate to the others for education and careers. The future employment in ASEAN will require the graduates to have additional skills apart from their professional skill such as English and other languages used in ASEAN and inter-cultural skill.

However, although English is important, the education of English is not successful. Thai students had poor scores from English tests. The results of O-Net Test of Thai students was also low. The mean score of English was disappointed. Thai people have a low ability of speaking ability. One major cause of low proficiency of Thai is certainly the teaching and learning of this language in schools and universities. In primary and secondary schools, there are many obstacles. Teachers have heavy teaching loads. There are too many students in a class (45-60). Teachers are not competent in English and do not have enough knowledge about the culture of the native speakers of English. Classrooms are not adequately equipped with educational technologies that allow teachers to teach effectively. In addition, Changes in English language teaching and learning in university. The following are the changes that would take place: there would be only one set of English scores used to consider students

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44 entering the university, that is the English scores from the English Proficiency Test of the Ministry of University affairs. Universities would use the scores from this test to place students according to their level of Proficiency. Quality assurance, the English language proficiency of Thais would be evaluated with National Standardized test to assure the quality of English language teaching and learning (Wiriyajittra, 1989).

Learners have many difficulties learning English, too. They have difficulties caused by mother tongue interference, particularly in pronunciation, syntax, and idiomatic usage. They lack opportunities to use English in their daily lives. English lessons do not challenge them. Most students learn English passively; they tend to wait for their teachers to give them knowledge, they are too shy to speak English with classmates, and they are not responsible for their own learning (Wiriyajittra, 1989).

Language learning presently emphasizes communicative abilities. One of the famous approaches in teaching language is the communicative approach. Angwattanakul (1994) states that the communicative approach is the teaching of foreign languages that is pointed at developing communication skills, the teaching that tries to help students to use language appropriately in different situations with a focus on fluency rather than accuracy. Harmer (2002) points out that the focus of teaching language should not be on grammar only; language teaching should focus on the function of the language, the purpose of communication, and the appropriateness of language use.

The goal of communicative approach lines on activities. Practicing with communicative activities can certainly help students develop their language abilities. Harmer (2002) states that communicative activities are pointed at developing students’ ability to use language to interact with people in real situations. Hymes (n.d., as cited in Angwattanakul, 1994) explains that communicative abilities can enable learners to use language or interpret it correctly in social interactions. Communicative activities make learners notice who is talking with whom, when they should or should not say something, and how they should say something. In short, communicative approach is a teaching approach that encourages learners to language in appropriate situations and social interactions.

Communicative activities include any activities that encourage and require a learner to speak with and listen to other learners, as well as with people in the community. Communicative activities have real purposes: to find information, break down barriers, talk about one’s self and others, and learn about cultures. Therefore, even when a lesson is focused on developing reading or writing skills, communicative activities should be integrated into the lesson.

From the information above, the researcher was aware of the importance of English in Thailand and the limitations of teaching this subject to students. As an English teacher, the researcher thought that one way to teach English better was to find a good teaching method. In this study, the researcher has applied communicative activities in a classroom. Communicative activities, according to some theorists and researchers mentioned above, should be able to help solve some teaching and learning problems or limitations of both the teacher and his or her students.

Objectives of the Study 1. To investigate the effects of using communicative activities on the English speaking abilities of Matthayamsuksa 3 students 2. To study the students’ opinions toward communicative activities.

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Significance of the Study The researcher expected that communicative activities would help students improve their speaking skill and their speaking behavior. It was also expected that the results of the study would benefit English teachers searching for an efficient way to solve the low speaking ability of general students. Teachers may try other teaching methods similar to this study.

Scope of the Study The population in this study was Matthayomsuksa 3 learners. The participants were 30 students selected at convenience from Watsantikaramwitthaya School, Ratchaburi. The study was conducted during a two-month period, in a classroom which met three hours per week. The independent variable was communicative activities, and the dependent variable was the students’ English speaking ability.

Definition of Terms 1. Communicative cctivities refer to English speaking activities used in the classroom, in which students have many opportunities to share information among them

2. English speaking ability refer to the ability to share information fluently and accurately, including the ability to choose appropriate vocabulary and structures in all contexts. This performance can be measured using the criteria for measuring English speaking ability that consist of rating scales adapted from Ribe and Vidal (1993), Council of Europe, (2001) and Nunan (2004).

Review of Literature about Communicative Activities According to the principle of the CLT, the learners do not study only the linguistic structures and the rules of grammar, but it stresses the importance of using language for communication (Allwright (1978), Cambell (1972), Nunan (1991), Richards and Rodgers (1995), Savignon (1991). Besides, Johnson (1981) suggested while studying, students must try to communicate with their peers and tried to make them understand what they said. Furthermore, teaching English for communication was to emphasize the language competence for learners and they must try to communicate in real situation. (Aksaranuhroh,1989; Fotos & Ellis,1991; Murcia,1991; Murphy, 1991). From the above, it could be concluded that to teach language for communication, the teacher must put the emphasis on the students’ communicative competence to use it in the real communications. CLT was developed into two ways: 1). a notional-functional approach which extends the teaching of grammar to include the teaching of interactional notions (paying attention to the factors of formally and functions, such as making requests, apologies, invitations, and introductions) and 2). learner-centered approach which emphasized the importance of learners learning the language (Carter & Nunan 2001).

Similarly, Hedge (2000) states that communication does not only involve information and language, but it also involves purposes and attitudes (Davies & Pearse 2000). The learners’ attention is focused on the ideas communicated, not on the language used.

In summary, communicative language teaching is an approach generally used at present. It includes two approaches, a notional-functional and learner-centered approach. It is very beneficial for the students to use language authentically and then they should be able to communicate ideas easily in real life situations. Speaking is a vital productive skill that can be used for communicating, especially for second language learners.

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Communication is important in foreign language learning, but developing the ability to really communicate in English is the main goal of an English course. At the end of a course, the learners should be able to communicate effectively in English outside the classroom for studying, working, or doing leisure activities. (Davies & Pearse 2000).

Davies and Pearse (2000) state that there are three features of using language. First, learners communicate because they want to or need to, not just to practice the language. Second, the learners’ attention is focused on what they are communicating (for example information, ideas, opinions, feelings), not on how they are communicating (for example the grammar of the language). Third, the language is usually very varied in grammar and vocabulary, and a single structure or a few structures are not normally repeat over and over again.

In summary, communication is not just a matter of information and language. It also involves purpose and attitude. Learners’ attention are focused on the ideas communicated, not on the language used. It is unlikely that anyone except a language student would either need or want a text

To be successful in teaching English for communication, the teacher must follow the principles and trends of teaching and learning arrangement. Morrow (1981: 59-66) expresses 5 principles of communicative approach: First, the students must be aware of the objectives of each lesson. These objectives should be performed of something such as reading for understanding a set of instruction, writing a letter reserving a room of hotels etc. The teacher must be sure to have a clear answer for a student. Second, the teacher must realize that the process of communication deals with strings of sentences, ideas and oral performances. The management of language cannot be produced in individual elements, but in the context of the whole. Third, there are three important elements in communication: information gap, choice of performances, and feedback. Fourth, the students must be provided with a lot of practice in doing something or learning by doing. And fifth, the teacher should not always criticize unimportant mistakes during the communicative activities. He must realize that the learners who try to express something that is not quite sure to say but want to communicative is a very important feature of using a foreign language.

Davies and Pearse (2000) state that teachers should establish English as the main classroom language, try to use interesting topics and stimulating activities which took the learners’ minds off the language at least a little, and encouraged learners in their efforts to communicative their ideas instead of trying to control what they say and interrupting them to correct their language mistakes.

In conclusion, in each learning unit the students have to be told the learning objectives and they should have sufficient opportunities to practice using language for communication. Interactions between the speaker and listener are a very important component in communication.

Teaching English as a foreign language using communicative activity has been proven effective by researcher at various levels of education. Many Thai and foreign research projects over the past twenty years have investigated communicative activity. A few important cases are described below.

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Ketcharung (2000) applied communicative activities to develop English speaking ability of Mathayom 2. It was found that communicative activities helped the students to develop their English speaking abilities. Students’ English speaking ability was higher after being taught using communicative activities.

Similarly, Phuphanpet (2004) studied the effect of using oral communication activities to develop English speaking ability of the first-year vocational students. The researcher found that the students’ ability in speaking English increased statistically at a .01 level. Then Pojit(2004) studied using language games and communicative activities to enhance English speaking ability of Pratomsuksa five students at Wat Dishongsaram. The result showed that after employing language games and communicative activities, the students’ English speaking increased at a .01 level of significance.

Ketthongkum (2005) studied the effect of using English supplementary materials including role play and information gap activity on developing listening and speaking competence of the third year certificate vocational students in the Tourism and Hotel major at Premruetai Administration Technology School. The sample of this study was 18 third year certificate vocational students in the Tourism and Hotel major. The instrument used in this study were six lesson plans, a pre-post test, and supplementary materials on developing listening and speaking competence and a students’ pleasure questionnaire. The finding of this study indicated that the students’ abilities in listening and speaking competence before and after the experiment were significantly different at the level of .01. Students’ attitude toward English supplementary material on improving listening and speaking competence were good at level of 3.82.

Ponglangka (2007) studied whether Matthayomsuksa 5 students developed their communicative English speaking ability after learning after learning through role play. The sample was 20 Matthayomsuksa 5 students from Wachirathamsopit School who were enrolled in a elective course in listening and speaking skills. The instruments consisted of eight lesson plans, pretest and posttest of communicative English speaking, and students’ self-assessment form. The finding of the study indicated that the students’ communicative English speaking ability before and after the experiment was significant difference at the .01 levels.

Domesrifa (2008) investigated whether Matthyomsuksa 1 students could improve their communicative English speaking ability after learning through communicative activities including information gap, mapped dialogue, jigsaw activities, “spot the difference”, and role play. The participants were 20 Matthayomsuksa 1 students from the English program at Lertlah Kanchnapisek Road School. The instruments consisted of six lessons on oral communicative activities, pre-post tests of communicative English speaking, the students’ self-assessment form, and observation form. The results of the study revealed that students; communicative English ability before and after the experiment was significantly difference at the .01 level.

Noom-Ura (2008) investicated whether the course designed to improve a low level of English proficiency students’ listening and speaking ability could promote student’s positive attitudes toward learning English. The sample was 28 students who were selected randomly from 360 first year students from the lowest ability group at Thammasat University. The instruments used in this study were pre-post test, pre-post questionnaire, a self-reflection check sheet, and a course evaluation form. The result revealed that students’ listening ability was significantly

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increased from 17.82 to 22.61 and students’ speaking ability was significantly increased from 22.71 to 33.75. The result of the study identified that students had positive attitudes toward 3.87-4.04), affective (the mean from 3.21-3.38), and behavioral changes (the mean from 2.66-3.03).

Klanit (2010) investigated whether students in the English major program under the faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at Udonthani Ratjapat Institute improved their English speaking proficiency after learning through communicative activities: information gap and role play. The participants were nine students from different level: 3 students with a high level of proficiency in English, 3 students with a medium level of proficiency in English, and 3 students with a low level of proficiency in English. The data were collected from four sources; speaking test as pretest and posttest, student diaries, teacher’s journal, and ethnographic interview. The score variations indicated that the development in speaking proficiency for the students was significantly difference at the .05 level.

Promshoit (2010) evaluated the development of learners’ listening and speaking abilities through using pair work and information gap activity. The subjects were 30 students studying in the second year vocational level in Hotel Management of Samutprakarn Institute of Commerce and Technology School. The experiment was conducted for 12 hours within a 4 week period from February to March 2010. The instruments used in collecting data were lesson plans, English language activities, pre-test and post-test, and teacher-rating for communicative English speaking competence. It was found that there was a significant difference between the mean score of the pretest and posttest at the .01 level after students learned through the communicative activities.

In the United States, Escola (1980) studied the effect of using communicative activities to develop listening and speaking skills. The study compared 61 students’ speaking ability classified into level 2 and level 4. The students were studying in higher education in Maryland and were divided into an experimental group (30 students) and a control group (31 students). The experimental group practiced listening and speaking through communicative activities, but the control group was taught by traditional teaching (without activities). It was found that the listening and abilities of both groups were significantly different. This showed that communicative activities can help students develop their listening-speaking abilities.

Methodology 1. Instruments The researcher used four instruments to collect the data: 1. Five communicative activity lesson plans were used in this study. These lesson plans were approved by thesis advisor and three experts, an experience school teacher. The researcher provided different these communicative activities: describing and drawing pictures, mapping dialogues, gapping information, playing jigsaws, and spotting the differences. 2. An English speaking test was used as a pretest and a posttest. The test consisted of conversations and interviews. The activities and the evaluation of the students’ speaking competence were based on concepts from Heaton (1990), Weir (1993), Ur (1996), and Underhill (2000). 3. An observation form was designed and was based on the criteria outlined by Ellis (2003). The researcher used this observation form to note the development of the students’ speaking ability in every class (four times in each lesson plan).

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4. A students’ opinion form was used at the end of the course. There were 10 questions of five rating scales that asked for the students’ opinions about the activities used in the classroom. The students had to rate each question.

2. Procedures The English speaking pre-and posttest was given before and after the application of communicative activities. As part of the pretest and posttest, the participants were interviewed. The speaking observation form was used to collect data in every class. The students were taught by the researcher for 7 weeks with a total of twenty fifty-minute periods. The researcher used all the communicative activities in the five lesson plans. The students’ opinion form was collected at the end of the course. The whole experiment lasted for 7 weeks.

3. Data Analysis The data were analyzed to fulfill the two objectives of this study. The first objective was to examine the effect of communicative activities to develop learners’ English speaking ability. The scores from the pre-test and post-test were computed and converted into mean scores and a t-test score. The steps of data analysis involved determining the mean scores and standard deviations of the pretest and posttest to check whether or not they were significantly different. Charts were used to display the data for clearer explanations. The second objective was to explore students’ opinion about their improvement in English speaking abilities after learning through communicative activities. The scores from the speaking observation form were tabulated, accumulated and converted into mean scores to explain the students’ development from lesson plan 1 to lesson plan 5. By doing this, the researcher could determine the differences in the students’ English speaking performance before and after learning English through communicative activities. The students’ opinions were analyzed into mean scores, and all factors were compared.

Findings The results from the research showed that the English speaking ability of Matthayomsuksa 3 students was significantly higher after learning communicative activities, significant at the .05 level. The mean score of the post-test (10.97) was much higher than that of the pre-test (3.37).

Next, the scores from the observation form show that the students could develop their English speaking abilities increased continually throughout the five lesson plans. The mean scores from lesson 1 to lesson 5 increased from 13.00 to 14.10 to 15.80 to 16.80 and finally to 18.30 respectively. The students strongly agreed that communicative activities helped them improve their English speaking abilities. The mean score from the opinion from was 4.45. The mean scores of all the points asked about in the opinion form were high, too. The opinion form asked questions about whether the students thought that the communicative activities could 1) help them develop their speaking ability, 2) make them think more analytically, 3) encourage them to speak English, 4) make them interested in studying, 5) make them enjoy studying, 6) help them speaking more fluently, 7) help them develop their English pronunciation, 8) make them have more chances to speak, 9) help them improve their grammar and vocabulary, and 10) make them more confident. The mean scores obtained from all ten points were 4.70, 4.63, 4.60, 4.50, 4.50, 4.43, 4.40, 4.33, 4.20, and 4.17 respectively.

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Discussion There are three main research results to be discussed in this study concerning the students’ development in their speaking abilities, the students’ learning behavior, and the students’ opinions toward communicative activities.

Firstly, students practiced speaking in varied situations such as ordering food, shopping, asking and answering information in order for the students to see that English was important for them and that they could use them the real situations. The students were expected to understand better that they could communicate in English and would stop being shy. This made students more confident about what to say and how to use language in a situation. Having students practice in real situations is supported by the findings of Aksaranukroh (1989), Foto & Ellis (1991), Murcia (1991), and Murphy (1991). These researchers point out that in teaching English for communication, teachers should emphasize not only language competence but also ability to communicate in real situations. Hedge (2000) states that the success of the communicative approach depends on how well teachers can make their students use language in meaningful contexts, in authentic, real-life situations. Similarly, Davies and Pearse (2000) state that developing activities to help students really communicate in English is the main goal of an English course but teachers must help their students to communicate effectively in English outside the classroom for studying, working, and leisure activities. This study reconfirms that activities designed to imitate real-life situations can improve students’ speaking ability. The pretest and posttest scores show the development. It may be argued that the students in this study will be able to apply their speaking ability outside the classroom. However, further research is needed.

Secondly, the scores from the observation form show that that the students’ English speaking ability developed continually. The researcher found that the students who were shy became more confident. The research classroom gave more chances for the students to speak. The atmosphere was better for teaching and learning. In the researcher’s experience, the classroom was different from the traditional classroom, in which totally controlled the students, in which the students were more silent. In the research classroom, the students were nosier and more active to learn.

Lastly, from the score from the opinion form, the students stated that they could develop in many ways. For example, they could think more analytically, speak English more confidently, and improve their grammar while doing activities. The results showed that students can be successfully not only in speaking but also in other areas. More importantly, the results show that the students can develop a good attitude toward English. In many classrooms, the reason why students feel bad about English is mainly because the teaching is boring and not meaningful to students. Therefore, we should encourage the use of communicative activities in classrooms to build up a good attitude toward English. This does not mean, however, that teachers should always use activities. In some classes, teachers may spend time explaining grammar or ways to use words correctly.

Suggestions The following suggestions may be beneficial to English teachers who are interested in using communicative activities to improve their students’ speaking ability. 1. This study only investigated Matthayomsuksa 3 students’ speaking ability. There should be a study of other students’ speaking abilities in different levels. Perhaps, communicative activities are not appropriate for university students.

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2. Researchers may conduct research outside the classroom. For example, because this study and past theorists have shown that real-life situations help students learn language effectively, an English teacher may take students to communicate with people outside the classroom and to do extra-curricular activities and investigate how their speaking ability develops.

3. Teachers should study the principles and teaching methodology related to communicative activities clearly if they want to be more successful. It can be a failure if teachers do not know how to use communicative activities correctly. For example, communicative activities should be used in a small class, and teachers should use the medium language accurately and fluently. In addition, teachers should follow certain steps strictly. Chastain (1971) mentions his three steps of guideline and principles of teaching English: First, the students must be aware of the meaning of the new language items. Second, the students practice the new language items, and last the students communicate their thoughts with their friends. In addition, there are three principles of teaching language for communication: First, the teacher tell his students the objectives of each learning unit. Second, the meaning of language items are made clear for students. Third, the students practice the new language items and then they transfer the new language items to other skills for communication

4. The researcher should compare the students’ opinions both before and after the experiment. This is to provide sufficient evidence of how the communicative activities can change students’ opinions at two points of time.

5. There should be more than one rater to observe the students’ speaking ability and behavior in order to get the accurate data. To avoid biases and to cross-check the result of any experiment or research, the more raters there are, the better and more reliable the research becomes.

6. Further research should be conducted in a longer time so that the students have more time to attend the course and develop their communicative ability.

References Aksaranukhroh, S.(1989). Teaching Language Skills and Culture. Bangkok, Chulalongkorn University [in Thai]. Angwattanakul, S. (1994). English Teaching Methods. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, [in Thai]. Chastain, K. (1971). Developing Second Language Skill: Theory to practice. 2nd ed. Chicago . Rand Mc Nally College Publishing. Council of Europe. (2001) Common European Framework of Reference for Language: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davies, P. & Pearse, P. (2000). Success in English Teaching Oxford Handbooks for Language Teachers: Oxford: Oxford University Press. Domesrifa, K. (2008). A study of using oral communicative activities to enhance English speaking ability of matthayomsuksa 1 students. Thesis, M.A. Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University. [in Thai]. Ellis, R. (2003). Task Based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Quaterly. 25(1) : 605-611; Winter Escola, Y.H. (1980). Certain Effects of Selected Activities of Communicative Competence Training On the Development of German: A Case Study,” Dissertation Abstracts International. (Typed). Fotos, Sandra and Rod Ellis. (1991). “Communicating about Grammar : A Task Based

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Approach,” TESOL Quarterly. 25(1) : 605-611; Winter. Harmer, J. (2002) How to teach English. 8th ed England: Addison Wesley Longman. Heaton, J. B. (1990). Classroom Testing: Testing Speaking Skills. London: Longman. Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and Learning in a Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hymes, D.H. (n.d.) “On Communicative Competence,” in the communicative Approach to Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ketcharung, S. (2000). Using Communicative Activity to develop English Speaking Ability of Matthayom 2. Abstract, M.Ed. Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University [in Thai]. Ketthongkum, W. (2005). The effect of using English supplementary materials on developing listening and speaking competence of the third year vocational level students in tourism and hotel section at Premruetai administration technology school. Abstract, M.Ed. Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakarinwirot University [in Thai]. Klanit, P (2010). Communicative activities for developing English speaking proficiency in Thailand. Retrieved September 25, 2010, from www.docstoc.com/docs/27297621/ communicative-activities. Ponglangka, K. (2007). A study of using role play activities to enhance matthayomsuksa 5 students’ English speaking ability. Abstract, M.A. Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University [in Thai]. Promshoit, V. (2010). The use of English language activities in developing listening and speaking abilities of second year vocational students majoring in hotel management of Samutprakan Institute of commerce and technology School. Abstract, M.A. Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University [in Thai]. Murcia, M.C. (1991). Teaching English as Second or foreign Language. Harper Collins Ltd. 2nd edition. Murphy, John M.(1991). “Oral Communication in TESOL : Integrating Speaking, Listening, and Pronunciation,” TESOL Quarterly. 25(1) : 51-55 ; Spring. Nunan, D. (2004). Task-Based Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Phuphanpet, U. (2004) The Effect of Using Oral Communication Activities to Develop English Speaking Ability of the First Year Certificate Vocational Students. Master’s Project, M.A. (Teaching English as a Foreign Language). Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University. [in Thai]. Pojit, R.(2004).Using Language games and Communicative Activities to Enhance English Speaking ability of Pratomsuksa five students at Wat Dishongsaram School. Abstract , M.A. Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University [in Thai]. Ribe, R & Vidal. (1993). Project Work step by step. Macmillian & Heinemann Underhill, N. (2000). Testing Spoken Language: A Handbook of Oral Testing Techniques. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ur, P. (1996). A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Weir, C. L. (1993). Understanding and Development Language Tests. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Wiriyajittra, A. (1989). Communicative Approach. Bangkok: Augsornjaruentut. [in Thai].

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Promoting Discussions of Cultural Identity through Film: ‘The Others’

Asst. Prof. Dr. Amporn Sa-ngiamwibool Krirk University, Thailand

Abstract Films are valuable tools for promoting discussions of cultural identity in EFL classrooms. This study investigated the use of films for promoting discussions of cultural identity in relation to Thailand’s present and future cultural identities in an EFL classroom and the strengths and weaknesses of CLL activities in promoting the discussions. The instruments for data collection were the film ‘The Others,’ awareness-raising activity, four CLL activities, an observation note, a journal, and an interview. The results of the study revealed these findings. Cognitively, awareness-raising activity which specifically draws the subjects’ attention to the target information helped them draw the theme of the film, ‘otherness,’ accurately. The theme of the film, which gave highly cultural insights of ‘oneness’ and ‘otherness,’ also provided a stimulating discussion of the cultural insights. Communicatively, all CLL activities enabled the subjects to relate the theme of the film, ‘otherness,’ to ASEAN countries’ cultural identity, ‘oneness,’ meaningfully. For future inquiry, this study was limited to one film and Thai learners. The replications of this study are needed.

Rationale for the Study Films are valuable tools for language classroom. The teachers can use films for various purposes: teaching language in context (Hadley, 2001); motivating second and foreign language learning (Dornyei, 1998); promoting discussions of issues (Fukunaga, 1998). Since all ASEAN countries will be the same as one community in 2015, the discussions of cultural issues become increasingly important for the citizens of all country members. Films can be valuable tools for the purpose but most of language teachers use films for enhancing language learning. A few use films for promoting discussions of cultural identity and even fewer use films for ASEAN preparation. This study therefore explored how to use films for promoting the discussion of the ASEAN identity.

Promoting the discussion of films in a language classroom needs a practical guidance. Communicative language learning (CLL) activities are suggested as effective for communicative interaction among members (e.g. Bialaystok, 1991; Oxford, 1990; Lessard- Clouston, 1997). To promote CLL activities, individual group members need to be conscious of the information of highly cultural insights that are necessary for discussions. Therefore, it is necessary to raise the individual members’ awareness of the insights in film texts. To raise the individual members’ awareness, awareness-raising is suggested to be effective for this purpose (e.g. Alanen, 1995; Izumi, Bigelow, Fujiwara, & Fearnow, 1999; Leow, 1997). Awareness-raising, or consciousness-raising in a more specific term, is a process that specifically draws the individual learner’s attention to the target information or clue needed for learning. The process has four levels: perceiving, noticing, understanding, and using knowledge. This learning process starts with perceiving the needed information, moves on to noticing it, passes through understanding the significance of the information, and ‘ends’ with using the knowledge of the information. The process resumes whenever one perceives new information.

However, there is a disagreement that perceiving information is adequate for learning since perceiving can be either conscious or unconscious. The position of this present study was

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based on the position that learning occurs at the noticing level and conscious perception always leads to noticing. This study therefore highlighted the target information or clue needed for helping the learners notice the clue consciously, use it for focused thinking for discussions insightfully, and communicate their thoughts meaningfully. The review of prior studies in awareness-raising (e.g. VanPatten, 1990, 1994, 1996; Schmidt, 1990; Ellis, 1994; Jourdenais, 1998) supports the notion that noticing facilitates L2 acquisition. To verify the awareness-raising theory in a Thai context, the researcher conducted several studies to examine the effects of awareness-raising on Thai university students’ skill-getting on various aspects: analytical reading (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2007a), structure and written expressions (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2007b), the language of mass media (Sa- ngiamwibool, 2008a), listening achievement (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2008b), reading for international communication and professions (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2009a), business English for real-life communication (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2009b), news headline translation (Sa- ngiamwibool, 2010a), and autonomous learning and international communication (Sa- ngiamwibool, 2010b). All these studies concluded that raising awareness is needed for L2 learning.

However, none of the studies examined the issue on discussions of cultural issues through films. Drawing upon these previous research studies, this present study examined the effects of awareness-raising, or noticing, with a wider, deeper, and more practical scope which blended with different CLL activities, focused on discussions of cultural issues through film, and related the issues to a larger ASEAN context to determine whether the instructions of this study were effective for Thai learners with the following research question.

Do the selected film, CLL activities, and awareness-raising activity promote the discussions of cultural identity in relation to Thailand’s present and future cultural identity in ASEAN community context effectively?

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to explore whether the selected film, CLL activities, and the awareness-raising activity were effective for discussions of cultural identity in relation to Thailand’s present and future cultural identity in ASEAN community context.

Selection of the Film ‘The Others’ was selected for these four main reasons. First, the story of the film has nothing concerned with ASEAN. It is a story of a mother who tries to protect her two children, a daughter and a son, from the invisible intruders living in their home and finally discovers that actually they are dead and become the malicious, invisible intruders in the home that once belonged to them when they were alive. The discovery leads to the conclusion that the family needs to learn to live with this new situation to be oneness with ‘the others’. This present study selected it in order to verify whether CLL activities and the awareness-raising activity were effective for discussions of cultural identity in relation to Thailand’s present and future cultural identity in ASEAN community context or not.

Second, the story of the film presented nothing precisely relating to ASEAN context but its theme ‘otherness’ is pertinent. Due to the socio-cultural, political, economic, religious, and linguistic differences among ASEAN country members and the lack of preparation, Thai people feel uncertain, insecure, threatened and rather pessimistic. This condition led the Thais to the feeling of ‘otherness.’ The theme is therefore consistent with the present condition of Thailand in ASEAN context. This theme was selected in order to verify whether CLL

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activities and the awareness-raising activity could help Thai students relate the theme of the film to Thailand’s negative attitudes towards ASEAN. This present study selected it in order to verify whether CLL activities and the awareness-raising activity were effective for promoting intertextuality and thinking ability in EFL classrooms. Third, the theme is universal. The states of being ‘us’ and ‘the others’ have been social conflicts since the origin of history, especially more crucial in the context of change. The significance of this binary opposition has been displayed in all cultural texts, including media. It has been a topic for socio-cultural discussions of all times. The universality of the theme embraced the feelings of ‘us’ among Thais and ‘the others’ towards other ASEAN country members. The film was therefore selected for the purpose of this study. Fourth and lastly, the film connoted its didactic purpose. The pessimistic condition of being ‘otherness’ at the beginning and the middle of the plot which eventually developed into the optimistic condition of being ‘oneness’ at the end displayed the purpose obviously. This purpose is consistent with the expected promising future of ASEAN which all country members will learn to live together and become as one community. In an attempt to relate the theme of the film to ASEAN, the subjects of this study would receive the message and learn to prepare for the future.

Methods The subjects, consisting of 42 second-year English majors who enrolled in the course English in Mass Media in 2010, fell into four groups, each of which consisted of 10-11 students and was assigned different CLL activities. The groups were divided on their TOEIC Test (Test of English for International Communication). The average means scores of all subjects were 300-420. The average means scores of all groups were approximately 360-380. This meant that all groups were of equally competitive, communicative proficiency. The researcher was the instructor who played a role as facilitator and observer.

The elicitation instruments included the film ‘The Others,’ awareness-raising activity, four CLL activities, the researcher’s observation note which focused on the group interaction and dynamics during the discussion, a group journal which was mainly concerned with the subjects’ preferences of the selection of the film, and an interview which was concerned with the subjects’ opinions of strengths and weaknesses of the CLL activities assigned to their groups.

The data collection, lasting 5 weeks, followed the four awareness-raising steps. First, the perceiving step began with reading synopsis of the film ‘The Others’ and viewing the film. Then, the instructor explained the plot, story, character, setting, cinematographic elements of the film.

Second, the noticing step helped the subjects focus on cultural clues needed for discussions. All groups were given the movie script of ‘The Others’ with highlighted cultural clues as shown below. Directions: Read the following excerpt of the film ‘The Others’ and notice the clues highlighted in red. We’ve been trying to make you understand. -Understand what? –About the house. About the new situation. What situation? We must all learn to live together. The living and the dead. If you’re dead, leave us in peace!

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Leave us in peace! Leave us in peace! In here. Get inside. And suppose we do leave you, do you think they will? -Who? -The intruders. -There are no intruders. -They took the curtains down. -There are no intruders. -Yes, I assure you it was them. And now they're in there, with you and the children. Waiting for you! And believe me, sooner or later they'll find you.

Third, the understanding step made sure that the subjects knew the meaning of the highlighted cultural clues. The instructor asked comprehension questions relating to each clue. Below was an example of the questions relating to the scene mentioned in the noticing step: What do you think ‘the new situation’ is? How does ‘the new situation’ affect Grace and her children? Who do you think Grace means ‘the intruders’? Who do you think ‘the intruders’ actually are? How significant is ‘the new situation’ to story as a whole? Fourth and finally, the knowledge-using step evaluated the subjects’ ability to apply their knowledge of the clues to the discussions of cultural identity in relation to Thailand’s present and future cultural identity in ASEAN community context. The evaluation of the knowledge- using was concerned with the theme of the film and their ability to relate the theme of the film to Thailand’s cultural identity in ASEAN contexts. All groups were assigned project work on these questions: What do you think is the theme of the film? How do the film’s plot, story, character, setting, cinematographic elements support the theme? How does the theme relate to Thailand’s present and future cultural identities in ASEAN community context? Give reasons and examples from the film to support your ideas.

The project consisted of 5 stages: 1) opening, 2) topic orientation, 3) proposal writing, 4) preparing proposal presentation, and 5) proposal presentation and sharing. First, in the opening stage, all groups discussed the theme of the film and the relation of the theme to Thailand’s cultural identities in ASEAN context. Second, in the topic orientation stage, they brainstormed the supporting details of the theme and its relation to Thailand’s cultural identity. Third, they drafted the outline of the project proposal and edited the first, second, and third drafts and produce the final draft of written project. Fourth, in preparing presentation, they selected the data for presentation. Fifth and lastly, in presentation and sharing, the presenter gave a lead-in to the project, presented the contents of the project, and ended the presentation. After each presentation, it was a sharing time when exchange of information and experience, comments, questions and answers, clarification, and feedback on contents and presentation from the teacher and other groups were allowed.

In discussion, all subjects were assigned each of the four CLL activities. Group 1 was assigned trust-building activities and relaxation exercises which required the subjects to write their brief autobiography to reveal their identity and the biography of characters in the film. Then the group shared their stories. Group 2 was assigned awareness and sensibility training which required the subjects to focus on the senses of the characters, settings, and cinematographic elements of the film. Then, they were asked to write a new perspective on the senses. Group 3 was assigned information-sharing activities which required the subjects to focus on the pictures, memorize them, and form discussions on those pictures. Lastly, Group 4 was assigned thinking and problem-solving strategies which required the subjects to focus on the conflicts in the film and how they were resolved.

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After the CLL activities, the subjects submitted their group journals, completed a questionnaire, and had an in-dept interview on the points that the researcher raised from observation to compare with their journal, and interview. Then the researcher drew the conclusion of the study.

Results of the Study The results of the study were presented based on the research question: Do the selected film, CLL activities, and awareness-raising activity promote the discussions of cultural identity in relation to Thailand’s present and future cultural identity in ASEAN community context effectively?

The selected film ‘The Others’ promoted the discussion of cultural identity of Thailand’s present and future cultural identity in ASEAN community context intensively as revealed in a group’s journal which connoted their preference of the selection. “All films are for entertaining but some films deal with more controversial problems or deeper social issues. With ‘The Others,’ we can use it for discussing socio-cultural issues that share similarities between our situation and that displayed in the film. Many viewers might feel that ‘The Others’ has nothing to with Thailand’s situation of becoming one member of ASEAN community. In fact, the situation in the film is very close to our situation. We can relate one to the other meaningfully a shown in our project. Consequently, to create positive and successful atmosphere, the teachers should select films that provide a valuable base for comparison and contrast between the society represented in the film and our society.” [Group A]

The selection of the film is the primary reason for this successful promotion of the discussion of cultural identity of Thailand’s present and future cultural identity in ASEAN community. In addition to this, the two teaching methods in this study played a vital role in the success. One of the two was awareness-raising activity as revealed in the subjects’ journal. “Awareness-raising activity with the highlighted clues in red helped us focus our thinking on the details and meanings of the clues more consciously. Without the clues, we might overlook them and miss some points. More importantly, we might have nothing to bring for discussion. This focused thinking helped us think about the clues more deeply and critically. With the clues, we find the theme. We also made comparisons between the theme and Thailand’s cultural identity in ASEAN context effectively.” [Group B]

All groups revealed similar impressions. The following sample project was an evidence of how awareness-raising promoted their discussion and how they related the theme of “The Others” to Thailand’s cultural identity in ASEAN context. “The theme of ‘The Others’ is revealed through the following scene. We’ve been trying to make you understand. -Understand what? –About the house. About the new situation. What situation? We must all learn to live together. The living and the dead. If you’re dead, leave us in peace! ...... -There are no intruders. -They took the curtains down.

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-There are no intruders. -Yes, I assure you it was them. And now they're in there, with you and the children. Waiting for you! And believe me, sooner or later they'll find you.

This is the climax of the plot. The main character here is Grace who is not aware of the ‘the new situation’ of her house. She falsely believes that there are intruders in her house who took the curtains which protect her children form the sunlight and the intruders are dead. The plot is revealing to her what she believed is completely an illusion. In fact, there are no intruders. All in her family are intruders and the house does not belong to her any more because she and her children were dead. The revealing facts actually turn ‘the others’ who literally means the intruders to ‘the owners’ of the house, ‘the haunted’ to ‘the haunting,’ ‘the living’ to ‘the dead,’ and ‘the false identity’ to ‘the real one.’ Grace now loses her false identity which she strongly believes it is true and therefore tried hard to protect it. Symbolically, the curtains are something that covers the truth. When the curtains are taken away, the truth is discovered. The theme of illusion then turns into reality just as shown in the movie that the story begins with Grace waking up from a nightmare (of the terrible action she did to her children and herself) but ends with a new opportunity which the terrible action was only a nightmare and she will be a good mother living happily with her beloved children in ‘her house’ as she told them to say with her repeatedly that ‘this house is ours.’ When their house becomes our house, ‘oneness’ is created.

Considering the theme of the movie in relation to Thailand’s present and future cultural identity in ASEAN community context, ASEAN community might be a nightmare for many people now but ‘this new situation’ is ‘waiting’ for us in 2015. Unfortunately, the people from other country members will move into our country and might become ‘the others’ or ‘the intruders’ in ‘our house.’ But if we understand ‘this new situation’ and prepare for the situation well enough, ‘we must all learn to live together’ in peace. We will be able to turn ‘the others’ or ‘the intruders’ to one of us. Then the nightmare will disappear. On the other hand, we might move to other country members and live in ‘their house’ happily as if it were ‘our house.’ ‘The house’ that we occupy then belong to us just as Grace and her children said repeatedly that ‘this house is ours.’ The differences between us and the others will disappear and be replaced by ‘oneness’ among all country members. By then, cultural differences among the countries will be removed just as the curtains in the film were down. Then ‘otherness’ turns into ‘oneness.’” [Group D]

CLL is the other teaching method in this study that contributes to the group communication and interaction effectively as revealed in the researcher’s observation note. “Affectively, all groups were satisfied with their CLL activities. They participated in group discussion actively. The interactions among the members of the groups moved along smoothly. All shared their contribution to form creative and meaningful discussions, negotiated to define the boundaries of discussion constructively, communicated their ideas clearly and creatively, and developed the topic of discussion naturally and meaningfully. The discussions took shape a few minutes after they started their conversation and series of meaningful discussions were produced through the issues or topics they brought up.” [The Observation Note]

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In details, each of the CLL activities which helped promote the discussions constructively but in different ways had both positive and negative effects on the subjects as revealed in the following interviews. “Trust-building activities and relaxation activities required concentration on trust- building. However, they helped us compare our identity with that of the characters in the film, and moved us from one focus to a new focus and from one identity to another. ” [Students A, B and C, Group A]

“With awareness and sensibility training which required our senses in interacting with those in the film, we became more aware of the affective dimension of activating our experience which is rather limited although it is a potential input for creating new perspectives on the senses in the film. [Students D, E and F, Group B]

“Information-sharing activities function as training activity for discussions. The focus on pictures helped us overcome the language problems. We developed our discussions from those pictures and expanded the meanings of the pictures to a larger context.” [Students G, H and I, Group C]

“Communicating through thinking and problem-solving strategies required extra demands on language skills, confidence, experience and knowledge than general conversation and discussion. Focusing on the conflicts in the film and following how they were resolved could challenge to compare and contrast the situations inside and outside the film.” [Students J, K and G, Group D]

Conclusion Three conclusions could be drawn from the results of the study. First, all groups were able to create learner-contributed content materials of their project work based on the selected film, present their interpretation and expansion of its theme, and look into the details through their own analysis and relate them to larger contexts successfully. Second, the awareness-raising activity with the highlighted clues in the movie script which specifically drew the learners’ attention to the important details which could relate to ASEAN issues could promote noticing on the cultural issues for discussion effectively. Lastly, all four CLL could promote participation in communication, interaction, and discussion constructively and meaningfully. More importantly, the learners were able to see the strengths and weaknesses of the CLL activities assigned to their group. All these implicated that they learnt what to learn, how to learn, and how to relate learning to the context in which they live in. This study concluded that the instructions in this study which included the selected film, the four CLL activities, and awareness-raising activity could promote the discussions of cultural identity in relation to Thailand’s present and future cultural identity in ASEAN community context effectively.

Discussion The results of this study were consistent with prior study (Hadley, 2001; Dornyei, 1998; Fukunaga, 1998) that films are effective tools for promoting discussions. In addition, this present study supported prior study (Bialaystok, 1991; Oxford, 1990; Lessard-Clouston, 1997) that CLL activities could promote interactive communication and discussions of cultural issues of contemporary situations effectively. Like prior study (Alanen, 1995; Izumi, Bigelow, Fujiwara, & Fearnow, 1999; Leow, 1997), awareness-raising could increase cultural awareness presented in the film and enhance the group discussions through CLL interactions meaningfully. More specifically, this present study supported prior studies (e.g. VanPatten,

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1990, 1994, 1996; Schmidt, 1990; Ellis, 1994; Jourdenais, 1998) that language learning occurs at the level of noticing. Such learning included learning of cultural issue as revealed in the results of the study. Practically, this present study was consistent with the studies in Thai contexts by Sa-ngiamwibool (2007a, 2007b, 2008a, 2008b, 2009a, 2009b, 2010a, 2010b) that noticing could facilitate knowledge-getting and communicative skill-learning in Thai contexts successfully. As indicated in those studies, this study also confirmed that the greater the level of noticing, the greater the chances of successful communication.

Implication of the Study This study revealed three pedagogical implications. First, on the film selection, the selected films should provide the cultural contents for discussion. Second, the teaching method relating to the film contents should help the learners consciously focus their thinking on the clues to the cultural contents and develop the discussions and expansion of the focal contents to larger contexts creatively. Lastly, the communicative activities should promote group communication and interaction effectively and appropriate for the learning styles of the learners.

Future Inquiry For future inquiry, this study limited to one film and learners of Thai cultures. The replications of this study with other films and learners of other cultures are needed.

References Alanen, R. (1995). Input enhancement and rule presentation in second language acquisition. In R. Schmidt (Ed.). Attentional awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 259- 302). Honolulu: University of Hawai’i. Bialystock, E. (1991). Attentional control in children’s metalinguistic performance and measures of field independence. Developmental Psychology 28: 654-64. Dornyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching, 31, 117-135. Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fukunaga, Y. (1998). Teaching global issues through English movies. Global Issues in Language Education, 30, 7-9. Jourdenais, R. (1998). Attending to enhanced input. Paper presented at the American Association for Applied Linguistics conference, Seattle, WA. Hadley, A. (2001). Teaching language in context (3rd eds.). Boston, USA: Thomson Heinle. Izumi, S., Bigelow, M., Fujiwara, M., & Fearnow, S. (1999). Testing the output hypothesis: Effects of output on noticing and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 421-452. Leow, R. (1997). Attention, awareness, and foreign language behavior. Language Learning, 47, 467-505. Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). Language learning strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers. The Internet TESL Journal. Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House Publishers. Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2007 a). A classroom investigation: A comparison of the “meaning- given” method and the “meaning-inferred” method on analytical reading achievement. http://www.kku.ac.th. Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2007 b). Enhancing structure and written expression among EFL Thai students through consciousness-raising instructions. Journal of NELTA, 12 (1&2),

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113-128. Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2008 a). English in mass media: Enhancing C-R content-based instruction through a functional focus on language in media. Phenomena, Journal of Language and Literature, 11 (3), 115-127. Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2008b). The effects of consciousness-raising instruction on EFL learners on listening achievement through computer-assisted instruction. NIDA Development Journal, 48 (2), 65-99. Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2009a, April). Enhancing reading for international communication and professions through consciousness-raising instructions and computer-assisted instruction among EFL Thai students. Presentation at the 1st annual international graduate research conference on social sciences and humanities, Mahidol University, Thailand. Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2009b, August). Enhancing business English for real-life communication in a Thai context. Presentation at the 7th international conference on developing real-life learning experiences: education reform through teaching strategies, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand. Sa-ngiamwibool, A. (2010a). Improving Thai students’ errors in English news headline translation through noticing and CALL. Leksika, Journal of Language, Literature And Language Teaching. 4(1). Sa-ngiamwibool, A.(2010b). Enhancing autonomous learning for international communication in a Thai context. Scholar. 1(1): 61-65. Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 17-46. VanPatten, B. (1990). Attending to content in the input: An experiment in consciousness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 287-301. VanPatten, B. (1994). Evaluating the role of consciousness in SLA: terms, linguistic features, and research methodology. AILA Review, 11, 27-36. VanPatten, B. (1996). Input Processing and Grammar Instruction. New York: Ablex. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0230600/synopsishttp://www.script-o-rama.com/ movie_scripts/o/others-script-transcript-nicole-kidman.html

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The Effect of Learning Based on KWL-Plus Technique on Reading Comprehension on Mattayom Suksa III students at Watratcha-o-rot School

Panida Samaikomsun Dr. Walaiporn Chaya Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract Carr and Ogle’s (1987) developed KWL strategy into KWL Plus scheme short for Know, Want, and Learn plus a Mapping and Summarizing. KWL Plus helps students to become active readers and helps teachers to be more interactive in their teaching. This paper reports on a study investigating the effect of KWL Plus on grade ninth students’ reading comprehension ability and their satisfaction towards the KWL Plus technique. Data were collected through reading comprehension test and opinion questionnaire. In the experiment, the students were taught through a range of lead-in activities as the pre-reading. During reading, the students monitored their understanding and reflected after reading through mapping and summarizing. The results revealed the statistical difference in the mean scores of pretest and posttest. The finding indicated that the use of KWL-Plus technique was effective in developing students’ reading ability. Suggestions are made as to how EFL teachers can help their students to understand reading texts through KWL Plus technique which suggests activities that facilitate active learning.

Keywords: KWL Plus technique, reading comprehension, mapping, summarizing, active readers

Introduction At the present time, English is regarded as an International language. English has been taking a role of networking among people throughout the world. Thus, English is one of the most crucial subjects taught as a second language (ESL) and Foreign language (EFL) in school in which the learners are not native speakers. To use English communicatively, Thai EFL students are raised awareness to develop four skills of English. In learning English, four skills of English are needed. However, of all the four skills, reading is probably used the most frequently by ESL/EFL students (Carrell, 1989). Reading in English plays a crucial role for ESL/EFL students because it is a means for accessing knowledge in their fields as well as other fields. According to The Ministry of Education in Thailand (2001), the English learning focuses on the significance and value of English. Responding to global challenges, English has been placed in the curriculum from primary to advanced levels. In the Thai Education system, English is primarily taught by Thai teachers with a small numbers of native English speaking teachers on staff.

To date, reading skills have been increasingly important for Thai students because of the fast- growing pace of technology and the influx of information from the Internet. The Internet has become resourceful data for students. However, there are both good and bad information that students need to be selective. They need appropriate strategies for reading and researching useful information for them. Although there is plenty of information on the Internet, students also need to read the traditional paper texts to better understand and comprehend various texts and make use of the information for their studies. The problem was that English foreign language students lacked the skills to cope with reading comprehension. In addition, they were unable to use effective reading strategies to guide them on their reading comprehension and to help them become independent readers.

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Reading is considered a very complex process, especially reading for comprehension. It is also the interactive skill language. Therefore English reading is very necessary for Thai EFL students who want to study in higher education. Nowadays, students need to use reading skill to read many kinds of texts in daily life, work, and study because they will need to refer to the sources such as books, magazines or even entertainment materials available in English. Finochiaro and Brumfit (1988) expressed the idea which is related to learning standard based on the basic education core curriculum 2008 strand 1 language for communication that students have ability of understanding to interpret what they have been read from the various types of media. Because of its importance, students should practice the skills for reading comprehension. Miller (1973) expressed the opinion that comprehension is the main factor of the reading skills. Students with a better English reading skill would take better advantage of learning.

However the results from previous studies have revealed that Thai students’ English reading ability does not reach a high level of proficiency. This may come from many causes such as the method of teaching reading comprehension (Chandavimol, 1998; (Mejang, 2004). As a teacher of English of grade ninth (Muttayom Suksa three) students, the researcher found that most students needed to improve reading comprehension skills because they had low reading achievement on average. To help students, there are various interesting techniques for reading instructions such as SQ3R, Strategy-Based Instruction, Metacognitive Strategies-Based Instruction and so forth. However, the researcher is interested in KWL- Plus technique because this technique helps students to become more comprehensible. KWL- Plus technique encourages students’ prior knowledge and develops their thinking skill. It can be said that KWL- Plus technique is the strategy which can lesson this problem and the researcher believes that it might be appropriate in helping to learn to read for learners. KWL-Plus technique developed by Carr and Ogle (1987) is the strategy adjusted for reading ability. It encourages students to review their prior knowledge and engage them to obtain the new knowledge. They also propose that KWL- plus includes the steps systematically: (a) pre- reading activity, (b) while- reading activity, (c) post- reading activity. These steps of reading process help students reading strategies

To begin with, in pre- reading activity, students are assigned to discuss the topic they are going to read. To connect to their schemata, this helps them to share ideas and gather what students know. To motivate them to have self- questioning, students are assigned to make questions which they need to know about the topic given. This encourages them to find answers by themselves.

In the while- reading activity, students are assigned to read. Students need to find the information that can be answered their questions in the pre- reading activity. If there are some problems such as they cannot find the answer. It will be discussed in the post- reading activity. After finishing reading, students learn the new knowledge from the text and they also have answers they need. Students note down some important information. Finally, in the post-reading activity, in this step students can talk together and find the information that they cannot have for their questions. Students are assigned to note down the information into the semantic mapping.

It can be seen that can that KWL –Plus technique is the strategy that monitors students’ ideas and reflects their understanding. Dowhower (1999) also suggests that the KWL technique has been used for many years to gather information. The use of graphic organizers to connect details is the addition of Plus and is a valuable tool for students, especially secondary students

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with learning disabilities to link specific details contained in a reading. Moreover Bailey (2002) defines “KWL-Plus” as to access prior knowledge and engages students’ interest before beginning a reading activity. It can improve students' ability to make associations, clarify understanding, and increase comprehension. The KWL-Plus strategy offers a framework for students to monitor their understanding during reading, and reflect after reading through listing, mapping and summarizing what was learned. Bailey also adds that the 'plus' in the KWL-Plus strategy provides a bridge between reading, comprehension and beginning writing. The various diagramming and mapping activities provide the student with a tool to organize their thoughts about what they have read. As mentioned above, it can be concluded that one of the main aims of using KWL-Plus technique is to improve reading ability. The researcher believes that KWL-Plus technique will help students better in learning to read. These skills are specified in learning area of foreign language in the Basic Education Core Curriculum 2008. With an aim to enhance learners’ reading ability, the researcher has taught KWL-Plus technique on Mattayom Suksa 3 Students’ Reading Comprehension based on Carr and Ogle’s (1987) principles to Mattayom Suksa 3 students of Wat Ratcha-o-rot School.

Objectives of the Study The objectives of this study are as follows: 1. To investigate the effect of learning based on KWL- Plus technique on Mattayom Suksa 3 students’ reading comprehension. 2. To study students’ opinions towards KWL- Plus technique on English comprehension lesson.

Research Questions This study addresses two research questions as follows: 1. Does KWL- Plus technique promote higher Reading comprehension ability? 2. What are the students’ opinions towards English Reading Comprehension lesson based on KWL-Plus technique?

Methodology The Participants The participants of the study were 46 Mattayom Suksa three students students having studied Foundation English in the second semester of academic year 2011, Watratcha-0-rot school, Bangkok. They were selected from three classes using the convenience sampling procedure.

Instrument The instrument used in this study was English reading comprehension test. This test was designed by the researcher to study the results before and after experiment. It consists of 5 reading passages with a total of 30 questions. In each questions, there are 4 multiple-choice answers. The second instrument is learning management plans which were reviewed in terms of purpose, content, vocabulary, and grammar structure as well as the documents related to KWL-Plus technique. 4 constructed learning management plans were tried out after the pretest. In each plan, there are 4 periods and consumes 50 minutes in each period. When the last period finished, the researcher gave the opinion questionnaire which was designed to study the Mattayom Suksa three students’ opinion towards English reading comprehension lesson based on KWL- Plus technique. The researcher studied the documents which were related to the opinion towards reading. The questionnaire has two sections. Section 1 is 10 items with 5 rating scales. The questions are considered on three main parts: students’ opinion in pre-reading the activities, students’ opinion in while –reading activities, and

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65 students’ opinion in post-reading activities. Section 2 is 2 open-ended questions to allow the participants to express their opinions, problems, and suggestions found during the period and also ask them to give additional information on the use of KWL-Plus technique to develop their reading comprehension.

Data Collection Procedure To answer the two questions of this study, the data collection procedure were as follows: Research Question 1: 1. Does KWL- Plus technique promote higher Reading comprehension ability? The data collected to answer research question1 was the pretest and posttest scores from the reading test: reading comprehension test. The reading test was administered to the participants before and after the instructions with KWL-Plus technique. Research Question 2: 2. What is the students’ opinion towards English Reading Comprehension lesson based on KWL-Plus technique? The data collected to answer research question 2 was the self- rating opinion questionnaires and two open- ended questions: the satisfaction and suggestion. The opinion questionnaire was administered to the participants at the last period instruction.

Data Analysis Data were collected as in the following procedures. 1. The pretest and posttest scores of students’ reading comprehension test were analyzed to find mean scores and Standard Deviation by using the SPSS program. 2. The mean scores of the students’ reading comprehension of the sample group were compared by using t-test dependent to find a significant difference. 3. Students’ opinions in part 1 were analyzed into means scores and standard deviation. 4. The suggestions and comments in the open ended part of the questions were concluded and analyzed into percentage. The suggestions and comments were reported and discussed.

Findings The Effect of KWL Plus Technique of Students’ Reading Ability The mean scores of the Mattayom Suksa 3 students’ reading comprehension ability on the pretest and posttest were calculated using descriptive statistics for the means and the standard deviation, and the mean scores of the pretest and posttest of the participants were compared using a paired t-test in order to investigate the effectiveness of the KWL-Plus technique on students’ reading ability. The analysis of the paired t-test calculated on the mean scores of the pretest and posttest showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the pretest and posttest. The results showed a significant difference between the pretest and posttest of the Mattayom Suksa 3 students’ reading ability. The mean scores of posttest were higher than the mean scores of pre-test.

Table 1 Mean Scores and Standard Deviation and Mean Gains of the Students’ Reading Ability from the Reading Comprehension Test. Reading Comprehension ability n M S.D. t p-value Pre- test 46 8.52 3.75 -9.952 0.000* Post-test 46 14.59 4.20 Significant at the 0.01 level (**p‹0.01 two-tailed)

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As shown in table 1, the result shows significant difference between the pretest and posttest of the Mattayom Suksa 3 students’ reading ability at the .01 level. The mean score of posttest (M= 14.59, S.D. = 4.20) was higher than those of pre-test (M= 8.52, S.D.= 3.75).

To investigate students’ opinion towards English Reading comprehension based on the KWL-Plus technique, the students were required to rate the level of opinion for each item of the questionnaire on five- rating scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. Students’ self- rating scores from the opinion questionnaires were analyzed and calculated for the mean and standard deviation and interpreted into five levels from very low to very high. The results showed that students had a positive satisfaction towards English reading comprehension lesson based on KWL-Plus technique, rated at a high level (M= 3.87). Table 2 shows students’ opinion towards English reading comprehension lesson based on KWL-Plus technique.

Table 2 The Students’ Opinion towards the KWL- Plus Technique Questionnaire Items M S.D. level Pre-reading 1. How much do you know vocabulary 3.93 .77 high before you read? 2. Do you think making questions lead you to read? 3.85 .89 high 3. Do asking and answering what you have known help you to get the idea? 3.80 .93 high While-reading 4. Do you have a plan to do while you are reading? 3.63 .74 high 5. Do the questions help you while you are reading? 3.87 .83 high 6. Do you understand better while you are reading? 4.24 .70 high Post-reading 7. Can you find the answers what you have asked 3.96 .78 high after reading ? 8. Do you understand what you have read? 4.06 .67 high 9. Can you summarize the passage into Semantic Mapping? 3.57 .80 high 10. Does Semantic Mapping help you in reading? 3.80 .77 high Total 3.87 .79 high The overall mean scores of the students’ opinion towards English reading comprehension lesson based on KWL-Plus technique was high with the mean scores at 3.87. The results revealed that students had positive satisfaction towards KWL-Plus technique. The majority of them responded that the procedure of providing KWL- Plus technique is appropriate. All students displayed that they liked to learn English using KWL- Plus technique. The first reason that students gave was encouraging students to elicit questions, followed by brainstorming the prior knowledge, and implementing the gained prior knowledge to the procedure. The last reason was pre- teaching vocabulary. The results displayed that most of the students suggested that the topic should be supported more information. Moreover, some students suggested that it was unable to find out the appropriate answers for some elicited questions, and some students suggested that there was the limitation to gain more vocabulary. Lastly, some students suggested that the variety of passages should be provided.

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Discussion The effect of learning based on KWL- Plus technique included eliciting students’ background knowledge, providing students’ learning from peers, motivating students to think, and encouraging students to organize the idea. For reading comprehension part, even though the overall mean score of the posttest was not very high, it was rather higher than the pretest mean scores. This means that there was a significantly change in the students’ reading comprehension. This showed that the KWL-Plus helps students to develop their reading ability in order to comprehend reading passages. The findings of the study were correlated with the results of previous studies (Sangsongfa, 2002; Siluang, 2005) which found that the students’ reading comprehension has been improved through the KWL-Plus technique. In addition, the finding of the Jangpiboonpong (2007) supported the finding of this study that the KWL-Plus technique can help students develop their reading comprehension. As mentions above, it revealed that the KWL-Plus technique encourages students’ background knowledge or Schema which was connected between the new knowledge and the Schema with the experience and motivated students to recognize themselves what they obviously need to know. It was consistent with the Drew’s study (1995). Drew indicated that instruction in the use of the KWL-Plus strategy can make a significant difference in the way students study, in the amount of time students remain on task while studying, and in the amount of information students are able to recall from expository text. In addition, the KWL- Plus technique also helped students to explore themselves whether they gained in the lesson. According to Carr and Ogle (1987), who developed KWL-Plus technique, stated that it had a significant effect on students’ self- concept as reader, the comprehension they place on reading.

Moreover, the students had positive satisfaction towards the KWL-Plus technique on English comprehension lesson at high level. According to students’ opinion questionnaire, students believed that they understand better after they read the passages. It helped them improve their reading ability. The students’ views on KWL-Plus technique learning through KWL-Plus technique was KWL-Plus helped them to improve their reading ability. This was consistent with Norasing’s study (1997). Norasing stated that almost all students were interested in KWL-Plus technique and KWL-Plus technique had some advantages and also raised the students’ attitude on reading comprehension. Moreover, students believed that KWL-Plus technique led them to comprehension at the highest level. This was because students had the ideas and the plans to be connected with the reading passages. The technique put students on task which raised their awareness. It was connected with eliciting background knowledge, motivating purpose to make questions, monitoring to find out the information, and reflecting understanding affected students opinions towards KWL-Plus technique on English comprehension lesson. It can be concluded that the students were satisfied the KWL-Plus technique. Through open- ended questionnaire, students gave the comments that they were satisfied with the KWL- Plus technique because it helped encourage to elicit questions, brainstorm the prior knowledge, implement the gained knowledge to the procedure, and pre- teach vocabulary. Students also gave the suggestions for the weakness that the information should be extended to support the reading passages, it was unable to find out the appropriate answers for some elicited questions, there was the limitation to gain more vocabulary, and the variety of passages should be provided.

Overall, the KWL-Pus technique was appropriate to use in the classroom. Accordingly, students’ positive satisfaction towards KWL-Plus technique in classroom could affect the development of the reading ability of the students. This was relevant to the study of Siluang

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(2005). Siluang revealed that students’ positive satisfaction towards the KWL-Plus technique could raise students’ confidence towards the activities that the activities could help them improve their reading ability. In conclusion, KWL-Plus technique is useful and effective for students in improving their reading ability.

Implications of the study It can be seen that KWL- Plus technique is helpful to promote students’ reading ability effectively. The results of this study demonstrated that KWL-Plus technique promotes students’ reading ability in reading comprehension. Moreover, students had positive satisfaction on KWL-Plus technique. However, the teacher should provide different types of text because of students’ different interests. In addition, the teacher should set students’ groups which have mixed ability because the good students could help the passive and slower students. Apart from pre- teaching vocabulary stage, when students are encountered with unknown words while reading, the teacher should suggest them to look for the connectives around words and help them predict a suitable meaning before looking for the definition in the dictionary. According to Schmitt (1997) and Wei (2007), vocabulary knowledge can be enhanced by looking up the new words in a dictionary to confirm the accuracy of their guessing. Learners are required to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words by using their grammatical knowledge and context. Furthermore, the teacher should integrate the writing skill in post reading stage when the students come up to the semantic mapping. They should have a chance to familiarize to the writing skill. According to Alverman (1986) Semantic Mapping helps students behold the involvement of the main idea and subclass which helps students reflect after reading. KWL-Plus is one of the reading technique that can be used in the classroom to promote higher reading comprehension ability and students’ satisfaction in learning.

Limitations of the study There was a limitation in selecting the reading passages due to the course arrangement. The students were provided the text book given by the school. Therefore, the researcher had to take the reading passages from the students’ textbook to instruct them. The time used for this study also a limitation of the study. The time given for the experiment was only two months, which is significant because research conducted by a different period of time may yield different findings. Other limitations are the students were asked to do the posttest at the end of the course. They were preparing for their examination and they knew that the posttest would not affect their grades; therefore, they did not pay much attention to the posttest. Thus, the posttest should be conducted before the end of the course and the students should not be told that the posttest will not affect their grades.

Recommendation for Further Studies 1. Researcher should study the development of English reading ability by using KWL- Plus technique at high school level or undergraduate level because they are more likely to have sufficient prior knowledge to do more difficult tasks. 2. Other studies should be conducted with participants from different levels of learning such as poor students, average students, and good students. It would be interesting to see whether KWL- Plus technique would still be beneficial to these three groups. 3. Researcher could compare the effect of KWL-Plus technique with other approaches in order to find out which one provides more advantage for teaching reading in Thai context.

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Conclusion This study was conducted to investigate whether KWL- Plus technique can promote students’ reading ability, specifically reading comprehension. In addition, the study examined the students’ opinion towards KWL-Plus technique English lesson. Based on the results of the study revealed that KWL- Plus technique had a positive effect on the Mattayom Suksa three students’ reading ability. Moreover, the results indicated that the students’ positive satisfaction on KWL-Plus technique English lesson. According to the results it can be concluded that the KWL-Plus technique, which suggests activities that facilitates active learning, is beneficial students to improve their reading ability and enhance their positive satisfaction.

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Reference Bailey, K,M. (1990). The use of diary studies in teacher education progranmme. In J.C. Carr, E.; & Ogle, D. (1987). Kwl- plus: A strategy for comprehension and summarization. Journal of Reading, 30, pp. 626-631. Carrell, P.L. (1989). Metacognitive awareness and second language reading. Modern Language Journal, 73, pp. 120- 133. Chandavimon, M. (1998). Reading comprehension: An active engagement or a passive Experience? PASSA, 28, pp. 31-42. Dowhower,S.L. (1999). Supporting a strategic stance in the classroom. A comprehension framework for helping teachers help students to be strategic. The Reading Journal, 52. pp. 672- 678. Drew, E Magaret. (1995). The effectiveness of the kwl- plus strategy on developmental college students’ ability to recall expository text. Unpublished Ph.D. United States: Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. Abstract Finocchiaro, M. & Brumfit, C. (1983). The functional-notional approach: From Theory to Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jangpiboonpong, R. (2007). Kwl- plus reading Strategy: Effects on Reading Achievement and Motivation of matthayomsuksa 3 Students. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Srinakarinwirot, Bangkok. Junthongkum, T. (2005). Developing english reading comprehension ability of mattayomsuksa I students through cooperative learning technique : Student Team Achievement Division (STAD). Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Srinakarinwirot, Bangkok. Mejang, A. (2004). The development of an english reading strategy instruction model based on collaborative learning principles for enhancing reading learning outcomes of university students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok. Miller, Wilma S. (1990). Reading comprehension activities kit. The center for Applied Research in Education. Ministry of Education. (2002). Basic education B.E. 2544 (A.D.2001). Bangkok: The Express Transportation Organization of Thailand. Norasing, Wichitra. (1997). A comparison of matthayom suksa III students’ reading performance, and reading attitudes through kwl-plus reading teaching instruction based on Teacher’s manual. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Srinakarinwirot, Bangkok. Sangsongfa, A. (2002). The Comparison of mathayom Suksa III students’ reading comprehension and motivation between the instruction of kwl-plus and the teacher manual in learning English at wattalabuk school Aumpur Kumpangsan, Nakhon pathom. (Master’s thesis dissertation, University of Silpakorn). Retrieved from http://www.thapra.lib.su.ac.th/objects/thesis/fulltext/snamcn/Amornsri_Sangfa/ Fulltext.pdf. Siluang, K. (2005). English reading ability of prathomsuksa five students learning through kwl-plus technique. (Master’s thesis dissertation, University of Phranakhon Rajabhat University). Retrieved from http:// lib.pnru.ac.th. Wetthayawong, S. (2002). A study on mathayomsuksa II students’ reading comprehension and interest in learning english through instruction based on top- level structure with stad (students teams- achievement divisions) and the teacher’s manual. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Srinakarinwirot, Bangkok.

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Factors Affecting English Listening and Speaking Skills of Mathayomsuksa 6 Students

Yossawadee Jindamai Rangsit University

Abstract The purposes of the research were to ascertain factors relating and affecting English listening and speaking abilities of Thai high school students. The investigated factors were study habits, self-confidence, motivation, parental support, and classroom environment. The subjects of the study were a hundred and eighty-six, grade 12 high school students selected through simple random sampling technique. The instrument used in this study was a questionnaire designed specifically for the purpose. The results revealed that there were five factors, including: study habits, self-confidence, motivation, parental support, and classroom environment which had a positive relationship to English listening and speaking abilities, while two factors affected English listening and speaking abilities with significance at the level of .01 and they were arranged from the most to the least effect, namely parental support and self-confidence.

Keywords: English, Learning factors, High school, Listening and speaking abilities

Introduction Currently, the English language is enforced on the curriculum from primary through university level education; this is in accordance with the policy of the Ministry of Education, which has specified that English must be the priority foreign language that all Thai students learn at school (Ministry of Education, 2002). Even though most Thai students cannot master or cannot perform in English well, especially in speaking skill (Aoki, 1999 and Maurice, 1993). For example, a report of the National Institute of Educational Testing Service (2009) shows from 2007-2009, about 30 percent of Mathayomsuksa 6 students have low scores and have not met the standard on the English subject. In addition, Thai students have a problem on communication, especially with English listening and speaking as Mokkarawut (2006) shows that most Thai students cannot communicate in English with foreigners in real life because they lack listening and speaking skills when using English in communicative situation. Rubin and Thompson (1994); Brown (1994) and KET teaching resource, University of Cambridge, (2009) stated that listening and speaking skills are difficult for foreign language learners because they require the ability to choose the appropriate elements in the social communication. There are several reasons why Thai learners cannot communicate well. According to Tiprudee Toosiri (2005), Thai students' lack of fluency and understanding in English. When they have to speak, they fail to utter words because they are shy and worry about mispronunciation, and; moreover they do not understand what a native or non native speakers are saying. Therefore, there should be factors that cause students to feel uncomfortable when they use English.

However, there are a lot more factors that contribute to the success or failure of learners in their real learning contexts such as study habits, self-confidence, parental support, motivation and classroom environment (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993 and Spolsky,2000) This study attempts to answer the following research questions: a) What factors and type of students were successful English listening and speaking learners?

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Literature Review Learning factors have been studied for decades. To study details of influent factor in learning English listening and speaking skills, five main aspects were chosen to discuss below: a) Study habits Study habits play an important role in academic achievement is an aspect of personal factors that many scholars have sum up why study habits are necessary for success. Boonyanunta (2003), Moolsadang (2006), Riaz et al. (2002), and Walqui (2000) also have similarly opinion about study habits as behaviors that students frequently do before, during and after studying, such as punctuality and attention. Amongst shortcomings in the system of education, study habits play a vital role in reflecting the standards of education and the student's individual achievements.

b) Self-confidence As Dornyei (2001) mentioned, self confidence refers to the belief that a person has the ability to produce results, achieve goals or perform tasks competently. Some scholars discuss about how self-confidence is important in learning a foreign language; Rubin and Thomson (1994) explain that learners who are shy and worried about their ability to use the language are less willing to participate in classroom practice and in real-world communication. These traits can prohibit progress in listening and speaking a foreign language. Moreover, Spolsky (2000) found that self-confidence influenced four skills of English.

c) Motivation Dornyei (2003) states the motivation to learn a foreign language also involves the speaker's willingness to communicate. It was proven that the reason that a learner decides to study another language is because of their survival needs. When a learner is in a society where English is commonly used, it is necessary for them to be more active in order to acquire the new language (Dornyei, 2003). As a study's Wang, Z. (1993) that factors which affect Chinese EFL student acquisition in the Department of Foreign Languages were language shock, culture differences, cultural background knowledge and motivation.

d) Parental support As Brashear (1993) found that parents are a key component of students' families, and they play an important part in making sure students achieve in the future. In consideration of the language learning, parents have an influence in students' language achievement, according to Sukanthaphruk (1999), in supporting the English language learning, parents are a significant variable toward English vocabulary retention. Students, who receive parental support such as through buying texts or dictionaries and paying for tutors, have more chances of both gaining and studying the vocabulary than just in the classroom alone. Likewise, a study by Pillipson (2009) found that the parental affective factor influences students' intellectual ability and it could predict students' academic achievement on language and mathematics at schools in Hong Kong.

e) Classroom environment The environment is an informal situation where learners may have the opportunity to learn and speak a target language in a community, whereas school offers the formal learning of the target language. Conteh-Morgan (2002) indicates that factors influencing the learning situation in this respect also refer to the general atmosphere of the learning environment. As evident of Thubsri (2004) studied factors influencing English learning achievement in Eastern Thailand. He found that the biggest factors affecting the success of learning English were those related to creating a good atmosphere in the classroom.

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Methodology This research is a survey that ascertains factors affecting English listening and speaking abilities of high school's students; therefore, the study population was Mathayomsuksa 6 students studying in the second semester of the academic year 2010 at a secondary school, Educational Service area 10, Mahasarakham province. The number of subjects was a hundred and eighty-six, acquired through the sampling formula by Kerjcie and Morgan. A simple random sampling method was employed to select the participants by writing students' names on separate pieces of paper and placing in boxes according to the program they studied. The samples used were randomly chosen from the boxes. The sample group consisted of 101 students in Science-Mathematics program, 36 Language-Mathematics program students and 49 Language-Social Studies students.

The instrument of this survey study was a questionnaire, designed specifically for the purpose. Each part of the questionnaire was checked, modified and revised by the committees and advisor. Moreover, to get the instrument standardized, a questionnaire was proven validity of content by three experts. Questionnaires were tried out with 30 students who were not included in the sample. Questipnnaires were analyzed to find 25% of high and low group; the t-test was used to calculate the discrimination power; the scale of a questipnnaire was between 0.4-0.9. The reliability of each part of the questionnaire was analyzed using Cronbach's alpha coefficients was between 0.69-0.73. Finally, a complete questionnaire consisted of seven parts which included general information, self-confidence in the classroom, motivation towards English listening and speaking skills, parental support, classroom environment and estimation of English listening and speaking abilities. The questionnaire had totally thirty-three items. The rating scales from 1-4 according to Likert's scale; a four-point scale credits as seen in table 1.

Table 1: A four-point scale credits Scale credits Regulation for positive statements The rating interpretation 4 = most relevant 4 = 4 points 3.26-4.00 = Very high 3= very relevant 3 = 3 points 2.51-3.25 = High 2= a little relevant 2 = 2 points 1.76-2.50 = Low 1= least relevant 1 = 1 points 1.00-1.75 = Very low The data were collected during the first week of February in the second semester of the academic year 2010. To facilitate a data collecting process, a representative of the researcher distributed the questionnaires to 186 participants during the fifth period in the auditorium. The respondents were informed of the objectives of the study, about ten to fifteen minutes was made available to answer questions. The questionnaire used was in Thai version. The time allowed to complete the questionnaire was thirty minutes. Then, the questionnaires were collected and verified. The statistical package of Social Sciences program was used to statistically analyze data. General information analyzed through percentage, mean and standard deviation. Analysis of relationship between study factors and English listening and speaking skills was analyzed by using the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient. Analysis of study factors that can predict English listening and speaking skills was analyzed by using Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis.

Findings After the questionnaires were collected and verified completely, the data were analyzed and the findings are shown in Table 2 to as follows:

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Table 2: General information Gender No. % Age No. % Study Program No. % Male 51 27.4 17 years 32 17.2 Science-Mathematics 101 54.3 Female 135 72.6 18 years 142 76.3 Language-Mathematics 36 19.4 19 years 12 6.5 Language-Social Studies 49 26.3

Total 186 100 Total 186 360 Total 186 100 It can be seen from Table 2 that more than half the subjects were female (72.6%); the male component was found to be 27.4%. Most of subjects were 18 years-old (76.3%) and more than half the subjects were Science-Mathematics students (54.3%); Language-Social Studies students comprised of (26.3%); and Language-Mathematics students made up 19.4%.

Table 3: Students' mean scores and an interpretation on study variables Study factors X S.D. Interpretation 1. Study habits 2.63 .51 High 2. Self-confidence 2.25 .41 Low 3. Motivation towards English listening and speaking skills. 2.79 .55 High 4. Parental support 2.66 .57 High 5. Classroom Environment 2.79 .43 High Table 3 shows that four variables were interpreted at a high level: Motivation towards English listening and speaking skills (X=2.79, S.D=.55), Classroom environment (X=2.79, S.D=.43), Parental support (X=2.66, S.D=.57) and Study habits (X=2.63, S.D=.51). Interpreted at a low level was Self-confidence (X=2.25, S.D=.41).

Table 4 Students’ mean scores and an interpretation concerning self-evaluation of English listening and speaking abilities. Items X S.D. Interpretation 1. I am able to greet peers, Thai teachers and native speakers of 2.84 .75 High English. 2. I am able to communicate with Thai teachers by using 2.53 .63 High English. 3. I am able to understand and grasp main points of English 2.31 .66 Low advertisements. 4. I am able to retell English advertisements I have seen to 2.24 .62 Low others. 5. I do not have English listening and speaking problems 2.26 .69 Low Total 2.44 .59 Low Table 4 shows the interpretation levels concerning self-evaluation of English listening and speaking abilities. There were only two items, which were interpreted at a high level. Item 1, “I am able to greet peers, Thai teachers and native speakers of English” (X=2.84, S.D=.75) and Item 2, “I am able to communicate with Thai teachers by using English” (X=2.53, S.D=.63). Three items were interpreted at a low level; they were items 3-5. Considering the

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mean score of each item, students had mean scores of approximately 2.24-2.28. Most interpretations were at a low level.

Table 5 Correlations between the study factors and Mathayomsuksa 6 students' English listening and speaking skills

Y X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 Y 1.00 0.067 -0.110 0.051 0.344** 0.288** 0.233** 0.398** 0.266** * Correlation is significant at a level of .05 ** Correlation is significant at a level of .01 Table 5 shows that five factors had a positive correlation to English listening-speaking abilities at a significance level of .01. Arranged from highest to lowest: parental support (X7 =.398**), study habits (X4 =.344**), self-confidence (X5 =.288**), classroom environment (X8 =.266**), and motivation towards English listening and speaking skills (X6 =.233**).

Table 6: Study factors that can predict the factors affecting English listening and speaking skills of Mathayomsuksa 6 students β 2 Study factors b SEb R R F

X7 0.356 0.071 0.346 0.398 0.158 0.000**

X7X5 0.281 0.098 0.196 0.440 0.194 0.005** ** Significant at a level of 0.01 Table 6 shows two study factors with significance at a level of .o1 could predict the factors affecting English listening and speaking skills of Mathayomsuksa 6 students. They were parental support (X7) and self-confidence(X5). This indicates that parental support and self- confidence are important factors that affect English listening and speaking skills.

Discussion The discussion part attempts to discuss of what factors and type of students were successful English listening and speaking learners. Due to the finding, there were five factors were successful English listening and speaking learners and type of students were described also below. a) Study habits: students who concentrated and paid attention while learning English in the classroom, and asked the teacher when they felt confused about the lesson. They were enthusiastic while doing English activities in the classroom and used their English listening and speaking abilities to converse with native and non-native teachers when they had free time. Students who had the aforementioned study habits had better knowledge and experience allowing them to develop their English language listening and speaking abilities. This related to the studies of Boonyanunta (2003), Moolsadang (2006) and Riaz et al (2002) who found that, study habits are students' behaviors that they frequently do in and out of the classroom, and study habits play a vital role in reflecting the standards of education and students' individual achievements.

b) Motivation towards English listening and speaking skills: since students realized the importance of English language and needed to use English for further studies, they also wanted to have abilities similar to native speakers. Finally, students were motivated by the need. These incentives persuaded students to pay attention in the classroom. They were willing to engage in activities that allowed them to practice English language, especially

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listening and speaking skills. In parallel with Dornyei (2003) who says that one reason a learner decides to learn another language is because of their need to survive. This result concurs with Chaowakeeratiphong (2004) found that motivation to study English had a positive relationship with English achievement. Moreover, Wang (1993) found that motivation created psychological distance between Chinese EFL learners and English.

c) Classroom environment: a good English classroom environment; instructor, learning material and peers can help promote a good relationship between students and English teachers. The English lessons, activities, materials and equipment were interesting, modern and sufficient for each student. These environmental factors could persuade the students to pay attention and enjoy the class. Moreover, it encourages students to learn better in English listening and speaking classes. In accordance with Conteh-Morgan (2002) and Thubusri (2004) who found that, factors influencing the learning situation in this respect also refer to the general atmosphere of the learning environment, the classroom dynamics, opportunities and the students' perception of the instructor's commitment to their learning. d) Parental support: students who received support from parents had better English listening and speaking abilities. As when students have a problem with English, parents should talk to them and help them to solve it. If students needed to study English listening and speaking skills to gain additional knowledge, parents could support them by sending them to a tutor or English practice program, buying them textbooks and electronic dictionaries, and encouraging them to watch English TV programs. Parental actions such as these enable students to improve and participate in English language. This result concurs with Phasongsuk, (2003), Boonyanunta (2003), Brashear (1993) and Tsi (1993) who found that, parental support greatly affected English study achievement. e) Self-confidence: students who were self-confident. During lessons, these students were neither anxious nor shy about using English to answer questions and present projects. They were able to practice conversation with native and non-native teachers and peers. They were not afraid to make mistakes, and they would consistently correct themselves. Outside the classroom, these students could greet native speakers, and could help if they needed directions. The results show that self-confidence can help students to enjoy English lessons and exhibit willingness to use the English language. This concurs with Stern (1990) and Brown (1994), who also noted that, self-confidence played a prominent role in foreign language acquisition as either a debilitative or a facilitative factor, and it is popularly regarded as a component of a good language learner. It is also in agreement with Boonyanunta (2003) who found that one factor affecting the English speaking skills of students was self-confidence.

Recommendations for further study a) Further studies can investigate other factors affecting English listening and speaking skills, such as the family income and anxiety. According to the finding of this study, parental support and self-confidence were the factors that most influenced English listening and speaking skills. b) Further studies can also investigate other factors affecting English skills, including reading and writing because these skills are also important to Thai students and are required both inside and outside the classroom.

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References Aoki, N. (1999). Affect and the role of teachers in the development of learner autonomy. Master's thesis, Cambridge University. Cambridge. Boonyanunta, M. (2003). Factor affecting on the English speaking skill of upper Primary students of Phraharuthaininthaburi school in Amphoe Pakret (Master's thesis). Srinakharinwirot University. Nakornnayok, Thailand. (In Thai) Brashear, K. (1993). Parents' action with academic achievement: n.p. Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Chalong Thubsri. (2004). Factors influencing English learning achievement in the easternpart of Thailand (Master's thesis). Burapha University. Chonburi, Thailand. (In Thai) Chaowakeeratiphong, T. (2004). Factors related to achievement in English of students in Rajbhat Universities in the Northern Region. Rajbhat Kamphaeng Phet University. Kamphaeng Phet, Thailand. Conteh-Morgan, E. Miriam. (2002). Connecting the dots: limited English proficiency, second language learning theories, and information literacy instruction. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 28, 191-196. Dornyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations and motivations in language learning: Advances in theory, research, and application. Nottingham: University of Nottingham Press. KET teaching (2009). Teaching English as foreign language. Cambridge : University of Cambridge Press. Maurice, C. (1993). Let me hear your voice. New York: Knopf. Ministry of Education. (2002). Foreign language syllabus. Bangkok: Thailand Government Printing Office. National Institute of Educational Testing Service. (2009). The o-net score of English subject. Retrieved December 15, 2009, from National institute of Educational testing Service: http://www.niets.or.th Phillipson, S. (2010). Modeling parental role in academic achievement: comparing high- ability to low- and average-ability students (Master's thesis). Hong Kong Institute of Education. Hong Kong. Raiz,A., Kiran, A. and Malik, N. (2002). Relationship of study habits with educational achievements. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 12, 329-334. Rubin, J and Thompson, I. (1994). How to be a more successful language learner. Boston, Massachusettes: Heinle and Heinle. Mokkarawut, S. (2006). An investigation of factors affecting English speaking proficiency: A case study of King Mongkut's Institute of Technology North Bangkok (Master's thesis). King Mongkut's Institute of Technology North Bangkok. Bangkok. Moolsadang, S. (2006). A study of the study habits of fourth level students of the demonstration school at Ramkhamhaeng University (Master's thesis). Ramkhamhaeng University. Bangkok. (In Thai) Spolsky, B. (2000). Condition for second language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stern, H. (1990). Issues and options in language teaching and fundamental concepts of language teaching. Oxford : Oxford University Press. Sukhanthaphrek, S. (1999). Analysis of the improving of English vocabulary learning (Master's thesis). Chulalongkorn University. Bangkok. Tsi. (1993). Parent-professional partnership: a review and discussion of issues: n.p. Walqui, A. (2000). Contextual factors in second language acquisition.

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Retrieve : June 30, 2009. from http://www.askeric.org. Wang, Z. (1993). Factors that affect Chinese EFL Learner's acquisition (Master's thesis). Tianjin Institute of Technology. Tianjin, China. Wilson, M. C. (2009). The relation among parental factors and achievement of African American urban youth (Master's thesis). School of Education Faculty, Roger Williams University. Rhode Island, U.S.A.

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The Effects of Communicative Activities on Vocabulary Development of Kindergarteners

Sirin Vungsangoungij Dr. Somsak Kaewnuch Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of using communicative activities in teaching vocabulary to kindergarteners. The sample used in this study was eighteen third-year kindergarteners in the intensive English program in Bangkok, selected by convenience sampling. The study was carried out in a period of six weeks during the second semester of 2011, in which the kindergarteners studied with an English-speaking teacher for thirty periods. The teaching was an experiment of using eight activities: matching pictures and pictures, matching pictures and vocabulary, describing and drawing pictures, describing and rearranging pictures, survey, playing hangman games and bingos, and dictating vocabulary. The instruments used in this study were a pre–post vocabulary achievement test, a pre–post vocabulary pronunciation test, four lesson plans, and a researcher’s log. The data from the achievement and pronunciation tests were analyzed using mean scores, standard deviations, and a t-test score. The data from the researcher’s log were described qualitatively. The study showed that the students’ ability in using vocabulary was higher after studying with communicative activities.

Introduction English is a widely used international language, and it is becoming more important in South East Asia. The ASEAN countries use a shared language for communication. This language is English. According to Onwimon (2011), the members of the ASEAN mainly use English to communicate with one another. People in all member countries travel to the other member countries for different reasons; they go to work, study, do business and travel. In addition, they use English to contact foreigners of different languages and cultures. Therefore, English is a very important foreign or second language for all ASEAN countries.

The importance of English is reflected in education. It is taught in every school, institution, and university. The 1996 curriculum proposed by the Ministry of Education requires students to study English for 12 years from grade one to grade twelve (Ministry of Education, 2001). It is aimed at enabling learners to acquire the abilities to use English for communicating in various situations, to seek for knowledge, to engage in daily activities with others, and to pursue higher education. Schools are required to follow the English curriculum, which focuses on four skills––listening, speaking, reading and writing––to develop learners to be able to communicate in English efficiently.

The reasons above show that it is necessary to have a good education in English, and this education should be continuous, and in particular, learning English in a foreign context should start at an early age. Many linguists and educators such as Wiriyajittra (1989) and Cook (2001) believe that children are better at learning second languages than adults. Asher and Garcia (1969) state that children are better at pronunciation. Akraratana (2008) says that children acquire a second language the same way they acquire their mother tongue. They learn language unconsciously and naturally, and in this way, they can communicate easily. Niyomtam (1998) points out that the most important age for the development of language is

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2-7 years old. At this age, children will have very good abilities to recognize words and express ideas. It seems easy for children of this age to learn new vocabularies and try out them in different sentences. The fact is that most children of this age are now in preschool or kindergarten education. To promote a secure development of English, we, therefore, should start providing good and sufficient education of this language for preschoolers.

However, one of many questions is “How do we teach preschoolers?” English is not taught in the same ways in all levels, although there are usually emphases on listening, speaking, reading, and writing in all curricula. In kindergartens, the emphasis should be on language development (Tundulpong, 2009). The Ministry of Education requires that students in the lower primary levels develop their speaking and listening skills and develop their reading and writing skills in the higher primary levels (Ministry of Education, 2001). The education in kindergartens should provide a tool for all the four language skills, that is, vocabulary. Thus, it seems that emphases on vocabulary skills are necessary for kindergarteners. However, kindergarteners are good at learning language integrated into activities (Ministry of Education, 2003). It is implied that it is appropriate as well as beneficial for kindergarteners to learn vocabulary along with activities. This should enable preschoolers to learn from direct experiences as well as to acquire knowledge and social skills.

Even though the Ministry of Education does not require that English be taught in early childhood curricula, English is also taught in Thailand such as bilingual kindergarten. This should be beneficial for preschoolers. In fact, literature in second language education reveals that the earlier children learn language, the more successful they will be (Angwattanakul, 1994). Many parents recognize the importance of the English language so they support their children to learn it from an early level. Jearranaipreprame (1999) points out that the guardians of kindergarten students usually have a desire to support their children to learn English language at a young age.

Therefore, helping young children to learn vocabulary is important. This is to say that vocabulary enables them to learn English. Without vocabulary, they will not learn the four skills effectively. Many linguists argue that learning a new vocabulary or words is very important (Thornbury, 2002; Nunan, 2003). If you spent most of your time studying grammar, your English will improve a little. In contrast, if you learn more words and expressions, your English will improve very much. You can say very little with grammar, but you can say almost anything with words (Thornbury, 2002). Many researchers agree that vocabulary is crucial for learning languages. For example, Sripramong (2004) states that English vocabulary is an important factor that helps students learn English well. Sorpitpakdeepong (2001) says that learning vocabulary is associated with the four skills; learners who have learned a lot of vocabulary can communicate well and properly. Senwanich (1998) argues that the Thai students cannot understand the text they read if they do not understand vocabulary. Kanithanon (1987) points out that without fundamental concepts of vocabulary, including the meanings and spelling, Thai students will encounter a variety of problems when writing an English essay. In conclusion, learning vocabulary is very important because the meaning and function of vocabulary helps people to understand and communicate with others correctly and appropriately.

In kindergartens, vocabulary is certainly important. The more new words they learn, the greater ability they have to communicate with others. At first, these words are mostly names of things, people, and animals (Nessel, 1989 & Ninwichien, 1992). Niyomtam (1998) says that to understand other people, children need to know words. Children obtain more words as

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81 they grow up and then learn to put them into phrases and sentences. They learn more vocabulary and speak faster when they enter school.

Children also learn vocabulary through daily activities. Malaroad (2001) and Tundulpong (2009) state that children learn language by listening and interacting. The expression of language helps them to learn and communicate with others. In other words, real-life activities and interactions help them learn vocabulary as well as language better than reading and other forms of formal instructions. Parkbongkoj (1985) and Sukserm (2008) point out that children who do not interact with others would delay their vocabulary development. For these reasons, the researcher believes that vocabulary is very important in kindergartens.

Not only the researcher but also many theorists confirm that vocabulary should be taught at the kindergarten level. Learning vocabulary includes spelling and pronouncing words, and also knowing their meanings. Researchers such as Bumpass (1963) and Wiriyajittra (1989) argue that young children are the right age to learn language, particularly pronunciation. Young children acquire language by imitating sounds. They attempt to imitate the sounds they hear and combine sounds into words, and then into phrases and sentences. At this age, the pronunciation organs are developing, so children can imitate sounds very well. Children like to mime and enjoy repetitions. When they go to school, they can pick up vocabulary very quickly from their teachers. They do not feel embarrassed when they make mistakes and enjoy repetitive activities. Niyomtam (1998) and Broughton (1980) claim that expressions and repetitive activities give children a sense of assurance and achievement.

The fact that children should learn vocabulary at a very young age is also supported by the theory of second language acquisition. Krashen (1987) and Angwattanakul (1994) explain that learning consists of language acquisition and language learning. Children acquire language through direct communications, and they do not pay attention to rules and principles of the language. They learn language subconsciously. For children learning a second language, children do not know that they are learning a second language. They do not know that they are learning the language structure naturally.

The researcher would like to conduct one study to explore the effects of using various classroom activities on preschoolers’ vocabulary development. The researcher’s investigation involves using multiple activities which include information gap activities, such as matching pictures and pictures, matching pictures and vocabulary, describing and drawing pictures, describing and rearranging pictures, surveying, playing games (hangman and bingo) and dictations. These activities, supposedly, can help students to develop multi-skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing, and spelling. Students have to practice their speaking through those information gap activities. For example, they have to find a student who has the same picture or matching picture and word, so they have more opportunities to speak. Students have to write or spell a word or draw a picture after they get the information or find their partner. Students can practice their listening and writing through the hangman, bingo, and dictation activities.

Objective of the Study This study aimed at studying the effectiveness of using communicative activities in teaching vocabulary to kindergarteners.

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Significance of the study The results can be used as guidelines for kindergarten teachers to arrange activities suitable for their kindergarteners and improve their methods when teaching vocabulary.

Scope of the Study 1. The sample used in this study was eighteen third-year kindergarteners in an intensive English program, selected by convenience sampling. 2. The study was conducted in the second semester of the 2011 academic year. It lasted for 6 weeks. The class met an hour a day. The total time of this study was 30 hours. 3. The content and vocabulary used in this study came from a book called English Time Book 1. It consisted of topics about fruits and vegetables, physical descriptions, occupations, and action verbs.

Definition of Terms 1. A communicative activity refers to an activity that encourages students to use language and interact with people. A communicative activity can be a pair-work activity or a group activity. 2. The vocabulary refers to the words chosen from the English Time Book 1. It consisted of words about fruits and vegetables, physical descriptions, occupations, and action verbs. 3. Vocabulary development refers to the development reflected by the pretest and posttest scores.

Methodology Instruments The instruments used in this study were an English vocabulary achievement test, an English vocabulary pronunciation test, four lesson plans and a researcher’s log. First is the English vocabulary achievement test. This test was used as a pretest and a posttest. It was administered to measure students’ knowledge of vocabulary in terms of listening ability, recognizing meanings of words, and spelling ability. The first part of this test contained 24 multiple-choice questions that tested listening ability and the ability to recognize meaning of words. The second part of the test contained six questions that tested spelling ability. The total score of this test was 30. Second is the English vocabulary pronunciation test. This test was used both as a pretest and posttest. It was administered to measure students’ abilities to pronounce and meaning matching. The test involved two steps. Firstly, each student had to randomly pick up 10 out of a total of 24 word cards and then pronounce each word (one point for each correct pronunciation). Secondly, the students had to match words with pictures (one point for a correct matching). The total score of this test was 20. Third is the lesson plans. The researcher created and organized four lesson plans based on theories about communicative activities. The vocabulary used in these lesson plans were names of fruits and vegetables, words about physical descriptions, names of occupations, and action verbs. Each lesson plan was used for 7 periods. Each period lasted for an hour. Fourth is a researcher’s log. Daily, the researcher took notes about the use of vocabulary, the way the students pronounced words, the way they participated in the activities, and the behavior of the students in the activities. The researcher described the general conditions and the obstacles in the classroom.

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Procedures The data collection included the following steps. Firstly, the researcher collected the scores from the pretest of the English vocabulary achievement test and the English vocabulary pronunciation test. Then, a native English teacher taught the students using the four lesson plans created by the researcher. It lasted 6 weeks, 5 hours a week. The total time was 30 hours. The researcher wrote a research’s log every day. After the teaching was done, the researcher collected the scores from the posttest of the English vocabulary achievement test and the English vocabulary pronunciation test. The data collection was analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively – the pretest and posttest scores quantitatively and the research log qualitatively. Lastly, the researcher concluded the results of the study.

Data Analysis The data were analyzed as follows: 1. The pretest and posttest scores from the English vocabulary achievement test and the English vocabulary pronunciation test were analyzed using mean scores and standard deviations, which were computed into a t-test score. These were analyzed by using the SPSS program for Windows. 2. The data from the researcher’s log was analyzed qualitatively.

Results and Discussion 1. The results of the English vocabulary achievement test The English vocabulary achievement test consisted of 3 parts: listening (12 questions), recognizing meanings (12 questions), and spelling (6 questions). The total score was 30. To examine the effect of using communicative activities on the English vocabulary achievement test, the raw scores of the pretest and posttest of the English vocabulary achievement test were shown in Tables 1 to 4. Then, the mean scores and standard deviations of the pretest and posttest were compared in Table 5 resulting in a t-test score. The data were analyzed by using the SPSS for Windows.

Table 1: The pretest and posttest raw scores of the listening part of the English vocabulary achievement test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Pre 9 6 8 9 5 7 8 7 9 10 8 8 9 8 8 9 9 4 Post 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 10 12 12 12 12 11 11 12 12 12 Diff 3 6 4 3 7 5 4 5 1 2 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 8

Firstly, as shown in Table 1, the posttest raw scores of listening part of the English vocabulary achievement test were higher than the pretest raw scores. The mean score of the posttest was 11.78 and that of the pretest was 7.83. The difference indicated that the third- year kindergarteners could listen and recognize new words through the communicative activities.

Table 2: The pretest and posttest raw scores of recognizing meanings of words of the English vocabulary achievement test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Pre 5 2 3 6 2 6 4 6 7 1 6 7 5 6 1 5 6 4 Post 10 11 9 12 9 11 10 10 11 10 11 11 10 10 12 12 12 8 Diff 5 9 6 6 7 5 6 4 4 9 5 4 5 4 11 7 6 4

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Secondly, as shown in Table 2, the posttest raw scores in the section of recognizing meanings were higher than the pretest scores. The mean score of the posttest was 10.50 and that of the pretest was 4.56. The difference indicated that the third-year kindergarteners improved their ability to recognize meanings of vocabulary after studying with communicative activities.

Table 3: The pretest and posttest raw scores of the spelling part of the English vocabulary achievement test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Pre 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Post 6 4 3 5 3 6 6 4 6 5 6 5 6 6 6 5 6 6 Diff 6 4 3 5 3 6 6 4 6 5 6 5 6 6 6 5 5 6

Thirdly, the posttest raw scores of the spelling part of the English vocabulary achievement test were higher than the pretest raw scores. The mean score of the posttest was 5.22 and that of the pretest was 0.06. The difference indicated that the third-year kindergarteners could spell words very well after studying with communicative activities.

Table 4: The pretest and posttest total raw scores of the English vocabulary achievement test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Pre 14 8 11 15 7 13 12 13 16 11 14 15 14 14 9 14 16 8 Post 28 27 24 29 24 29 28 26 27 27 29 28 28 27 29 29 30 26 Diff 14 19 13 14 17 16 16 13 11 16 15 13 14 13 20 15 14 18

As shown in Table 4, the total score of the vocabulary achievement test was 30. The experimental group obtained higher scores in the posttest than in the pretest. The lowest score increased from the pretest to the posttest made by the student number 9 was 11. The highest score increased from the pretest to the posttest made by the student number 15 was 20. The last row in Table 4 shows the posttest scores of all the students were more than ten higher than the pretest raw scores.

To confirm that the scores from the posttest were significantly higher than the scores from the pretest, the scores of the two tests were computed by the SPSS program, resulting in the means scores and standard deviations of two tests, and also a t-test dependent score. These scores are presented in Table 5.

Table 5: A comparison of mean scores on pretest and posttest of the English vocabulary achievement test Test Number of Mean S.D. t-test Sig Mean difference students between groups Pre-test (1) 18 12.44 2.83 27.32* 0.00 (2) > (1) Post-test (2) 18 27.50 1.69 *P < .05

In sum, as shown in Table 5, the mean score of the posttest was 27.50 and the mean scores of the pretest were 12.44. In other words, the students got much higher scores. The t-test score (27.32) demonstrated a significant difference between the pretest and posttest mean scores at the 0.05 statistical level. The results indicated that the kindergarteners improved their vocabulary ability after studying with communicative activities.

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2. The results of the English vocabulary pronunciation test Each student picked ten word cards, pronounced them, and matched them with the correct pictures. For each card, the student got two points if she could pronounce it and match it with a picture correctly, so the total score was 20. The raw scores of the pretest and posttest of the English vocabulary pronunciation test were shown in Tables 6 to 8. Then, the mean scores and standard deviations of the pretest and posttest were compared in Table 9 resulting in a t- test score. The data were analyzed by using the SPSS for Windows program.

Table 6: The pretest and posttest raw scores of the pronunciation part of the English vocabulary pronunciation test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Pre 2 1 0 5 0 0 0 1 3 0 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 Post 10 10 10 10 8 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 10 10 10 10 Diff 8 9 10 5 8 9 10 9 7 10 8 7 7 7 8 7 8 8

Table 6 shows that the posttest scores of pronunciation part were much higher than the pretest scores. The mean score of the posttest was 9.78 and that of the pretest was 1.72. The difference shows that the kindergarteners could improve their pronunciation of words after studying with communicative activities.

Table 7: The pretest and posttest raw scores of the meaning matching part of the English vocabulary pronunciation test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Pre 6 2 1 6 0 2 2 3 5 2 5 6 3 3 2 5 4 6 Post 10 10 10 10 8 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Diff 4 8 9 4 8 8 8 7 5 8 5 4 7 7 8 5 6 4

The posttest raw scores of meaning matching part of the English vocabulary pronunciation test were higher than the pretest scores. The mean score of the posttest was 9.89 and that of the pretest was 3.50. This indicates that the kindergarteners could match words and pictures very well after studying with communicative activities.

Table 8: A comparison of pretest and posttest raw scores of the English vocabulary pronunciation test No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Pre 8 3 1 11 0 2 2 4 8 2 7 9 6 5 4 8 6 8 Post 20 20 20 20 16 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 19 20 20 20 20 Diff 12 17 19 9 16 17 18 16 12 18 13 11 14 14 16 12 14 12

As shown in Table 8, the total score of the vocabulary pronunciation test was 20. The experimental group obtained higher scores in the posttest than in the pretest. The lowest score increased from the pretest to the posttest made by the student number 4 was 9. The highest score increased from the pretest to the posttest made by the student number 3 was 19. The last row in Table 8 shows the posttest scores of all the students were much higher than the pretest raw scores.

To confirm that the scores from the posttest were significantly higher than the scores from the pretest, the scores of the two tests were computed by the SPSS program, resulting in the

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means scores and standard deviations of two tests, and also a t-test dependent score. These scores are presented in Table 9.

Table 9: A comparison of mean scores on pre-test and post test of the English vocabulary pronunciation test Test Number of Mean S.D. t-test Sig Mean difference students between groups Pre-test (1) 18 5.22 3.14 21.79* 0.00 (2) > (1) Post-test (2) 18 19.67 0.97 *P<.05

In Table 9, the mean scores of the posttest (19.67) and the pretest (5.22) were compared, showing that the students got much higher scores in the posttest. The t-test score (21.79) demonstrated a significant difference between pretest and posttest mean scores at the 0.05 level. The results indicated that the kindergarteners improved their ability to pronounce vocabulary after learning through communicative activities.

3. The results from the researcher’s log In the researcher’s log, the researcher took notes or commented on how the students used vocabulary, pronounced words, participated in the activities, and also how they behaved while studying. The log also reported the general conditions and obstacles in the classroom. The detailed notes are explained below: First is the use of vocabulary. The students improved their vocabulary ability after studying with communicative activities. This study tried out many kinds of activities that encouraged and developed students’ ability to use language. The students had to practice listening, speaking, reading and writing skills while doing the activities. For example, in the matching activities, the students had to practice their listening skills, reading skills and pronunciation skills. In bingo activity, they had to practice their listening and writing skills. These activities helped them learn and practice the target words. They also increased the students’ understanding of how to use the target words in sentences. Angwattanakul (1994) says that communicative activities can help students learn new vocabulary, pronunciations, and structures. After doing the communicative activities, the students were familiar with using vocabulary and gained more confidence to use vocabulary.

Second is the pronunciation. The students developed their pronunciation after studying with communicative activities. The students had to practice pronouncing words in many activities, such as in matching activities and survey activities. In survey activities, the students had to ask their friends for information. The students had opportunities to pronounce the target words many times, so their pronunciations were developed. Niyomtam (1998) states that speaking practice can help young children to pronounce words better. Asher and Garcia (1969) and Cook (2001) say that children are thought to be better at pronunciation in particular. The students in this study enjoyed the pronunciation practice in the activities. Practicing with communicative activities also helped the students gain more confidence to pronounce words and get used to exchanging words with others.

Third is the participation and the students’ behavior in the activities. The students would like to participate in activities. All the classroom activities were fun to follow. The students were confident in speaking and showing ideas. The students did the activities both alone or in groups. Communicative activities encourage students to work together. Pojit (2004) states that games and communicative activities can very well help students work among friends,

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share ideas, and follow rules. The students had many opportunities to work among their friends. They had to share the ideas and accept their friends’ ideas. They had to listen and follow the guidelines of each activity. Thus teaching with communicative activities should be beneficial to students.

Fourth is the general conditions and the obstacles in the classroom. In the research classroom, some students might not understand how to do an activity. The teacher had to help them. So teachers should always check their students’ understanding of an activity before starting it. Some, kindergarteners are too interested in finishing their own tasks and pay less attention with their friends. They do not normally want to listen to others. This makes the teaching and learning chaotic. Teachers should orient their students well before starting an activity.

Conclusion Communicative activities can help students study new vocabulary and pronunciation. After students studied with communicative activities, they were familiar with pronouncing and using vocabulary. They gained more confidence to pronounce words and get used to exchanging information with others. The communicative activities encourage students to work among friends, share their ideas, accept their friends’ ideas and follow activities’ rules. However, teacher should explain and make sure that everyone understands how to do each activity and students should pay attention with listening to their friends while they do the activities.

References Akraratana, P. (2008). The Development of 6P English language learning Model for Thai Young Children Studying English as a Second language. Dissertation, Ed.D. (Early Childhood Education). Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University. Angwattanakul, S. (1994). English Teaching Methods. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, [in Thai]. Asher, J.J. and Garcia, R. (1969). The optimal age to learn a foreign language. Modern Language Journal53, 5, 33-41. Broughton, G.; et al. (1980). 2nd ed. Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Great Britain: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Bumpass, F. L. (1963). Teaching young students English As Foreign language. New York: American Book Co. Cook, V. (2001). Second language learning and Language Teaching. New York: Oxford University. Jearranaipreprame, T. (1999). A Study of the Opinions of Administrators, Teachers and Guardians towards Elementary English Curriculum B.E. 2539 in Bangkok Metropolitan School Bangkuntien District. Thesis, M.A. (Elementary Education). Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University. [in Thai]. Kanithanon, W. (1987). Language and Linguistic. 4th . Bangkok: Thammasat University Press. [in Thai]. Krashen, S.D. (1987). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Prentice- Hall International. Krashen, S.D. (1988). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language learning. Prentice-Hall International. Malaroad, S. (2001). A Comparative study of the language concept of preschool children as learned with differential language using teacher. Master thesis, M.Ed. (Early Childhood Education). Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University.

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Ministry of Education. (2001). Basic Education Curriculum 2001. Bangkok: Kurusapa Ladprao Publishing. [in Thai]. Ministry of Education. (2003). Early Childhood Curriculum 2003. Bangkok: The Agricultural Cooperative Federation of Thailand. Nessel, D., & Jones, M., & Dixon, C. (1989). Thinking through the language arts. New York : Mcmillan. Ninwichien, H. (1992). Early Childhood Education Curriculum and Method. Bangkok: O.S. Printing House. [in Thai] Niyomtam, S.&P. (1998). Language Development. Bangkok: Bannakij. [in Thai]. Nunan, D. (2003). Practical English Language Teaching. Singapore: McGraw-Hill. Onwimon, S. (2011). ASEAN DIARY: Using English and others language in provinces and the future of Thailand in ASEAN(1). Retrieved July 13, 2011, from http: blog.deu Parkbongkoj, C. (1995). A seminar of A media to develop Thai children Learning. Bangkok: Srinakharinwirot University. Pojit, R. (2004). Using Language Games and Communicative Activities to Enhance English Speaking Ability of Pratomsuksa Five Students at Wat Dishongsaram. Master’s Project, M.A. (Teaching English as a foreign Language0. Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University. [in Thai]. River, S. & Toyama, S. (2001). English Time book 1. New York: Oxford University. Senwanich, S. (1998). Techniques for English Reading Skill and Comprehension Development for Thai Students. Bangkok: Thammasat University Press. [in Thai]. Sorpitpakdeepong, S. (2001). Using Vocabulary Games to Build up Prathomsuksa VI Students’ Retention in Learning English Vocabulary. Master’s Project, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand, [in Thai]. Sripramong, S. (2004). The Study of the Effect of Using Vocabulary Games on the Retention in Learning Vocabulary of Prathomsuksa Five Students. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand, [in Thai]. Sukserm, P. (2008). The Effect of Children as Researchers Learning on the Speaking Ability of Yung Children. Master’s thesis, M.Ed. (Early Childhood Education). Bangkok: Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University. [in Thai]. Thornbury, S. (2002). How to Teach Vocabulary. 2nd ed. England: Pearson Education. Tundulpong, W. (2009). The document of education to promotion and development of learning experiences in early childhood. Bangkok. Inter-Tech Printing. [in Thai]. Wiriyajittra, A. (1989). Communicative Approach. Bangkok: Augsornjaruentut.[in Thai].

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Needs for Professional Development of Secondary School English Teachers under Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization

Salinee Bowonrattanapat Dr. Somsak Kaewnuch Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the needs, methods for professional development, and opinions about teaching and learning of secondary school English teachers under Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization. The participants in this study were 176 secondary school English teachers in the second semester of the 2011 academic year. The research tools were a questionnaire and an interview. The questionnaire, which was given to all 176 teachers, consisted of questions about eight aspects of professional needs, including language skills, language knowledge, curriculum development, teaching and learning processes, assessment, research, technology, and psychology. The interview was conducted with ten teachers; it tried to seek for the teachers’ opinions about teaching and learning. The data were analyzed using percentages, means, and standard deviations. The findings revealed that at a high level. The teachers would like to develop themselves in all aspects of needs, the aspects being; psychology, research, assessment, language knowledge, curriculum development, teaching and learning process, technology and language skills respectively. Regarding to the methods of professional development, it was found that the teachers would like to develop themselves through trainings/seminars, educational tours, research, self-study, teaching observations, higher education, and portfolios respectively.

Introduction English is used around the world in different areas, such as in communication, knowledge and commerce. English is also used for global networking, for countries to share ideas on common problems affecting them. English is usually considered to be the number-one international language. Undoubtedly, English is very important in this globalization era. Furthermore, learning foreign languages is essential for the present life because now, in the shrinking world, foreign languages are not only useful for humans to contact with others, seek for knowledge, and find jobs, but also they bring about mutual understanding among peoples of the present world community (Ministry of Education, 2008).

The importance of English is certainly undeniable, and as a result, most countries are attempting to increase their people’s English ability. Like other countries that use English as a foreign language, Thailand is trying to improve its people’s English competence. However, the mission is difficult because Thai people generally use Thai in everyday lives. Unlike some ASEAN countries where their dialects are totally different and thus they use English as a central language, Thailand has Central Thai that peoples from all its regions can share. As a consequence, Thai people’s English ability is low. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations once announced that the TOEFL scores of Thai students were only higher than those of Cambodian students, but lower than those of students from Singapore, the Philippines, Malaysia, Burma, Indonesia, and Vietnam (Wiriyachitra, 2010). In addition, the results of O- NET exams from many past years until now show that English scores in all schools throughout Thailand are low.

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Therefore, it seems very urgent that Thai people’s English ability be improved. This involves considering many factors that affect teaching and learning English of students of all ages. One of the factors is English teachers. Teachers certainly play a significant role in the development of English of Thai students. Their qualifications and teaching methods are very important. According to Punthumasen (2007), the qualifications of teachers and effective teaching methods are very important to improve the quality of students’ English language learning. The production of teachers by universities and educational institutions is even more important.

However, the preparation of qualified teachers should not take place in universities only.In- service teachers should always have opportunities to develop themselves, to keep themselves up-to-date, and to be more skillful in their teaching. The government, the Ministry of Education and other organizations related to developing teachers need to work together to set up clear policies and strategies to help solve the problems of English teaching. Thailand has been facing problems about the quality of English teachers (Punthumasen, 2007). There are also problems about classroom conditions and teaching methodologies. Nupong (n.d) states that classrooms in Thailand are too large and that Thai teachers have to teach too many hours per week. Teachers especially in government schools also have other administrative duties. Most teachers, in addition, use the grammar-translation methods (Khamkhien, 2010). These are just a few of many problems that hinder the education of English in this country.

To solve problems related to low proficiency of English of Thai people, one way is to train English teachers. To improve the quality of teachers is a priority as teachers are a key factor to improving to the quality of learners. However, Punthumasen (2007) points out that an effective and realistic system of teacher training should be set up and organized in collaboration with various relevant agencies and organizations. Trainings should be organized or offered at various levels to meet the needs of all teachers—in primary schools, secondary schools, and universities, or even in kindergartens. The nature of trainings and teachers’ needs for development vary from level to level.

Even though there are many training courses for teachers to attend, the courses provided cannot fulfill their needs, nor can they truly satisfy them (Pham, 2000). Training programs do not suffice, either. As said above, teachers are always busy with loads of teaching additional duties, and do not have many chances to join training programs. Teachers who participate in training programs may find them useless or irrelevant to their needs. Research on needs for professional development of English teachers in Thailand is still scarce. The researcher would like to find out what English teachers currently need in their profession. Knowing teachers’ needs allow educators to discover ways to help teachers develop themselves. The researcher, therefore, conducted a study on the topic “The needs for professional development of the English teachers under Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization.”

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to survey the needs for professional development of the English teachers in all lower and higher secondary schools under Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization.

Research Questions 1. In what areas of teaching and learning English do the English teachers under Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization need to develop in their profession?

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2. To what extent do the English teachers need to develop their profession in the areas of language skills, language knowledge, curriculum development, teaching and learning process, assessment, research, technology, and psychology?

Significance of the Study This study aims to survey the professional development needs of English teachers in all secondary schools under Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization. The results will provide information that Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization, administrators of educational institutions, and high-ranking administrators of education in all regions of Thailand may use to prepare and arrange training courses or any other forms of training for teachers in order to create the betterment of teaching and learning of English in their organizations.

Participants and Time of the Study The participants were 176 English teachers under Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization as a population. The study was conducted in the second semester of the 2011 academic year.

The Construction of the Questionnaire 1. The researcher studied various documents, including the core English curriculum of the Ministry of Education, theories related to needs and professional development of the English teachers, and other related research. 2. The researcher designed a questionnaire with Likert scales, adapting from Jansopha (2006) and Saiyot,L & Saiyot, A. (1997). 3. The questionnaire was examined by an academic advisor and five experienced teachers. 4. The questionnaire was piloted with 30 English teachers. 5. The questionnaire was revised.

Data Collection The procedures for data collection included: 1. The letters from the Dean of the Graduate School, Srinakharinwirot University were sent to the directors of the schools under Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization to ask for permission to collect data. 2. Copies of questionnaires were sent to all the English teachers in those schools within a period of one month. 3. The questionnaires that were not sent back to the researcher by the end of second week were followed up. 4. The researcher had two focused group interviews with ten teachers, five at each time.

Findings In terms of working conditions and readiness for working, most of the teachers (57.4%) thought that they had a moderate level of English competence; only ten of them (5.7%) thought that they were very good. Almost all of them (94.3%) were assigned extra work by their directors. Besides, the majority of them (56.8%) had 16-20 hours per week, whereas half of the teachers (50%) had got 30-40 students in their classes. They certainly had overloads of work.

However, although the English teachers were overloaded with work, most of them tried to develop themselves. The top three methods which the English teachers used to develop their English language skills were searching English information on the Internet (41.5%),

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participating in teacher-training programs/seminars in English language teaching (26.7%), and reading English documents and textbooks concerning English language teaching (13.1%).

Regard to the needs for profession development concerning language skills, Language knowledge, curriculum development, teaching and learning processes, assessment, research, technology, and psychology, it was found that the English teachers needed to develop themselves in all those aspects at a high level. The mean scores (from a five-scale questionnaire) for those areas were 3.72, 4.07, 4.07, 4.06, 4.08, 4.17, 3.93, and 4.17 respectively.

As for the methods or forms for professional development needed by the English teachers, it was found that the English teachers needed trainings/seminars (96%) followed by knowledge conducting research (93.8%), education tours (92%), observed teaching and self-study (89.2%), further education (87.5%), and portfolios (56.3%) respectively.

Discussion & Conclusion This study investigated needs for professional development of secondary school English teachers. The findings are discussed and interpreted as follows:

This study is involved with finding areas in which the teachers wanted to develop themselves. The findings above showed that at high levels the teachers wanted to develop themselves in the areas of language skills, language knowledge, curriculum development, teaching and learning process, assessment, research, technology, and psychology. The results may be further discussed and concluded as follows:

1. Needs for Professional Development Concerning Language Skills The English teachers’ need to develop their language skills was at a high level. This reveals that the majority of the English teachers considered that English competence is an important qualification of English teachers. They might realize that teachers have to be a good model and this might have made them to want to improve their English skills. In other words, they are motivated. Administrators or educators, therefore, should offer more training programs.

2. Needs for Professional Development Concerning Language Knowledge In this study language knowledge refers to knowledge about the grammar, vocabulary, and culture of the English language. The teachers’ needs for professional development concerning language knowledge were also at a high level. This implies that the teachers thought that they were not good enough at the language. This is really the fact. Most English teachers are poor at grammar. The government and institutions responsible for developing teachers should offer many training programs on language knowledge for secondary school English teachers. Training programs should be offered regularly and sufficiently.

3. Needs for Professional Development Concerning Curriculum Development It was found that the teachers’ need for curriculum development was at a high level. The teachers might think that they have to know the curriculum well if they wanted to achieve their teaching objectives. This is a good sign. This shows that the teachers knew the content of their teaching affected the success of their teaching.

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4. Needs for Professional Development Concerning the Teaching and Learning Processes It was found that the teachers wanted to familiarized themselves with the teaching and learning processes. They might realize that their students’ achievement was low. This involves teaching methodologies. Most teachers use just a few teaching methodologies they got used to. They might want to gain more knowledge about teaching methods in order to make their teaching successful.

5. Needs for Professional Development Concerning Assessment The English teachers’ needs concerning assessment were at a high level. In fact, most teachers need to learn more about assessment. Their test questions are mostly multiple- choice items that do not necessary reflect the contents of their lessons. They need to learn how to relate their lessons well with their assessment. The results of this study show that the teachers knew that their assessment must be reliable, valid, and appropriate for the learners’ level, and that they needed to know more about assessment.

6. Needs for Professional Development Concerning Research The results indicated that the English teachers wanted to do research in their teaching, of course in order to improve it. This was probably because nowadays the teachers are forced to do classroom research at school, at least one project per semester. They might encounter many problems conducting classroom, so they needed to understand it well.

7. Needs for Professional Development Concerning Technology The English teachers wanted to learn more about technology. They certainly knew that in the globalization era, technology is very important. The hi-technology teaching materials are widely used now. So, the teachers wanted to improve themselves with technology.

8. Needs for Professional Development Concerning Psychology The English teachers knew that knowledge about psychology was essential. Psychology is very important to help them understand the students’ behaviour. In general students come from different backgrounds. Teachers always have difficulties dealing with them. The more teachers understand their students, the more successful they can manage their classes and fulfil their students’ needs. This is why they want to know more about psychology in children.

Implication English teachers should be eager in learning. To develop themselves is crucial. It is impossible not to develop themselves in this globalized age. They should update their knowledge about technology and teaching techniques. For example, they can be a member of the Thai TESOL or read English education journals that can help them to acquire knowledge and know new teaching techniques. Moreover, English teachers should seek for knowledge about psychology for teaching and learning so that they might know their students well and can motivate them successfully.

In addition, English teachers should know and be able to use technology, innovation, methodology and a variety of multimedia so that they can manage their teaching effectively. Besides, school administrators should support English teachers, in forms of, for example, budgets, teaching facilities, research funds, seminars, conferences and training programs.

Also, they should help arrange more activities about language skills which are fun and which promote a good atmosphere that might bring a positive attitude toward the English language.

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Finally, provincial administration organizations or education service offices should arrange development training packages which meet the needs of English teachers. There should be follow-up programs to investigate the results of training and development programs.

Moreover, they should support English teachers with scholarships to further their education. They should set up school networks for teachers to collaborate with others.

References Jansopha, R. (2006) Needs for Professional Development of the English Teachers in The Secondary Schools in Uttaradit Province. Thesis M.A.(English). Uttaradit Rajabhat University. Khamkhien, A. (2010) Teaching Speaking and English Speaking Tests in the Thai Context: A Reflection from Thai Perspective. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, pp. 757-764, November 2010. Retrieved July, 11, 2011from http://journal.ccsenet. org/index.php/elt/article/view/5253. Ministry of Education. (2008). The basic education core curriculum B.E. 2551. Retrieved October, 27, 2011, from http://www.act.ac.th/document/1741.pdf. Nupong, .D (n.d.) English Teaching Problems and the Needs for Professional Development of Teachers of English in Education Extended Schools under The Jurisdiction of The Office of Primary Education, Nakhon Ratchasima. Retrieved November, 30, 2011 from http://www.culi.chula.ac.th/e-Journalt/research_05.htm. Pham, H. H. (2000). Teacher: A Real Need for English Departments in Vietnam. Retrieved November, 29, 2011 from http://www.exchange.state.gov/forum/vols/vol39/no4 /p30.htm. Punthumasen, P. (2007) International Program for Teacher Education: An Approach to Tackling Problems of English Education in Thailand. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from http://www.worldedreform.com/pub/paperie13dec07.pdf. Saiyot, L.& Saiyot, A. (2540). Research and Methodology. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press. (Thai version). Wiriyachitra, A. (2010) International Program for Teacher Education: An Approach to Tackling Problems of English Education in Thailand. Retrieved July 19, 2011, from http://worldedreform.com/pub/paperie13dec07.pdf.

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Appendix Questionnaire

Needs for professional development of secondary schools English teachers in under Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization

PART 1: General information Please put a tick (/) next to your appropriate choice and complete the blank items. 1. Gender ( ) male ( ) female 2. Age ( ) 20-30 years ( ) 31-40 years ( ) 41-50 years ( ) 51-60 years 3. Educational qualification ( ) Lower than bachelor's degree ( ) bachelor's degree ( ) Master's degree ( ) Doctoral degree Major ……………………………………………………………. 4. Experience in teaching English ( ) 1-5 years ( ) 6-10 years ( ) 11-15 years ( ) 16-20 years ( ) more than 21 years 5. Study visit abroad ( ) Yes please specify …...... ( ) No 6. Number of English teaching hours per week ( ) Less than 6 hours ( ) 6-10 hours ( ) 11-15 hours ( ) 16-20 hours ( ) more than 21 hours 7. Average number of students in class ( ) Less than 30 ( ) 30-40 ( ) 41-50 ( ) 51 or more 8. Number of English courses taught per week ( ) 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 4 ( ) 5 or more 9. English class level ( ) Lower secondary ( ) Upper secondary ( ) Both lower secondary and upper secondary 10. Extra work in school ( ) Yes please specify …...... ( ) No 11. Level of teachers' English competence ( ) Very good ( ) Good ( ) Moderate ( ) Fair ( ) Needs improvement 12. Please rank the methods numerically in order of importance to you. ( 1 = the most) Methods used to develop English language skills. ( ) Reading English journals ( ) Reading English documents and textbooks concerning English teaching ( ) Reading English newspapers

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( ) Participating academic conference in English teaching ( ) Participating in teacher-training program/seminar in English teaching ( ) Practicing speaking English with foreigners ( ) Watching English programs on T.V. ( ) Writing English letters to foreigners ( ) Searching English information on Internet ( ) Watching English movies ( ) Listening to English radio broadcasting ( ) Observing English teachers in foreign department Other (Please specify) ( ) …...... ( ) …...... ( ) …...... ( ) …...... ( ) …......

PART 2: Needs for professional development of the English teachers in the secondary school under Nakhon Ratchasima Provincial Administration Organization Please put a tick ( / ) in the boxes provided according to your need of professional development

5 = highest level of need 4 = high level of need 3 = moderate level of need 2 = low level of need 1 = lowest level of need Level of need No. Statements 5 4 3 2 1 Language Skills 1 Listening Skills  Listening to English songs ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Listening to English news on T.V. …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Listening to English news on radio ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Listening to English educational programs on radio ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Listening to English academic lecture ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Listening to English conversations ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Other (Please specify) ...... …. …. …. …. …. 2 Speaking Skills  Using classroom language …...... …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Explaining the lesson …...... …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Communicating with foreigners ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Presenting a speech …...... …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Being a master of ceremonies community ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Other (Please specify) …...... …. …. …. …. …. 3 Reading Skills  Reading English newspapers ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Reading English journals, articles ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Reading research reports …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Reading textbooks ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Reading features ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Reading fictions or magazines ...... …. …. …. …. ….

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Level of need No. Statements 5 4 3 2 1  Reading novels or fables ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Reading short stories ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Other (Please specify) …...... …. …. …. …. …. 4 Writing Skills  Writing a diary …...... …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Writing a memorandum ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Writing an essay .…...... … …. …. …. ….  Writing a business letter ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Writing report ...…...... …. …. …. …. ….  Writing an advertisement / announcement ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Writing an article …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Other (Please specify) …...... …...... …. …. …. …. …. 5 Pronunciation Skills  Correcting problem sounds …..…...... …. …. …. …. ….  Word stress …....…...... …. …. …. …. ….  Linking sounds …...... …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Intonations …...... …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Sentence stress …...... …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Other (Please specify) …...... …...... …. …. …. …. …. Language Knowledge 1 Knowledge of English grammar 2 Knowledge of English vocabulary 3 Knowledge of western culture Other (Please specify) …...... Curriculum Development 1 Determining learning area 2 Conducting unit learning plan Level of need No. Statements 5 4 3 2 1 3 Conducting management plans 4 Conducting backward design management plan 5 Developing school-based curriculum 6 Developing local curriculum 7 Developing integrated curriculum Other (Please specify) …......

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Teaching and Learning Process

Level of need No. Statements 5 4 3 2 1 1 Methods and techniques in teaching  Teaching using pair work …...... …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Teaching using group work …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Teaching using role play …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Teaching using stories …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Teaching using song …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Teaching using drama …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Integrated Learning …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Cooperative Learning …...... …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Literature-based Approach) …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Content-base Instruction) ...... …. …. …. …. ….  Task-based Learning …...... …...... …. …. …. … ….  Project-based Learning …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Communicative Learning …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Mind mapping Learning …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Storyline Approach …...... …. …. …. …. ….  Other (Please specify) ...... …. …. …. …. ….

2 Teaching vocabulary 3 Teaching grammar 4 Teaching listening and speaking 5 Teaching reading and writing 6 Teaching pronunciation 7 Classroom management 8 Constructing teaching and learning materials 9 Using modern technology in teaching and learning Other (Please specify) ...... Assessment and Evaluation 1 Authentic assessment 2 Portfolio 3 Interpersonal communication 4 Performance 5 Writing listening tests 6 Writing speaking tests 7 Writing reading tests 8 Making writing tests 9 Test items analysis

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10 Observing learner's behavior 11 Case study analysis 12 Task assessments Other (Please specify) …...... Research

1 Classroom research 2 Research Other (Please specify) ...... Technology 1 Using Microsoft Word 2 Using Microsoft Excel 3 Using PowerPoint 4 Conducting and developing Web Page 5 Conducting teaching materials 6 Developing CAI (Computer-Assisted Instruction) 7 Searching for English information on Internet 8 Using E-mail 9 Conducting slide show in picture trail 10 Conducting E-book (Flip album) Other (Please specify) …...... Psychology 1 Psychology of learning 2 Developmental psychology 3 Motivation Other (Please specify) …......

PART 3 : The methods of professional development needed by the English teachers Please put a tick ( / ) next to your methods of professional development.  1. Training / Seminars ( ) 1 – 3 days ( ) 1 week ( ) 2 weeks ( ) 1 – 3 months  2. Observed by ( ) School educator ( ) Head of Foreign Language Department ( ) School director ( ) Colleague

 3. Further study ( ) Thailand  On weekends  Summer vacation  Formal ( ) Abroad

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 4. Educational Tours ( ) Thailand ( ) Abroad  5. Self-study ( ) Internet ( ) Long distance with open universities  6. Conduction research ( ) Individual ( ) Groups ( ) Getting a scholarship  7. Creating portfolios  8. Others …......

PART 4 : Suggestions for professional development of the English teachers 1. Language Skills …...... …...... …...... 2. Curriculum Development …...... …...... …...... 3. Teaching and Learning Process …...... …...... …...... 4. Assessment and Evaluation …...... …...... …...... 5. Research …...... …...... …...... 6. Technology …...... …...... …...... 7. Psychology …...... …...... …...... 8. Others methods that you want to develop your profession …...... …...... ……………………………………......

Interviews for professional development of the English teachers 1. What are your plans for continuing your professional growth? …...... …...... 2. What do you consider to be a major issue in public education today? …...... …......

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3. What current trends in public education please you? Displease you? …...... …...... …...... 4. What kinds of strategies do you use to challenge students to have an in-depth understanding of English literature? …...... …...... …...... 5. What is the role/responsibility of a teacher in a classroom? …...... …...... …...... 6. What do you think was your most successful lesson you have taught and why? …...... …...... …...... 7. What was the most challenging lesson you have had to teach, and how did you overcome the obstacles? …...... …...... …...... 8. In what ways do you encourage creativity in your classroom? …...... …...... …...... 9. What are some of the most important things you learned when student teaching? …...... …...... …...... 10. In your opinion, what are the biggest challenges that teachers face today? …...... …...... …......

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Female Protagonists in Shakespeare’s Plays: The Tempest and As You Like It

Nupong Phusri Asst. Prof. Dr. Supaporn Yimwilai Department of Western Languages, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakarinwirot University

Abstract The purpose of this research is to study two female protagonists, Miranda and Rosalind in Shakespeare’s The Tempest and As You Like It from feminist perspective. The study of Elizabethan female roles, feminist criticism, and Stevie Davis’ “The Idea of Women in Renaissance Literature” were applied to analyze the plays.

The result of the study showed that the roles of the two female protagonists were completely different. Miranda in Shakespeare’s The Tempest followed the Elizabethan social expectations regarding obedience, purity, submissiveness, sex object and domesticity. Miranda was an obedient woman. Also, Prospero, her father, protected Miranda’s virginity from Caliban and Ferdinand because purity and chastity were morally compulsory in Elizabethan society. In addition, Miranda was submissive to her father and Ferdinand. She was also the sex object of both of her father and of Caliban. Miranda was domestic because she took care of all of the household chores in the cave where she lived with her father. On the contrary, the main female character in As You Like It, Rosalind, did not follow the ideal of Elizabethan womanhood. Rosalind was independent from her society and her family’s control. Moreover, she dressed as a boy and wooed her lover, Orlando. She did not care about the expectations of society. She was also a strong female character who had control over men. In addition, Rosalind employed her power to do anything that she wanted, including having servants take care of domestic chores. She could stand up for herself without a man to guide her or control her. In other words, we can say that Shakespeare was a feminist author because Shakespeare reflected the difficulties and oppression of women in the Elizabethan age.

Keywords: protagonist, obedience, submissive, sex object, female role

Introduction A Play is a general term for performance in which actors impersonate the actions and speech of a story for the entertainment of an audience, either on a stage or by means of a broadcast. Most plays are very interesting because they are not only entertaining but also beautiful in their language. Besides, plays also present stories showing conflicts between characters. Generally, most of the world’s great plays can be classified into two genres: tragedy and comedy. In general, tragedy is characterized by an unhappy or disastrous ending for the main characters. The tragic hero encounters a bad situation and finally loses. On the opposite, comedy is light and amusing. It usually shows a happy ending. In comedy, good life can be seen in the play. Both kinds of plays are well- known and popular in the past and now.

William Shakespeare is one of the greatest playwrights. By the beginning of the 16th century, Shakespeare, through his popular theatrical productions, rose to fame as a respected and admired playwright. His great achievements include to a marvelous ability to unify plot, character, and imagery. In his work, Shakespeare presents life’s fundamental problems and the struggles of men and women to resolve them (qtd. In Rugluang 2). Hence, we can say that Shakespeare is the greatest playwright in the world.

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Because he is one of the world’s greatest playwrights, there are many researchers who study Shakespeare’s works and admire his achievements. For example, Anchalee Rugluang in “The Development of Shakespeare’s Romantic Comedies,” studies three selected romantic comedies written by Shakespeare in different periods of time. The findings reveal that there is a clear development in Shakespeare’s romantic comedies in term of plot, characterization, theme and comedy and diction.

Furthermore, in “Discovering True Identities Through Disguises in Twelfth Night And Much Ado About Nothing,” Emily Ann Lohmer said that many of the characters who are affected by the disguises are able to transcend hierarchical regulations, they are able to grow into their true identities. In all two of the comedies, the true identities that develop from uninhibited desires prove to be heterosexual; this would suggest that for Shakespeare heterosexual attraction is natural and innate.

In addition, “Reading The Chaos: Dramaturgical Studies of Patriarchy in Shakespeare and his Heroine-Oriented Comedies,” Melissa J. A. Carle states that in the Shakespeare’s plays; The Tamping of the Shrew, Twelfth Night, and Much Ado About Nothing, each heroine exhibits remarkable wit, cunning, initiative, and resources. However, these qualities must be understood within the context of patriarchy in order to understand the dramatic impetus of these plays’ conclusions. She also states that patriarchy in Shakespeare’s comedies cannot be overlooked because the patriarchy leads to the comedies’ endings, chaos over promoting social order.

From the studies above, it can be said that gender issue is the main point that is always in discussion. However, the researcher found that although there are many studies on gender issue in Shakespeare’s plays, most of scholars studied only comedies or tragedies. Consequently, the researcher wants to study female characters in both comedy and tragedy. The aim of this study is to analyze the female roles and compare the female characters in two Shakespeare’s plays; The Tempest and As You Like It. To do so, the researcher will employ the feminist theory to be the device in the analysis.

Female Roles in the Elizabethan Age The role of women in Elizabethan society was vastly inferior to that of men. It also differed from other countries at that time. According to Albert J. Schmidt in Women Waging Law in Elizabethan England, Elizabethan society was patriarchal, meaning that men were considered to be the leaders and women their inferiors. Women were regarded as "the weaker sex," not just in terms of physical strength, but emotionally, too. The prevailing view was that women always needed someone to look after them. If they were married, their husbands were expected to look after them. If they were single, then their father, brother, or another male relative was expected to take care of them (471).

Stevie Davis in The Idea of Women in Renaissance Literature stated that Elizabethan women were qualified by five virtues or roles: obedience, purity, submissiveness, sex object, and domesticity. In terms of obedience, women had to obey their parents and husband. The next virtue was purity which was morally compulsory. In Elizabethan Christian, women had to preserve their virginity until marriage. If a woman lost her virginity, she became worthless. It can be said that purity was a gift from God that humans, especially woman, had to preserve.

Another social expectation of that time period was female submissiveness. In general, women in the Elizabethan age were oppressed and devalued by men and society. Submissiveness was

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considered one of the most important virtues in women because they were expected to be passive and inferior. Women were considered small, weak, dependent, and timid, whereas men were expected to be strong, wise, and forceful.

Another female role was as a sex object. Mary Anne Ferguson in Images of Women in Literature stated that the term ‘sex object’ is man’s prey. In this role, a woman was seen as the fulfiller of a man’s sexual needs, a receptacle for his passions.

The last role is domestic. It was assumed that home was the place for a woman. A woman was expected to take care of and comfort family members, especially men, including her father and her husband.

Miranda and Female roles In The Tempest, Miranda, the female protagonist, follows the expectations of society. This play specially deals with the relationship between father and daughter in a society where men view women as commodities or as properties to enhance their social status.

The first expectation is for Miranda to be an obedient woman. She listens to her father without argument. She has to depend on her father in part because she lacks real world experience. Prospero tells her: “Obey and be attentive.” (Act 1, Scene2, 128) In this situation, Miranda is forced to obey her father although she does not want to. Likewise, Stevie Davis says that the ideal women in the Elizabethan age had a spirit of obedience (Davis 158). Like Miranda, women in the Elizabethan period were judged to be their father’s property until their marriage, and then they were transferred into their husbands’ property. Because they were considered property, they did not have the freedom to disobey.

In addition, Miranda is, as expected, a pure woman. She has never touched a man other than her father. Shakespeare makes Miranda even more pure and desirable by including the fact that she has never seen or even talked to other men. In the play, Prospero protects his daughter from both Caliban and Ferdinand because purity is highly reverred. Without sexual purity, a woman was not a woman, but rather a lower form of being, a "fallen woman," unworthy of the love of her family and unfit for their company. When Caliban tries to rape Miranda, Prospero must protect his daughter. Moreover, Prospero protects his daughter’s virginity from Ferdinand. He tells Ferdinand to be sure not to “break her virgin-knot” (Act 5, Scene 1, 1713) before the wedding night. It is clearly seen that Prospero is attempting to protect his daughter’s virginity because of the value Elizabethan society placed on purity before marriage.

Under the patriarchal society, Miranda is expected to be submissive and can not express her own feelings. She can not shout for freedom from her father. There is not enough voice to be found in her and sometimes virtually no voice is heard at all. As noted by Burstyn, woman is forced by man to be submissive indirectly. She has to listen to and agree with man (Burstyn, 33). For example, when her father and Ferdinand discuss her marriage in front of her, Miranda is silent throughout their conversation and can not express her ideas or feelings to them. Stevie Davis said that women were believed to be passive to fate, duty, God and men. For example, Miranda merely reacts with short expressions and words…Miranda: “O the heavens!...O, my heart bleeds...Alack! for pity…(Act 1, Scene 2, 238)” Even when she answers with longer sentences, she is only repeating what Prospero says or is showing her specific comments upon what happened in the past. Miranda can not express any ideas; she is controlled and oppressed by her father, Prospero.

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In The Tempest, Miranda is treated as a sex object by both her father and Caliban. Women in the Elizabethan period were viewed as objects of desire. In the play, Prospero uses Miranda as a sex object, the object of Ferdinand’s desire. It is clear that the wedding of Miranda and Ferdinand has been arranged by Prospero as part of his plan to regain his kingdom and get revenge. Prospero has kept his daughter very innocent, and, therefore, more desirable, to charm Ferdinand. Prospero’s game is successful, as Ferdinand falls in love with Miranda. As part of his game, Prospero manipulates Miranda as a sex object for his own gain and revenge, without caring about her feelings. In fact, Miranda’s marriage for political purposes is similar to many marriages of the privileged classes in the Elizabethan period.

Miranda is also used as a sex object by Caliban. Caliban used to live on the island as a king, but he loses everything after Prospero arrives and kills his mother, a witch named Sycorax. After being captured, Caliban lives with Prospero as a servant. He wants his land back from Prospero. Caliban intends to use Miranda as a sex object as part of his plan for freedom and revenge. Since Miranda is weak and gentle, Caliban thinks he can rape her easily. Caliban believes that if he can rape Miranda, Prospero must follow him because Miranda is the only daughter that Prospero has. Caliban wants not only freedom, he also wants his land back from Prospero and revenge because Prospero killed his mother. Thus, Miranda is his tool to control Prospero. Caliban: “This island’s mine, by Sycorax my mother, Which thou tak’st from me Which first was mine own King.” (Act 1, Scene 2,)

Miranda knows nothing about all of these plans because everything is being plotted by Prospero and Caliban. Both Prospero and Caliban want to use Miranda’s body to get revenge, land, and power.

In addition to all of her other roles, Miranda is a domestic woman. She takes care of all of the work in the cave that she lives in with Prospero, from making fires to washing dishes. According to Stevie Davis in The Idea of Women in Renaissance Literature, a woman’s place was considered to be in the home. Women’s roles were caregivers and homemakers. For instance, Prospero tells Miranda to make some juice: Prospero: “Thou wouldst give me Water with berries in’t” (Act 1 Scene 2, 481)

Here we can see Miranda’s position in the family. She has to prepare food and drinks, serve her father and others and do other chores. Zsuzsa Sztaray in Introduction to a Victorian Woman's World states that this role was filled by women, such as a daughter or a sister, because the world of work was defined as male; the world of the home was defined as female. Throughout the play, Miranda is shown doing domestic activities; she is ‘the lady of the house’. Prospero orders his daughter to do the household chores: Prospero: “Fetch us in fuel. And be quick, thou’rt best, To answer other business”

(10Act 1, Scene 2, 520 )

Furthermore, Miranda has to serve her future husband, Ferdinand. When Ferdinand complains of laborious work assigned by Prospero, she offers to help him carry the log:

10 Miranda: “If you’ll sit down, I will bear your logs the while.

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Pray give me that; I’ll carry it to the pile”

(10Act 3, Scene 1, 28)

At this point, we can see that Miranda apparently is pleased to serve him. This means that after marriage, she will be a caregiver as well as a wife.

Rosalind and Female roles Unlike Miranda in The Tempest, Rosalind, the female protagonist in As You Like It, does not follow the expectations of society. Rosalind is a strong female character who is a clever, independent, strong-willed woman. Instead of showing blind obedience, she represents a strong and independent woman who can stand up for herself. This can be seen when she does not obey her uncle unquestioningly. However, Duke Frederick, her uncle, does not like Rosalind because she is the only person who poses a threat to him and he is afraid she will overthrow him. Thus, he always tries to banish Rosalind. However, she calmly dares to ask him for the reason why she should leave the palace.

Rosalind: “I do beseech your Grace, Let me the knowledge of my fault bear with me. If with myself I hold intelligence Or have acquaintance with mine own desires, If that I do not dream or be not frantic— As I do trust I am not—then, dear uncle, Never so much as in a thought unborn Did I offend your Highness.” (Act 1, Scene 3, 45)

The above statement shows that Rosalind is not afraid of her uncle. On the contrary, she dares to say what she thinks and not simply obey him. She has never committed a crime so she does not think she should be banished. It shows that Rosalind is an independent, unconventional woman and that she does not obey unless there is a good enough reason.

Moreover, instead of simply protecting her purity and shyly staying far away from men, Rosalind takes an active part in her future love life. Everyone in the forest knows that Orlando loves Rosalind because he carves her name into the bark of trees and posts love poems throughout the forest. Rosalind is touched, but she wants to test the strength and sincerity of Orlando’s love. Disguised as Ganymede, she promises to ‘cure’ Orlando of his love for Rosalind by play-acting. Orlando must woo Ganymede in the name of Rosalind. Rosalind: “Now tell me how long you would have her after you have possessed her.” Orlando: “For ever and a day” (Act 4, Scene 1, 7)

In this way, Rosalind knows that Orlando’s love is genuine and that he intends to be with her forever. From this conversation, we can say that Rosalind is different from Miranda. While Miranda is innocent and isolated from men in The Tempest, needing her father to protect her valuable purityand arrange her marriage, Rosalind in As You Like It is independent and clever, allowing her to protect herself and manage her relationship with Orlando to her own satisfaction.

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In As You Like It, the social expectation of passivity and submissiveness is missing. Instead, Rosalind is portrayed as a dominant and empowered female character who asserts her own desires over others. She knows exactly what she wants and she actively works to achieve her goals. Unlike Miranda, Rosalind is portrayed as the active female protagonist. She is controlled by no one, certainly not men. For instance, she is free from her father’s commands because her father was exiled when she was young. Thus, Rosalind never experiences submitting to an authoritative father who rules over her. Rosalind: “Dear Celia, I show more mirth than I am mistress of, and would you yet I were merrier? Unless you could teach me to forget a banished father, you must not learn me how to remember any extraordinary pleasure.” (Act 1, Scene 2, 2)

The above statement shows that Rosalind is separated from her father; therefore, she is free from his control.

In the Elizabethan period, women were ‘sex objects’. According to de Beauvoir in The Second Sex, a woman was seen as the fulfiller of a man’s sexual needs and man wants woman to be objects and woman often makes themselves objects (647)On the contrary, Rosalind does not follow the social expectation. She is a confident, active person rather than an object. In this play, there is no father’s help and Rosalind plans and does things by herself. She employs her power to do anything that she wants, including leaving the palace with Celia and a clown. She believes that her knowledge and ability can help her to resolve her problems rather than her feminine charms. She does not use beauty to attract men or control anyone. She enters the Forest of Arden dressed as a boy and she does not worry whether people recognize her or not. She does not long for Orlando to woo her at all. She is not a passive object of his desire. She begins to flirt with him first and does not care about what society thinks. Lee Lady states in “Shakespeare’s Women in Drag” that Rosalind is confident woman. She can tease and confuse Orlando, confident in the knowledge he loves her and that she can reveal herself to him in good time. She does not care about the society around her.

Rosalind is an independent woman. She does not take care of her home like the other women in the Elizabethan period. She is strong and clever. Working in the house is not her duty, it is the servants’ duty. Throughout the play, we can see that Rosalind does not follow the expectations of society, especially in regards to domesticity. Rosalind can hire Corin, a shepherd, to help her in the field. Celia is very tired and she wants to take a rest. Thus, Rosalind pays Corin to help her. Rosalind: “I prithee, shepherd, if that love or gold Can in this desert place buy entertainment, Bring us where we may rest ourselves and feed. Here’s a young maid with travel much oppressed, And faints for succor”. Corin: “Fair sir, I pity her…” “Assuredly the thing is to be sold. Go with me. If you like upon report The soil, the profit, and this kind of life, I will your very faithful feeder be And buy it with your gold right suddenly”. (Act 2, Scene 4, 71)

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From the above conversation, we can say that Rosalind hires men to help her. Although she is a woman, she can control men because she has money and power to give orders. She does not have to take care of herself because she has a servant.

Conclusion In conclusion, we can say that Miranda in The Tempest portrays the inferior status of women in the Elizabethan period. She lives in a male dominated society and is oppressed by men, especially her father and future husband. Obedience, purity, submissiveness, sex object, and domesticity are clearly seen in the image of Miranda. She is strictly controlled by her father. She has no power to make decisions for herself. She follows her father’s words without argument. On the contrary, Rosalind in As You Like It does not follow the Elizabethan social expectations. She appears to be one of the most independent, dominant, intelligent, and active women. Rosalind is free from other people’s commands. Throughout the play, Rosalind is an independent woman. She does not listen to anybody. She believes in her own ideas and rejects help offered to her. It can be said that Rosalind is free from men’s domination. She is a strong woman that can control her own destiny.

All in all, Shakespeare portrays the female characters in the different ways. In the tragedy, Shakespeare reflects the reality of women in the Elizabethan age. He wants to show that most of women in the Elizabethan age are inferior and unequal to men. Miranda is used to represent the ideal women of Elizabethan society. She is referred to as a ‘goddess’ as is characterized as beautiful, naïve, and innocent. Moreover, in The Tempest, Shakespeare shows the difficulties and oppression women experienced by their male counterparts. In contrast, in the comedy, Shakespeare shows that women can be equal to men if they have chances. They can do anything as men do and they are able to gain power. In As You Like It, Shakespeare shows Rosalind is an active, independent and powerful character who dominates the others throughout the play. She can do anything in order to achieve her goals. In this way we can call that Shakespeare is a feminist author.

References Beauvoir, Simone De. The Second Sex. 1st ed. London: Everyman’s Library, 1949. Davis, Stevie. The Idea of Women in Renaissance Literature. New York: MacMillan, 1994. Schmidt, J. Albert. “Women Waging Law in Elizabethan England.” May 8, 1982. Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. New York: Campbell, 1993. Shakespeare, William. As You Like It. New York: Campbell, 1993. Sztaray, Zsuzsa. Introduction to a Victorian Woman's World. California: Brooks/ Cole, 1995. Print. Ferguson, Mary Anne. Images of Women in Literature. 2nd ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1997.

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The Effects of Pre-Writing Activities on Grade Six Students’ Writing Ability

Arunee Jiwprasat Dr.Walaiporm Chaya Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract As Brodney, et al. (1999) have pointed out that prewriting phase, the first stage of the writing process plays an essential role in the construction of writing. This paper reports on an investigation of the effectiveness of the pre-writing activities on grade sixth students’ writing performance. It also concentrates on how the participants use the prewriting activities: different types of concept mapping in the writing tasks. The research design is an experimental design aiming at training the students to use pre-writing activities for writing descriptive, narrative and comparison/contrast paragraphs. Data were collected through pre- and post writing test, attitude questionnaire, the interview and the first draft of students’ writing. The results indicated the improvement of students’ writing performance of three types of paragraphs through the prewriting strategy training. The findings also showed statistical differences between the mean scores of the pre- and post writing test. The questionnaire results showed students’ positive responses toward the prewriting activities. The implications for EFL writing teachers are also discussed.

Keywords: Prewriting activities, writing performance, the effectiveness of prewriting activities, prewriting strategy training, concept mapping

Background of the study At present, there has been an increasing world-wide need to start learning English at an early age at school in various global contexts (Graddol, 2006 cited in Hyland, 2007), particularly in ESL/EFL learning contexts. Since the writing skill is an important tool for communication in the globalized world, especially writing through the advanced technology like computer, it is suggested that writing should be incorporated in the English curriculum as the primary part of the English learning process (Hyland, 2007).Writing is also regarded as a vital skill in the teaching and learning English as a foreign language (EFL) because it is a thinking process that encourages students to think, concentrate and organize their ideas and cultivate the ability to summarize, analyze and criticize (Rao, 2007). These critical thinking skills are required in the modern world and they can be acquired through writing. The importance of writing leads to the question about how to teach the young EFL learners to write in English effectively because it is regarded as the most difficult skill of all four English language skills.

Writing is viewed as the difficult skill and problematic for both native and non-native speaker of English because it is a very complex process in which several cognitive and metacognitive activities are taking place such as brainstorming, pre-writing, planning, writing the first draft/drafting, revising, editing and so forth (Flower & Hayes, 1981). In addition, writing consists of numerous elements which writers need to take into considerations when learning to write including content and ideas, organization, vocabulary, linguistic knowledge, and mechanics. Therefore, for non-native speakers of English like Thai EFL learners, writing is more difficult due to the complexity of the writing process and the typical characteristics of written language (Nunan, 1991). The second issue is that there is a need to help those EFL learners to start learning to write in English in the early age, as mentioned above and to overcome their deficiencies.

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In Thailand, English has been also taught as a foreign language and the approach of teaching is a communicative approach with integrative language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing. Among the four skills, listening and reading are considered receptive skills; whereas, speaking and writing are productive skills. As a productive skill, writing plays an essential role in the context of EFL teaching in many countries because writing is one way for communicating ideas, thoughts, and messages to the readers for a variety of purposes whether formally or informally. Hyland (2003) maintains that writing is one way to share personal meanings and it focuses on personal construction of the communicator’s ideas and views on a certain topic. It is therefore important for Thai students to start developing their English writing skill at an early age.

In an EFL setting, students in various countries confront similar problems when writing in English. Rao (2007), a writing instructor at a Chinese university, states that many EFL writing teachers complain about their students’ writing deficiencies, which include a lack of ideas and their inability to think of anything interesting or significant to write. Rao further explains that those teachers are confused about their writing classes because they find themselves unable to employ an effective way of encouraging students’ imagination in order to set their minds working (p.100). Similarly, Benjarano, et. al. (1997) found that most teachers adopt a product-based approach, concentrating on exemplifying contrast and comparison, description, classification and so forth. They did not teach their students critical pre-writing skills, such as brainstorming nor the value of strategy training to enhance their learning skills.

For Thai teachers, English writing seems to be the most difficult area to learn and develop when compared with the other three skills (reading, listening and speaking). In English writing classes, Thai students typically struggle to transform their thoughts into words and put them down logically on paper. In other words, when students write in English, they do not create the text themselves. Simply put, they only translate their thoughts word for word from Thai into English, often without the logical development of ideas and appropriate patterns. The teaching of writing in Thai classes focuses on the traditional teaching practice of emphasizing just the finished product rather than the creative process. It is clear that the proposed solution is to find effective teaching techniques for EFL writing classes in order to help students to write well.

As a teacher who has taught Thai primary level students in grades 5 to 6, and six, aged 9 to 12, for years the researcher has observed the teaching in other classes and reflected my own class, and found that the students write well when they were assigned to perform the writing tasks. To be more specific, they did not have any ideas about what to write. Hence, they usually could not complete the writing task, and they were unmotivated to learn to write. In addition, they have an insufficient repertoire of English vocabulary, making it difficult or impossible to generate ideas or content to achieve their writing goal. When they start writing on a given topic, even one that they select themselves, they fail to produce a composition. As a result, their writing performance falls short of meeting the minimum passing standard. The minimum passing standard is a score of 50. Unfortunately, the majority of students, particularly in grade six, got below 50 on the average. This showed that the students’ writing ability was not good and they need of improvement. The less successful writing outcome may be due to many factors, particularly the teaching strategies used in writing classes may be ineffective or uninteresting. To my observation, some teachers taught based on the traditional product-based approach of writing. They only assigned their students to write a paragraph on a given topic, allowing time for in-class

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111 writing, without any writing strategies or examples of a good model paragraph. Another factor causing the low writing ability in students is that a writing task was not presented to the students step-by-step in accordance with the process of learning to write, or the writing process in pre-writing/planning to write, translating and writing. However, when grading descriptive paragraphs written by the students in grade six in the first semester of 2011 academic year, the researcher found out that most students lacked ideas of what to describe on a given topic. Their English writing problems include limited linguistic knowledge, particularly vocabulary, grammar and content and ideas. In general, the most common problems that Thai students had confronted are similar to those students in other EFL contexts. Mostly, the problems found in EFL students occurred in the pre-writing phase. Taking the problems and the theoretical concepts of teaching writing in consideration, the researcher has attempted to find the way to help the students improve their writing performance and motivate them to actively engage in the writing class.

During the past decades, the tendency to use the process approach of writing has become popular among the researchers. In the process-based approach of writing, the basic process include planning what to write and how to write it; translating plans into written texts, and reviewing to improve existing texts. Planning was composed of three components: setting goals, generating ideas, and organizing ideas into a writing plan; whereas, reviewing includes reading and editing text (Hayes & Flower, 1980). The prewriting is the initial stage of the writing process and the point at which the writer discover, explore the ideas about the topic. Broadbey, et.al.(1999) state that pre-writing has been shown to facilitate the writing process for all types of writing and it is also considered as an important stage of the writing process and supports writers in setting goal, brainstorming, organizing ideas, and deciding text structure.

Research has revealed that skilled writers place an emphasis on pre-writing, view it as rehearsal, and spend a longer time planning during the pre-writing stage (Richards and Lockhart, 1996; Sasaki, 2000); writing without planning may result in dissatisfying writing performance. To emphasize on the importance of pre-writing activities in process writing in recently, Richard and Lockhart (1996) assert that skilled writer tend to spend time thinking about tasks and planning. They also gather and organize information; and they use note taking, lists, and brainstorming to help generate ideas. On the other hand, unskilled writers tend to spend little time on planning (p. 65). Similarly, Sasaki (2000) states that non-native speakers (NNS) expert writers may devote more time in detailed planning and organization than novice writers do. On the contrary, NNS novice writers may be more concerned with mechanical aspects and may overlook practices that generate and organize ideas (Uzawa 1996 as cited in Camps, 2005, p.17). It then appeared that the NNS novice writers not only need to learn the types of writing practices beneficial for helping them to explore ideas and to select a topic for a paper, but they must also be aware that their low proficiency o fluency can be an adverse factor that may hamper the generation of ideas in English (Zamel, 1982; Bosher, 1998).

As discusses above, since the problems of EFL students addressed in the literature mostly occurred in the pre-writing phase which plays an important role in the construction of writing (Brodney, et.al., 1999), the researcher sees the essential need for developing students in the pre-writing stage to encourage them to generate ideas and to find words to express ideas and concepts for organizing the text.

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Some empirical studies have found positive effects of the pre-writing strategy instruction to students’ writing ability. Those studies tried various strategies and techniques in engaging students in the pre-writing activities such as concept mapping, barnstorming, listing, and free writing. (Wu Jin & Zhang Zai-xin, 2000; Ojima, 2006; Pishghadam & Ghanizadeh, 2006; Rao, 2007; Yu-wen, 2007; Hyland, 2007; T. Siriwanich, 2007); Dujsik, 2008; and Talebinezad & Negari, 2009).

In one study conducted with Chinese students by Wu Jin and Zhang Zai-xin (2000), the researchers used the pre-writing and revising strategies to examine the effects of these instructions on the participants’ writing performance. The results revealed that the students improving their English composition writing and they felt more confident in their own writing ability and in their use of English. Another study by Yu-wen (2007), four pre-writing strategies, namely, mapping, brainstorming, outlining and organizational planning were taught to Chinese university students in their composition class for eight weeks. The students; paper were scored on four criteria: content, organization, vocabulary and language use. The research proved the possibility of pre-writing strategy instruction in EFL university context; The results showed the significant differences in the content, ideas and organization of the students’ papers in the experimental and control groups. The study suggested that pre-writing strategy instruction helps learners generate richer ideas and organize information logically. The findings from the questionnaire showed that the students had no problems in generating ideas and could organize information more effectively. Schultz’s study (1991) suggested the potential of mapping strategies as an effective pre-writing activity to enhance students’ writing performance. In this second-year French programme, semantic mapping was combined with group or general class discussion, in which students tried out and refined their ideas with their peers for writing.

According the discussion above, it appears that, in many ways, the researchers have attempted to find out the appropriate activity to help the students improve their writing ability and motivate them to participate actively in the writing class. The previous studies reported the effects of using techniques and strategies as a teaching tool to develop students writing performance and the positive effects of pre-writing strategy instruction were consistently found. The studies also suggested that pre-writing activities that taught students to gather ideas in the first stage of the writing process can increase learners’ writing ability. The question is whether English language teacher can help Thai EFL students improve their writing performance by the pre-writing activities using different types of concept mapping. Since the studies in Thai EFL contexts applied the instruction of pre-writing activities in writing task at the primary level are very scant. As mentioned in the preceding section, the researcher has been teaching English in the primary school at Joseph Upatham in English Programme. The present study then mainly aims to investigate the effectiveness of the pre- writing activities of concept mapping in writing on grade six students’ writing performance.

Objectives of the Study The objectives of this study are as follows: 1. To investigate the effect of pre-writing activities on grade six students’ writing ability. 2. To compare the ability of students using pre-writing activities with the ability of those using traditional practices. 3. To examine how students use pre-writing activities in their writing tasks. 4. To examine students’ attitudes toward the pre-writing activities.

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Methodology Participants Participants in the study were thirty-seven students in class 6/5 and 6/6 in the English Programme of Joseph Upatham during the second semester of academic year 2011, with eighteen students relegated to the experimental group and nineteen students set aside as a control group. All were native Thai speakers, of mixed English ability (high, average and low achievers).

Research Instruments The research instruments used to collect data were the prewriting and post writing test, the learners’attitude questionnaire, analytic scoring sheet, and interview questions.

The writing pretest and posttest. The writing pretest and posttest were the parallel test. The purpose of the prewriting test was to assess participants’ writing ability in both groups of experimental and control group before the experiment; while the post writing test was administered to evaluate the students’ writing ability after being taught with prewriting activities before paragraph writing. The prewriting test and the post writing test asked the students to write a descriptive paragraph by describing a picture. The pretest and posttest used similar pictures. The length of a paragraph was at least 60 to 80 words.

The Learners’ Attitude Questionnaire. The Learners’ Attitude Questionnaire was constructed by the researcher to ask participants towards the pre-writing activities used in the writing classes. The questionnaire aimed to elicit the students’ attitudes while learning in their writing class and topics of the paragraph writing. The questionnaire consisted of both closed and open-ended questions. The closed questions in Part 1 were a Likert type with 5 rating scales: 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 2 = disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree, and Part 2 of the questionnaire was open- ended consisting of 5 opened-end questions asking students about the problems in writing, the topics of their writing, and their opinion toward the pre-writing activities.

The validity of the instruments. To validate the pretest and posttest, the researcher constructed the test based on the course description of English 611101 of the school curriculum. The researcher asked the three experts: one native speaker of English; one Thai teacher and the thesis advisor to check the correctness, and appropriate of the test. Then the test was revised and adjusted in accordance with the experts’ comments including wordings, time for doing the test. The test was piloted with 20 grade six students who learned this course, and they were not the participants of the study.

For the questionnaire, the researcher asked the advisor to check the items of the questionnaire and the language used and then revised for improving the confusing parts. The questionnaire was also tried out with 20 grade six students.

Analytic scoring. The analytic scoring of this study, adapted from Hall (2000) was used as criteria to measure the students’ writing performance. These assessment scorings were used the pre-wring and post writing test and writing tasks. Three raters, a Thai and two native teachers teaching at Joseph Upatatham School, were asked to grade the students’ papers. The analytic scoring

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consisted of five categories: 1) content, 2) organization, 3) language, 4) grammar and 5) spelling. Rating scale descriptions were 1-4 marks. Also see Appendix D.

Interview questions. The purposes of the interview were: to supplement the findings from the quantitative data; to investigate the students’ attitude, perception toward the use of pre-writing activities, and the problems and difficulties while doing the writing tasks and to ask the students to self-evaluate their writing ability. The interview consisted of 8 questions and six students were selected to participate in the interview. The researcher conducted the interview in Thai, lasted 10 minutes for each student.

Teaching materials for pre-writing activities instruction. This study was a pretest posttest control group design. The aim of the study was investigate the effect of pre-writing instruction on grade six students’ writing ability. The students in the experiment group received the writing instruction focusing on the process approach whereas the students in the control group were taught based on the traditional teaching technique-the product-approach of teaching writing. The teaching materials concerned the lesson plans for the experimental group and the control group in relation to two methods of teaching writing. The researcher constructed the lesson plans for both groups based on the course description of English 611101 of the school curriculum. The content of the lesson plans focused on three types of writing and three topics. The lesson plans as well supplementary worksheet were submitted to three writing specialists for approval. One lesson for the control group: with traditional teaching practice, and the other, for the experimental group, with pre-writing activities. The lesson plans used are discussed in detail as in the following.

The traditional teaching practice lesson plans. The traditional teaching practice lesson plans were used for teaching students in the control group. It consisted of three lesson plans based on three topics for each type of writing; letter to my hero for descriptive, my most memorable gift/photo for narrative and life in the country and life in the city for comparison/contrast. The lesson plan was based on product-based approach of teaching. The content of the teaching materials were based on the students’ textbook and writing tasks.

Pre-writing activities lesson plan. Pre-writing activities lesson plans were used for teaching students in the experimental group consisting of three lesson plans based on three topics for writing. The teaching materials used were based on the use of three types of concept mapping: descriptive map, sequential organization map, and comparison and contrast map, as prewriting activities for planning to write by brainstorming content and ideas related the type of writing and students’ writing topics in the concept maps provided.

The first lesson plan was used in the first four weeks of the class, aiming at teaching descriptive writing; the content of the lesson plan presented a spider map in the pre-writing stage to encourage students to describe themselves, descriptive writing was the first type of writing that the students were familiar with.

In week 5-8 of the class, the second lesson plan for narrative writing was used. In this plan narrative, a sequential organization map was combined for offering the topic, My Most Memorable gift/photo. The purpose of writing was to narrate or tell a story or past

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experience. If the participants were trained to plan by using their background knowledge, they would improve their narrative writing. In the last four weeks, the last lesson plan was used for teaching comparison and contrast writing. The comparative and contrastive map was presented in pre-writing stage to encourage students to discuss the topic in the group.

Data Collection Procedure To obtain the students’ performance the research conducted experiment on the topic with the use of the pre-writing activities and the traditional teaching practice in order to write three types of writing: descriptive, narrative, and comparison and contrast. The data of the study were collected through the following procedure:

1. Students in both experimental and control group asked to do the pre-writing test before the experiment and the post writing test after the end of the experiment.

2. The students in both groups were taught by the researcher for 12 weeks, two periods a week. Therefore, the total period of teaching was 24 periods. The students in the control group were taught through the traditional teaching practice lesson plan based on product- oriented approach to teaching. The teaching materials were their textbook and supplemental writing tasks.

3. The pre-writing activities lesson plan was used for teaching students in the experimental group. It consisted of three lesson plans based on three topics for writing. The teaching materials used were concept mapping, worksheets, and writing tasks. In the first four weeks, the first lesson plan taught descriptive writing. This plan presented a ‘descriptive map’ in the pre-writing stage to encourage students to describe themselves. In the fifth to eighth weeks, the second lesson plan taught narrative writing. This plan used a narrative sequential organization map to elicit a description of the students’ most memorable gifts or photographs. The purpose of this writing was to narrate or tell a story about some past experience. When participants are trained to plan by using their background knowledge, they improve their narrative writing. The last lesson plan, used in the final four weeks taught comparison and contrast writing. This plan employed a comparative and contrastive map in the pre-writing stage. The purpose of this plan was to encourage students to discuss their topics in groups.

4. During the training, the experimental students were assigned to use concept mapping, worksheets and three topics writing tasks they will be asked to as these after they are trained in the pre-writing activities. In the same meaner, the control group students trained to use the traditional writing practice when writing a paragraph.

5. To investigate whether the grade six students’ attitude toward the pre-writing activities, dada came from two sources. One is from learners’ attitude questionnaire and the interview. The learners’ attitude questionnaire was administered to obtain the self-report data on students’ attitude toward the use of pre-writing activities. The questionnaire conducted only to the experimental group at the end of the experiment.

6. The interview question asking how students combine the use of pre-writing activities. The interview administered immediately after the students were completed the experiment. Only six students from experimental group selected to participate in the interview session. In addition, six students were selected based on the results of the test: high, medium, and low score. Each student was interviewed by the researcher.

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Data Analysis The data gained from the English writing pre-test and post-test were analyzed by mean scores, standard deviation and t-test. The t-test was used to determine whether the pre-writing activities had an effect on students’ writing ability and to ascertain whether there was any difference between the experimental group and control group. In addition, the data from questionnaires were changed into mean scores in order to render the comparative process more facile. The data aimed to measure students’ English writing ability and perceptions upon completion of the study.

Results of the Study Generally, the findings of the current study revealed that the writing ability of Grade Six students of Joseph Upatham School in both the experimental group and control group improved after the experiment. The students in the experimental group who were taught using pre-writing activities achieved higher mean scores than those in the control group. Moreover, students in the experimental group had more positive perceptions towards pre-writing activities.

The Effect of the Prewriting Activities on Grade Six Students Table 1 A Comparison of the Overall Mean Scores on Pre-test and Post-test of the Students in the Experimental Group

Students’ n M S.D. Inter-rater t p-value papers Reliability Pre-test 18 8.11 2.00 .92 16.36 .000* Post- test 18 15.11 2.03 .92 * Significant at the 0.05 level (p<0.05)

The data in Table 1 reveal that the mean scores on the post-test of the students in the experimental group were higher than those in the pre-test. The mean scores on the pre-test and post-test were 8.11 and 15.11, respectively. The t- score was 16.36, and it was significantly different at a level of 0.05. That is to say, the result of the paired t-test presented evidence of significant improvement in writing after instruction. The inter rater reliability was at .92 in on pre-and posttest. It showed that the raters had strongly agreed on scores.

Table 2 Mean Scores and Standard Deviation (SD) of Writing Pretest and Posttest of the Experimental Group and the Control Group Participants n (M) S.D. Inter-rater t p-value Reliability

Pretest Experimental group 18 8.11 2.00 .92 .082 .935 Control group 19 8.16 1.46 .91 Posttest Experimental group 18 15.11 2.03 .92 2.63 .013* Control group 19 13.16 2.46 .96 * Significant at the 0.05 level (p<0.05)

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The data in Table 2 point to significant differences between the post-test mean scores of the experimental group and of the control group at a 0.05 level. The students in the experimental group, instructed by prewriting activities, achieved a higher mean score than those in the control group, instructed by traditional practice. Thus, it can be concluded that the prewriting activities better assisted the students in improving their English ability than the traditional practice did.

The Attitude of Students toward the Use of Prewriting Activities To explore students’ attitude towards the pre-writing activities, students were requires to answer the students’ attitudes questionnaire by rating each item on five-rating scale from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree” Students self-rating scores from attitude questionnaires were analyzed and calculated for the mean and the standard deviation and interpreted into five levels from very low to very high. The result showed that students had a positive attitude towards the pre-writing activities used in the classroom rated at a very high level (M=4.23). The result revealed that students had positive attitude towards pre-writing activities. The learners had the highest attitude towards item 8 (M=4.44). The learners responded that brainstorming can help them get the ideas in writing. Next, the learners had the second highest positive attitude towards items 5 (M=4.39). The learner responded that Concept Mapping helped them gain more confidence in writing. However, the learners had the least positive attitude towards item 7 (M=3.89). The majority of them responded that they liked sharing reading their writing tasks with their friend.

Moreover, from the interview students had positive in pre-writing activities. They felt more confident in their writing performance. They had interesting ideas from class discussion before writing. The pre-writing could help them enjoy in writing class. They had better attitude in writing class.

Furthermore, the findings from students’ perception questionnaire showed that all students agreed with using prewriting activities in writing class. It can be summarized that students strongly agreed that prewriting activities proceeded the development of integrated skills in the classroom and made English more interesting. The students also strongly noted that they put more time into this class than they would have invested in previous classes, and that the information from the class activities contributed greatly to their knowledge of reading and writing. From the open-ended questionnaire shows the first two advantages of using pre- writing activities in wring class were improving writing skill (42.86%), and enhancing thinking skill (28.57%). In addition, there were two advantages of using pre-writing activities in writing class that the students responded sharing the ideas and imagination to writing tasks and learning how to work in group (14.29%). In the same way there were four participants did not enjoy in writing class. Two of them had stuck in thinking, had no ideas, and lack vocabularies and all of them had worried about the grammatical and structure. They were not confidence in their writing. However, in the open-end question still based on the problem in their writing. The problems in their writing class were confusing in grammar and structure (55.56%), lack of vocabulary (33.33%), and no ideas in their writing (11.11).

The attitude any perceptions towards the pre-writing activities. When asked about their attitude towards pre-writing activities, six of them enjoyed in writing class because they had opportunity to discuss in the interesting topics, they could share and get ideas from their friend. In this case, they had more confident before writing on the first draft. Pre-writing activities could help them gain more vocabularies, ideas, and step of writing, concept mapping was made them to organize and planned before writing and helped

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them more confidence before writing. They were happy and proud of themselves to listen and revise their friends’ performance. Pre-writing activities was not only improve their writing skill, it also encouraged them in thinking skill, made them more confident , and learnt how to solve the problems in writing class. They had better in writing because pre-writing activities.

PS1 “I enjoyed doing my mapping before writing because I had an idea after discuss in group. I was able to write longer paragraph from my mapping. It helped me organize what I’m going to write my writing task”.

The above extract shows that PS 1 had a clear goal for writing task, she also planned for ideas which are her own map, so she agreed that pre-writing activities are used in her writing class.

Discussion The findings of the study revealed that after the experiment students in the experimental group achieved a significantly higher score than those in the control group. They were able to create their own writing following the prewriting activities. According to Lindstromberg (2004), prewriting, which is typically characterized as a planning activity, is fundamental in determining the students’ success in drafting the entire text. This stage consists of three stages: generating ideas, focusing, and structuring (White & Arndt, 1991 cited in Widiati & Cahyono, 2006). Pre-writing enables students to identify material related to the topic about which they are going to write. Likewise, the teaching of writing in junior high school must be viewed as an ongoing process. It means that teaching writing involves pre-writing, drafting, revising, and editing (Hill, 1998). In addition, the findings suggested that pre-writing activities enhanced students’ scores in writing, as they were significantly higher after receiving instruction through prewriting activities, even for experimental students who already were familiar with paragraph writing. Working in groups, students felt comfortable to ask questions about points which they did not understand and to express their ideas and experiences with their friends. Consequently, students obtained higher scores after instruction.

Moreover, according to the findings, the post-test mean score of the students who were taught with pre-writing activities was higher than that of those receiving traditional instruction. This finding emphasized that pre-writing activities were more effective in improving English writing ability than traditional practices. The first reason to support this finding is that reading and writing skills are connected (Yu-wen, 2007). Four pre-writing strategies, namely, mapping, brainstorming, outlining and organizational planning were taught to Chinese university students in their composition class for eight weeks. In that study, the students’ papers were scored on four criteria: content, organization, vocabulary and language use. All of the pre-tests and post-tests were scored by three graders and then averaged. Schultz’s study (1991) suggested the potential of mapping strategies as an effective pre-writing activity to enhance students’ writing performance. In his second-year French programme, semantic mapping was combined with group or general class discussion, whereby students tried out and refined their ideas with their peers before writing. Regard the data analysis from the questionnaires on students’ perceptions, students in the experimental group showed their strong agreement with using the prewriting activities in English class. They said effectively that the prewriting proceeded the development of integrated skills in the classroom and made English class interesting because the activities allowed students to participate in various activities like group work, not only individual tasks.

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In addition, open- ended questions were used to confirm the positive response from the students. The findings revealed that students believed that all students in the experimental group agreed with the use of prewriting activities. The reasons given were that they believed that the prewriting activities helped them be more interested in English class, improve their writing and even their reading abilities. They could also apply their new knowledge to daily use, actively learning English in class. They maintained that the prewriting activities created an enjoyable working atmosphere. Also, some students claimed that the prewriting activities prompted them to work more in groups.

Implications of the Study The results illustrated that learning through pre-writing activities improves students’ writing ability. However, the teacher should adjust the students, proficiency level before designing the lesson plans. For example, if students have limited vocabulary, teacher should spend time teaching the new vocabularies before starting the lesson. Attractive pictures can be affective material for presenting new vocabulary. Moreover, students should start practicing from a lower class level. When participants are required to write, they become uncomfortable. So having opportunities to write regularly and extensively will gradually help lessen their fears in encountering writing. Therefore, they will become more confident and be able to write fluently.

Having clear procedures for doing the activities is very vital. The teacher should explain the procedure before letting the students doing the activities and should not give them any work before finishing giving the instructions because the students will not listen to the teacher but focus on the work instead. Teacher should assign writing tasks with the easy topics, particularly, writing about their own experience. As one of the raters noticed that writing about students’ experience will help relieve their anxiety because at least they already have the ideas to write about in their mind.

Moreover, teachers should not have high expectations of students’ writing ability because there are different levels of students in one class. Teachers should be patient and try hard to teach writing each step especially at the beginning of the course students need to spend much time to understand the procedure of pre-writing activities. When they are getting familiar to the process, they will be able to write fluently.

In additional, while the students are doing the activities, the teacher should walk around the classroom in order to monitor the students’ performance. The students will think that the teacher is paying attention to everyone in the class, which could help them focus on the activities more completely.

Although, the experiment was carried out follow the planned experiment, there were the limitations of the study which will be discussed in the next section

Recommendation for Further Studies The recommendations for further research are suggested as follows: 1. Researcher could apply pre-writing activities start with the beginner level. 2. Research should be applied pre-writing activities to develop other English skills including reading and speaking. 3. Researcher should prepare pre and posttests in all types of writing that were use in the experiment.

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The Use of Task-Based Learning to Improve English Listening and Speaking Abilities of Mattayomsuksa 1 at Piboonprachasan School

Jidapa Promruang Dr. Anchalee Jansem Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanity, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract The purpose of this study was to develop English listening and speaking abilities of Mattayomsuksa 1 students at Piboonprachasan School, Bangkok through task-based learning. The participants were 30 students in Mattayomsuksa 1, gained via convenience sampling, studying in the second semester of academic year 2011. The experiment group was taught through Task-Based learning instruction. The instruments used for collecting data were four task-based lesson plans, a pre-post English listening test, English speaking test, and a teaching log. The data were statistically analyzed by mean, standard deviation, and t-test for dependent samples. The results of this study indicated that the English listening ability of Mattayomsuksa 1 students through task-based learning after the experiment was significantly higher at the .01 level and the English speaking ability of Mattayomsuksa 1 students through task-based learning after the experiment was significantly higher at the .01 level.

Keywords: Task-based learning, English listening and speaking abilities.

Background of the study In the modern day communicating in foreign languages is very important. By far the most important language to learn is English. Being fluent in English opens up a world of opportunities in education, travel, business, technology and the internet. The Ministry of Education includes English education in the Thai curriculum of primary and secondary schools. Through the Basic Education Core Curriculum, the Ministry of Education describes its expectations for language learning as providing students the ability to receive and transmit information, express thoughts, knowledge and understanding, and feelings and opinions.

Learners should develop the ability to solve problems and conflicts. Learners should also be able to choose what information to accept or reject through their reasoning and judgment (Basic Education Core Curriculum, 2008). However, the reality in modern Thai classrooms is that English language learning is not quite so effective. Thai students often find themselves unable to communicate in even Basic English despite studying for many years.

Some of the problems that contribute to this are that the classroom environment is too stressful and students are not provided with enough opportunities to practice speaking and listening. Students are unable to transfer classroom learning into the real-world. According to Bolt (as cited in Muangyot, 2010) in traditional classrooms most activities focused on grammar and reading more than listening and speaking. Teachers generally use too much Thai in English classrooms and do not use enough creative activities that stimulate learning.

A study performed by the Ministry of Education (2002) over a period of ten years found that the communication level of foreign language learners was inadequate to perform research, study technology and communicate effectively. Another aspect was that learners did not feel confident enough to speak up in classroom settings, which led to problems in communication.

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A potential answer to this dilemma is Task-Based learning which is a teaching method that allows learners to have an opportunity to practice language by the performing ‘tasks’, which focus more on meaning than on form (Willis, 1996; Ellis, 2003). Tasks are generally performed in small groups. According to Willis (1996) there are 3 parts to a task; pre-task, task-cycle, and language focus. The pre-task phase introduces the topic and the task. The teacher highlights important vocabulary and gives learners task instructions and guidance. The task-cycle allows learners to work in pairs or groups. In this phase learners will prepare to give a presentation to the class. Learners have a chance to work together and solve problems by working in teams. The teacher monitors, gives positive feedback and guidance as needed. Throughout the process, learners will use language that is similar to what they would use in real life. The language focus phase allows the teacher and learners to work together by analyzing language that was used and correcting mistakes.

Task-based learning provides many advantages over other teaching methods. Task-based learning lets learners use language in a natural way. This allows them to relax and gives them greater exposure in the target language as stated by Willis (1998). Students are able to relax and communicate in the process of completing a task instead of being stressed out and worrying about grammar and form. As this researcher has observed, the teaching of listening and speaking in Mattayomsuksa 1 at Piboonprachasan School has not been effective because the students are not able to communicate in English successfully. Teachers do not provide classroom instruction that models real-life situations. Instead, teachers usually ask students to repeat sentences after them with little to no thinking involved. Teachers focus on grammar formation and rules rather than practicing actual listening and speaking activities. Due to these issues, and in consideration of the importance of teaching and learning English, the researcher is interested in using task-based learning activities to develop English listening and speaking skills.

Objectives of the Study The objectives of this study are as follows: 1. To examine the effectiveness of task-based learning on listening ability. 2. To examine the effectiveness of task-based learning on speaking ability.

Scope of the Study Population and Participants The population of this study is Mattayomsuksa 1 students from Piboonprachasan School. The school has 5 classes of Mattayomsuksa 1 students, with each class having approximately equal number of low to high achievers. The participants were 30 students chosen by convenience sampling approach. They were studying English in the second semester of the 2012 academic year.

Research Instruments The research instruments used to gather the data were as follows: Task-based learning lesson plans 1. The Task-based lesson plans were designed by reviewing research written about task-based learning, listening and speaking, secondary English curriculum in terms of purpose, content, grammar structure, phrases and word-list. Mega Goal 1 textbook which contains many conversations, real-world places and published materials was also used. The task model follows Willis (1996) for the different phases of the task. Willis describes the different task phases as the 'pre-task', 'task-cycle' and 'language focus'.

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2. English Listening and Speaking Test The English Listening and Speaking Test was designed using the Secondary Basic Core Curriculum 2008 for Mathayom 1.The test consisted of two parts. Part one was an objective listening test made up of 15 multiple choice questions. Part two was a set of fifteen interview questions. The total score was fifteen points. The speaking assessment rate adapted from Clark (as cited in Wongsotorn, 1996). The components of assessment included fluency, grammar, vocabulary, content and pronunciation.

3. Speaking Assessment Criteria Marking of the speaking component of the English Listening and Speaking Test followed the speaking assessment criteria developed by Clark (as cited in Wongsothorn, 1996). The components of assessment included fluency, grammar, vocabulary, contents and pronunciation.

4. Teaching log Teaching log was used primarily as a tool to get additional information for findings by the researcher, who observed and recorded qualitative data over the seven week period. After each lesson the key observations and outcomes of the lesson were noted by the researcher in a relatively informal manner.

Data Collection Procedure The study was conducted over a 7 week period, from January 2012 to February 2012. The four hours of instruction each week was split into two equal lessons. The first week included a two hour introduction lesson comprising an explanation of the purpose of the study, learner roles, assessment and method. The second lesson was comprised entirely of a two hour pretest. Lessons were then conducted from week two until the first lesson of week seven. The two hour post-test took place during the last lesson of week seven. Thus the total face-to-face teaching time was 22 hours.

Data Analysis The data were analyzed to find out whether the hypotheses of this study are correct. The first hypothesis was to examine whether the use of task-based learning is effective in developing students’ English Listening ability. The hypothesis was analyzed based on language use in listening effectively through communication. The English listening ability scores on the pretest and post-test were computed and converted into mean scores. The significance was found with the t-test based on the total number of bases in the dependent sample. The steps of the data analysis process were involved in determining the mean and standard deviation of each student to check whether or not the mean scores of pre-test and post-test were significantly different. The second hypothesis was to examine whether speaking ability improved after learning through task-based learning. The rating scores of the speaking assessment forms were counted and converted into mean scores, then checked to see whether or not the mean scores of the pre-test and post-test were significantly different. The teaching log was recorded after each lesson for research findings.

Results of the Study 1. Learners’ English listening ability was significantly improved at the .01 level after learning through a task-based learning approach. 2. Learners’ English speaking ability was significantly improved at the .01 level after learning through a task-based learning approach.

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Learning log after lesson found that students paid attention, were motivated and cooperative, and were responsible for the work given by the teacher. The students practiced and enjoyed using the language throughout the variety of activities during the lessons.

Table 1 A Comparison of the Mean Scores on Pre-test and Post-test of the English Listening test English N X SD ∑D ∑D2 t Listening ability Pre-test 30 4.73 2.09 167 1013 17.98** Post-test 30 10.30 2.10

*Significant at the .01 level

From the data in table 2, it was found that the English listening ability of Mattayomsuksa 1 students was significantly higher after task-based learning at the .01 level. The participants had significantly higher mean scores on the post-test (M = 10.30, SD = 2.10) than the pre-test (M= 4.73, SD = 2.09).

Table 2 A Comparison of the Mean Scores on Pre-test and Post-test of the English Speaking test English N X SD ∑D ∑D2 t speaking ability Pre-test 30 6.73 1.53 131 635 16.23** Post-test 30 11.27 1.35 *Significant at the .01 level

From the data in table 2, it was found that the English speaking ability of Mattayomsuksa 1 students was significantly higher after task-based learning at the .01 level. The participants had significantly higher mean scores on the post-test (M = 11.27, SD = 1.35) than the pre-test (M= 6.73, SD = 1.53).

Furthermore, the findings from the teacher log showed that the students were motivated and excited by the variety and challenge of new activities. They paid attention and completed all tasks given by the teacher. In each lesson, the researcher provided multiple repetitions of the listening inputs. These inputs ranged from recordings, teacher speaking about a task or teacher reading directions. The researcher noticed a marked development in the listening and speaking skills of the students.

Discussion The purpose of the study was to determine whether task-based learning was effective in improving the English listening and speaking of students in Mattayomsuksa 1 at Piboonprachasan School. The results found that the participants who studied through task- based learning lessons improved their listening and speaking abilities significantly. Students gained confidence over the course of the experiment. Foster and Skehan (as cited in Ellis 2003) found that when students were given detailed guidance they tended to prioritize content with resulting gains in complexity when they performed the task. The researcher drew on Foster and Skehan’s research by building the pre- task phase to make sure the students received comprehensive input in the form of vocabulary,

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sentence structure, and various activities such as drawing and miming. These inputs provided the students with opportunities to engage themselves in the language. The tasks were demonstrated with clear steps and directions.

The most productive task phase was the report phase in which students asked questions to each other in rotating roles of listener and speaker. Each phase of task-based learning emphasized the need for students to use language in real-life situations in order to achieve effective completion of the task. For example, students were made to present about their dream jobs and explain why it is their dream job. When students struggled to find the right words to speak they resorted to body language or drawings in order to help the listeners understand. Willis and Willis (as 2007 cited in Rodriguez-Bonces M and Rodriguez-Bonces J,2010, p. 171) say that “a good task not only generates interest and creates an acceptable degree of challenge, but also generates opportunities for learners to experience and activate as much language as possible”. The researcher chose topics which were of personal interest to students such as family, birthdays, neighborhoods, and dream jobs which helped to motivate students to exchange information with their classmates.

Another important factor is the relationship between student and teacher. This factor is very important in shaping student success within task-based learning. As Rodriguez-Bonces M and Rodriguez-Bonces J state “researchers believe there is less anxiety and learning is more effective if language form per se is not the priority (2010, p.166). If task-based instruction takes place, language learning is more meaningful and natural”. The focus of task-based learning on fostering a comfortable and natural learning environment combined with a teacher who the students respect and trust leads to a positive and productive classroom environment. From the beginning of the experiment, the researcher presented a non- threatening personality that built trust and rapport with the students by smiling and reassuring them not to worry when they make mistakes in class. In addition the researcher told the students to focus on the meaning they wanted to get across and not to worry about perfect language form. The researcher modeled herself on Willis and Willis (as cited in Rodriguez- Bonces M and Rodriguez-Bonces J, 2010) who state that teachers who engage in task-based learning promote real language use and when doing so they become leaders and organizers of discussion, managers of group or pair work, motivators to engage students in performing tasks and language experts to provide language feedback when needed. Consequently, students obtained higher scores after instruction.

The content was made up of things that related to students' daily lives such as birthdays, family, neighborhood and dream job. These topics aided in motivating students as they were curious to share about themselves with their friends and vice versa. These contents were easily relate-able and interesting for students.

In conclusion the study found that task-based learning was effective in improving students' listening and speaking abilities. The structure of task-based learning allowed students to express themselves freely and to practice real-world language more than they would in a normal classroom. The keys to a successful task-based learning classroom were having a teacher that was welcoming, smiling and provided positive reinforcement to students. The researcher was able to gain the trust of the students and this allowed students to feel more comfortable to express themselves. Task-based learning provided ample opportunities for speaking and listening practice and the topics covered were of interest to the students. Overall the points above serve to show why task-based learning was effective in improving the speaking and listening abilities of students.

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Suggestions of the Study 1. The topic should be about a real-life situation and personal so students can relate it to their daily life. The task should have clear goals and be suitable to the student level. 2. During pre-task the teacher should not introduce too many vocabulary words. 3. Teachers should assign a set amount of time for a task. 4. Work should be done in pairs or small groups. 5. Contents and activities should be appropriately chosen with the appropriate students level and language background in mind in order to achieve learning. 6. Teacher should explain directions clearly and demonstrate tasks until students understand prior to the task being assigned. 7. Presentation stage should be set up casually so students feel relaxed and comfortable. The teacher should give positive feedback to encourage students.

Recommendations for Further Studies 1. Research in other language learning such as Thai, Chinese and Japanese 2. Research with other skills such as writing and reading 3. Teacher education should arrange to train teachers in this method so teacher can apply in classroom.

Reference Ellis, R. (2003). Task Based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University press. Ministry Of Education. (2008). The Basic Education Core Curriculum B.E. 2551 (A.D.2008). The Office of Basic Education Commission, Bangkok. Muangyot, N. (2010). Development of English Listening-Speaking Skills and Self- Confidence through Task-Based Learning on Tourism of Expanding Level Students. Unpublished master’s thesis, Chiangmai University, Chiangmai, Thailand. Rodriguez-Bonces, M. and Rodriguez-Bonces, J. (2010). Task-Based Language Learning: Old Approach, New Style. Universidad Nacional de Colombia: Profile, 12, (2) p.166. Willis, J. and Willis, D.(Eds.) (1996). Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann. Willis, J. (1996). A Flexible Framework for Task-based Learning. Oxford: Addison Wesley Longman. Wongsothorn, A. (2539). English Assessment. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University.

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Watpathumwanaram School Students’ Reactions towards School-Based English Curriculum

Lalada Ruangcharoon Dr. Anchalee Jansem Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanity, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate Watpathumwanaram School students’ reactions towards school-based English curriculum elements: objectives, content, methods and evaluation procedures and curriculum as a whole. Participants were M.1-M.3 students at Watpathumwanaram School in the second semester of academic year 2011. The participants of the study were selected by stratified random sampling. Each of fifty-eight participants was asked to fill questionnaire. Twelve participants were then selected for interviews. The instruments used in this research included a questionnaire consisting of 5 parts: participants’ personal information and Watpathumwanaram School students’ reactions towards school-based English curriculum elements: objectives, content, methods, and evaluation procedures. Frequency and percentage were used to analyze data gained from participants’ personal information. Mean scores and standard deviation were applied to analyze data from the reactions towards each element. The main findings of the study showed that most of the students in M.1, M.2 and M.3 viewed Watpathumwanaram School’s school-based English curriculum as ‘agree the reactions’. However, there were some improvements recommended.

Keywords: Curriculum, Objectives, Content, Methods, Evaluation Procedures

Background of the study English is the most widely taught foreign language in over 100 countries, such as China, Russia, Germany, Spain, Egypt, Brazil and Thailand. There are also over 70 countries like Ghana, Nigeria, India, Singapore and Vanuatu that teach English as a second language because they use English as an official language (Crystal, 1997).

According to Crystal (1997) analyses there are two main reasons why people may use English. Firstly, it is the official language of a country. Secondly, it is a tool used in certain fields of education. Furthermore, English is also the language people commonly communicate with through the media, libraries, schools and institutes of higher education. Books, tapes, computers, telecommunication systems and all kinds of learning and teaching materials are increasingly available in English, and more often, only in English. Consequently, English language is already inextricably embedded into the education systems of many countries showing a widespread need for quality English teaching. The fact that the majority of countries have an English teaching programme adds further weight to this argument (Crystal, 1997; Read, 2008; Richards & Rodgers, 2001).

There are many learning standards and indicators used in the Basic Education Core Curriculum 2008 adopted by Thailand and used currently. It has prescribed the following eight subject areas: 1) Thai Language, 2) Mathematics, 3) Science, 4) Social Science, Religion and Culture, 5) Health and Physical Education, 6) Art, 7) Career and Technology, and 8) Foreign Languages. Thailand is a country where English is used as the first foreign language of basic education as this state policy (Ministry of Education, 2007). Therefore, the Ministry of Education has undertaken several ways to promote the teaching and learning of English for communicative purposes. These include the formulation of a long-term strategic plan (2005-2015) to increase the ability of young Thais to effectively communicate in English (Office of the National Education Commission, 2007).

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A report on results of 9 years of education reform (1999-2008) shows that the grade point average of students in grade 6 and grade 9 in Thai language, Mathematics, Science and English has been decreasing. English has shown a worrying trend of significantly decreasing grades over a five year period (Office of the Education Council, 2009). The National Institute of Educational Testing Service (NIETS) conducts Ordinary National Educational Test (O- NET) tests for students in grades 6, 9 and 12 to assess their academic proficiency and they found a mean score of 36.84 in 2008. This decreased to 27.26 in 2009 and 13.56 in 2010. Each year the mean score has decreased, and this alone is worth investigation. Watpatumwanaram School is located in the southeast of the Watpatumwanaram area. Originally the school was only a two storey open air building used for primary education from May 6th 1929. Later in 1954 the abbot of Watpatumwanaram allowed the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) to use some of the temple’s land to construct a new concrete school building. On January 30th 2003 H.R.H. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn made a private visit to the original Watpatumwanaram School. On that occasion she visited the school buildings and activity rooms and observed the teaching studying in various classrooms. Following her visit that year and responding to her recommendation, the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) expanded the opportunity to study at the school by adding the Mattayom-Beginning Level in the year 2003 (Grades 7, 8, 9). The first 9th grade class graduated in the year 2006. After her visit in 2003, H.R.H. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn allowed the Center for Professional Assessment (Thailand), also known as C P A to develop and improve the school’s English education. C P A and Triam Udom Suksa School joined together to create a project called “Hands-on English Language Program or H.E.L.P.” in the first year 2003. H.E.L.P. was established for the purpose of developing the English proficiency of students of Watpathumwanaram School. At the beginning of every school year, H.E.L.P. looks for students in Mattayom 4 to 6 from Triam Udom Suksa School to participate as the volunteer tutors at Watpathumwanaram School. In order to demonstrate an appropriate level of proficiency in English and a good attitude towards teaching, the applicants are required to attend an orientation training session. This orientation is conducted by the Center for Professional Assessment (Thailand), to improve the volunteers’ abilities in using English language and tutoring. The main objective was to improve students’ English language skills and create a positive attitude towards English language learning. It was also hoped that the program will play an instrumental role in preparing them for the next level of the study. The process in during the first session, students were asked to take a pre-test examination, the results of which were used to classify the students into different levels. The examination covers the following three main skills: 1) writing the 26 letters of the English alphabets, 2) producing the sound of each letter, and 3) pronouncing words made up of 3 letters. Based on the results, students were classified into 4 groups as follows: 1. Group E, students were capable of writing all the 26 letters of the alphabet correctly in both uppercase and lowercase, producing each letter sound correctly and pronouncing 3 letter words correctly. 2.Group F, students were capable of writing all the 26 letters of the alphabet correctly in both uppercase and lowercase, producing most (at least 80%) of the letter sounds correctly and pronouncing most (at least 80%) of the 3 letter words correctly.

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3.Group G, students were capable of writing most (at least 80%) of the 26 letters of the alphabet correctly in both uppercase and lowercase, pronouncing some (more than 50%) of each alphabet correctly, but were rarely incapable of pronouncing 3 letter words correctly. 4.Group Super G, students who were capable of writing most or some (at least 80%) of the 26 letters of the alphabet correctly in both uppercase and lowercase, but were incapable of producing sound of each letter correctly and incapable of pronouncing 3 letter words correctly.

Tutors taught 1-2 students each using worksheets (based on the “Bob Book” series) already designed for students at each level. Extra teaching materials were also used and when it was considered appropriate. H.E.L.P. sessions were held every Friday from 12.30 p.m. to 2.30 p.m. After each period of study, the tutors recorded and assessed the results of their students on the back page of each worksheet, then held a group meeting of the tutors to discuss about any problem that occurred and propose new strategies that might be beneficial to other tutors. During the last session, students were again asked to take the same examination used in the first session. This grade was used for the final assessment. Not only do students of Triam Udom Suksa School participate as the volunteer tutors, but teachers of Triam Udom Suksa School also do. Teachers of Triam Udom Suksa School sessions were held every Wednesday with the aim to improve and develop the English proficiency of students in areas such as grammar and usage, pronunciation, reading comprehension, writing and tutoring for the Ordinary National Educational Test (O-NET). The kindness of H.R.H. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn allowed the Center for Professional Assessment (Thailand), to hire a foreign teacher every year in order to expose students to native speaking language use and also for cultural exchange/ awareness. A foreign teacher teaches Mattayom 1-3 about 12-15 hours per a week. He/She has to improve and develop students in listening and speaking English. The school follows the policy of The Basic Education Core Curriculum. There are eight subject areas. One of eight subject areas is learning area of foreign languages (English). From 2003 to 2010 the English teachers found that students were not getting the grade point averages expected. A report on results of 3 years of English Education in Watpatumwanaram School (2008-2010) indicates that English examination scores have persistently fallen below average in the recent years. While releasing the 2010 Academic Department in Watpatumwanaram School examinations results, the researcher notes a drastic drop in English subject performance. This drop in performance is attributed to many factors, including the nature of Watpathumwanaram School English Curriculum. There are many ways to solve problems on improving student achievement. For example improvements can be made through improvements to classroom management tutoring, remedial teaching, training teacher, parental involvement, and improvements to the school- based English curriculum by following the vision of Watpathumwanaram School with the quote, “Assuring quality education, keeping up with technology, maintaining quality of life according to principles of self sufficiency economy”. Mattayom-Beginning level in the year 2003 to year 2011, it is eight years ago for implementing school-based curriculum but at the end of academic year, an evaluation was conducted using the results of the middle test and the final test examinations. It was seen that the students average scores decreased. As the results, these are the suitable time to evaluate the school-based English curriculum. According to Oliva (1988), evaluating the curriculum is a stage of curriculum development

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and a tool which can be used to help schools and teachers judge whether a curriculum or instructional approach is being implemented as planned, it can also be used to assess the extent to which stated goals and objectives are being achieved. This allows schools and teachers to answer the questions: Are we doing for our students what we said we would? Are students learning what we set out to teach? How can we make improvements to the curriculum and/or teaching methods? It is therefore important to survey what Watpathumwanaram School students’ attitudes towards school-based English curriculum and how this impacts on their academic achievement. Surveys and interviews can be used to assess curriculum in order to identify aspects of a curriculum that are working and those that need to change. (Wolf et al., 2006) So as a researcher, the need to evaluate curriculum arises because it is necessary for both teachers and students to determine the extent to which their current curricular program and its implementation have produced positive and suitable outcomes for students. A researcher must evaluate curriculum in order to identify whether it is a match with the vision of school or not. In case of this study of Watpathumwanaram School, the researcher will use Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation. Kirkpatrick’s concept in level 1 reaction will participate to evaluate school-based English curriculum. It notes that researcher can evaluate curriculum in many aspects such as objectives, content, methods, evaluation procedures etc., in order to know how a student feels; satisfaction or dissatisfaction. And when researcher know their feelings, researcher can analyse the data and hopefully find weakness and strengths in order to improve and develop the curriculum, leading hopefully to improved examination scores. Objectives of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate Watpathumwanaram School students’ attitudes towards school-based English curriculum namely: objectives, content, methods, and evaluation procedures and curriculum as a whole.

Methodology Participants The participants were M.1-M.3 students at Watpathumwanaram School in the second semester of the 2011academic year. They were selected by stratified random sampling covering two main groups: 1. Fifty-eight participants were selected by sample random sampling. The sample sizes were decided upon to be equal to 25 % of each grade level. They were asked to fill in a questionnaire. 2. Fifteen participants were selected for interviewing by further random sampling. 25 % of 58 already selected participants were then selected for an interview. They were distributed equally between M.1 and M.3.

Research Instruments The research instruments were as follows: 1. Questionnaire The questionnaire was in Thai using five point-Likert scaling system. The questionnaire adapted the questions from Tella et al (2011), and they were grouped into five sections as follow: Section A: General background of the respondents including sex, grade level, and grade in the latest examination.

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Section B: 18 items related to students’ reactions on English objectives. Section C: 8 items related to students’ reactions on English content. Section D: 8 items related to students’ reactions on English methods. Section E: 16 items related to students’ reactions on English evaluation The rating scales were interpreted as followed: 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 2 = disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree. The data were analyzed by descriptive statistics of Mean and Standard Deviation. The meaning of mean scores gained were as follows: 1.00-1.50 = strongly disagreeing, 1.51-2.50 = disagreeing, 2.51-3.50 = uncertain, 3.51-4.50 = agreeing, and 4.51-5.00 = strongly agreeing. 2. Interview An interviews was used to obtain in-depth data. The interview involved face-to-face conversation individually. The participants were interviewed on their reactions towards school-based English Curriculum on Watpathumwanaram School. The open-ended questions were used.

Data Collection Procedure The questionnaire was distributed to the participants and collected by the researcher. The face-to-face interview was conducted in Thai.

Data Analysis Data analysis in this study were as followed: 1. Quantitative data analysis Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS/PC) Program was employed as the followings:. 1.1 Frequency and percentage were used to analyse participant’s personal information. 1.2 Mean and standard deviation were applied to analyze students’ reactions towards school- based English curriculum: objectives, content, methods and evaluation procedures. 2. Qualitative data analysis The qualitative data from the interview were summarized and presented to. illustrate students’ reactions towards school-based English curriculum.

Finding of the Study Analysis of Quantitative Data: Questionnaire Table 1 Mean and Standard Deviation about the Reactions of Watpathumwanaram School Students towards School-Based English Curriculum The reactions of Watpathumwanaram Number Mean S.D. Meaning School students towards school-based English curriculum 1. Students’ reactions on English objectives 58 3.56 0.40 Agreed 2. Students’ reactions on English content 58 3.70 0.63 Agreed 3. Students’ reactions on English methods 58 4.03 0.60 Agreed 4. Students’ reactions on English evaluation 58 3.85 0.59 Agreed procedures Total 58 3.79 0.46 Agreed

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Table 2 Mean and Standard Deviation about Students’ Reactions on English Objectives Students’ reactions on English objectives Number Mean S.D. Meaning 1. I can listen attentively for 58 3.60 0.67 Agreed comprehension and respond appropriately. 2. I can use listening skills to infer and 58 3.83 0.68 Agreed interpret meaning correctly from spoken discourse. 3. I cannot listen and process information 58 3.60 0.92 Agreed from a variety of sources. 4. I cannot speak accurately, fluently, 58 3.12 1.14 Uncertain confidently and appropriately in a variety of contexts. 5. I can read fluently and efficiently. 58 3.53 0.92 Agreed 6. I can use non-verbal cues effectively in 58 3.34 0.76 Uncertain speaking. 7. I have appreciated the importance of 58 4.50 0.63 Agreed reading for a variety. 8. I have not developed a life-long interest 58 3.33 0.89 Uncertain in reading on a wide range of subjects. 9. I can read and comprehend literary and 58 3.67 0.66 Agreed non-literary materials. 10. I can read and analyze literary works. 58 3.19 0.87 Uncertain

11. I have not appreciated and respected own 58 3.29 1.12 Uncertain as well as other people culture. 12. I have not made an efficient use of range 58 3.67 1.03 Agreed of sources of information including libraries, dictionaries, encyclopedias and the internet. 13. I can use correct spelling, punctuation 58 3.78 0.88 Agreed and paragraphing. 14. I can use a variety of sentence structure 58 3.43 0.77 Uncertain and vocabulary correctly. 15. I cannot communicate appropriately in 58 3.38 0.88 Uncertain functional and creative writing. 16. I cannot write neatly, legibly and effectively. 58 3.52 1.11 Agreed 17. I can use the correct grammatical and 58 3.52 0.80 Agreed idiomatic forms of English. 18. I can think creatively and critically. 58 3.72 0.95 Agreed Total 58 3.56 0.40 Agreed

Table 3 Mean and Standard Deviation about Students’ Reactions on English Content Students’ reactions on English content Number Mean S.D. Meaning 1. Listening 58 3.91 0.73 Agreed 2. Speaking 58 3.90 0.77 Agreed 3. Reading 58 3.97 0.88 Agreed

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4. Writing 58 3.95 0.94 Agreed 5. Grammar 58 3.48 0.96 Uncertain 6. Poetry 58 3.26 0.85 Uncertain 7. Plays (drama) 58 3.59 0.90 Agreed 8. Short stories 58 3.59 0.99 Agreed Total 58 3.70 0.63 Agreed

Table 4 Mean and Standard Deviation about Students’ Reactions on English Methods Students’ reactions on English methods Number Mean S.D. Meaning 1. Lecture method (teacher talk) 58 4.19 0.66 Agreed 2. Group discussion 58 3.84 0.87 Agreed 3. Dramatization 58 3.90 0.97 Agreed 4. English camp 58 4.24 0.76 Agreed 5. Discovery method 58 3.86 0.94 Agreed 6. Speech drills 58 3.84 0.91 Agreed 7. Multimedia 58 3.97 0.94 Agreed 8. Language games 58 4.36 0.87 Agreed Total 58 4.03 0.60 Agreed

Table 5 Mean and Standard Deviation about Students’ Reactions on English Evaluation procedures Students’ reactions on English evaluation Number Mean S.D. Meaning procedures 1. Dictation 58 3.76 0.92 Agreed 2. Listening comprehension 58 3.81 0.87 Agreed 3. Reciting poems 58 3.29 0.92 Uncertain 4. Dramatizing 58 3.60 0.77 Agreed 5. Question - answer exercise 58 4.07 0.83 Agreed 6. Jumbled exercise 58 3.83 0.84 Agreed 7. Cloze test 58 3.76 0.94 Agreed 8. Language games 58 4.14 0.93 Uncertain 9. Oral presentation 58 3.71 0.90 Agreed 10. Comprehension reading 58 3.98 0.81 Agreed 11. Gap - filling exercise 58 3.98 0.89 Agreed 12. Note taking 58 3.62 1.07 Agreed 13. Summary writing exercise 58 3.93 0.79 Agreed 14. Paragraph writing 58 4.21 0.89 Agreed 15. Composition and essay writing 58 3.91 0.96 Agreed 16. Exercise on functional writing e.g. 58 4.05 0.96 Agreed letters, diaries, memos, minutes etc Total 58 3.79 0.46 Agreed

Analysis of Quantitative Data: Interview Interviews involved face-to-face conversation individually. They were interviewed on their reactions towards English Curriculum on Watpathumwanaram School. They revealed that

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they felt both like and dislike learning English. Some students like to learn English because they want to enjoy English entertainment such as watching films, listening to music, watching news, reading storybooks and cartoon books. However, some students dislike learning English because they felt that the speaking and listening skills are more important than reading and writing. They explained that they have to use the speaking and listening skills in their classroom much more than reading and writing. Students always talk with a foreign teacher in the classroom. They are shy and nervous to talk English.

Summary of the Finding The findings indicated that students at Watpathumwanaram School have positive reactions on the school-based English curriculum. For the reaction on the English objectives, students agreed that they had appreciated the importance of reading for a variety (M=4.50). Also, students could use listening skills to infer and interpret meaning correctly from spoken discourse (M=3.83). In addition, students can use correct spelling, punctuation and paragraphing (M=3.78). However, the students uncertain that they could use non-verbal cues effectively in speaking (M=3.34). Also, students could not developed a life-long interest in reading on a wide range of subjects (M=3.33). In addition, students could not appreciated and respected own as well as other people culture (M=3.29).

Then the findings of the reaction on the English content displayed the content students could be able to apply in daily life were reading (M=3.97), writing (M=3.95), and listening (M=3.91). Nevertheless, they were not able to certain that grammar (M=3.48) and poetry (M=3.26), could apply for their daily life. Furthermore, the first three highest means cores of the English methods that students liked were language games (M=4.36), English camp (M=4.24) and Lecture method (M=4.19). The last findings from the questionnaire revealed the reactions on the English evaluation procedures. The first three highest means scores of the English evaluation procedures that students satisfied were paragraph writing (M=4.21), question-answer exercise (M=4.07) and exercise on functional writing e.g. letters, diaries, memos, minutes etc (M=4.05). The last two highest means scores of the English evaluation procedures that students uncertain were language games (M=4.14) and reciting poems (M=3.29). The next section showed the discussion of the findings.

Discussion The findings from both questionnaire and interviews were discussed in order to answer the purpose of the study as follow: 1. To investigate Watpathumwanaram School students’ reactions towards school-based English curriculum as a whole. According to the study, it was found that the respondents were agreed with all aspects of school-based English curriculum; English objectives, English content, English methods, and English evaluation procedures. This showed that the school-based English curriculum can lead students’ achievement in English. According to Chikumbu & Makamure (2000), the good school curriculum is a programme of selected content and learning experiences offered by a school, which is capable of either modifying or adapting to learner behavior. 2. To investigate Watpathumwanaram School students’ reactions towards school-based English curriculum on English objectives. The finding revealed that the mean score of the overall students’ reactions on English objectives were agreed. According to Oliva (1988), evaluating the curriculum is a tool which can be used to help schools and teachers judge whether a curriculum is being implemented as planned, it can be used to assess the extent to which stated objectives are being achieved.

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3. To investigate Watpathumwanaram School students’ reactions towards school-based English curriculum on English content The overall data shows that all students were agreed with the English content. They responded that the content they could be able to apply in daily life were reading, writing, and listening. Nevertheless, they were not able to certain that grammar and poetry could apply for their daily life. For the result of students’ reaction on the English content, the students showed the contents which they could be able to apply in daily life. They were reading, writing, and listening. The interview from the students also displayed that they love reading especially cartoon books and story books, and they also love listening English songs because they could learn from song lyrics. Gattawa (1990) pointed out that the purpose of school- based English curriculum should be based on the social aspirations of society, so students could be able to apply the knowledge obtained in the class into daily life. This finding is in agreement with Oliva (1988), Chikumbu and Makamure (2000), who suggest that the content must be evaluated in order to establish whether it is relevant to the needs of the society. When evaluating curriculum content, the focus should be on the effect it has on learners. 4. To investigate Watpathumwanaram School students’ reactions towards school-based English curriculum on English methods The findings showed that all students were agreed with the English methods. The first three highest means scores of the English methods that students liked were language games, English camp and lecture method. The results from the reactions on the English methods showed that the first three English methods used in English class were language games, English camp, and lecture method. The interviews also indicated that students had positive attitude towards English methods provided in the class. Some students said that they loved her teacher because the English class was very enjoyable. This positive attitude might be the effects of using interesting English methods that serve students need such as language games or English camp. Karahan (2007), confirmed that “positive language attitudes let learner have positive orientation towards learning English”. As such, attitudes may play a very crucial role in language learning as they would appear to influence students’ success or failure in their learning. This finding is in agreement with Urevbu (1985), a good curriculum must provide suitable activities for students. Students can learn and get the new knowledge from teachers’ teaching by using various activities. 5. To investigate Watpathumwanaram School students’ reactions towards school-based English curriculum on English evaluation procedures According to this category, it was found that all students were agreed with the English evaluation procedures. The first three highest means scores of the English evaluation procedures that students satisfied were paragraph writing, question-answer exercise and exercise on functional writing e.g. letters, diaries, memos, minutes etc. It can be concluded that when students get higher scores, they think it is the effect of the evaluation procedures. Thus, they expressed their high satisfaction on the evaluation procedures. The findings related to the statement of Oliva (1988).He stated that the evaluation of objectives, content and methodology are conducted simultaneously as the evaluation of outcomes. The purpose of this evaluation is to supply curriculum designers with information that can be used in improving the curriculum as a whole.

Implication To use questionnaire is a way to investigate the Watpathumwanaram School students’ reactions towards school-based English curriculum which Kirkpatrick suggests the evaluation model for curriculum. Kirkpatrick believes that the effectiveness of training and teaching can be evaluated at four progressively difficult and valuable levels. This study aimed at examine information at the fundamental level as named as “the reaction level” The other three levels

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including the learning level, the behavior level, and the results level and can be used to evaluate curriculum in the next occasion.

Limitation In this study, the researcher cannot apply the Kirkpatrick’s entire evaluation model because each level takes time to conduct.

Recommendation for further study In case of this study of Watpathumwanaram School, the researcher used Kirkpatrick’s concept in level 1 reaction. It will participate to evaluate school-based English curriculum. In the next occasion, Researchers can use the other Kirkpatrick’s concept for improving and developing curriculum.

References Crystal, D. (1997). English as a Global Language. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Karahan, F. (2007). Language attitudes of Turkish students towards the English language and its use in Turkish context. Journal of Arts and Sciences Say, 7 May, 73 - 87. Kirkpatrick, D. (1971). A practical guide for supervisory training and development. Addison - Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.: Philippines. Kirkpatrick, D. (1996). Revisiting Kirkpatrick's four - level model. Training and Development, 50 (1), 54 - 59. John Tella, Francis Chisikwa Indoshi, Lucas A. Othuon. (2011). Students’ Perspectives on the Secondary School English Curriculum in Kenya: Some Related Implications. Retrieved April 3, 2010, from http://interesjournals.org/ER/pdf/2011/January/Tella%20et%20al.pdf Ministry of Education. (1959). Secondary Education in Thailand (General and Vocational). Bangkok: Bangkok Press. Ministry of Education. (2007). Education in Thailand 2007. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from http://www.moe.go. th/icpmoe/twolanguage_school/policy. Oliva, P. F. (1988). Developing the curriculum. Second Edition, the United State of America. Peter W, Art H., & Evers, F. (2005). Handbook for Curriculum Assessment Winter 2006. Sanfrancisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Read, J. (2008). Identifying academic language needs through diagnostic assessment. Journal of English for Academic Purposess, 10, 1 - 11. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Cultural Identity Loss of the Main Characters in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and V.S. Naipaul’s Half a Life: A Post-colonial Analysis

Chatuporn Insuwan Dr. Sutassi Smuthkochorn Western Languages Department, Srinakharinwirot Univeristy

Abstract This study examined factors of the embracement of slave morality resulting in destruction of culture and tradition of the Ibo tribe in Things Fall Apart and its impacts on cultural identity loss of the main character who lived under the British dominant culture in Half a Life. The two novels have been chosen due to the strong correlation of the impacts of colonization. Things Fall Apart obviously displayed factors of destruction of culture and tradition of a rudimentary society in colonial period, while Half a Life highlighted the impacts of cultural loss on a post-colonial subject who was born in the society where his own culture had been completely annihilated. To investigate cultural loss of the Ibo, Nietzsche’s theory of slave morality was employed as a tool for the analysis, while cutural identity loss of the main character in Half a Life was explained by Hall’s theory of diaspora. In addtion, Turner and Tajfel’s social identity theory was used as a sub-theory to describe the main character’s struggle to construct identity. From the study, it was found that altruistic and democratic, which were both the characteristics of slaves as described by Nietzsche, were the two main factors causing the embracement of slave morality resutling in the loss of culture and tradition of the Ibo tribesmen. The impacts of vanishing culture and tradition were then evidenly illustrated in the main character’s sense of loss in Half a Life. Born in displaced homeland of India where his own culture and tradition were completely deconstructed under the British dominant culture, Willie, the main character, was confused with his identity; he underwent much suffuring and struggled to reconstruct his own identity and a sense of belonging.

Keywords: altruistic, cultural identity, democratic, diaspora, slave morality

Introduction As the world has been narrowed down in support of modern technologies of communication, American and Western culture has been influential in the world’s society. People are dominated and bombarded by this new form of culture, which gives importance to better living with technological advances. They struggle to posses materials and cling on to social norms and values regarded as the new civilization and social standard, while their own cultures and traditions are left behind. In exchange of modern trend and new ways of livings, the importance of culture of their origin is neglected for long-term development. Therefore, in today’s society, people tend to be far from their origin and struggle in the world’s society settled by the new form of Western and American dominant culture and social values. In order to remind readers of the importance of their own culture and tradition, Things fall Apart was chosen for the study as a rudimentary life of the Ibo people narrated in the novel is comparable to Thai society. People in both cultures have a strong sense of altruism; they submit to and obey power of the supernatural or power of the unknown without resistance. In addition, people in both cultures have democratic nature intending to live in group and relying on one another. Altruistic and democratic natures nurtured in their consciousness facilitate the embracement of the dominant culture and are risk to destruction of their culture and tradition. Later on in Half a Life, the main character is a representative of Thai people,

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particularly the new generation, who are confused to which culture they merely belong. Thai people today are in the state of in-between and are becoming lost as they are far from their origin and do not feel they belong to the new culture.

Objectives As the aim to remind readers of the importance of their own culture and tradition and to prevent the sense of loss, the main purpose of the study is to examine factors that cause colonial subjects to embrace slave morality, which results in their loss of culture and tradition in Things Fall Apart. The impacts of destruction of culture and tradition are then investigated on cultural identity loss of the main character and how he struggles to construct identity for a sense of belonging in Half a Life. Reactions of the main characters to their own culture and tradition in the two novels are finally analyzed.

Theoretical Frameworks In this study, Nietzsche’s theory of slave morality, Halls’ theory of diaspora, and Tajfel and Turner’s theory of social identity are employed as tools for the analysis in respective section of the study. In Things Fall Apart, Nietzsche’s slave morality is applied to investigate factors which cause the embracement of slave morality of colonial subjects, the Ibo tribesmen in the story. According to Nietzsche, morality of human being can be categorized into two types: master and slave. Nietzsche states that master morality is embedded in the strong-willed, whereas slave morality has its origin in the weak-willed. What is regarded as good for the strong-willed is strong and powerful. The strong have will to power and have their own morality of strength, courage, and independence. In other words, it is the law of everyone’s life that has to overcome everything by themselves whether there is a final objective or not.

In contrast to master morality, Nietzsche explains that those who have slave morality deny what is opposite to what they think. They have a view of pessimism and values which can save the weak and make themselves secure. Two characteristics of slave that Nietzsche proposes are altruistic and democratic. Nietzsche proposes that the altruistic relinquish their personal needs and desires or dissolve the ideas of strength and power. For safety and survival, they are submissive and obedient to the more powerful. In contrast to the master, who have the strong will of self-overcoming, the altruistic regard themselves as the oppressed or the victims, who rely on the master or the stronger. As they depend on the master and never get what they want, they are seen as miserable and unhappy by the master (Solomon 120). The altruistic are thus supposed to be tolerant, unassuming, and humble to the master, who are passionate and have a strong sense of self-overcoming. Therefore, for Nietzsche, altruistic is immoral because it urges human not to express their needs or desire embedded in their consciousness. It condemns great morality of human life and prevents self-development and self-enjoyment of human being.

Another important characteristic of slaves is democratic or “will to power of the herd.” Nietzsche explains that “the will to power of the herd” is the instincts of slaves opposed to the strong and the independent (Copleston 101). It is also the instinct of all sufferers against the happy. They live in herd and create unity among their groups to protect them from the superior. Moreover, they rely on democratic and socialistic society. They condemn instinct, passion, and self-reliance because they can harm their lives. This kind of morality which Nietzsche calls herd or flock morality is retrieved from the innate instinct of human being as they live in group for the benefits and safety of all. In other words, it is derived from weakness and fear of people seeking for dependence and equality among their group in order to protect themselves from outside danger or the superior. The herd therefore tend to live in

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140 group with peacefulness and helpfulness on the basis of group welfare. And in order to sustain democratic group, the group are disciplined not through gentle social control but through fear and harsh punishment: “The disciplining of the human animal into a moral agent, or political animal, takes place not through any gentle methods of social control, but through the harsh and cruel measures of discipline and punishment associated with traditional morality” (Pearson 134).

Next, to investigate cultural identity loss of the main character in Half a Life, Hall’s theory of diaspora is employed as a tool to analyze. According to Hall, diaspora is not just the movement of people from a country to a country for political and economic purposes, but it concerns cultural identities of post-colonial subjects constructed from the mixture of various cultures. The production of new culture will make the subjects feel the sense of loss, exile, and otherness as they feel far from their homeland, but do not feel belong to the new place they are living under the dominant culture.

Hall explains that under the colonial rule, the subjects suffer from the sense of loss and are challenged by dominant culture of the Europeans. They are inferior and also controlled over ethnic and racial identities. They are also marginalized under political and cultural practices set to regulate and govern them. Hall states that living under dominant culture of the Europeans, diasporic subjects are positioned as the ones who are just others and have no right to speak (“New Ethnicities” 441). In addition, as their cultures are unsettled, hybridized, recombined and mixed with various cultures, diasporic subjects feel the sense of ‘otherness’ instead of ‘ourselves’. Hall proposes that the new world, where many cultures are continuously mixed and displaced, originates the new form of diaspora. Therefore, diaspora is not just the dispersion and movement of migrants whose identities are related to homelands. Diaspora, in his concept, concerns identities which are continuously transformed and produced to new ones. In the contact zone in which diasporic subjects have been together under constructed culture, there is a space between new land and the subjects’s homelands which causes the sense of loss and exile of disporic subjects. As those cultures are continuously mixed and constructed in a new form, new cultural identities of diasporic subjects are originated. Therefore, Hall defines cultural identity of diaspora as a matter of ‘becoming’ as well as ‘being’ and it has history. He emphasizes that cultural identity has its history and has past through transformation form the past to the present and the future. Identity in his view concerns the state of becoming rather than being as used in general term (“Introduction: Who Needs ‘Identity’?” 4).

Finally, in order to explain the main character’s struggle to construct identity, Tajfel and Turner’s social identity theory is applied to analyze. According to Tajfel and Turner, self- concepts of individuals are defined and evaluated by what they are seen and feedbacks received from others. It is explained that in a society comprising various groups of people who share different races, classes, genders, attitudes, and beliefs, people tend to categorize themselves into ingroup and outgroup. According to intergroup behavior, individuals contest to gain positive self-concept by comparing their group with other groups. Individuals will have positive self-concept if they find that their own group have higher status than the outgroup or the targeted group. As individuals prefer to be members of the superior group, social stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination are placed on the outgroup in order to maintain superior status of the ingroup members. As a result, individuals in the targeted group will feel the sense of oppression resulting in a negative self-concept or low self-esteem in their memberships of their group. Because of the feelings of oppression and inferiority of the lower-status group they are members, individuals will strive to gain positive self-concept

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based on three choices as proposed by Tajfel and Turner. They will leave their lower-status group and attempt to participate the higher-status group, revalue their own lower-status group from negative to positive or make the group distinct in a positive aspect, or compare their group with other groups considered to have lower status.

Data Analysis As a strong correlation of factors and impacts of cultural loss found in Things Fall Apart and Half a Life respectively, in the first part, the researcher examine causes of the embracement of slave morality which result in the loss of culture and tradition of the Ibo tribesmen by employing Nietzsche’s theory of slave morality as a tool to analyze. The impacts of cultural loss are then investigated on cultural identity loss of the main character in Half a Life, employing Hall’s theory of diaspora as tool to analyze and Tajfel and Turner’s social identity theory as a sub-theory to explain the main character’s struggle to construct his own identity. Finally, reactions of the two main characters to their own culture and tradition are analyzed.

Research Findings 1. Factors that Cause Colonial Subjects to Embrace Slave Morality Based on the first objective of the study, it is found that democratic and altruistic, which are the characteristics of slaves proposed by Nietzsche, are the two main factors causing the embracement of slave morality resulting in the loss of culture and tradition of the Ibo tribe as found in Things Fall Apart. Altruistic which is the characteristic of slave being submissive to the superior or the more powerful for safety and happiness is originated from the Ibo’s social structure of patriarchy and beliefs in the supernatural.

In Things Fall Apart, patriarchal system was originated from men’s crucial roles as farmers and warriors. Their important roles as farmers are derived from hard work, especially in growing yams, the Ibo’s staple crop: “For three or four moons it demanded hard work and constant attention from cock-crow till the chickens went back to roost” (Achebe 28-29). As yams were plants that highly demanded effort and a very good care in the whole planting season, people who could be responsible for this task must be strong both physically and mentally. For this reason, men were given this task because, compared to women, they were much stronger in both terms of physical and mental strength. Men thus worked hard on the field all day long from dawn until dusk, with the hope to gain a large number of yams after harvest. Consequently, one achievement of men in the Ibo society was evaluated from their achievement in farming careers: “Yam stood for manliness, and he who could feed his family on yams from one harvest to another was a very great man indeed” (Achebe 28). In the story, Okonkwo, the main character was a good example of the farming success as he was praised a great farmer and a wealthy man at an early age. His large compound with many wives and children could demonstrate the achievement of a man in the Ibo society. Apart from the role as farmers, as fertile land was needed in growing yams, men also had to take roles as warriors to protect the land for good livings and happiness of their tribe. They formed a group of tribal warriors chosen from the strong and brave men to fight and protect the clan from the invasion of other tribes.

Men’s important roles in the Ibo society had naturally supported their leadership status which could yield prosperity and peacefulness to the clan. This social norm that regarded man as the superior or patriarchy was evidently strong in the Ibo society and subsequently became one of the main factors leading to destruction of the Ibo culture. Patriarchy was the system that people were ordered by social rank. Those who were on the height of social rank were evaluated from their seniority and their success on farming and wrestling. The most senior

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142 men with most titles were promoted to be on the top of social rank followed by men with fewer titles and ordinary men.

Patriarchy had agitated a sense of altruism of the Ibo tribesmen as described by Nietzsche. It is stated that altruistic is an obvious characteristic of slaves. The altruistic never express personal need and desire for self-overcoming. They keep obedient, submissive and rely on the master or the powerful for their survival. As found in the Ibo society, patriarchy originated from the will to survival of the clan. All clansmen relinquished their power and were obedient to the titled men for their safety and peacefulness. They all submitted and obeyed the group of titled senior men who were regarded as representatives of ancestral spirits and had power and right to make decisions for the clan when needed. When there were conflicts, they would be judges covered with egwugwu or masquerade masks to decide cases.

The Ibo did not only submit to the group of elders in patriarchal system, but also the powers of the supernatural. They were reverentially feared and respected for the survival of the clan in the Ibo’s primitive society. Since there were no technologies or modern machines facilitating their planting and harvesting, farming methods were the same as those in previous generations. They relied on basic tools and knowledge handed down from their ancestors for their farming; they used axes and machetes to clear their farming land and dug up yam mounds with hoes. With limitation of productivity, the number of plants they could harvest were mostly for earning their livings and partly in storage for the period of scarcity. Therefore, when they faced harmful conditions of nature that often damaged their plants and some other agricultural products, those traditional agricultural equipment was found unable to cope with those damages. A large number of agricultural products were severely damaged resulting in their poor livings. Accordingly, they created a set of beliefs in the form of supernatural beings such as gods and ancestral spirits that could protect them and explain why they had to face such suffering.

Even though the Ibo had the strong sense of altruism to the power of the supernatural and the titled senor men in their social rank of patriarchy, democratic which is another characteristic of slave as proposed by Nietzsche was also seen in their nature. It is explained that for benefits, safety, and welfare of the group, the democratic relinquish individual desire, lived in group and seek for equality and dependency among their group. As found in the Ibo society, equality had been preserved among the clan. No any individual had mandatory power. Even though the group of elders were regarded as the most powerful group of people, they did not come to be members of the group by their own right or power; they were all promoted by the clan from their success. Besides, even though the group of elders seemed to have absolute power, before making a judgment, they had to consult each other in order to keep benefits and peacefulness of the clan as narrated in chapter ten: “The nine egwugwu then went away to consult together in their house. They were silent for a long time. . . . The egwugwu had emerged once again from their underground home” (Achebe 82). The consultation of the elders revealed that judgment was not mandated by an individual but everyone had their right to share power in their justice.

Apart from equality and freedom, state of dependency was also found in the Ibo’s democratic character. As their struggling on the severe conditions of nature, they were to live as a farming community in order to help one another on their farming. For their survival, they had to share fundamental resources needed for farming such as crops and some other kinds of plants, as well as some parts of farming land. If the crops they wanted to grow were scarce in planting season, the Ibo would help each other by lending other tribesmen some excessive

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143 demand of their crop. In the story, Okonkwo went to see Nwakibie, a wealthy tribesman, to borrow some yams to plant: “I have cleared a farm but have no yams to sow, I know what it is to ask a man to trust another with his yams, especially these days when young men are afraid of hard work” (Achebe 18). And when he was in exile for seven years in his mother’s land, he had been helped on his farming by his friend, Obierika. He sold yams for Okonkwo and gave some other parts of seed-yams to share croppers. He did it until Okonkwo returned to his homeland: “‘This is the money from your yams,’ he said. ‘I sold the big ones as soon as you left. Later on I sold some of the seed yams and gave out others to share croppers” (Achebe 123).

In this novel, Achebe portrayed Okonkwo, the main character, as the pride of the Ibo tribe. He was praised as the one who could uphold and protect tribal norms and values of the clan. At his early age, he began to pursue the path the Ibo ancestors had settled, determining to be a member of the Ibo’s respectful group of elders and later a good ancestral spirit after his death. In order to follow that path, he tried to prove he was the clan’s greatest warrior and also the successful and wealthy farmer. When he was very young, he could become one of the very few Ibos who had two titles acquired by his success on farming and wrestling: “He was a wealthy farmer and had two barns full of yams, and had just married his third wife. To crown it all he had taken two titles and had shown incredible prowess in two inter-tribal wars. And so although Okonkwo was still young, he was already one of the greatest man of his time” (Achebe 5).Therefore, his absence during his exile for seven years was as same as the absence of pride and dignity of the Ibo tribe. Without Okonkwo, there was no one who could dignifiedly uphold the clan’s tradition when it confronted and was gradually destructed by the new set of norms and values of the white men. Also, as the Ibo were strongly altruistic and democratic, keeping submissive and obedient to the stronger, they were easily conquered by dominant culture and more powerful forces of the white men.

Altruistic and democratic entrenched in the Ibo’s consciousness had created three different reactions to the coming of the white men in three processes leading to their cultural loss. The first appearance of the white men instigated excitement and curiosity of the Ibo in the first process. Next, new social norms and values imposed in the Ibo society created a great impact in the change of their social structure. In the final process, culture and tradition of the Ibo were completely destructed as a total submission of all Ibo tribesmen to the powerful forces of the white men.

In the white men’s first appearance, they were not killed because the Ibo had a strong sense of democratic; they tended to keep benefits and peacefulness of the clan, so negotiation was settled first before confrontation. Therefore, in order to be welcomed and had settlement in the Ibo land, the white men chose to come in peace in the first stage instead of fighting which was later implemented in the final process. The clever white man who operated this scheme was Mr. Brown, the leader of white missionaries: “In this way Mr. Brown learned a good deal about the religion of the clan and he became to conclusion that a frontal attack on it would not succeed.” (Achebe 155) The exchange of ideas about the Ibo’s gods and the white men’s God was a demonstration of peaceful coming and respect given to the clan’s tradition. Therefore, with total distinction of outside appearance and language spoken, the white men were certainly a group of strangers the Ibo never saw in neighboring clans and wanted to know who they were and why they came. In addition, the weapons which the white men brought were just seen as a magical power like the power of the supernatural in their own beliefs.

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Apart from their democratic character, the white men could stay in the village because of the Ibo’s altruistic character; they were obedient to the decision of elders and submitted to the power of the unknown power. Even though the Ibo were very doubtful about the white men’s harmful magic, they still believed and were certain that their own gods and elders were more powerful and could protect them from the magical power brought by a group of people they never saw. Therefore, when they were asked for a piece of land to build a Christian church, they gave the white men an area of evil forest with the hope that the power of the spirits living in that area would kill them.

In second process, after the white men’s settlement in the Ibo land, the Ibo’s reactions to new social norms and values and the new belief of the white men resulted in the change of their social structure. After the white men were allowed to live in the village, they tried to assimilate new social norms and values and also the new belief of Christianity into the Ibo tribesmen. They pretended to offer benefits to the clan such as school, hospital, and railway. In addition to the advantages, the white men also brought a new religion that challenged and gradually replaced the Ibo’s belief in power of the supernatural. The new religion of Christianity was believed to have a magical power protecting the white men from the unknown power. In the story, the Ibo were amazed to see that the white men did not die after building Christian church in the evil forest which was contrast to their belief that the spirits would kill people living on that part of land: “The inhabitants of Mbanta expected them all to be dead within four days. The first day passed and the second and third and fourth, and none of them died. Everyone was puzzled” (Achebe 130).

The benefits and new belief created a good result in the white men temptation to rule the clan. As the Ibo were submissive to the gods, the benefits and new belief helped the white men be seen as a group of people having powerful power that could protect and bring benefits to the clan like their own gods. As a result, the new social norms and values were easily imposed in the Ibo’s consciousness resulting in the change of their social structure. “Mr. Brown’s mission grew from strength to strength, and because of its link with the new administration it earned a new social prestige” (Achebe 156). Instead of working in the field all day long as they did in the past, the Ibo at different ages went to school to earn a new social prestige: “They were not all young, these people who came to learn. Some of them were thirty years old or more. They worked on the farms in the morning and went to school in the afternoon” (Achebe 156).

In the final process, the powerful force of the white men created a total submission of the Ibo. It was manipulated in overcoming the clan’s elders and warriors. While almost all of the white men were unknowingly enslaved, Okonkwo and the group of elders discerned that their culture and tradition were going to be completely destructed by the new culture. However, it was too late for them as the clan were all submissive to the new social rank. Except the goup of elders and the clan’s warriors, none of any clansman was aware of preserving their own culture and tradition, or resisted the invasion of the white men. Finally, with more powerful forces, the white men could overcome the elders and the clan’s warriors. As the clan’s altruistic character, after the powerful group of people to whom they had long been submissive were defeated, the white men became the most powerful group of people standing in the top of the Ibo’s social rank that all Ibo tribesmen submitted to: “The clan was like a lizard; if it lost its tail it soon grew another” (Achebe 147).

In conclusion, destruction of culture and tradition of the Ibo had emphasized the Ibo’s democratic and altruistic characters. Their democratic character allowed the white men’s

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settlement in the Ibo land and opened the chance for the white men to impose new social norms and values. For their altruistic character, it made the Ibo be submissive to the new group of people both mentally and physically. With the new civilization, the white men were believed to be the more powerful group of people who could bring benefits and protect the clans like their own gods. And with powerful forces, which could conquer the elders and the warriors, the white men became the new superior group of people the Ibo feared and obeyed.

2. Cultural Identity Loss of the Main Character While Things Fall Apart depicted the life of an African tribe which people were strongly grounded with their culture before it was destructed after the coming of the white men, Half a life presented a life of a post-colonial subject who was born in the society which he could not identify which culture he belonged. His sense of loss and lack of sense of belonging can be explained by Hall’s theory of diaspora. According to Hall, cultural identity loss of diasporic subjects is the result of the lack of sense of belonging to the displaced homeland where culture of their origin is transformed by new sets of norms and values under colonial power. They feel they are positioned in the space where they cannot identify where they really belong, so they struggle to conform identity in order to gain the sense of belonging. In this study, cultural identity loss and struggle of the main character have undergone three processes: his life in India during social transformation is in the light of social identification, while his determination to construct identity is apparently seen during his England life. Finally, the life he has long lost has evidently performed its effects in Africa and so on in the rest of his life.

In the first process, Tajfel and Turner’s social identity theory is applied to explain the feeling of not belonging of the main character. According to Tajfel and Turner, people categorize themselves into ingroup and outgroup, or us and them. This process is called social identification. In this process, people will have positive self-concept if they feel they are members of the superior group. In the story, the process of social identification originates Willie’s low self-esteem. As he was born in the period of social reconstruction under the British rule, he identified the British culture as the superior-status group, while his Indian culture he was a member the inferior-status group resulting in his negative self-concept. In his Indian origin, he felt oppressed as his existence was denied by his backward status being discriminated from the society. In contrast, in the British culture, despite his awareness of the second rank under the British patronage, opportunities and some of compliments he had received at mission school helped him perceive the white men’s society as the higher-status group. Therefore, he dreamed to be a member of the white men society, and wanted to escape from his Indian homeland that he suffered from the caste oppression and discrimination. In the story, due to his positive sensation of the new culture, Willie wished the new culture could help him escape distressing experience of the backward status in the old culture. Therefore, Willie dreamed of becoming a missionary like his Canadian teacher: “He began to long to go to Canada, where his teachers came from. He even began to think he might adopt their religion and become like them and travel the world teaching” (Naipaul 39). The statement revealed that to go to Canada where his teacher came from was the way to liberate himself from the caste oppression he had been suffering. In his perception, it was the place that could give him opportunity to present himself as the one accepted by others as when he was at mission school.

In the second process, England was the real world he struggled to construct his own identity for the feeling of fit-in. In order to create identity, two out of three strategies of gaining positive self-concept proposed by Tajfel and Turner were found in Willie’s struggle to invent

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146 identity; they were leaving the lower-status group for the higher-status group and comparing with the lower-status group.

His comparison with the lower group was found in his first social adventure at Bohemian society and after his failure to feel fit-in in the high-status group of the white men society. In his early days in England, Willie started to compare himself with others in order to get rid of negative self-concept of a member of the inferior-status group. When Willie met Percy Carto, a Jamaican of mixed blood, he tried to uncover his background, but at the same time was curious of his friend’s. When he knew that Carto was a negro whose father was a labor in Panama, Willie felt more comfortable to be with him: “Willie had been very careful with what he had told Percy about himself, and it was easier now for him to be with Percy. He felt he stood a rung or two or many rungs above Percy, and . . .” (Naipaul 63). The statement demonstrated that Willie always wanted to be superior to others in order to get rid of shame of his inferior status in his homeland. When he knew that his friend was a son of a black labour, Willie felt comfortable as the feeling of superiority.

In addition, this strategy was also used to gain positive self-concept after he was negated to be a member of the white men society. Although Willie seemed to have some success in acquiring positive self-concept as a certain degree of acceptance received from the white men, Willie finally realized such acceptance was placed at surface. He felt he was not truly seen as the one from the noble background as he had tried to present but actually was seen as the one from colony under their patronage. Despite his great effort to present himself as a new person with a new identity, he felt he could not escape from the image of a low-status Indian man. In the story, he felt that nobody was merely interested in the story of his re-make background he had been trying to present so he could no longer rely on his make-belief world: “It was depressing. The book had a paragraph on a half-page somewhere in the middle. Willie was presented as ‘a subversive new voice from the subcontinent’” (Naipaul 122).

Because of his confusion and lack of place to rely on, Willie retreated from the white men society and went back to a low-status group in order to claim his superior status. His sexual relationship with a prostitute in a smelly room was the way to gain superior status: “It was awful for him in the over-heated little room with smells of perfume and urine and perhaps worse.” (Naipaul 120) The prostitute and the smelly room represented the inferior-group. It was the place that he wished to regain new confidence after his failure to gain positive self- concept in the society of the British. In addition, another relationship with Ana, a mixed- blood girl from Portuguese Africa, could also help him feel relieved from negative cognition of himself. Although Ana was not regarded as a person from lower-status group like the prostitute, her admiration, understandings and acceptance helped him feel encouraged and relieved in the world he felt he was left alone.

In the third process, his tremendous sense of loss was obviously illustrated in the period of his African life. In Africa, as his tremendous loss and low self-esteem, he did not dare to create something new. What he did was in Ana’s shelter even though she was ready to have him as her leader. Therefore, he spent his wasteful and aimless life days by days and also felt not recognized as in the way he had expected, but a friend of Ana from London: “So people couldn’t place me and they let me be. I was Ana’s London man, as the little housemaid had said” (Naipaul 145). His life deeply plunged into further sense of loss and he had to continue to construct identity of his own. His sexual relationship with an African prostitute led by Alvaro, the Correias’estate manager, expressed his intention to construct identity as the

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147 superior in the inferior group of people as same as he did in London after his failure to gain real acceptance from the white men. In Willie’s mind, the prostitute and Alvaro were both the people from a lower-status group. Therefore, to be accepted by them both was the way to regain confidence and the feeling of superiority in the new land he was never recognized. In addition, his love affair with Graca, Ana’s friend, also revealed that it was the way to create identity by his self discovery. He thought it was the way to liberate himself out of Ana’s shelter he had been hiding and seen as the one disregarded: “ . . . ,and I thought how terrible it would have been if, as could so easily have happened, I had died without knowing this depth of satisfaction, this other person that I had just discovered within myself. It was worth any price, any consequence” (Naipaul 205).Since he failed to have identity in Africa he decided to divorce Ana and moved to Germany where his sister was living as the aim to construct identity he had been pursuing in his whole life, but seemed far more to reach.

3. The Main Characters’ Reactions to Their Own Cultures and Traditions The story of the Ibo tribe in Things Fall Apart has a significant correlation to Half a Life. Things Fall Apart introduces a strong companionship of people and their commitment to their fine culture and tradition reflected through the strong character of Okonkwo, the main character. In contrast, Half a Life demonstrates the impacts of the absence of fine culture and tradition on cultural loss of Willie, the main character, who represents the new generation of post-colonial subjects who have no firm root that they can grasp.

In Things Fall Apart, Okokwo performed his strong commitment to his tribal root despite his downfall and final destruction of his proud and dignified culture. He was ready to fight to preserve his tribal norms and values as well as traditional ways of living. At the end, he was conscious that he could not live in the society which tribal norms and values were completely demolished, so he chose to commit suicide to preserve his pride and dignity. In contrast to Okonkwo, who determined to keep culture and tradition of the Ibo tribe during the period of the white men’s invasion, Willie was the subject who was hugely affected by destruction of culture and tradition. He never felt he was located at his Indian homeland as his cultural identity had been destroyed by colonialism. Therefore, Half a Life obviously illustrates impacts of colonialism on mentality of post- colonial subjects. The vanishing of culture and tradition caused by colonialism has performed its effects on Willie’s sense of loss and struggles to construct identity because of his rootless status.

These two novels indicating factors and impacts of cultural loss can be a good reminder for Thai people of the importance of their own culture and traditional ways of living. Things Fall Apart represents Thai society, which is vulnerable to and is being destructed by the domination of American and Western culture. In Things Fall Apart, readers can learn why a culture is demolished, so they will become cautious of preserving their own culture and tradition. In Half a Life, readers will be aware of the effects of vanishing culture reflected in cultural identity loss of the main character. As same as Willie who has no sense of belonging anywhere, Thai people living the society attracted and dominated by the new culture, are in the state of in-between. They are in the mixed-up society where people are still not be able to identify to which culture or origin they merely belong As their rootless status, people are facing and stepping further into the sense of loss.

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Works Cited Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. London: David Campbell Publishers Ltd., 1992. Print. Copleston, Frederick C.. Friedrich Nietzsche: Philosopher of Culture. London: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 1975. Print. Hall, Stuart. “Introduction: Who Needs ‘Identity’?” Questions of Cultural Identity. Ed. Stuart Hall and Paul Gay. London: Sage, 1996. 1-17. Print. - - - . “New Ethnicities.” Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies. Ed. David Morley and Kuan Chen. London: Routledge, 1996. 441-449. Print. Naipaul, V. S.. Half a Life. London: Picador, 2002. Print. Pearson, Keith. Nietzsche Contra Rousseau: A Study of Nietzsche's Moral and Political Thought. Cambridge [England: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Print. Solomon, Robert C.. Living with Nietzsche: What the Great "Immoralist" Has To Teach Us. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Print.

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Using Task-based Language Learning Activities to Enhance Speaking Abilities of Pratom Suksa 5

Gesorn Pongsawang Dr. Anchalee Jansem Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of using task-based learning on speaking ability of grade 5 (Pratom Suksa 5) students at Klongbanprao School, Pathum Thani. Participants were 40 Pratom Suksa 5 students selected via convenience sampling. The students studied with the researcher in a speaking classroom for six weeks, in which the teacher used task-based learning. The instruments used for collecting data were three task- based lesson plans; there were 18 hours, English Speaking Form, English Speaking Rating and open-ended questionnaire. The data from the speaking test were analyzed using mean scores, standard deviation scores, and t-test for dependent samples. The data from the observation and opinion forms were described qualitatively. The researcher observed for lesson; three stages of observations were administered and conducted. The researcher noted students’ behavior in the observation 3 times. The result of this study indicated that the students’ English speaking ability after the use task-based learning was statistically higher than before learning at the 0.05 level.

Introduction Speaking English is a necessary and basic skill that helps an English learner, communicate in various situations including interacting via speech. Learning and teaching English in Thailand presently emphasize the communicative approach, including listening, speaking, reading and writing (Angwattanakul, 1994). To achieve this scheme, The Ministry of Education in Thailand (2001) is focusing on the significance and value of English. Responding to global challenge, English has been placed in the curriculum from primary level to higher education. Thai government announced that English language is an international language, so English speaking is very important. Thai students are required to speak English fluently and effectively. As Thailand will participate in ASEAN Community within 2014, Thai should speak English in their daily lives and they also have to speak English for educational purpose and for careers. The importance of English speaking ability has been recognized among Thai educators. Speaking English is very important, so the Office of the Basic Education Commission includes speaking ability as a requirement for learners to achieve this goal through learning in English course Strand 1 Language for Communication and Strand F1.3. The main purpose is to promote learners to develop speaking skills for daily lives such as in presenting data and information, having concepts and views on various matters by speaking and writing (Ministry of Education. 2008). English speaking has played an important role in daily lives of Thai people for many years due to its influence on education, careers and economics (Sae-ong, 2010).

However, there are several reasons why English as a Second Language or English as a Foreign Language learners cannot speak well. In addition to being shy to speak; they are worried about making mistakes; they are afraid of criticism or losing faces; they do not know what and how to speak; they do not have sufficient opportunities to practice; and they tend to use their mother tongue rather than the target language when they practice in class (Brown, 1994). Domesrifa (2008) studied Thai students’ English speaking ability and found that the

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students can speak English through oral communicative activities. The students are not confident, because they have limited chance to speak English in their real life situations.

In addition, in Thai primary and secondary schools, English is generally taught by Thai teachers with a small number of native English speaking teachers (Baker, 2008). In addition, in the previous English curriculum, the focus of teaching and learning were on reading and grammar rather than speaking (Kampanich & Pulphol.1997). On the other hand, the students lacked confidences and courage to speak, and consequently they might develop negative attitudes towards learning how to speak English.

Recently, task-based learning has been accepted as an alternative approach to resolve the crisis of teaching English. Task-based learning was originally developed by N.Prabhu in Bangladore, southern India. Prabhu ( 1987 as cited in Buyukkarci, 2009) believe that students may learn more successfully when their minds are focused on task, rather than on the language they are using (p.314). Task has been defined by many researchers in various ways. The most-frequently cited was Nunan’s definition (2004). Nunan differentiates real-world or target tasks, and pedagogical tasks. Target tasks, as the name implies, refer to uses of language in the world beyond the classroom. Pedagogical tasks are those that occur in the classroom. To be more specific, task according to Nunan task is a piece of classroom work involving learners in understanding, directing, producing or interacting way in the target language while the students’ attention is focusing on activating their grammar knowledge in order to express meaning (313).

Long (1985 as cited in Nunan, 2004) focuses on task-based teaching as he describes it in terms of learning terms of target tasks, arguing that a task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, talking a hotel reservation, writing a cheque, finding a street destination and helping someone across a road (p.314) .

Task-based learning offers the student an opportunity to do exactly this. The primary focus of classroom activity is the task and language is the instrument which the students use to complete it. The task is an activity in which students use language to achieve a specific outcome. The activity reflects real life and learners focus on meaning; they are free to use any language they want. Playing a game, solving a problem or sharing information or experiences, can all be considered as relevant and authentic tasks. Task-based learning allows learners to use the language in pairs or group work, let’s them share ideas (Nunan, 2004). Ellis (2003) and Frost (2005) propose further advantages of a task-based course. First, it is premised on the theoretical view that instruction needs to be compatible with the cognitive processes involved in second language acquisition. Second, the importance of learner “engagement” is emphasized. Third, a task serves as a suitable unit to specify learners needs and can be used to design the specific purpose of courses. Moreover, Ruso (2007) emphasizes interaction on an individual level and also without group work.

According to the statements and research studies above, the researcher is interested in studying the effectiveness of task-based learning to develop Pratom Suksa 5 students’ English speaking ability. As, a teacher teaching in Pratom Suksa 5 at Klongbanprao School, the researcher realizes that there are many problems in teaching English. Some of the problems are related to learners’ lack of the opportunity to study English with native speakers; and

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studying English with Thai teachers. The learners hardly have chances to practice speaking English because the emphasis of teaching English is on writing and grammar. The learners do not feel confident because they are afraid of making mistakes. In a general practice the teacher employs the teacher - center based way of teaching, and it doesn’t turn out to be successful. Thus, the researcher would like to teach English through the task-based method to develop English speaking.

Ellis, (1994) describes that the activity gives learners an opportunity to have interaction skills, so that the learners can communicate efficiently in the real situation. The study aims investigating the effectiveness of task-based learning to develop Pratom Suksa 5 students’ English speaking ability.

Objectives of the Study The study aimed to examine the effectiveness of using task-based learning on speaking ability of Pratom Suksa 5 students at Klongbanprao School.

Significance of the Study This study provided evidence of English speaking ability and the effectiveness of using task- based to facilitate English speaking. English as Foreign Language (EFL) teachers could benefit from this study in terms of employing alternative teaching techniques to develop speaking students.

Components of the Task-based Learning The components of a task-based learning framework there are three tasks: pre-task, during- task, and post-task. In Pre-task in according to Ellis (2003), the teacher prepares learners to perform tasks to promote acquisition such as preparing vocabulary or presenting new vocabulary. Lee (2000) discusses that task is important; teacher performs and suggests the learners how to do the task. Dornyei (2001) describes the task is important because it motivates and encourages and challenges the learners to do task successfully. In During-task, the learners do the task through using language in the task. It emphasizes on communicating to work in pair or group. The task-based activities consists pair work, information gap, or retelling story. Then reporting, the learners prepare to present the task. The teacher suggests how to use vocabulary, sentence, language or idiom and practice to presentation. Thus the learners are confident. The learners able speak and report theirs task. Then they discuss or share some ideas. The teacher and students give some feedback. In Post-task: there are two goals; there are language analysis stage and practice stage. Language analysis relates that students analysis language function, during they do the task. They have an opportunity to analysis language, solve the problems and share their ideas. Teacher suggests and recommends about students’ task. And teacher helps the learners solve the problem. In the practice stage, the teacher assigns a new task to student.

Speaking Communication Speaking is a combination of thinking, feeling, exchanging information, culture and tradition by integrating sound, language and non-verbal behavior for accurate communication.

Research Procedure Participants The participants of the study were Pratom Suksa 5 students at Klongbanprao School, Pathum Thani. They were recruited from the population via convenience sampling based on the school assignment. This study included forty students.

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Research Instruments This study examined the effectiveness of using task-based learning to develop English speaking ability. Research instruments used in the study were: 1) task-based lessons, 2) a self-designed English speaking test, 3) a Speaking Observation Form, 4) English Speaking Rating Scale, and 5) open-ended questionnaire.

Procedures for Data Collection The learners self- assessment in questionnaire and speaking observation forms data were collected before, during and after the process. The experiments lasted for 6 weeks. Before participating in the instruction, the participants from Pratom Suksa 5 were tested through the conversations and interviews.

Data Analysis The data was analyzed to the study. The first objective examined the use of task-based learning to develop learners’ English speaking ability. It was analyzed based on language use in speaking ability. The scores on English speaking ability on the pre-test and post-test were computed and converted into mean scores and t-test based on the total number of bases in the dependent sample. The steps of the data analysis processes involve determining the mean and standard deviation of each group to check the mean scores of pre-test and post-test by using T-test Independent Samples by using SPSS. The rating score analyzed to determine differences in the learners’ English speaking performance before, during and after learning English through task-based learning.

Findings The pre-test and post-test scores were assessed by three raters, and calculated mean and SD scores of the English speaking ability of 40 Pratom Suksa 5 students. Finding revealed as in Table 1,2, and 3 below;

Table 1 A Comparison of the Mean Scores on Pre-test and Post-test of English Speaking Ability Rater Pre-test Post-test M M Rater 1 18.45 40.05 Rater 2 18.43 40.63 Rater 3 18.23 40.58 Average Mean 18.37 40.42 According to Table 1, the three raters’ mean scores of the post-test were higher than the pretest. And English speaking abilities of Pratom Suksa 5 students assessed by three raters were also similar. The participants had significantly higher mean scores on the post-test (M= 40.42) than the pre-test (M=18.37). The result indicated that the Pratom Suksa 5 students developed their English speaking abilities after learning task-based.

Table 2 A Comparison of the Mean Scores on Pre-test and Post-test English speaking ability N Score Mean S.D. t P-value Pre-test 40 50 18.37 5.22 30.12 0.05* Post-test 40 50 40.42 2.50 According to table 2, it revealed that the English speaking ability of Pratom Suksa 5 students was significantly higher after learning task-based, significant at the .05 level. The participants

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had significantly higher mean scores on the post-test (M= 40.42) than the pre-test (M=18.37). The speaking observation, the five level score was assessed by the researcher in three lesson plans. There were three hours in the each lesson plan so the speaking observation form was assessed three times in each lesson plan. The speaking observation was used nine times. It was calculated total scores and compared mean score all of performances. In addition, data from 9 speaking observations using-the five level-rating score assessed by the research in three lesson plans were calculated total scores and compared mean score all of performances. There were three hours in the each lesson plan so the speaking observation form was assessed three times in each lesson plan. The speaking observation was used nine times. Finding showed as in Table 3 below:

Table 3 Table 3: A Comparison of the English Speaking Observation Form Before During After Performance Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. 1. Learners are active to use English while 1.67 2.36 2.33 3.30 4.00 5.66 doing task. 2. Learners enjoy doing task. 2.00 2.83 2.33 3.30 3.67 5.19 3. Learners are self-confident to make 1.33 1.89 1.67 2.36 3.33 4.71 conversations between their friends. 4. Learners express ideas in classroom. 1.00 1.41 1.67 2.36 3.33 4.71 5. Learners ask some questions about the 1.00 1.41 1.33 1.89 2.67 3.77 task. 6. Learners try to edit himself / herself 0.67 0.94 1.33 1.89 2.67 3.77 during using language. 7. Learners use sentences while using 0.33 0.47 1.00 1.41 3.00 4.24 language. 8. The speed of learner’s speed seems to 1.00 1.41 1.33 1.89 2.33 3.30 be slightly affected by language problems. 9. Learners use appropriate vocabulary 0.67 0.94 1.00 1.41 3.00 4.24 and idioms to make conversations. 10. Learners pronounce clear 1.00 1.41 1.33 1.89 3.00 4.24 pronunciation. Total 10.67 15.32 31.00

As shown in Table 3, noticeably, the researcher observed the students did tasks; there were before, during and after. The total of before was 10.67. The total of during was 15.32. The total of after was 31.00. The results of observation that the students did tasks during stage were higher than did tasks stage before. The students did tasks after stage were higher than did tasks during stage.

Discussion and Conclusion Summary of the Research The study was an experimental research using convenience sampling, using pre-test and posttest that investigated the effect of using task-based learning on speaking of Pratom Suksa 5 students. The students of the study were 40 Pratom Suksa 5 at Klongbanprao School, during the second semester of academic year 2011.

The experiment took place three periods per week. Each session lasted an hour which was eighteen periods in total. The instruments used in this study consist of: 1) three lesson plans

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based on task-based learning language, 2) a self-designed English speaking test, and 3) an open-ended questionnaire.

Summary of the Main Findings Students’ English speaking ability was significantly different at the .05 level after learning through task-based. The scores of students’ posttest (M= 40.42) was higher than the score of the students’ pre-test (M=18.37). According to the results, there was the effectiveness of task- based learning on students’ English speaking ability. The effectiveness of task-based included encouraging students to speak English, giving students opportunities to practice speaking such as a daily life, encouraging student to learn language, and supporting students’ speaking confidently. In addition, In conclusion, the improvement of Pratom Suksa 5 students’ improved their English speaking abilities after learning task-based was significant. There was a significant difference. In addition, students’ behaviors task-based, they agreed with the above benefits of learning task-based when being engaged in doing tasks support the statistical.

Discussion The findings from the post-test of the experiment in the study showed that using task-based language learning enhanced the students’ English speaking.

Firstly, task-based learning encouraged students to speak English. Activities students studied including “shopping, occupation, and I live in a big house,” this encouraged the students to speak English. Since students provided were opportunities to practice in the lesson “I live in a big house” the lesson concern the direction for example“ how to go to school” the real situation , they could apply this in their life. They practiced with their friends. They enjoyed the lessons because they knew theirs friends. And they did group work related to making the map from the house to school. They liked it because they liked to draw and paint, including speaking English with friends, and sharing ideas about their tasks. The findings were consistent with Nunan (2004) in that task-based learning, provides learners to use the language in pairs or group work, and share ideas.

Secondly, students were provided opportunities to do tasks, so they enjoyed doing the task because they did it in the real situation such as in the shopping lesson. They tried to speak English with their friends, worked in pair, and worked in group. They analyzed the language when their friends present the task. According to Locha and Deb (2006), they indicate that it is enjoyable doing tasks within their team, and this helped their learning.

Finally, the results were satisfying because the students improved their speaking, they enjoy did the tasks, they had opportunities to analyze language, solve their problems and share their ideas. The teacher suggested and recommended about students’ task, and helped the students to solve the problem, also the teacher assigned a new task to student. It is a child centered approach. Muller (2006) states that after using task-based learning, Teacher is confident that are meeting institutional requirements and facilitating the development of genuine communication skills among learners. Task-based learning provides many advantages in teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) because it offers language experience in the classroom.

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Implications of the Study The results of this investigation indicated that learning through task-based language could improve students’ speaking ability. The teacher needed to explain the lesson clearly before the lesson started, and teach new vocabulary and sentence clearly. The students need to know how to perform the task.

Moreover, the teacher should not explain for long time because the student will listen for a long time, they would be young. They had short concentrate, the teacher tried to prepare the new lesson, it always motivates to do the task. According to Ruso (2007), learners do not like teachers who spend most of class time lecturing. Lecturing time de-motivates them because they do not like being passive in class. Consequently learners have limited input to the learning process. Furthermore, while the students are doing the task, the teacher should walk around the classroom in order to monitor the students’ performance. The students will pay attention, they tried to speak English and do the task well. This is a good time to observe whether students understand the teacher’s assignment. According to Richards (2006), while students do task, the teacher should act as a facilitator correcting students’ mistake.

Limitations of the study The limitation of the present study lies in the limited number of activities used for speaking practice speaking, duration of time, class size, and monitoring.

Firstly, in this study the students used task-based learning for the speaking English. The students were shy to speak English; they often used mother tongue because they didn’t know vocabularies and sentences. For example, the shopping title, they would like to bargain the price of a bar of chocolate, but they didn’t know the number.

Next, the duration of time was limited. The students did not have enough time between classes to practice the activities because the school had variety of activities including Boy Scout Camp, Sport’s Day and Children’s Day so the lesson didn’t continually, the students were confused. So the research taught extra class. If they study continually, they may speak fluency and accuracy.

Finally, seems to limit the focus of this study is the effect of monitoring. The researcher was monitoring the students while they were doing activities. Some students lacked of self- confident to interact. They would like to use mother tongue.

Suggestions for Further Research The suggestions for further research should study the effectiveness of task-based activities to develop other skills such as writing or reading. Adapting other principles of teaching to create the new innovation would be another alternative in doing further studies.

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References Angwattanakul, S. (1994). English Teaching Methods. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, [in Thai]. Domesrifa K. (2008). A study of using oral communicative activities to enhance English speaking ability of Matthayomsuksa one students. Srinakharinwirot University Ellis, R. (1984). Classroom Second Language Development: a Study of classroom Interaction and Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Littlewood, W. (1995). Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lochana, M. and Deb, G. (2006). Task Based Teaching: Learning English without Tears. Retrieved February 14, 2009 from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/Sep _06_ml&gd.php. Nunan, D. (2004). Task-Based Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Office of the Basic Education Commission. (2009). The Basic Education Commission Policy. Nurhakim, F. (2009) Teaching Speaking by Using Communicative Approach. Retrieved May 4, 2009 from http://www.scribd.com/doc/15190009/skripsi-Teaching-Speaking- by-Using-Communicative-Approach. Office of the Basic Education Commission. (2009). The Basic Education Commission Policy. Retrieved April 11, 2009 from http://www.obec.go.th/plan/plan1.doc. Oller, J. W. (1979). Language Test of School: A Pragmatic Approach. London: Longman. Piromsombut, C. (2002). Effect Magnitude Estimators’ Properties: a Comparison between Classical Test Theory and Item Response Theory. Chulalongkorn University Intellectual Repository. Paulston, Christina Bralt. (1978). “Interaction Activities in the Foreign Classroom: or How to Grow the Tulip Rose,“ in Developing Communication Skills. Boston: Winthop Publishers, Inc. Pica and others. (1993). Tasks and Language Learning: Integrating Theory and Practice. C. tevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters. Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Richards and others. (1986). Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics. London: Longman. Ruso, Nazenin. (2007). The Influence of Task-Based Learning on EFL Classrooms. Retrieved from http://www.asian-efljournal.com/profession_teaching_articles.php Vol.18 Sae-ong, U. (2010). The use of task-based learning and group work incorporating to develop English speaking ability of Matthayayom suksa 4 students. Srinakharinwirot University. Savignon, S.J. (1997). Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. Addison Wesky Publishing Company Inc. Scott, R. (1981). Speaking in Communication in the Classroom. Longman Group UK Ltd. Searle, J.R. (1978). Speech Acts. New York: Cambridge University Press. Srithongrung, R. (1997). Speaking for information Nakhonpathom: Petchkaseam Printing. Taylor, B. P. (1983). Teaching ESL: Incorporating a Communicative Student-Centered Component. TESOL Quarterly. Vol.12. Underhill, N. (2000). Testing Spoken Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ur, P. (1996). A Course in Language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Weir, C. (1993). Understanding and Developing Language Test. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Willis, J. (1998). A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Longman: de Henseler Books. Witthayawanit, K. (2002). The principle of speaking. Bangkok: O.S Printing House.

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Effects of the Concentrated Language Encounter Instruction (Model III) on Matayomsuksa 5 Students’ Writing Ability

Supattareeya Lopeung Dr. Walaiporn Chaya Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract This paper reports the results of an experimental study investigating the effects of the Concentrated Language Encounter Instruction (Model III) on Thai Matayomsuksa 5 (grade eleventh) students’ writing ability. The students in the experimental group were taught to write three types of text: an expository, a narrative and, a descriptive text as well as text structure and grammatical features of each type of texts through the Concentrated Language Encounter (CLE) Instruction. The students in the control group were taught based on the traditional method lesson plan. The instruments used for data collection were pre- and post- writing and the perception questionnaire on the CLE Instruction. The findings showed that students’ writing performance improved through the application of the CLE Instruction (Model III). The results also revealed the statistical difference between the mean scores of pre and post writing test of the students in the CLE Instruction group. Based on the findings, pedagogic implications and the future recommendations are discussed in the EFL setting.

Keywords: Concentrated Language Encounter Instruction (Model III), expository text, narrative text, descriptive text

Background of the study It is widely known that English is the most important international language learned by most people all over the world. English is also used globally for international communication. Therefore, English is a required foreign language, mostly taught as a compulsory subject in the school curricula in most countries of the world (Puengpipattrakul, 2009). People with high proficiency in English can become successful in their global academic areas and professional communities, so in non-native English speaking counties around the world, the government of those countries promote their people to learn English for mastery in the fields for which English language is required, especially reading and writing in order to be able to access academic resources in order to achieve world standards in all principles (Tapinta, 2006).

In Thailand, the needs for mastering in English are similar to those non-native speaking countries. English has also played a crucial role in the tourism industry and the demand for proficiency in English is higher for internationalized workplaces in order to access the Internet and for the purposes of higher education. Thus, English teaching and learning at every level have to be developed to promote Thai people to accomplish the expected outcome and to use English for international communication effectively (Forman, 2005).

As mentioned above, Thai students have to be trained English skills and also thinking skills to serve the standard of the world class education. The Ministry of Education itself has also launched a roadmap strategy that emphasizes the learners’ foreign language ability and skills; especially communicative English together with the thinking skills (Ministry of Education, 2008). In addition, the concept of communicative competence is promoted in one of the educational standards for Thai learners from school to university levels. However, Thai

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students’ English competency does not meet the world standards. They are still having difficulty in using English to communicate, particularly in writing (Ministry of Education 2002, Office of the National Education Commission 2001, 2002).

Kasemsab (2005) also states that the factors that affect learning abilities are learners themselves, who fail to recognize the importance of English because they hardly use English in their daily lives, and they do not understand why they must learn it. From kindergarten to university, learners are encouraged to study and use English in the classroom to get good scores. However, once at home, that language is not used at all. Most students also lack the interest in English; they must learn it in order to further their study in a university, not out of their own interest. A learning strategy frequently employed is reciting without understanding. The knowledge they have gained seems to fade away easily. Moreover, the teachers’ style of teaching affects the learners’ ability. Teachers have no efficient knowledge on what they are teaching and they cannot employ effective teaching methods to manage their classes. Too often, many teachers focus on grammar rules rather than real language use.

In addition, in learning English for communicative purpose, the focus is on four integrated skills. However, the four communicative skills; listening, speaking, reading and writing cannot be learned alone (Hao, & Sivell, 2002). Reading is closely connected to writing in that writing, a productive skill, cannot happen without reading while reading has a strong influence on writing. Hao and Sivell further explain that writing activities, such as taking notes, outlining and summarizing, can also improve reading comprehension (p.2). The studies on reading and writing connection reveal that when taught together, reading and writing engage students in greater use of cognitive strategies than when they are taught separately. In addition, using writing as learning tool can lead to better reading achievement, and using reading as a device for elaborating on ideas leads to better writing performance.(Siriyothin & Lin, 2008, p.13).

In academic field, the English skills which play an important role for further education are reading and writing. In her research, Tapinta (2006) asserts: “ The higher the level of education being pursued, the greater the command of English is required, especially in reading and writing in order to access academic resources and keep up with world standards in all disciplines” (p.1). Moreover, Krashen (1984) stated that being a good writer needs to obtain the comprehensible input which is derived from reading. As Brown (1994) states: “reading ability will best be developed in association with writing, listening, and speaking activity” (p. 283).

Additionally, the information obtained during reading consists of several elements; grammatical, lexical, or semantic constitutes which make the message meaningful, so reading becomes the basis of writing (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2005). Stotsky (1983) points out that better writers tend to be better readers because they apply the text structure from their writing to make the text easy to comprehend, so teaching grammar by providing reading experiences is as, or more beneficial than grammar study or extra writing practice.

However, in EFL context, teachers do not give students the opportunity to employ reading and writing skills as a communicative tool in real situations. Additionally, teachers tend to give students written assignments on topic areas that they think will be useful when students take the written tests. In fact, these artificial topics and decontextualized exercises may not be of interest to either teachers or students (Hao & Sivell, 2002). Furthermore, it seems that reading and writing in EFL context have often been taught for many years as separated skills

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that put its emphasis on grammar and mechanics without developing learners' ability to express their ideas. The problem is that while learners master the grammar rules, they still find it difficult to read or write a whole text. Such multiple factors as inadequate learning habits and educational preparation might consequently result in poor reading and writing or the so-called literacy development. To develop students’ reading and writing ability, the teacher should teach both skills simultaneously in the real situations since reading has been recognized as the basis for writing and reading and writing develop together (Goodman, 1986 cited in Wu, 2000, p.8).

Campbell (1983, as cited in Yoshimura, 2008) suggests that teachers should encourage students to work with texts that provide exposure to different genres, and topic areas. The students should be guided to think about what they have read, form initial ideas of their own, shift those ideas, and then finally begin to organize them for writing. Moreover, instruction in the writing process and in reading comprehension can be combined because they are similar in many ways: both focuses on helping students to think. Focusing on thinking rather than on simply getting the right answer is helpful to both reading and writing (Maria, 1990).

Taking the problems as discussed into consideration, studies suggest that the Concentrated Language Encounter Instruction (CLE) is an alternative way to solve the problem of teaching and learning English. There are three underlying principles for the CLE. Firstly, immersion is the principle that students are able to take part in new activities with language. Secondly, scaffolding involves the models which teachers provide to assist with students use of English within the language classroom. Finally, activity- based experience, because everything that students do in class is linked to each other and therefore needs to be a well-understood activity. Furthermore, the CLE methodology is student - centered using various kinds of English activities, challenging students to take the risk of using the language, and emphasizing the use of all English language skills, starting from reading through to producing writing tasks systematically at the last stage. Students participate in learning activities which are both individual and group work, to reinforce students use all skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The goal of the CLE is to give a comprehensible input from a learning process in which students start from understanding the meaning of the text they have read during learning activities, so that students can learn the concept of the language. Then they can use that concept to convey the message by speaking or writing. Also, the CLE encourages students to create their own work or group work with satisfaction (Kitisripanya, 2006).

Many studies (Suknakha, 2002; Singhakarn, 2004; Kwaenkasikarn, 2007) reveal that the CLE can solve English teaching and learning problems of all the skills; listening, speaking, reading, writing, and thinking processes, all through the activities in the classroom. To get the result of their studies, these researchers followed the teaching procedures according to the CLE principles by applying them to the lesson’s contents and students’ ability, step by step respectively. For example, the results of Thongjean’s study (2007) show that employing the CLE is more effective on students’ English performance, semantic creativity and self- confidence than using teacher manuals. Furthermore, the study of Thongprim (2004) shows the improvement of reading and writing abilities of grade tenth (Matatyomsuksa 4) students taught through the CLE.

According to the studied mentioned above, the researcher would like to focus on using the CLE to improve students’ writing ability as writing is supposed to be a complex process. Besides, writing skills are needed by students to further for academic development or

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international careers, but writing is still difficult to develop and learn, especially in an EFL context. Also, the policy of the education reform in the second decade (2009- 2018) expects that Matayomsuksa 5 students will be trained to be able to write stories involving current situations and express ideas to support or oppose those ideas rationally (Office of the Basic Education Commission of Thailand, 2010). So, the researcher believes that the process of the CLE can be applied to teach students who at differing levels of English proficiency and are facing English writing problems.

It is clear that the CLE is effective in increasing students’ reading and writing ability. However, studies conducted using the CLE to improve writing ability in Thai EFL context are very rare. It is therefore interesting to apply the CLE model to grade eleventh (Matayomsuksa 5) students at Traimudomsuksa Pattanakarn School, aimed at developing their writing proficiency.

Objectives of the Study This study addresses two objectives as follows: 1. To investigate the effects of the Concentrated Language Encounter Instruction on Matayomsuksa 5 students’ writing ability. 2. To explore the learners’ perceptions towards the Concentrated Language Encounter Instruction.

Methodology Participants Seventy eleventh grade ( Matayomsuksa 5) students comprising two classes, were selected by the convenience sampling method from 8 classes of students studying in Science- Mathematics program at Triamudomsuksa Patanakarn School, Bangkok to participate in the study. The students took the ‘English IV (Eng32102)’ course three times a week during their second semester of academic year 2011. The selected participants in two classes were assigned into two groups: an experimental group taught through the CLE (Model III) and the other as a control group taught through the school-based curriculum instruction.

Research Instruments In this study the research instruments were formulated and as follows: 1. English writing pretest and posttest In pre- and post – writing tests, students were asked to choose one type of text that they had learned; a narrative, a description and an exposition that related to the contents from the Upstream 5 textbook. The English writing pretest and posttest were checked and corrected by three specialists. 2. Rubrics of writing test The researcher adapted the criteria for writing evaluation from Spandel (2001). The criteria of competence evaluation were involved contents and ideas, organization, word choice, sentence fluency and conventions. 3. Students’ Perception Questionnaire The questionnaire, adapted from Greany’s (2002) was used to gather the information about students’ improvement taught by the Concentrated Language Encounter Instruction (Model III). There were two parts; the questionnaire and four open-ended questions. Students completed the questionnaire using a five point rating scale ranging from 5 - strongly agree to 1- strongly disagree.

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Data Collection Procedure The data were collected as in the following procedures: 1. The researcher held a meeting with the participants to discuss the research plan before starting the classroom research. Before the experiment, the writing pretest was administered to the students in both experimental and control groups. The students in the experimental group were into two proficiency levels: high proficiency and low proficiency in accordance with their English pre-test scores. 2. In the implementation, in the reading and writing activities, the students worked individually, in pairs, or in group. They discussed the stories, express ideas, and gave suggestions to their partners. However, during the discussion, the researcher observed and monitored if any students had difficulties doing the tasks. 3. At the end of the implementation, the students took the English writing posttest, and completed the questionnaire on students’ perception.

Data Analysis The data, the scores gained from the English writing pretest and posttest of the students of both groups: the CLE and the school-based instruction groups were analyzed to determine the mean scores, standard deviation. The mean scores of the pretest and posttest of the CLE group were calculated using the paired t-test to find out whether there was a significant difference within the same group between mean scores of the pretest and posttest. The scores of the pretest and posttest of the two groups were then calculated to compare the difference between groups using the independent t-test. The mean scores of the proficient and less proficient students in the CLE group were also compared. The results showed whether the CLE was effective on students’ writing ability. In addition, the self reported data from the questionnaires obtained from the students in the CLE group were calculated using the descriptive statistics. Also, the answers from four open-ended questions were counted the frequency and converted into percentage. The results revealed the participants’ perception of the Concentrated Language Encounter Instruction.

Findings Generally, the findings of the current study revealed that the writing ability of Matayomsuksa 5 students in both the experimental group and control group improved after the experiment. The students in the experimental group taught by the use of the CLE gained higher mean scores than those in the control group. Moreover, students in the experimental group had positive perceptions towards the CLE.

The Effects of Concentrated Language Encounter Instruction on Students’ Writing Ability The results revealed that there was a significant difference between the mean scores of the writing pretest and posttest of the students in the CLE group indicating the effectiveness of the CLE instruction. Table 1 shows the mean scores of students on pretest and posttest. Table 1 The Comparison of the Overall Mean Scores on Pretest and Posttest Students’ papers n M S.D. t p-value Pre-test 35 14.09 2.24 13.29 .000* Post- test 35 19.54 3.28 * Significant at the 0.01 level (p<0.01)

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Table 1 reveals that the mean scores in the posttest were statistically higher than that of the pretest at the .01 level when the mean scores of the pretest and posttest were 14.09 and 19.54 respectively. The t- score was 13.29, and it was significantly different at the level of 0.01.

Further, the comparison of the mean scores of the pretest and posttest of the proficient and the less proficient students in the CLE group reveals the significant difference between the two groups of students with different levels of English proficiency. Table 2 presents the difference in the mean scores of students in the two proficiency groups.

Table 2 The Difference in the Means Scores and Standard Deviations (SD) of the Proficient and Less Proficient Students

Students’ Ability Pretest Posttest (M) S.D. (M) S.D. t p-value Proficient students 16.00 1.17 21.71 2.99 7.83 .000* (N=14) Less proficient students 12.80 1.83 18.09 2.62 10.71 .000* (N=21) * Significant at the 0.01 level (p<0.01)

As shown in Table 2, both proficient and less proficient students in the experimental group gained a significantly higher mean scores in the posttest compared with the pretest scores.

The difference between the two tests stands at 0.01 level for both proficient and less proficient students. This indicates that the CLE improved the English writing ability of both proficient and less proficient students.

To investigate the difference in English writing ability of the students in the CLE and control groups, the researcher further compared the difference in the mean scores of the students’ pretest and posttest between groups. The results reveal that there was a statistical difference in the means of those two groups. Table 3 illustrates the findings of the comparison.

Table 3 The Comparison in the Mean Scores and Standard Deviation (SD) of the Experimental Group and the Control Group

Participants n Pretest Posttest (M) (M) S.D. t p-value Experimental group 35 14.09 19.54 3.28 3.63 .001* Control group 35 14.06 15.86 4.44 * Significant at the 0.01 level (p<0.01)

Table 3 shows that the students from both the experimental group and the control group gained a significantly higher score after the treatment. It also showed the significant differences between the posttest mean scores of the experimental group and the control group at the 0.01 level. The students in the experimental group, instructed by the CLE, achieved a higher mean score than those in the control group, instructed by the school-based instruction.

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Besides, the findings from students’ perception questionnaire showed that all students agreed with using the CLE in writing class, an as shown in each item. It can be summarizes that students strongly agreed that the CLE proceeded the development of integrated skills in the classroom (M=4.40), and made English more interesting (M=4.31). The students also strongly agreed that they put more time into this class than they would have invested precedent classes (M=4.31), and that the information from the class activities contributed greatly to their knowledge about reading and writing (M=4.26). However, the students had a low level of positive perception towards the use of the CLE. They agreed that their reading skills in English improved as a result of the CLE, and that they gained confidence in their ability to do the English language activities (M=3.89).

The responses from four open-ended questions were also investigated. The first three advantages of learning through the CLE were practicing English skills; listening, speaking, reading and writing (40%), followed by applying the knowledge to use in daily life (22.85%), and promoting relationship between teacher and friends (8.57%). Then the findings revealed the first three problems that occurred while learning through the CLE. They were having different ideas among people in group (28.57%), lack of vocabulary (20%), and being unable to understand the procedure of the activities (17.14%). Also, all students agreed with applying the CLE in an English class. The first reasons to support their agreement responded by students were gaining more interest on English class (22.85%), improving writing and reading abilities (20%), applying the knowledge to use in daily life, being active to learn English, and creating an enjoyable atmosphere (14.28%). The last questions showed the students’ suggestions for general point of view. Students suggested that the teacher should get closed to students (22.85%). In addition, working in group sometimes causes the noise (8.57%).

Discussion The finding of the study revealed that after the experiment students in the experimental group gained a significant higher score than those in the control group. They could be able to create their own writing following the CLE procedure respectively. According to Raimes (1983) suggests writing is an activity that moves in stages and it also takes time to complete, so writers should access tier writing tasks as a process. In addition, the finding suggested that the CLE enhanced both the proficient and less proficient students of the experimental group. Indeed, both types of students gained significantly higher scores in writing after receiving instruction through the CLE. The proficient students who already know how to write lack of awareness of employing it; whereas, the less proficient students do not recognize the importance of English writing. Working in group students both proficient students and less students were comfortable to ask questions on the points they did not understand and to express their ideas and experience with their friends. Thus, both the proficient students and less proficient students obtained higher scores after the instruction.

Also, according to the findings, the posttest mean score of the students taught with the CLE was higher than those receiving traditional method. This finding emphasized that the CLE was more effective in improving English writing ability than traditional method. The first reason to support the finding is that reading and writing skills are connected (Stotsky, 1983).

Reading skill reinforces writing skill when students practice reading enough, students could be a good writer supported the result of the studies by Grabe (2001, 2003) and Hirvela (2004). The CLE consists of activities which focus on improvement reading and writing abilities. In other words, students had to identify the main idea and supporting details of a

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paragraph while they were reading they memorized the correct organization of different types of writing which help students be able to create their writing critically.

In regard to the questionnaires on students’ perceptions, students in the experimental group showed their strong agreement with using the CLE in an English class. They said that the CLE proceeded the development of integrated skills in the classroom and made an English class interesting because the CLE procedure let students participate various activities not only individual but also in pairs and in group.

In addition, to study students’ perception towards the CLE, open- ended questions were used to assure the positive of the students. The findings revealed that students believed that all students in the experimental group agree with the use of the CLE. The reasons were they believed that the CLE help them gain more interest on English class, improve writing and reading abilities. They can also apply the knowledge to use in daily life, are active to learn English as well as the CLE create an enjoyable atmosphere. Also, some students claimed that the CLE promoted work in group.

Implication of the Study Regarding over all writing ability, it is suggested that teaching writing by the use of the CLE should be implemented in not only fundamental English courses but also other parts of the English courses, especially, reading courses due to its connection. Moreover, students should be instructed from the Model I to Model III to practice English skills consistently.

The participants had never sufficient practiced writing English prior to this English course. Thai students of upper secondary level study intensively and competitively to prepare themselves for university entrance examination. English is one of the most competitive and demanding subject they are faced with. Despite the fact that they attempt, their writing ability reveals a very low level. Thus, students should practice writing as often as possible. They should begin writing easy topics, particularly, writing about their own experience. As one of the raters noticed that writing about students’ experience will help relieve their anxiety because at least they already have the ideas to write about in their mind.

Moreover, teachers should not have high expectations of students’ writing ability because there are different levels of students in one class. Teachers should be patient and try hard to teach writing each step through the CLE, especially, at the beginning of the course students need to spend much time to understand the procedure of the CLE. When they are getting familiar to the process, they will be able to write fluently.

Before applying the CLE, teachers should inform students and have them learn about the CLE procedure to make sure that they can follow each step correctly and respectively. Doing this helps students adjust to a new instruction and perceive the teaching process in order to lead them to the objective of the CLE.

The experiment was planned to serve the objectives of the present study. However, there were some limitations found in this study.

Limitation of the Study The time for this study was inappropriate. The class time was almost in the after lunch period. This evening time had a lot of disadvantages; for example, students were too tired, and they

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wanted to leave as early as possible. Therefore, different class time could yield different results. Also, the continuity of the lesson was limited. Each class was separated so the procedure did not run continuously. Sometimes students needed to revise the former step before going on the instruction.

Recommendations for Further Studies Since there are many approaches in teaching writing, further study should be done with different disciplines in order to find out which one is effective for teaching writing in the Thai setting. Also, the CLE should be applied for several English courses from a low level so that students will be getting familiar to the procedure and they also gain more self- confidence to use the language. Regarding writing ability, the findings of the research showed that the CLE helped develop writing ability. However, the students’ writing ability was still at a low level. Writing ability could not improve much during a period of time. Although the time of this study was 24 hours, it was considered short for improving writing ability. Therefore, longitudinal study might provide more solid evidence of this teaching method.

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Puengpipattrakul, P. (2009). The Use of Journals to Develop Grammatical Accuracy in Writing. MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities Regular, 12. (2), 90-102. Raimes, A. (1983). Teaching in Teaching Writing. New York: Oxford University Press Rattanavich, S. (1993). The Concentrated Language Encounter (Model III). Bangkok: Prayunwongprinting. Singhakarn, S. (2004). A Comparison of Matayomsuksa 1 Students’ English Performance and deciplin behaviors through instruction based on Concentrated Language Encounter Approach (Model I) and the Teacher’s Manual. Srinakharinwirot University: Bangkok Siriyothin, P. & Lin, Z. (2008). Effects of re adding tasks on reading comprehension of Chinese EFL students: A pilot study. US-China Foreign Language. 6 (5), 12- 19. Retrieved October, 25, 2008 from http://www.linguist.org.cn/doc/uc20085/uc20080504.pdf Spandel, V. (2001). Book, Lessons, Ideas. Great Source Education Group. Retrieved January, 25, 2011 from http://www. ssessment.rbe.sk.ca/Rubrics. Stepp-Greany, J. (2002). Student perceptions on language learning in a technological environment: Implications for the new millennium. Language Learning and Technology 6 Retrieved September, 25, 2011 from http://eca.state.gov/forum/vols/vol44/no3/p14.htm. Stosky, S. (1983). Research on Reading/Writing Relationship: A Synthesis and Suggested Directions. Language Arts. 60(5). 627-642. Suknakha, P. (2002). A Comparison of Matayomsuksa II Students’ Reading Comprehension, Writing Ability and Responsibility through the Instructional based on the Concentrated Language Encounter and the Teacher’s manual. Srinakharinwirot University: Bangkok. Tapinta, P. (2006). Exploring Thai EFL University Students’ Awareness of their knowledge, use, and control of Strategies. University of North Texas. Thongprim, S. (2003). A comparative study of Mathayom Suksa 4 students’ English reading and writing abilities and interest through the third model of Concentrated Language Encounter teaching and through the teaching manual method. Silpakorn University: Bangkok. Thongjean, W. (2007). A comparison of Matthayom Suksa III Students’ English Performance, Semantic Creativity and Self- Confidence in Learning English through Instruction Based on Concentrated Language Encounter (Model II) and Traditional Approach. Srinakharinwirot University: Bangkok. Wu, S. (2000). The writing-reading connection: A pamphlet project at Yang-Ming University, Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), 1-13. Yoshimura, F. (2009). Effects of connecting reading and writing and a checklist to guide the reading process on EFL learners’ learning about English writing. Procedia Social Behavioral Sciences 1. 1871-1883.

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Using Task-based Learning to Develop English Speaking Ability at Prathom 6 students at Piboonprachasan School

Kesda Thanghun Dr. Anchalee Jansem Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract The purpose of the study was to develop English speaking ability of grade 12 (Prathomsuksa 6) students at Piboonprachasan School through task-based learning. The 30 Prathomsuksa 6 students were selected by simple random sampling The research instruments used for collecting data were five lesson plans, a pre-post speaking test, The data were statistically analyzed by mean, standard deviation, and t-test for dependent samples. The results of this study indicated that the English speaking ability of Prathomsuksa 6 students learned through task-based learning after the experiment was significantly higher than before learning at the .05 level.

Keywords: Task-based learning, English speaking ability.

Background of the Study Within the 21 st century, or the age of the globalized society, most countries all over the world have confronted the rapidly developing economy. The changing world brings about an increase in the demand of both professional skills and proficient language skills. Since a large number of people worldwide, they are more competitive in educational field, economics, and career. They have also need to communicate globally with different purposes. The language used worldwide is English because English is used the most for communication among non-native speakers both as a second and a foreign language. Therefore, the need for talents well-equipped with the effective English language ability is the focus of the developing countries like many Asian countries such as China, South Korea, Japan, Vietnam and so on. Thailand is not exceptional.

English has played a very important role on Thai people like in other non-native speaking countries. Thai people need to use English daily lives to communicate with foreigners in educational field, business, foreign affairs, and tourism. English is used as the basic tool for communication, education, seeking knowledge, livelihood and essential for understanding the gaps of the language-barrier crucial in certain cultures and an enormous vision of the world community. The English Language constituting basic learning content that is prescribed for entire basic education core curriculum. (The Basic Education Curriculum B.E.2551) (A.D. 2008) The English Language is required for all levels until graduation. Learners are able to use foreign language in various situations, both in classroom and the outside community and the global society. (Commission of National Education 2008) In addition, the English language is the tool for communicating with other people in various situations in the daily lives and carry on an occupation (Pantanee, 2003). The necessary basic skill for communicating helps learners to become good readers and writers is speaking. (Bailey & Savage, 1994).

Speaking is the essential skill for the English learning process. Owing to speaking skill, this performance indicates the achievement in language learning (Nunan, 1991). However, a number of studies reveal that Thai students learn English for many years but they cannot apply in the real life communicative situations effectively.(Makboon,1987, p.9; Prathanon,1989,p. 36-39; The Ministry of Education in Thailand, 1999, p.1). This type of

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problem relates to both the teachers and learners in teaching and learning English. The cause of the problem might be the teaching methods affecting the language learning process (Lochana & Deb, 2006). Language learning and teaching still focus on forms and grammar instead of language use through lecturing and teacher –center approaches (Nunan, 2004). Teachers spend most of time for lecturing; learners don’t like (Ruso, 2007). Learners learn language differently and have the limited data to learn. However, theoretically the learners employ operation to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of information has been proved to make learning easier, faster more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to the new situations (Oxford, 1990). The mastery of speaking skill in English is a priority for many second language or foreigner language learner. Speaking skill has hardly been neglected in EFL/ ESL course; however the best approach of the oral skill teaching has long been the focus of methodological debate. Teachers use a variety of textbooks and approaches, ranging from direct approaches focus on specific features of oral interaction.(e.g., turn-taking, topic management, and questioning strategies) to direct approach create conditions for oral interaction through group work, task work, and other strategies(Richard,1990). In designing instructional materials or speaking activities for second language or foreign language is necessary to recognize speaking in daily communication. This theory task-based learning conclusion show that language teaching and learning are changing from teacher centered to learner centered instruction. The use of a variety of different kinds of tasks in language teaching is said to make language facilitate more communicative language ability (Richards et al, 1986).

Overall, as indicated by the above research, task-based learning is a promising method to enable students to develop their own English speaking ability in order to reach their goals. Therefore, the researcher is interested in the task-based learning method to examine and develop English speaking communication ability with Prathomsuksa 6 students. Purpose of the study To investigate the efficiently of the students’ speaking ability through task-based learning.

Significance of the study This study benefited the English language teaching focusing on students’ speaking ability through task-based learning.

Scope of the study 1. The population of this study was 130 Prathomsuksa 6 students at Piboonprachasan School. There were 130 learners in total. The researcher selected 1 class to be the participants through simple random sampling. 2. The period of this study was 2 months in the second semester of academic year 2011. The researcher taught the class of participants three times a week, sixteen hours in total.

Content The research teacher applied the content from the textbook by using task-based learning activities to develop students’ English speaking ability. It consisted of the vocabulary, grammar as follow: 1. Going places -Talking about travel 2. The school trip - Talking about places 3. Out and about - Talking about your weekend 4. I want to be a star. - Talking about entertainment 5. Story time - Talking about the story

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Definition of Terms Task-based learning (TBL) refers to an approach in language learning which consists of activities ranging from simple and brief exercises. Activities create interest in an education task in a number of ways that involves direct experiences to motivate the learners and participation of the learners to learn with pleasure. This acquisition of knowledge language learning emphasizes learners to communicate from the situation more than the correctness of form or the structure. (Ellis:2000)

English speaking ability refers to competency in speaking in an exchange of interpersonal communication by giving the data themselves, to use order, request and give instruction appropriately, fluently and accurately. The students’ English speaking ability can be measured by using the score from the pre-test and the post-test English speaking

Statement of Hypothesis The speaking ability of Prathomsuksa 6 students at Piboonprachasan School after learning through task-based activities was higher than before the experiment started. Research Methodology Participants The participants of this study were 30 students in Prathomsuksa 6 in the second semester of the academic year 2011at Piboonprachasan School. They were selected via simple random sampling.

Instruments This study focused on the effect of task – based activities on developing English speaking ability. The instruments were as follow: Task-based Learning Lesson Plan The primary basic education core curriculum contained the objective, content, grammar, structure and phrases. There were five lesson plans consisting of three types of task-based learning activities: listing, comparing, and ordering and sorting. The lesson plans were written based on the task – based theory. The study carried out in Eng 16101 class. Eng 16101 was the first English course offered to Prathomsuksa 6 students. The lesson plans followed Ellis (2003), consisting of three stage model for organizing lessons: “the pre-task stage”, the teacher introduced and defined the topic and students engaged in activities that either help them to recall words and phrases that was useful during the performance of the main task or to learn new words and phrases that ware essential to the task. , The "during stage", here the students performed the task in pairs or small groups within a set time. Then, they presented their findings to the class in spoken or written form. The “final stage “was the language focus stage, during which specific language featured from the task was highlighted and worked on so repeat the task. Feedback on the students’ performance at the reporting stage may also be appropriate at this point. The lesson plans designed and adapted the textbook appropriately. The students had the chance to practice the language, using it fluently. The lesson plans were checked by the professions, including the school teacher, native speaker and adviser of this study. English Speaking Test The English speaking test composed of two tests: the pre-test and post-test. It was an interview consisting of 10 questions. The test included the Primary English curriculum of Pratomsuksa 6 and the content from the Zoom 6: going places, the school trip, out and about, I want to be the star, and story time. The pre-test and the post-test were the same. Each

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student met the teacher for ten minutes to answer the questions from the English speaking test. The scores from the pre-test and the post-test were converted into mean scores. English Speaking assessment and evaluation The assessment and evaluation in speaking competence were analyzed based on the concept adapted from Brown and Hudson (2002) and made a similar case for criterion-referenced testing with emphasis on teaching/testing match, focused on instructional sensitivity, curricular relevance, absence of normal distribution restriction and no item discrimination restriction. This test consisted of conversation and interviews. The evaluation was adapted from Heaton (1990). The criteria of evaluation were applied from Raynu, (2010) as following: - Fluency: 3 points - Grammar 3 points - Vocabulary: 3 points - Pronunciation: 3 points - Manner: 3 points Teacher Log The log was generally self-administered which asked the teacher to report on topic covered, pedagogy and more. The teacher commented on his/her experience using the log to create records of his/ her teaching in each lesson. The teacher log then was then revised to improve on the weak points.

Data Collection Data Collection consisted of two stages: pre-test and post-test. Therefore, the data of pre-test and post-test scores were compared in the analysis. The data was collected through the following steps: 1. Orientation The teacher explained the curriculum, the purpose, the process of study, the assessment and evaluation for the students. 2. Pre-test The procedure for the interviews was that: the researcher conducted one face-to-face interviewed with each participant. A native speaker who was one of raters orally ask questions. The speaking assessments were used as a guideline. Each interviews lasted approximately for 10 minutes. Each student gain scores from 3 raters. The score of each participant was collected. 3. Teaching The research taught 2 months from January to March in the second semester of academic year2011. The researcher taught the class of participants three times a week, sixteen hours in total. The teacher recorded and commented on the teacher log in each lesson. 4. Post-test The researcher employed the same assessment tool as the pre-test.

Data Analysis 1. Deal Speaking Score The score on speaking ability test from pre – test, post-test converted into mean scores and Standard Deviation (S.D.) 2. The research compared the pre-test and post-test scores of each student. 3. The t test based of dependent was be employed to compare and checked the mean score and of the pretest with that of the post – test. 4. Teacher log was be as a tool to get additional for research finding.

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Results of the Study Table 1: A Comparison of the Mean scores on Pre-test and Post-test

English speaking ability N Score X S.D. t

Pre-test 30 15 7.23 1.89 -19.57*

Post-test 30 15 11.03 1.92

* Signficant at the 0.05 level According to Table 1, it was found that the English speaking ability of Prathomsuksa 6 students was significantly higher than after task-based learning, significant at 0.5 level. The participants had significantly higher mean scores on the post-test (M = 11.03, S.D. = 1.92) than the pre-test (M = 7.23, S.D. = 1.89) The mean score on the post-test was higher than the pre-test score. The mean score on the pre-test was 7.23 while the mean score on the post-test is 11.03.The difference was statistically significant at P<.000 and a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test of students’ speaking English ability at the .05 level. The aim of the study was to examine using of task-based learning activities to develop English speaking ability. The task-based learning activities presented in classroom experiment, with respect to the underlying hypothesis. The results of using of task-based learning activities to develop English speaking ability indicated that the students gained higher scores on the post-test than on the pre-test.

Score 15

8 Pre Test 7 Post Test

0 Student's number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Figure 1 Score of the pre-test and post –test in each student

As shown in figure one, the score of the post-test in each student was higher than the score in the pre-test. The lowest score in the pre-test was 4 and the highest score in the pre-test was12. In contrast, the lowest score in post-test was 8 and the highest score in post-test was14.That is using of task-based learning activities resulted in develop English speaking ability. The students gained higher scores on the post-test than on the pre-test. Nineteen students failed on the pre-test whereas only eleven students passed. In contrast, the scores on the post-test of the

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students ranged from 8 to 14 (out of the total 15). All of the students passed. The biggest ranged between the pre-post tests is 6. In addition, considering the scores between the pre-test and the post-test, the result indicated that the students developed in their speaking English ability. The overall data revealed that using task-based learning activities taught English speaking skill for the students, the mean score of the post-test was significantly higher than the mean score of the pre-test. This result indicated that the speaking ability of Prathomsuksa 6 students at Piboonprachasan School after learning through task-based activities was effective. Task-based learning activities enabled students to develop English speaking ability.

Discussion of the finding The discussion of the findings is presented what seem to result in the significant difference of the participants’ pre- post can be group into three aspects.

First, Tasks and activities supported language learning and language use. The teacher chose the activities focusing on interactional and situational aspects of the context. The variety of activities for the students was helpful and encouraged students to speaking English. Students learned the activities including, listing, comparing, and ordering and sorting. For example, the students learned the topic ‘Going places’ with listing activities by brainstorming and fact- finding about places. The students found information out by asking each other or other people. In topic, ‘The school trip’ and ‘Out and about’ the students learned with a comparing activity by asking and exchanging the information and matching to identify specific points. The students did a ordering and sorting activity. They had to take turns exchanging the information about singers, superstars and T.V. programs, and then made categories for them in given groups. The students focused on the task. They used the sentences they had just learned by focusing on the meaning and not the form to communicate. Therefore, task-based activities are meaningful teaching material (Oura 1996). Task based learning is based on the belief that students can learn more effectively when their minds are focused on communication through interaction in the target language. Task-based activities developed the students’ communicative skills, to provide opportunities for the students, like interactions, to practice making oral representations immediately after getting enough meaning. The students learnt to speak the language automatically in a variety of situations and with unlimited interaction with language users. The most important feature of task-based framework, like any other communicative focused activities, enhanced the students’ own personal experiences as important elements to classroom learning Nunan (1991). Task-based learning is appropriate for learning in pairs or groups doing tasks by brainstorming with their partner or group, discussing activities, helping and supporting them. In this way the students can exchange and fulfill their knowledge following Vygotsky’s (1987) social constructivist model of the zone of proximal development, where higher ability students help lower achieving ones and reinforce their learning too. Hatip (2005) defined that the task was uncontrolled while doing task since the language used. Students were able to understand questions, interact fluently and give answers in the designed tasks and activities. This process improved students' fluency. Students were also able to use correct vocabulary and pronounced correctly. This process improved their accuracy.Moreover, the students had plentiful opportunities to express their opinions and ideas that were related to the designed task. The teachers also played an important role in developing the students’ speaking ability. They were enthusiastic to teach according to its procedures and principles. Willis (1996) and Carles (2001) suggested the role of the teachers in promoting students’ learning through task- based language teaching. During the task, the teachers acted as monitors or facilitators, and encouraged the students to perform the activities.

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These findings are also supported by researchers Ellis(2000), Nunan (2006) and Willis (1996) who pointed that while performing the tasks, learners engage in certain types of language use and mental processing that are useful for acquisition. In task-based language teaching students also use the language for a communicative purpose.

Second, the chosen content was appropriate for Phathom 6 students. There were five topics learned: going places, the school trip, out and about, I want to be the star and story time. The contents were easy for the students to learn and facilitated to use in the real life situations. The researcher observed that the students had fun with learning. The students were motivated to learn and gained confidence in using language. The appropriate contents for the students resulted in acquisition of language knowledge.

Last, learning environment in the task-based learning class is comfortable, and cooperative. The less confident students, who refused to speak, wanted to perform because they benefited from the activity then the anxiety and fear were far away. Students had fun and enjoy learning. A group of students could learn together by brainstorming and getting the creativity in the workplace. Presentation the ideas made friends complies. Students were be good listeners, exchanges the ideas and accepted the comments of others. There was a unity. Each student did own role, took responsibility to work together and worked hard as it got. Atmosphere of learning filled with the assist.

The overall this result indicated that the speaking ability of Prathomsuksa 6 students at Piboonprachasan school after learning through task-based activities is effective. Task-based learning activities enabled students to develop English speaking ability.

Limitation of the study Some students had no experience about task-based learning, so they were worried while doing tasks. The duration used for the experiment was limited to only 2 months. There was only one group of the students and the class size might be large for this type of activity. The researcher was both the teacher and observer. Some information might be left out.

Recommendations for Further Studies According to the implementation, task-based learning activities were effective for speaking. For this reason using task-based learning activities was as an alternative for teaching speaking skill as follows: 1. The researcher should study using task-based learning to develop the English speaking ability in the primary level in groups. 2. It was recommended that other researchers conduct additional studies to examine the effect of task-based learning on developing the speaking skill of other languages. 3. It was recommended that teachers designed some materials and instruments such as the media they used according to the procedures and principles of task-based learning activities. By doing so, they could vary their teaching procedures, and as a result, their students would be more interested in learning English. 4. The researcher should study using task-based learning to develop the English writing ability in the primary level.

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References Brown, H.D. (1994). Teaching by Principles: An interactive Approach to language Pedagogy, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Byrne, D. (1986).Teaching Oral English. Longman,English Section of the Advisory Inspectorate (eds.): Teaching Grammar and Spoken English: A Handbook for Hong Kong Schools. Hong Kong Education Department, 1993. Byne, D. (1990). Teaching Oral English. Singapore: Longman. Celce & Muria (2007). Teaching English as second or foreign language The United States: Heinle & Heinle. Crookes, G. (1986). Task classification a cross disciplinary review, technical Report No.4. Honolulu: center for Second Language Classroom Research, Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawaii. Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition, Oxford : Oxford University Press.Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press Ellis R. (2003). Task-based Language Teaching and Learning. Oxford, OUP Ellis, R. (2006). The methodology of task-based teaching. Paper presented at the 2006 Asian EFL Journal Conference, Pusan,Korea. Ellis, R. (2007). Task- based language teaching: Sorting out the misunderstanding. Retrieved May, 7, 2009from,www.eng.core.kochitech.ac.jp/eastshikoku/content/ ellis-5-2007/ellis-5-23-2007.ppt Estaire S. and J. Zanon, (1994). Planning Classwork: a task-based approach.Oxford: Macmillan Heinemann Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon. Krashen, S. (1985). The Input Hypothesis. Oxford: Oxford University Press Leaver B.L. & J. Willis, (eds) 2004. Task-based Instruction in Foreign Language Education: practices and programs. Washington DC, Georgetown University Press. (See Chapter 1 for an overview of TBL perspectives and practices) Littlewood, (2004). The task-based approach: some questions and suggestions in ELT Journal Volume 58/4:319-326. O U P Nunan, D (1989). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nunan, D. (1996). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching and Learning. Boston:Thomson/Heinle. Nunan, D. (2002). Task-based Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nunan, D. (2004). Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Parrott, Martin. (1993). Tasks for Language Teachers: A Resource Book for Training and Development. London: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J.C. (1986) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching : Cambridge University Press. Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Pres Swain, M.(2001). Learning English.(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Vygotsky, L (1987). The Collected Works of L. S. Vygotsky, New York: Plenum Press.

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Developing Thai English Major University Students’ Writing Ability through Electronic Feedback

Suwitchan Un-udom Dr. Dararat Khumpusan Khon Kaen University

Abstract The purposes of the study were to (1) study the effect of electronic feedback on Khon Kaen University students’ writing abilities; (2) review types of error frequency exist in students’ writing compositions, (3) and survey participants’ attitudes toward electronic feedback. The participants of this study were 22 English business major students enrolling in the 422333 English for Healthcare Business course second semester, 2011 academic year, Khon Kaen University selected by purposive method. The methodology was focused on developing participants’ writing abilities through the electronic feedback method. The method of pre and post-test was used to evaluate participants’ writing abilities before and after taking treatment which refers to students’ improvement. Participants were given three writing assignments to investigate their improvement during the process and to review errors existing in their composition. Other instruments were electronic feedback given and questionnaire. The result showed that after receiving electronic feedback in the course, the post-test score were significantly higher than the scores at 0.05 level. The analysis from participants’ opinion questionnaire indicated that participants had positive attitudes toward the method of electronic feedback. It could be concluded that electronic feedback affected positively on participants’ writing abilities. Therefore, the method is recommended to be applied in EFL writing classrooms.

Keywords: EFL writing, technology, writing feedback, electronic feedback, e-learning

Introduction In the era that English becomes center of the world global communication, writing, one of the main communicative skills takes an important role in the EFL classrooms (Harklua, 2002). As a country that focus on teaching English as a foreign language, Thai government has attempted to provide English writing in the all educational level till students process to Universities (Ministry of education, 2008), however; Thai University students still face difficulty in writing English and errors still occur in their writing compositions (Wongshindu, 1997; Foley, 2005; Towong, 2005; and Kaweera & Usaha, 2008). In detail, the errors having been occurred in the Thai EFL context are mainly focused on grammatical errors and composition contents (Wongshindu, 1997). Similarly, Kaweera and Usaha (2008) suggest that one of the major reasons for Thai students’ grammatical errors in writing is significant differences between the Thai and English languages. In particular, the differences consist of specific grammatical structures: auxiliaries, tenses and aspects: articles; adjectives and adverbs; nouns and pronouns; and punctuation. Ubol, (1980) adds that negative transference is one of the reasons to explain grammatical errors in Thai students. In this case, students try to translate mother tongue into target language. Therefore, Thai students face difficulty in writing a Standard English sentence. In addition, Problems in Thai EFL writing might relate to students’ limited vocabulary sizes (Chawwung, 2008). According to Laufer & Nation (1995), one of factor affecting writing qualities is lexical richness. Therefore, students with poor vocabulary sizes may make errors in their writing compositions. Moreover, errors in composition content are caused poor writing plans and writing strategy (Pawabunsiriwong,

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2008). The researcher claims that poor performance in the writing of Thai university students is the result of poor writing strategy. Lack of good writing strategy leads to low quality of organization and content. As a result, errors in grammar and writing content occur in Thai students’ writing performances. Moreover, the problems occurring in the Thai EFL context might relate to written and oral feedback which is the one of main method used in Thai EFLwriting classroom (Khamkhien, 2010). Even being proved to be effective(Ferrist Ferris, 1999, Kaweera & Usaha, 2008, and Ellis, 2009), the methods might have disadvantages in terms of the students’ copy habit on given feedback, face losing when being given feedback in class, time consuming, and limited space in feedback giving. The current study aims to introduce electronic feedback as an alternative method in solving students’ error in writing by applying technology to improve feedback giving and scope down limitations of the method.

Purposes of the study The current study is conducted (1) to develop Khon Kaen University students’ writing ability through electronic feedback method, (2) to study types of errors frequently exist in Khon Kaen University students’ writing compositions, and (3) to investigate the students’ attitude toward electronic feedback.

Research Questions The study is conducted to investigate the following research questions 1. To what extent does electronic feedback develop Khon Kaen University students’ writing ability? 2. What types of errors frequently exist in Khon Kaen University students writing composition? 3. What are Khon Kaen University student attitude toward electronic feedback?

Literature Review Writing is a difficult task for language Thai EFL learners because it comprises several components such as general ideas, mechanics, and organization because learners have many strict rules to remember and follows in order to complete a good writing task (Tangpermpoon, 2008). Therefore, to write a good composition is not an easy task. On the other hand, writers have to deal with grammatical rules, and methods to organize writing content (Kenworthy, 2004). In detail, structure and usage of language in writing is important for composition accuracy (McCaskill, 1998). Moreover, Torwong (2005) indicates that serious grammatical errors occurring in the Thai EFL context are related to the issues of tenses, subject verb agreements, articles, punctuations, spelling, and capital. The reviewed issues affect students’ writing quality in terms of accuracy. Moreover, misusing of the issues might change the meaning of the written sentences. In the other words, in order to create a accuracy composition which implies the specific meaning, grammatical structure can be considered as a crucial issues. Moreover, a composition without well organized content cannot be considered well written. Stern (2003) suggests that a composition with good content should consist of well organization, appropriate choices of words, and understanding of task. These issues are important in guiding readers to understand the writers’ idea, implying appropriate content meaning, and answering what tasks ask. Therefore, a good composition should consist of both accurate grammatical structure and well composition content.

Since errors in grammatical structure and poor composition content are serious problems in the Thai EFL writing context for decades, Thai researchers (e.g., Borisuth, 2008; Kaweera & Usaha, 2008; Lumjuanjit, 2009; and Noytim, 2010) have suggested various methods to solve

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the problems. In detail, Thai researchers have attempted to provide the method to solve problems in both grammatical errors and composition content. Such methods as short paragraph writing (Borisuth, 2008) and direct, coded, and un-coded feedback (Kaweera & Usaha, 2008), were employed to solve problems in grammar. However, the methods seem to have limitation in improving composition organization. Similarly, the methods of computer assisted instructor (CAI) (Lumjuanjit, 2009) and web blog (Noytim, 2010) were applied to improve students’ composition content. The methods are proven to be effective, but limitation of participants ‘computer knowledge still exists. It seems that issues have been concerns of Thai researchers so there have been many attempts to deal with problems both in grammatical structure and composition content. However, limitations still exist in putting all methods into practice. Consequently, alternative methods should be developed to deal with most problems in the Thai EFL writing. One of the effective methods is to apply technology in EFL classrooms. The effectiveness of technological support on EFL writing classroom is evidenced below.

Because the invention of information technology can assist students in finding information and in coordinating with their peers and teachers, as well as, in supporting teachers in improving curriculums and teaching techniques, various kinds of technological support have been included as parts of educational developing process (Means, Oldsen, & Ruskus, 1997). Likewise, several studies suggest methods of applying technology in Thai EFL writing classrooms. For instance, Noytim (2010) found that the method was effective in encouraging students to show their writing abilities in terms of both creativity and fluency. In addition, Hinnon (2007) suggests that the web-base instruction improved students’ writing ability in terms of both grammatical knowledge and composition organization. It seems that technology is helpful in the Thai EFL writing classroom. Moreover, technological support benefits class motivation as well (Reiners, Renner, and Schreiber, 2008). For example, Matsumura and Hann (2004), study students’ opinion in receiving online feedback. The result of survey shows that students with computer skill think that technology motivates them to learn writing. It appears that technology support benefit EFL classrooms in term of both improving students’ writing quality and class motivation. Therefore, the current study introduces electronic feedback as an alternative method in developing student writing ability. The following paragraph discusses electronic feedback and reviews some of related studies.

As mentioned, technology support benefits EFL writing classroom. The current study applied technology to support feedback giving which is an important approach to deal with learning writing (Ferris, 1999). Similarly, electronic feedback could be applied as an importance approach in writing classroom as it has been proved by the several studies. In detail, the method focuses on the ways which teachers indicate errors and provide corrective feedback by applying technology in feedback process (Ellis, 2009). By the method, such technology as e-mail, video cameras, word processing, etc. are used to support feedback giving. According to Ware and Warschauer (2006), the development of technology combined with giving feedback in EFL teaching and learning is one of the effective ways to develop students’ ability. For instance, Yeh and Lo (2009) found that using online annotation program is more effective than paper-based feedback in stimulating Taiwan EFL students’ error correction. Similarly, Ge (2011) points out that 36 Chinese EFL student writing ability was improved by applying net based peer review method. What can be seen from these research studies is that the participants have similar problems in writing to students in Thailand, including inaccuracy in spelling, grammatical use, and punctuation use. In fact, Thai researchers have also provided studies which combine online environment with attempts to improve English writing (e.g., Hinnon, 2007; Lumjuanjit, 2009). However, few of those investigated electronic

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feedback. The method used in the current study aims to use the benefits of online environment in supporting writing classrooms and feedback strategies which is proved to be benefit by several studies mentioned before. Therefore, electronic feedback seems to be effective in developing students’ writing ability in terms of both grammatical structures and writing content. Moreover, students’ attitude toward the methods is an important factor in second language teaching (Gardner & Macintyre, 1993). Therefore, students’ attitude toward electronic feedback should also be involved in the study. Therefore, three hypothesizes set in the investigation are (1) electronic feedback would be effective in solving Thai EFL writing problems, (2) the study might review types of errors occurring in Thai EFL context, and (3) students’ attitude toward electronic feedback should be positive.

Research Methodology Sample and population The population of the current study was 120 Third year English business major students, the faculty of Humanities and social sciences, Khon Kaen University. The samples group was selected by purposive methods. The sample group was 22 students enrolling in the 422333 English for Healthcare Business course second semester, 2011 academic year, Khon Kaen University.

Electronic feedback Electronic feedback is a method in which teachers apply technology to giving feedback (Ellis, 2009). In this study, the Microsoft Office Word 2007 is used. The functions “add comment” and “track change” in the “review” tab are applied to give feedback to students. The functions allow teachers to give feedback on both grammatical issues and writing content. The feedback given were (1) Feedback given by feedback giver, (2) PDF links, and (3) email, link, phone call, video live chat. The detail of electronic feedback giving is shown in the figure 1

Figure 1 Feature of electronic feedback Using MS 2007 function to provide feedback

- Using “add comment” function to give feedback about content

- Posting PDF link - Posting external link - Give other sources to contact feedback giver

Procedure The one group pre-post test study was designed. The instruments used to collect data were pre-post test, writing tasks, rubric scoring, a questionnaire, and electronic feedback. The procedure of the study is shown below.

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Pre-test stage In the first week of the study, participants were given an in class pre-test. The topic was “My dreamed spa business” selected by considering course description. The pre-test score was justified by using rubric designed to have seven criteria which were tenses, subject verb agreements, articles, and punctuation, organization, word choice, and task knowledge and proved by three researchers in the pilot study. Two raters took responsibility to give participants’ score Pre-test score indicated students’ performances before taking treatment.

Writing tasks stage After taking pre-test, students were asked to write 3 writing assignments. The topics were selected by considering course description. The topics were “why people should eat organic foods and not others”, “cosmetic surgery”, and “Step in setting up my own fitness business”. Participants were given electronic feedback after submitting the first draft of each assignment. They had one week to review, edit, and submit the final draft. The same rubric was employed to justify participants’ scores by two raters. The result of writing assignments is used to investigate the continual outcome of electronic feedback and review frequently existing errors.

Post-test stage In the last week of the experiment, participants were given an in class post-test. The topic was “My dreamed healthcare business” selected by considering course description. The pre-test score was justified by using the same rubric. Two raters took responsibility to give participants’ score Pre-test score indicated students’ performances before taking treatment.

Attitude survey stage After post-test, students were asked to fill the questionnaire. The instrument was adapted from Al-Khashap (2007) and designed in 5 Likert scale model. After being tested reliability, the 14 items questionnaire showed Crobach’s Alpha value at 0.781. The questionnaire was employed to investigate participants’ attitude toward electronic feedback.

Data analysis stage The data gained from pre-post test were analyzed by considering the mean score ( x ) and standard derivation (S.D.) T-test for dependent sample was employed to indicate the outcome of electronic feedback. Moreover, Pearson correlation was used to consider inter-raters correlation. All numerical data were analyzed by using statistic package for social sciences (SPSS) program. Similarly, the data gained from the writing tasks were analyzed to figure out the continual effectiveness of the treatment and review the frequently existing errors in students’ writing compositions. The mean score, standard derivation, and Pearson correlation were used to analyze statistical data gained from the instrument. Lastly, the items in the questionnaire are designed to affect both positive and negative attitude toward electronic feedback. The mean score of both positive and negative items will be analyzed the mean score and transcribed into level of agreement at the end.

Result After gaining the data from the study, the result was export in tables in order to answer each research question. Research Question 1: To what extend does electronic feedback develop Khon Kaen University students’ writing ability?

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Table 1 the result from pre-post test and writing task Writing composition Mean ( x ) Standard derivation (S.D) Inter–rater correlation Pre-test 19.82 4.25 0.732 Assignment 1 fist draft 18.82 4.31 0.717 Assignment 1 final draft 21.36 4.45 0.685 Assignment 2 first draft 22.23 3.39 0.756 Assignment 2 final draft 24.00 3.72 0.623 Assignment 3 first draft 26.45 3.90 0.712 Assignment 3 final draft 27.41 3.05 0.723 Post-test 26.23 3.16 0.762

According to the table, the mean score on the post test ( x = 26.23, S.D. = 3.16) was significantly higher than that of the pre test ( x = 19.82, S.D. = 4.25). The results of the scores indicate that the participants improved their communicative abilities after being given electronic feedback. Moreover, the mean score of the first draft version was 18.82 (S.D. = 4.31) in first the assignment, 22.23 (S.D. = 3.39) in the second assignment, and 26.45 (S.D. = 3.90) in the last assignment. Comparatively, the mean score of the final draft of each assignment was 21.36 (S.D. = 4.45) in the first assignment, 24.00 (S.D. = 3.72) in the next assignment, and 27.41 (S.D. = 3.05) in the final process of writing assignments. The result showed that the mean score of final draft was higher than the first draft in every assignment. In addition, the mean score of the first assignment was 21.36 and its standard deviation was 4.45, the second assignment mean score was 24.00 and its standard deviation was 3.72, and the last writing assignment mean score was 27.41 and standard deviation was 3.05. The results showed that the second assignment mean score was significant higher than the first assignment, and the last assignment score was higher than the score of the second writing presentation assignment. Moreover, the analyzed data show that the inter-rater correlations analyzed from the pre-post test and three assignment scores are 0.732, 0.717, 0.685, 0.756, 0.623, 0.712, and 0.762. The result can be considered strong positive association (0.7-1) and weak positive association (0.3-0.7) significant at p<0.05.

Table 2 The t-test Results on the Pre and Post test Pre Test Post Test T-value Df p* Score (out Score (out of 35) of 35) Mean S.D. Mean S.D 19.82 4.25 26.23 3.16 -15.468 21 .000 *p<0.05 The t-test analysis points out that the change in the mean scores is significant at p< 0.05. It can be indicated that participants’ writing abilities are developed after receiving electronic feedback.

Research Question 2: What types of errors frequently exist in Khon Kaen University students’ writing compositions? The answer can is presented by analyzing the following data.

Table 3 The Participants’ score in each criterion Types of errors Mean (out of 15) S.D. Tenses 9.00 1.35 Subject verb agreements 8.91 1.93 Articles 10.55 1.65

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Punctuations 9.91 1.80 Organization 11.05 3.12 Word choices 8.86 2.10 Task knowledge 14.00 1.27 According to table (3), means score of word choices criteria ( =8.86, S.D. = 2.10) was the lower than other criteria. The second and the third lowest criteria are subject verb agreements ( =8.91, S.D. = 1.93) and tenses ( =9.00, S.D. = 1.35). Moreover, the means score of other criteria on rubric scoring showed some significant differences in punctuations ( =9.91, S.D. = 1.80), articles ( =10.55, S.D. = 1.65), organization ( =11.05, S.D. = 3.12), and task knowledge ( =14.00, S.D. = 1.27). It seems that participants face different difficulties in each writing issues.

Research question 3: What is Khon Kaen University students’ attitude toward electronic feedback? Table 4 Students’ Attitude toward Electronic Feedback Statements Mean S.D Interpretation Overall positive 4.38 0.16 Agree statements (mean) Overall negative 1.54 0.13 Disagree statements (mean)

The table 4 show that participants agree with positive statements ( x = 4.38, S.D. = 0.16) and disagree with negative statements related to electronic feedback (= 1.54, S.D. = 0.13) Therefore, it can be said that participants have positive attitude toward electronic feedback. The finding of the study will be discussed particularly in the next chapter.

Discussion and Conclusion The analyzed data gained from experiment could be summarized and discussed as follow. The results gained from pre-post scores analysis are used to examine the participants’ writing improvement. The statistical results can be implied that electronic feedback positively affected participants’ writing abilities. Moreover, the t-test scores determine the development between the pre and post-tests. The result of three writing assignments showed some improvement of participants in both short and long terms. In the other words, they were improved after taking electronic feedback in the final draft of each assignment. Moreover, the participants’ scores were higher in the second assignment, and still improved in the third assignment. It could be indicated that electronic feedback positively affects participants writing abilities which can be seen in continual writing. In addition, the inter-rater correlation could be considered that two rater maintain the same standard in justifying participants’ scores. Therefore, the data that prove all improvement of students could be considered reliable. The result of the study is related to the study of Ferris (1999), Ferris (2006), and Ellis (2009) who supports that feedback is effective in supporting writing classrooms; Means, Oldsen, & Ruskus (1997), Warschauer (2006), and Ilter (2009) who claim that technology benefits EFL writing classroom; and Yeh & Lo (2009) and Ge (2011) that support effectiveness of electronic feedback in EFL writing classrooms. Moreover, word choices, subject verb agreements, and tenses are the criteria in which participants got lowest score in ( x =8.86, S.D. = 2.10, x =8.91, S.D. = 1.93, and x =9.00, S.D. = 1.35 ), it can be implied that the criteria are the most frequency existing problems in Khon Kaen University students’ writing performances. Moreover, punctuations and articles seems to be the criteria in which they got the less problems ( x =9.91, S.D. = 1.80 and x =10.55, S.D. = 1.65) while organization and task knowledge are problems less affecting

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Khon Kaen University students’ writing performances. It seems that, grammatical errors still occur in students’ writing performances (Torwong, 2005, Foley, 2005, Kaweera & Usaha, 2008). The reason to explain the errors in Thai university EFL students might be related to Kaweera and Usaha (2008) who suggest the main problem in Thai students’ writing abilities is difficulty in learning significantly different language to their mother tongue in terms of auxiliaries, tenses, and articles, punctuations, and structure rules. Moreover, negative transference might be used to explain the finding of this study. When students translate their mother tongues into English literally, grammatical errors exist in the written sentences (Ubol, 1980). Moreover, the errors in word choices which is the most serious problems found in the study might related to lexical richness (Laufer & Nation, 1995). It seems that Thai university students have poor lexical size, so they could not choose the appropriate words in their composition.

Lastly, the finding gained from questionnaire points that participants agreed that electronic feedback benefited their writing courses; motivated them to learn more, improves other skill, and should be included in next course. Moreover, they disagreed with negative statements related to electronic feedback. Therefore, it could be summarized that participants have positive attitudes toward the method of electronic feedback. The result of the study supports the study of (Lumjuanjit, 2009 Noytim, 2010). The studies showed that Thai students express positive opinion when being surveyed attitudes toward technology support such as CALL and web blog in writing classes. It could be explained by the contribution of technology in EFL classroom (Means, Oldsen, & Ruskus, 1997, Ware and Warschauer, 2006, and Ilter, 2009). The studies show that EFL classroom could be supported by technology in terms of class interaction, teaching techniques, and improving curriculum. Moreover, the students with computer skill might be motivated by technological support method (Matsumura and Hann, 2004). This could be discussed that students in the university level are quite experienced in using computer and net work technology, therefore; the technology support such as electronic feedback is recommended to apply in the further studies.

References Alkashab, H., M. (2007 ). Attitude toward e-learning. Retrieved November 25, 2010, from http://www.scribd.com/doc/2931290/Attitude-towards-Elearning. Borisuth, C. (2008). Developing grammatical knowledge through short paragraph writing of second year English major students of Udon Thani Rajabhat University, Udon Thani. Unpublished master’s thesis, Graduate School, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Chawwang, N. (2008). Thai secondary school reading problems. Retrieved September 10 2011, from http://www.happyreading.in.th/article/detail.php?id=326. Ellis, R. (2009). Corrective feedback and teacher development. L2 Journal, 1(1), 3-18. Ellis, R. (2009). A typology of written corrective feedback types. English Language Teaching Journal, 63(2), 97-107. Ferris, D. (1999). The case for grammar correction in L2 writing classes: A response to Truscott (1996). Journal of Second Language Writing, 8(1), 1-11. Ferris, D. (2006). Does error feedback help student writers? New evidence on the short- and long-term effects of written error correction. In K. Hyland & F. Hyland (Eds.) Feedback and second language writing (pp. 81-104). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ge, Z. (2011). Exploring e-learners’ perceptions of net-based peer-reviewed English writing. Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 6, 75-91.

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Harklau, K. (2002). The role of writing in classroom second language acquisition. Journal of Second Language Writing, 11(4), 329-350. Hinon, A. (2007). Solving errors in the writing of graduate students at Khon Kaen University via web-based instruction. Unpublished master’s thesis, Graduate School, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Ilter, B., G. . (2009). Effect of technology on motivation in EFL classrooms. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 4(9), 105-120 Kaweera, C., & Usaha, S. (2008). The impact of different types of teacher written feedback on EFL university students’ writing. KKU Research Journal (Graduate Studies), 8(2), 83-94. Kenworthy, R. C. (2004 ). Developing writing skills in a foreign language via the internet. Retrieved March,10 2011, from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kenworth- WritingSkills.html. Khamkhien, A. (2010). Teaching English speaking and English speaking tests in the Thai context: A reflection from Thai perspective. English Language Teaching, 3(1), 184- 190. Laufer, B. P. N. (1995). Vocabulary size and use: Lexical richness in L2 written production. Applied Linguistics, 16(3), 307-322. Lumjuanjit, Y. (2009). Enhancing writing strategies through a CALL program. Unpublished master’s thesis, Graduate School, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Matsumura, S., & Hann, G. (2004). Computer anxiety and students' preferred feedback methods in EFL writing. The Modern Language Journal, 88(3), 403-415 Means, B., Olson, K., & Ruskus, J. A. (1997). Technology and education reform. Washington DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Ministry of education (2008 ). Basic education core curriculum from http://www.curriculum51.net/viewpage.php?t_id=64 Noytim, U. (2010). Weblogs enhancing EFL students’ English language learning. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 1127-1132. Pawabunsiriwong, K. (2008). University student's writing strategies. Unpublished master’s thesis, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand. Reiners, P., Renner, K., & Schreiber, J. (2008). The effect of technology integration on student motivation, engagement and interest. Retrieved March 21, 2011 from http://kr012.k12.sd.us/Portfolio/Group%20Research%20Paper.pdf. Stern, G. (2003). Writing in English. Connecticut: Greenwood. Tangpermpoon, T. (2008). Integrated approaches to improve students writing skills for English major students. ABAC Journal, 28(2), 1-9. Torwong, P. (2005). Trends and issues in the teaching of EFL writing : Where shall we go? Humanities & Social Science (Khon Kaen Universitiy), 8(2), 115-122. Ubol, C. (1980). An error analysis of English composition by Thai students. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Center, 16(4), 56-64. Ware, P. & Warschauer, M. (2006). Electronic feedback and second language writing. In K. Hyland and F. Hyland (Eds.) Feedback and second language writing (pp. 105-122). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Wonsbhindu, J. (1997). Thai graduate students’ errors in written English. Bangkok: The National Institute of Development Administration. Yeh, S. W., & Lo, J.J. (2009). Using online annotations to support error correction and corrective feedback. Computers & Education, 52(4), 882-892.

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Environmental Awareness in Leslie Marmon Silko ‘s Ceremony: Literature that Inspires the Appreciation and Concern for the Environment

Asst. Prof. Dr. Supaporn Yimwilai Department of Western Languages, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract The aim of this paper is to analyze Lislie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony from ecocritical perspective and to answer the following questions: What is the environmental awareness that Silko wants to raise in her writing? And what techniques does she employ to strive for that goal? The results show that Silko raises the awareness of the interrelatedness of man and nature. She use storytelling technique and relies reference to Native American tradition and myth. She suggests oppression of nature goes hand in hand with other kinds of oppression: race, class, and gender. However, what is unique in Silko’s writing is its account of the hero’s attempt to rediscover his responsibility toward the natural environment. Through her mastery of storytelling technique, she asserts the importance of a human’s relationship to the natural world by depicting the human reliance on nature, the necessary interaction of human and nonhuman nature, and the crucial obligations humans have to both recognize the importance of nature and to give voice to that recognition, to tell the earth’s story.

Background and Rationale Literature can play a vital role in addressing the natural protection issue. Kelley Griffith believes that there are two major reasons people read literature—for pleasure and for meaning (7). In other words, people read it because it is fun and because it speaks to them about important things. In this way, literature can be a good tool to raise people the awareness of protecting our nature. Literary works, whose themes of interconnectedness between humans and the natural world and the dangers brought upon the world by the continued degradation or destruction of the environment, are referred to as "environmental writing."

Environmental writing became popular in 1990s. Environmental writers have made a special effort to help modern American appreciate their physical presence in the world, believing that sensory-attunement to nature will help us to understand that ecology is not merely an abstract concept but a material phenomenon with practical implications for the future of life on the planet. Environmental writing binds people to the natural world with words of understanding, respect, admiration, and love. These words may be formed in any literary type or style. The languages and forms of environmental writing are many and varied, but each seeks to share what the writer has felt and known in times of living with nature.

There are many scholars interested in studying environmental writing. The environmental writers who are well-known and widely studied are David Henry Thereau, Herman Merville, John Muir, Aldo Leopold, and Peter Mathiessen. Unfortunately, the environmental writing written by females has been rarely received attention, especially female color authors. Leslie Marmon Silko is a Native American writer. Silko’s Ceremony, popular in college classrooms, has received extensive critical attention. Much of the criticism has focused on its mythic, a historical qualities. Certainly, Ceremony is about spirits, traditions, and politics and history, but also deeply concerns with the environment. Therefore, the aim of this research paper is to study Silko’s Ceremony from ecocritical perspective and to answer the following questions: What is the environmental awareness that Silko wants to raise in her writing? And what techniques does she employ to strive for that goal?

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Literature and the Environment In The Ecocriticism Reader, Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold Fromm defines it as "the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment." In much the same way that "feminist criticism examines language and literature from a gender-conscious perspective," she continues, "and Marxist criticism brings an awareness of modes of production and economic class to its reading of texts, ecocriticism takes an earth-centered approach to literary studies” (2). As a separate movement or school of literary criticism, ecocriticism started developing in the 1990s. According to Jelica Tošić, as a separate movement or school of literary criticism, ecocriticism started developing in the 1990s. Eco is short of ecology, which is concerned with the relationships between living organisms in their natural environment as well as their relationships with that environment. Therefore, ecocriticism is concerned with the relationships between literature and environment or how man's relationships with his physical environment are reflected in literature (43-44). These are obviously interdisciplinary studies, a combination of a natural science and a humanistic discipline.

According to John Murray, the relationships between man and nature often found in literature are communion, renewal, and liberation. The most prevalent theme is the first which involves the intimate sharing of human spirit with the natural world. For example David Peterson takes readers to a high mountain trail in Glacier National Park where grizzly bears are often seen. Here he is treated to an epiphany. Bruce Berger describes one of his favorite "getaways" in the world--a Steinbeckean village in the Mexican Baja--in his essay "Under the Cypress." It is a quiet, pastoral realm where the beleaguered spirit is free to mingle with a lovely, humanized parcel of the natural world. Bruce Berger reminds us that nature is a lowercase noun--the tame world of backyard gardens and village or city parks. A communion with nature in this context is just as valid, in some ways just as ancient, as a communion with nature in more remote areas.

A second theme is renewal, the rejuvenation of the fatigued spirit, heart, and body through contact with the regenerative forces of wild nature. For example, Susan Tweit's essay from her memoir of life in the Chichuahuan Desert, is about tuberculosis victims traveling to the Southwest for the healing effects of the arid mountain air. She and her husband discover a different sort of healing "sanctuary"--a rare desert spring on the side of the rugged Organ Mountains near her former home in Las Cruces, New Mexico. Here the afflicted human spirit may be restored as much as the ailing body was in the desert sanitoriums of an earlier age.

The theme of liberation often involves the sense of being disencumbered and quite literally freed from some internal or external burden. This theme is evident in Susan Marsh’s writing. Attending a field study class presented by the Yellowstone Institute, Marsh hikes into the mountain forest with a length of twine, forms a circle with the string, and then intently studies everything within the circle. Gradually she begins to see the natural world through a different prism and is "liberated" from traditional perceptions. In addition, Marsh, in her essay, reminds her readers about the plight of Tibetan plateau fauna, of the moral responsibility that we all have to free wild nature wherever she is threatened and abused.

Concisely, the goal of environmental literature is to impress readers with a vivid, visceral sense of their own naturalness and, by extension, to encourage readers to pay attention to the nonhuman world on aesthetic, ecological, and political levels. According to Berry Lopez, environmental writers understand their work as the effort to achieve not only aesthetic

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brilliance, but an understanding of human society's relationship to the actualities of the planet (1).

The techniques the authors are employed are varied. Most important traits are attentiveness to the physical world beyond human beings and stimulus for ethical reformation. The authors provide the audience with detailed observation of the world and then reinforce the idea of connection rather than separation: everything belongs together. The authors grapple with physical observation of the world and with the philosophical and psychological issue of how humans conceptualize nature. Environmental writers enact mental process (careful perception of the world) and then pursue the subtle strategy of imagining a worldview from which such polarized concepts as culture and nature have been abolished.

Some authors might use a more aggressively persuasive style of writing, opting for the "jeremiadic" language of warning and critique as a way of capturing readers' attention. The authors are primarily intent upon expressing their own emotional and aesthetic response to nature or environment. Their persuasive techniques, which include sweeping up readers in the narrative scene through a series of directional gestures and emotionally intensified verbs ("booming," "anxiously running, "shimmered"), are used so that readers’ vicarious experience of nature beauty leads to sympathy with the author’s critique of nature destroying.

There are many examples of writers struggling to come to terms with otherness (with perspectives other than their own egocentric and anthropocentric views of the world) and with the experience of "place." In fact, two of the main contributions of writers to the discussion of environmental ethics may be the various ways they have explored the implications of expanding ethical consideration to nonhuman species and the myriad literary studies of what it means to live a responsible and engaged life in a specific location on this planet.

Another strategy is to show their appreciation of immediate and local places rather than the distant and exotic. For some writers, such as Wendell Berry, this idea has become a crucial rallying point. The ability to evoke the subtle mysteries of specific "neighborhoods" is one of the great contributions of environmental writing to American culture, and when this nature writing is exported to other cultures, its proper function should be not simply to attract tourists to Arches National Park (made famous by Edward Abbey) or Rick Bass's Yaak Valley, or even to Walden Pond, but rather to offer models for the process of noticing and caring about the world.

How is female writing? According to Marcia B. Littenberg, although environmental writing of women is based on careful field observations in a variety of settings, their goal is to translate her enthusiasm for nature study to amateurs. Their valuable observations about bird songs, marking colorations, and habits in a highly readable style are marked by occasional unscientific metaphoric comparisons. They provide detailed accounts of the natural landscape and close, personal observations of the natural world and the rhythm of life in a particular locale. They serve as a guide, interpreter, and enthusiast, mediating between readers and the environment being described, creating sympathy and concern for the world threatened by time, change, and external disruption. Narrative elements are often combined with naturalistic observations, encourage readers to appreciate the natural world or to visit scenic regional locales and translating through presentational fidelity the writers’ feeling about landscape. Sympathy is elicited by reader identification with the rural locale and the characters’ lives;

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the narrators more directly intervened to explain and interpret these details and elicit their readers’ sympathy (59-67).

Some female writers employ other techniques to affirm the connections between the environment and the human community. For example, they depict small, intimate landscapes and quiet scenes of rural life; the aim of this pastoral idea is to suggest the organic connection between nature and rural experience. Another technique is that they use metaphoric comparison between nature and human experience. That is, human behavior can be understood and appreciated from their describing nature. In addition, female authors of environmental writing employ metaphors from domestic life directed at their largely young or female readership. For example, they explained the behavior of birds through homely domestic metaphors that would be appreciated by their female relationship, such as the way the male kingbird jumped up politely when female returned to the nest or how he held the dragonfly in such a way that the young could nibble off small bites that they could swallow.

The above discussion was employed as a guideline to study the relationship between Silko’s Ceremony and the environment.

Ceremony and the Environment Ceremony tells a story of a Native-American man named Tayo, a World War II veteran who returns to his home, Laguna Pueblo reservation in New Mexico after he was the prisoner of Japanese on a Pacific Island. He suffers terribly from posttraumatic stress disorder. After staying in a veteran hospital in Los Angeles, he journeys back to his home and finds that going home is terribly hard. Neither Tayo nor his home is the same. In his homeland, a mine has been dug in a sacred area, a violation of nature that disturbs him deeply. Other soldiers returning to the reservation seek solace in alcohol and bar fights, but Tayo yearns for a deeper kind of heeling. With the help of his relatives, he visits a traditional medicine man and then a more modern medicine man, trying to find a ceremony that will enable him to feel whole. Silko, in Ceremony, elegantly expresses that life in any environment is viable only when human beings view their surroundings as kin; that their mutual roles are essential for their survival.

In Ceremony, Silko employs storytelling. She begins her story: Their evil is mighty But it con’t up to our stories So they try to destroy the stories Let the stories confused and forgotten. They would like that They would happy Because we would be defenseless then. (2)

Here Silko employs storytelling technique. She herself enters the story; the storyteller becomes part of the story. By telling the story, she refuses to let it be destroyed or forgotten; she thereby defends off the evil. However, Silko tells her story by using a nonlinear narrative structure. In most of Western literature, narrative proceeds from beginning to the end and from earlier to later. In Ceremony, it is difficult to distinguish between past and present. Silko switches back and forth from Tayo’s childhood to his time in the Philippines to various moments after his return.

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In her nonlinear style of writing, she tells us the homecoming of Tayo. According to William Bevis, the typical Native American fiction, the hero, instead of seeking for fortune in an unfamiliar land, comes home: to a past, to a person, or to a place (596). Like Bewis’s idea, Silko’s hero comes home; however, he returns home broken by the detached brutality of World War II. At the beginning of the story, Ceremony presents readers the description of Tayo’s illness.: Tayo did not sleep well that night. . . he could hear his uncle Josiah calling him. . . . But before Josiah could come, the fever voices would drift and swirl and emerge again—Japanese soldiers shouting orders to him, suffocating damp voices that drifted out in the jungle steam, and he heard the women’s voices then; they fade in and out until he was frantic.” (5-6)

This scene shows readers Tayo’s illness, his attachment to uncle Josiah, his experience as a Japanese prisoner with his cousin Rocky, and prayers to make the rain stop in the jungle. It is clear that Tayo feels responsible for his cousin’s safety, fearful that the unending rain may prevent Rocky from marching through the jungle and determined to protect Rocky by willing the rain to stop.

Violence and grief have emptied Tayo of his sense of Self, everything is Other. He believes he is “white smoke” because it has “no consciousness of itself” (14). In a hospital in Los Angeles, Tayo tells the doctor, “He can’t talk to you,” and “He is invisible” (14). Tayo’s invisibility, his immateriality, seems to be part of his sickness—he is ungrounded, disconnected. He is like a walking dead. Later we learn that Tayo had grown up in his Auntie’s household, the half-breed son of her sister Laura. Auntie never missed an opportunity to put down Tayo (29, 66-70). Several scenes show Tayo’s lack of self-esteem, describing his desire to go back to the hospital in Los Angeles where he could be painlessly invisible (32-33).

Tayo seeks for a cure from Ku’oosh, the old medicine man. He tries to heal him with the old ceremony: he chants in the native language, and explain to Tayo that his curing is important not only for his own sake, but the entire world that is under the spell of witchery (28). However, Tayo vomits before Ku’oosh gets very far in the ceremony, and Ku’oosh realizes that the ceremony is not successful. His ceremony is too rigid, too traditional. After World War II ended, frequently Pueblo and the Navojo performed traditional purification rituals for returning veterans. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of these rituals for some soldiers was inadequate. Similarly, the traditional ritual cannot heal Tayo. This suggests that because these traditional rituals were not devised with modern warfare in mind, they must be modified if they are to be effective.

Healing begins when Tayo returns to nature. Tayo first begins to comprehend the importance of the nature through intimacies of the flesh as well as through the experience of ceremony. The dancer Nightswan introduces him to his own body’s connection to earth. She teaches him how to feel this connection as sensuous contour. At Nightswan’s, even indoors, the room “pulsed with feeling, the feeling flowing with the music and the breeze from the curtains, the feeling colored by the blue flowers painted in a border around the walls” (103). Nightswan’s passion introduces him to a new vitality; as she “moved under him, her rhythm merging into the sound of the wind shaking the rafters and the sound of the rain in the trees (104).

Through Nightswans, Tayo feels the power of nature. Just before he leaves her room, he stands in the doorway “aware of the damp earth smell outside.” She tells him, “You don’t

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189 have to understand what is happening, But remember this day. You will recognize it later. You are part of it now” (105). Through his memory of his encounter with Nightswan, Tayo begins to heal. He sits on the porch outside Nightswan’s room. That music, those curtains, the wind, and her locust blossom perfume are gone, but he learns of the power of the environment. Through Nightswan’s flesh, Tayo learns gradually begins to have moment where he makes vital contact with the land. “In a world of crickets and wind and cottonwood trees he was almost alive again; he was visible. The green waves of dead faces and the screams of the dying that had echoed in his head were buried. (109)

In the next paragraph, Tayo begins to understand the importance of recognizing one’s vital connection to the earth: “The place felt good . . . It was soothing to rub the dust over his hands; he rubbed it carefully across his light brown skin, the stark white gypsum dust making a spotted pattern, and then he knew why it was done by the dancers: it connected them to the earth (109). Here readers see Tayo unconsciously decorating himself with dust, creating a new, personal ceremony. This scene suggests that we might benefit from inventing ceremonies that help us to appreciate our connection to the earth.

Later Tayo visits the medicine man Betonie, who helps him to articulate suffering. Shaped by both American and Native American culture, Betonie combines parts of a traditional curing ritual based on the traditional Navajo Red Antway ceremony with professional counseling techniques. He still wears the traditional clothes of a medicine man, creates the curative sand painting, and uses the old medicine man’s paraphernalia such as prayer sticks, gourd rattles, leather pouches, herbs, and roots. However, Betonie also counts modern items among his healing devices. These included coke bottles, phone books, and calenders with pictures of Indian on them, all common objects on the reservation. Silko suggests, through Betonie’s ceremony, that the effects white contact have had upon the Pueblo cannot be ignored. Indeed, change and growth, Silko suggests, are necessary for survival.

Counseling with Betonie, Tayo experiences the catharsis of expressing his sense of guilt, his grief from the loss of his cousin. More importantly, he also begins to become more consciousness of the value of his insights into the commonality, the unity, of people from across the globe. In the beginning of the story, the conflation of Japanese, Spanish, and Laguna voices, and Japanese and Laguna faces shows the sign of Tayo’s madness and confusion. Here, Tayo realizes that there is a fundamental similarity between Japanese his soldiers and his people. His painful guilt gradually transforms into a knowledge.

Through Betonie’s speech, Silko shows the attitudes toward nature of the traditional Native Americans. Betonie describes home: “They keep us on the north side of the railroad track, next to the river And their dump where none of them want to live.” he laughed. “They Don’t understand. We know these hills and we are comfortable here.” There was something about the way the old man said the word “comfortable,” It had a different meaning—not the comfort of big houses or rich food or even clean streets, but the comfort of belonging with the land, and the peace of being with the hills. (117)

This passage shows the natural environment that the speaker finds himself in. Like Patricia Clark Smith and Paula Gunn Allen argue, traditional Native Americans see nature as something mysterious, certainly beyond human domination, and yet something to be met and

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spoken with rather than confronted, and this perception of nature, as Betonie insists, “they” [Euro Americans] cannot understand.

Silko also comments about the attitudes toward nature of Euro-American. It is shown in the story told by a witch who predicted the arrival of “white skin people”: Then they grow away from the earth then they grow away from the sun then they grow away from the plants and animals. They see no life When they look they see only objects. The world is a dead thing for them trees and rivers are not alive the mountains and stones are not alive the deer and bears are objects they see no life. (135) For “white skin people,” animals are merely objects made for them to destroy.

As she narrates Tayo’s story, Silko also shows her concern about wildlife. She describes, “The loggers shot bears and mountain lions for sport. And it was then the Laguna people understood that had been taken, because they couldn’t stop these people from coming to destroy the animals and the land” (186). Therefore, the holy men at Laguna warned their people that the balance of the world has been disturbed, and there will be droughts and harder days. In this passage, Silko shares the Western tradition of a lost paradise. Tayo comes home and finds that his home is not the same: something has been lost. The mountain lions, the bears, and the timber are missing, and the most importance is the land has been exploited. Tayo longs for what Native Americans possessed and knew in earlier time.

His physical sensitivity, mental clarity, and social consciousness increase when the novel approaches its climax. When his family loses cattle, he finds a cut in the barbed wire at the edge of the reservation. He learns about the inability of white ranchers to see beyond the lie: “only brown skinned people were thieves; white people didn’t steal because they always had the money to buy whatever they wanted. Tayo realizes: If the white people never looked beyond the lie, to see that theirs was a nation built on stolen land, then they would never be able to understand how they had been used by the witchery; they would never know that they were still being manipulated by those who knew how to stir the ingredients together: white thievery and injustice boiling up the anger and hatred that would finally destroy the world: the starving against the fat, the colored against the white. The destroyers had only to set it into motion, and sit back and count the casualities. (191)

Later, Tayo apprehends ultimate beauty of nature when he encounters a mountain lion at night. The mountain lion “came out from a grove of oak trees. He did not walk or leap or run; his motions were like the shimmering of tall grass in the wind” (195).

Tayo’s healing culminates in a later scene. At a uranium mine called Enchanted Misa, Tayo realizes that the place of ultimate destruction, and the place of possible reclamation of the universe through ceremony, is the uranium mine. The Europeans had extracted natural forces and twisted them to their own incomprehensibly destructive ends, culminating in the atomic destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In this climatic scene, Tayo kneels and lifts a piece

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of ore, “gray stone. . . streaked with powdery yellow uranium, bright and alive as pollen” (246). He examines the beauty of rocks and realizes the horror of the power of the enemy that destroys or converts nature to its own ends: “they had taken these beautiful rocks from deep within earth and they had laid them in a monstrous design, realizing destruction on a scale only they could have dreamed” (246). He has a vision of sweeping interconnections between the mine and what was going on beyond Laguna land, both on native land in the region and overseas. In other words, Tayo makes connection between Japanese people and Native Americans. Tayo becomes a spokesperson for the naturalist’s lament of the separation between human being and nature.

Tayo’s illness results in part from his not being in touch with his environment, but his hatred also causes alienation. Tayo expresses his hatred of the destroyers. He lies awake one night contemplating this oppression: he “hatred” them “for what they did to the earth with their machines, and to the animals with their packs of dogs and their guns. . . . The destroyers had sent them to ruins this world, and day by day they were doing it” (203-4). Tayo’s discover of the uranium mine, marks a turning point: “He cried the relief he felt at finally seeing the pattern” (246). At this moment, he comes close to being deceived by the witchery. He almost attacks a group of his former friends, also World War II soldiers, who have been chasing him and who torture Tayo’s closest friend. Tayo had almost “jammed the screwdrivers into Emo’s skull the way the witchery had wanted” (253). But he insists. He learns that hatred is in itself part of witchery. Therefore, Tayo has to learn not to hate the destroyers because in hating the destroyers, he too becomes a destroyer. This is the turning point that helps Tayo turns to nature, embracing Spider Woman. This embrace is shown by Tayo’s planting flowers: “He would go back there now, where she had shown him the plant. He would gather the seeds for her and plant them with great care in places near sandy hills” (254).

Conclusion In Ceremony, like other environmental literature writer, Silko raises the awareness of the interrelatedness of man and nature. Like some environmental literature authors, she expresses her response to nature destroying in her narrative and leads her readers to feel concerned with the environment. However, she also employs other interesting techniques different from other nature writers. She writes out of a different tradition from the Euro-American writers, relying on reference to Native American tradition and myth. Like other Native American novelists, Silko employs storytelling and contrasts the attitudes toward nature of the Euro-Americans to those of Native Americans and also demonstrates the alienation of Indians themselves from their environmental heritage. She suggests oppression of nature goes hand in hand with other kinds of oppression: race, class, and gender. However, what is unique in Silko’s writing is its account of the hero’s attempt to rediscover his responsibility toward the natural environment. Through her mastery of storytelling techniques, she asserts the importance of a human’s relationship to the natural world by depicting the human reliance on nature, the necessary interaction of human and nonhuman nature, and the crucial obligations humans have to both recognize the importance of nature and to give voice to that recognition, to tell the earth’s story. Ceremony is the earth’s story that Silko tells readers her awareness. To do this, her writing can inspire readers the appreciation and concern for the environment. As the story teller, Silko acknowledges the interconnectedness of story and nature, writing at the end of Ceremony that the clouds that are promising train will bring an end to the drought. These clouds have “The ear for the story and the eye for the pattern, the feeling was theirs, we came out of this land and we are hers” (255)

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References Bevis, William. “Native American Novels: Homin In.” Recovering the Word: Essays on Native American Literature. Ed. Brian Swann and Arnold Krupat. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. 580-620. Print. Glotfelty, Cheryll, and Harold Fromm, eds. Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1996. Print. Griffith, Kelley. Writing Essays about Literature. New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers,1998. Print. Tošić, Jelica. Working and Living Environmental Protection. 3.1 (2006): 43-50. Print. Littenberg, Marcia B. “Gender and Genre: A Perspective on Nineteenth-Century Women’s Nature Writing.” Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism. 136 (2004): 59-67. Print. Lopez, Berry. Alan Magee: Inlets. Portland, Maine: The Joan Whitney Payson Gallery of Art, Westbrook College, 1990. Print. Murray, John. American Nature Writing 1999. Oregon: Oregon State University Press, 1999. 1-10. Print. Silko, Leslie. Ceremony. New York: Viking Press, 1977. Print. Smith, Patricia Clark and Paula Gunn Allen. “Earthly Relations, Carnal Knowledge: Southwestern American Indian Women Writers and Landscape.” The Desert Is No Lady: Southwestern Landscapes in Women’s Writing and Art. New Haven: Yale UP, 1987. 174-96. Print.

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The Effects of Using Brain-Based Learning Activities to Improve English Speaking Ability on Prathomsuksa Six Students at Watsamrongnua School

Paiwan Jampamoon Dr. Anchalee Jansem Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract The purpose of this study was to (1) examine the effects on Prathomsuksa sixth students’ speaking ability improvement and (2) the students’ opinion toward studying English at Watsamrongnua School through Brain-Based Learning activities. The participants were 35 Prathomsuksa sixth students gained via simple random sampling. The instruments used for collecting data were lesson plans, a pre-post speaking test, and open-ended opinion questionnaire. The data were statistically analyzed by mean, standard deviation and t-test for dependent samples. The results indicated the improvement of student’s English speaking ability through Brain-Based Learning. The open-ended questionnaire results showed students’ positive opinion toward studying English through Brain-Based Learning activities.

Keywords: Brain-Based Learning, English speaking ability

Introduction English is the international language used for communication in business, education and other careers. The impact of globalization has made listening or receiving and speaking or sending information important skills. These skills can promote understanding, provoke interest in a variety of cultures, as well as create goodwill and develop better relationships on an international level. The English language also allows learners to discover the customs, cultures and other aspects of the countries where it is spoken as the first language. Learners who have a positive attitude toward studying English continue to use English for both communication and knowledge after they have received their certification. (OBEC, 2010). As a result, speaking is considered to be one of the most important skills of the four key skills, which also include listening, reading and writing. People are socialized to communicate through the family unit, school and other social networks. This is not limited to face-to-face interaction. For example, people talking on the phone are also members of a social network (Sumitra, 2003). Furthermore, speaking proficiency can reveal background knowledge, such as speaking skills. When a learner develops one skill, it becomes easier to learn other skills (Lado, 1961; Ur, 1998). For example, effective speaking leads to clear listening and also makes reading and writing easier. Consequently, it is necessary for teachers to promote learning with appropriate classroom activities and using the target language in various real situations is the most important experience for students. (Scott, 1981). Similarly, Jack and Willy (2002) claim that a large percentage of language learners throughout the world learn English to develop their spoken proficiency. However, speaking is a complex skill, and its complexity makes teaching spoken English challenging. Jack and Willy (2002) also claim that speech is used for many reasons, including initiating social contact, starting relationships or talking to friends.

Despite the many ways in which language teachers can improve both their own learning and their language teaching skills, language teachers still face many difficulties. One problem is that students do not have any opportunities to speak in real life situations. Although speaking is a basic skill, learners need to develop their reading and writing skills in order to improve

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194 their speech. For these reasons, the spoken English of most Thai learners is limited and in need of improvement. (Na Anchan Chitsuk, 1994). The English curriculum in Thailand is more focused on reading and grammar than speaking. (Kampanich; Pulphol, 1997). Many students lack the confidence and courage to speak and consequently develop negative attitudes towards speaking English (Ministry of Education, 2002). One of the major problems facing Thai learners is spoken English. One reason why learners cannot speak English effectively is that they are hesitant to speak for fear of making errors and another common reason is shyness. Both of these problems can be considered serious (Ur, 1996; Brown, 1994.) The Ministry of Education in Thailand (2009) has developed the English curriculum to include English communication for careers. The curriculum also requires that teachers use innovative methods to effectively teach speaking. The curriculum has ranked speaking as a ‘focus’ skill. Silver (1982) said that learning process is effective when learners have an opportunity to learn in a relaxing atmosphere and that teachers should manage the classroom in such a way that learners are encouraged, rather than discouraged to participate in activities. Silver also stressed the importance of learning process and of the practical application of English skills in real life situations. The successful education of students depends on the ability of their teachers.

The experiences which teachers provide for learners should be based on real life experiences and solving realistic problems. Learners should use language as a tool to communicate until they achieve language competency. Jack and Willy (2002) as cited in Green, Christopher and Lam (2002) examined speaking proficiency in terms of discussion skills. They explored how speaking skills can be developed in the classroom and recommended classroom activities based on common problems experienced by learners. These activities should be based on different aspects of spoken English and feature interactive activities. As both a researcher and an English teacher, my intention is to find a strategy and a learning process to improve the speaking ability of students through Brain-Based Learning (BBL) activities. As Chatkup (2002) concluded from a number of studies, the human brain works most effectively when its potential is activated. An active learning process can promote enthusiasm and stimulate interest. On the other hand, when students are stressed, exhausted, sad or bored in the classroom, their progress can be impaired. Although language learning is an automatic process, students need to be stimulated in order to use their brains at optimum capacity through appropriate language input. The theories and principles of BBL are based on brain function and language teachers should attempt to monitor brain function through classroom management techniques.

This research is concerned with theories of Cain and Cain (1991). They claimed that the management of the brain is the way to increase the potential of learners. The human brain, regardless of the age, gender, nationality, and cultural background of the individual, is equipped with exceptional features. For example, the ability to detect patterns and to make approximations, the phenomenal capacity for various type of memory, the ability to self- correct and learn from experience by way of the analysis of external data, self-reflection and an inexhaustible capacity to create. Another exceptional feature of the human brain is its virtually unlimited capacity to learn (Cain & Cain, 1991). Similarly, Leslie Hart (1983, as cited in Cain & Cain, 1991) claimed that one essential reason that people have yet to grasp the complicated and elegant way the brain learns, especially when it is functioning properly, is due to its complexity. When we are able to understand both the possibilities and processes of the human brain, we may be able to access its huge potential and improve education. Leslie Hart (1983) claimed that education can be either ‘brain- agreeable’ or ‘brain-conflicting’.

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Cain and Cain (1991) claimed that although all learning is brain-based in some sense, BBL also acknowledges the structure and function of the brain in terms of organizing teaching strategies that apply knowledge of the brain to educational practice. In education, the influence of BBL can be seen through the development of curriculum introduction and assessment. BBL also shows that the brain works more effectively with learning activities that are designed with brain function in mind. Teachers also need to provide students with appropriate experiences. There are three interactive elements necessary for this process: teachers, educators and students. Teachers must immerse learners in complex, interactive experiences that are both rich and real. An example of this type of experience is immersing students in learning both a second language and about a foreign culture. Educators should take advantage of the ability of the human brain to parallel process. Students must also find challenges personally meaningful in order to capture their interest. These challenges must also help students to stay alert (Cain, Cain. 1991). In conclusion, BBL is a flexible process that encourages students to be enthusiastic learners and enjoy participating in the classroom activities. BBL can make lessons clearer and easier to understand. It also makes the classroom atmosphere more relaxing and enhances the learning process.

Consequently, as a researcher, I wanted to implement BBL instruction in an effort to improve the speaking ability of these students. The findings will reveal whether or not BBL instruction and activities can help students to develop their speaking ability.

The Purpose of the Study This study was conducted with two main purposes: 1. To investigate the effectiveness of BBL instruction on the English speaking ability of Prathomsuksa 6 students. 2. To study the opinions of the students towards studying English after BBL instruction and activities.

Participants The participants included 35 Prathomsuksa sixth students, recruited via simple random sampling. They studied English during the second semester of the 2011 academic year at Wat Samrongnua School.

Duration This study took place 10 weeks in December 2011 and January 2012. The participants studied English for 2 hours a week and were taught using BBL instruction and activities. The pre-test and post test are excluded in the teaching time.

Review of the related literature Brain Based-Learning (BBL) The principles of brain-based learning stated by Caine and Caine (1991) are as follows; 1. The brain is a parallel processor; meaning it can perform several activities at once, like tasting and smelling. 2. Learning engages the whole physiology; emotional control, exercising, playing and eating. 3. The search for meaning is innate; challenging and learning by asking questions. 4. The search for meaning comes through patterning; learning pattern, understanding, synthesizing and real situation or comparison. 5. Emotions are critical to patterning; to understand the different of students.

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6. The brain processes wholes and parts simultaneously; combine the elements of learning and real life. 7. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception; manage the enrich environments to promote students’ learning. 8. Learning involves both conscious and unconscious processes; stimulate student to analyze. 9. We have two types of memory: spatial and rote. 10. We understand best when facts are embedded in natural, spatial memory; go for the field trip or telling story. 11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat; allow students to follow their decision. 12. Each brain is unique; each students have the freedom and alternative to choices and improve their weakness. (Cain&Cain, 1991). (p. 80-87)

The 1990s was called the ‘decade of the brain’ as research during this period confirmed many cognitive theories about how the brain learns. As a result, the President of United State of America and Congress (1990) BBL influenced U.S. policy, as the 'No Child Left Behind' clause was added to the national curriculum in the 1990s. This policy reflects the influence of BBL as the idea that every student has the potential to develop their brain. BBL theory is also practiced in American classrooms in terms of classroom management. One reason why BBL became popular in the U.S. may be due to the fact that Americans now face many problems, such as unemployment or high crime rates and BBL offers a way to positively influence students. The National Institute for Brain-Based Learning (2005) states that BBL has become increasingly popular in recent years.

Thailand has experienced similar problems to the United States according to reports on Thai students over the last twenty years. Thai students have experienced a decrease in both their general level of intelligence and their emotional intelligence. This may be due to a number of factors, including the influence of family, the educational system and new forms of communication, such as the mass media and social networks. Thai learning styles are still based on traditional patterns and out of step with the modern world. As a result of these problems, it is necessary to develop and promote brain learning. The human brain is designed for learning, and the appropriate atmosphere learning environment and activities will stimulate learning. BBL uses techniques that are based on the function of the brain and can also be used for classroom management. Eric Jensen (2000) claimed that BBL is a learning process based on the nature of brain learning and integrates learning skills that increase the function of the brain. Nicola Call (2003) described BBL as the synthesis of knowledge and theory about the brain that promotes the learning process. Colleen Politano and Joy Paquin (2000) argued that BBL stimulates learning acquisition and improves memory retention because its structure is designed to complement the way the brain learns.

Cain and Cain (1991) argued that BBL also has the ability to detect, make approximations and increase the capacity of different types of memory. BBL also includes the ability to self- correct, to learn from experiences by analyzing data, self-reflection and creativity. Chailert Phichitportchai (2007) claimed that BBL is based on the way the brain and the five senses work in conjunction with each other. Saengduan Khongnawang (2007) defined BBL as learning based on the structure and function of the brain Laddawan Kaewwan (2007) claimed that BBL used the understanding of the function of the human brain to shape teaching methodology.

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The National Institute for Brain-Based Learning (2005) defined BBL as the synthesis of our knowledge of the brain and its functions to the learning process, along with intrapersonal intelligence and interpersonal intelligence. BBL activities are based on emotions and communication skills that are used in real-life social situations. Khotbantao (2005) stated that BBL is based on the following factors: learning atmosphere, holistic learning, deep sleep, goal setting, learning threats, proper nutrition and learner attention.

Cain and Renate (1991) established the three major factors as follows. Firstly, teachers must immerse learners in complex, interactive experiences that are both enriched and based on real-life situations. An example of this would be to immerse students in learning about foreign culture to encourage them to learn a foreign language. Next, educators must teach in a way that utilizes the natural processes of the brain. Finally, students need interpersonal challenges to make them more active in the classroom.

Cain and Renate… et al (2005) established the three instruction techniques associated with Brain-Based Learning. The first step is orchestrated immersion. The teacher should create a learning environment that promotes immersing students in an educational experience. The second step is relaxed alertness. Teachers should try to eliminate fear in students while still maintaining a challenging environment. The third step is active processing. Teachers should allow the students to combine and internalize information by active processing. Furthermore, realistic feedback is needed for Brain-Based Learning. In accordance with the twelve principles of BBL, as a researcher I have defined BBL as the processes and activities that motivates students to study, promote intrapersonal intelligence and interpersonal intelligence and activities used by this researcher included relaxed activities, movement activities, learning activities, group work and self reflection.

In order to create the ideal learning environment, the classroom should have comfortable seats, and the temperature, the colour of the room and the lighting should also be conducive to learning. Another aspect of classroom management is the sitting posture of the students. They should sit in a comfortable, relaxed posture rather than a formal, upright position. There should also be peripheral learning materials as posters, diagrams and mottos on the wall or on a board in order stimulate the curiosity of the students via subconscious learning.

Research Methodology The research design applied in this study is one-group experimental design. The pre-test and posttest speaking scores will be analyzed in order to establish whether or not the speaking ability of the students had improved. Furthermore, the questionnaire was employed to investigate the opinions of the students regarding BBL after being instructed via BBL.

Participants The participants included 35 students recruited from two classes via simple random sampling. They studied English twice a week during the second semester of 2011 academic year at Wat Samrongnua School. The school is under the Office of the Basic Education Commission Educational Service Area Office: Samutprakarn Primary School Educational Office Area 1.

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Research Instruments The instruments used in this study included 10 lesson plans, the pre-test, the post-test, and the questionnaires. 1. Lesson plans The lesson plans were designed by the researcher based on BBL activities (Cain, 1991) for this experiment. (See Appendix A) 2. Pre- and Post-speaking Test The pre-test and post-test consisted of a set of ten interview questions. The total score was twenty points. The speaking evaluation rate adapted from Cherice Montogomery (2011) and Rcampus (Online; http://www.rcampus.com). The criteria of competence evaluation included grammar, fluency, vocabulary, pronunciation and comprehension. The rating scale descriptions were comprised of marks from 1-4.(see Appendix B) Students were asked ten questions randomly. The scores were rated on each category according to student performance. The researcher had two assistants to rate scores, they are English teacher. The scores of the test were used to compare their speaking ability before and after instructed. The relevance of the questions and lesson plans were checked and evaluated by 3 specialists and advisor. 3. The students’ Opinion Questionnaire The open-ended questionnaire was used to gather the information about the improvement made by the students after they had been taught through Brain-Based Learning. The students were answered the opened-questions by expressing their opinion on each topic.

Data Collection Procedure The data was collected after the research instruments were constructed with the use of the BBL activities. The data of the study were collected through the following procedure: 1. The researcher hold an orientation session with the participants to discuss the research plan before starting the classroom research. Before the study, the participants took an English speaking pre-post test, and completed the open-ended questionnaires to express their opinions towards learning to speak English through BBL activities. The researcher taught 20 periods over a period of 10 weeks. The activities were based on the principles of BBL, as established by Cain and Cain (1991). 2. The students were taught through BBL activities by the researcher for 10 weeks, two periods a week. Therefore, the total period of teaching was 20 periods. The teaching materials were their textbook and supplemental speaking tasks. 3. To investigate whether the grade six students’ opinion toward the BBL activities, data came from the open-ended questionnaires. The open-ended questionnaires conducted at the end of the experiment.

Data Analysis The data was analyzed as follows: The raw scores from both the pre-test and the post-test were changed into percentages in order to calculate the yield as follows, the data from the pre-test and post-test .The 2 sets of data from the experimental group were analyzed by comparing means using a dependent sample t-test (the score from the pre-test and post-test from the same sampling group) to find a significant difference. The data from pre-test and post-test open-ended questionnaires aimed to check the opinions of the students toward learning to speak English and was descriptively compared with an emphasis on key themes of students’ ideas.

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Finding Generally, the findings of the current study revealed that the speaking ability of Grade Six students of Watsamrongnua School have improved after they were taught using BBL activities achieved higher mean scores Moreover, students had more positive opinion towards BBL activities.

Objective 1: 1. To investigate the effectiveness of Brain-Based Learning activities on English speaking ability . The hypothesis was tested by English speaking tests and self- assessment of English speaking ability.

To test this hypothesis, the mean scores of the student’s English speaking ability on pre-test and post-test were compared. An independent t-test was used in this case.

Table 1 illustrated the comparison between the mean pre-test and post-test scores.

Table 1: A Comparison of the Mean Scores on Pre-test and Post-test ** sig = .01 English Listening ability N Score X S.D. t

Pre-test 35 20 7.4857 2.74 -10.390** Post-test 35 20 10.1143 3.43

As illustrated in table 1, it was found that the English speaking ability of Prathomsuksa 6 students was significantly higher after Brain-Based Learning activity, significant at the 0.01 level. The participants had significantly higher mean scores on the post-test )M = 10.1143, S.D. = 3.43( than the pre-test) M = 7.4857, S.D. = 2.74.

Objective 2. To study the opinions of the students towards studying English after BBL instruction and activities.The finding presents students’ opinion toward Brain-Based Learning activities. Almost all of students expressed positively opinions. Students were needed and interested a relaxed atmosphere and enjoyment activities to practice therefore them to improve their speaking ability.

Discussion The overall aim of the study was to examine the effects of using Brain-Based Learning activities to improve English speaking ability. The research questions stated at the beginning of the paper served as a guide in presenting the findings of the study. The following discussion covered aspects that emerged from the study, including classroom activities, teaching practices, lesson preparation, problems that arose and how they were dealt with.

The result of this study showed that students achieved a significantly higher score after instructed through BBL . They were improved their speaking following the BBL activities. According to Cain and Cain (1991), BBL, could summarized that students expressed positively opinions that BBL activities proceeded the development of integrated skills in the classroom and made English more interesting. Students were needed and interested a relaxed atmosphere and enjoyment activities to practice therefore them to improve their speaking ability.

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According to the 12 principles of the brain, it was difficult to engaged students’ ideas at the beginning till they have instructed and participated the BBL activities. As students were young , it was difficult to get them to understand the idea of Brain-Based Learning (BBL) at the beginning. Students paid attention to an orientation but they looked worry and doubted with this learning theory. Therefore clearer understanding students learned more from CD about BBL by OBEC. After watching CD students were relaxed and they grasped BBL. As Cain and Cain (1991) suggested the 12 principles of the brain, it is a parallel processor it can perform several activities at once, like tasting and smelling. Meaning it to each student has the freedom and alternative to choices and improves their weakness.

Similar to Eric Jensen (2000) he stated that BBL is a learning process based on the nature of brain learning and to answer what the brain needs. It is the integration of learning skill to promote the function of the brain. The classroom activities helped students free to speak and become more confident when challenged by individual speaking task. Songs and games provided relaxing and enjoyment to students. This activities provided the students a chance to be engaged in learning. Role-play allowed student to work together. They helped each other, shared their ideas and solved problems together.

Khotbantao (2005) stated that the brain can be prepared for learning. In order to help students practice and improve their speaking ability in the language classroom, teachers should create the appropriate activities and the appropriate atmosphere in the classroom environment, the sitting posture of the students, peripheral learning materials, and most importantly, the teacher factor. Relaxing atmosphere was important factor to help students success in learning. Teacher praised and gave positive suggestion help students’ less stress when they performed speaking activities.

In regard to the open-ended questionnaires on students’ opinions, students expressed their positively opinions toward using the BBL activities in English class. They said effectively that the BBL activities proceeded the development of speaking skills in the classroom and made English class interesting because the activities allowed students to participate in various activities both pair work and individual work.

Students believed that the BBL activities helped them be more interested in speaking skill and learning in English class. BBL also improved their speaking and even their reading, writing and listening abilities. They maintained that the BBL activities created an enjoyable working atmosphere. They could also apply their knowledge to daily use and their future study.

Even though BBL activities was effective in speaking ability but it was limited to time of study which could affected to students’ learning progress. The study time should be extend therefore the different learning progress and make students more understand about the principle of the brain.

References Arumporn, L. (2004). The Use of Task-based learning to develop English Speaking Ability of Matthayomsuksa IV students in Pranakomsriayutthaya Province Unpublished master’s thesis, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok. Bransford, J., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (expanded edition), Washington: National Academies Press. Bartz, Watter. H. (1979). Testing Oral Communication, in Foreign Language Classroom;

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Language in Education: Theory and Practice. Virginia. The Centre for Applied Linguistic. Boonsompan, Orawan. (2007). Using Brain-Based Learning Activities to Promote English Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading Ability of Prathomsuksa 3 Students. Unpublished master’s thesis, Chiangmai University, Chiangmai, Thailand. Caine , Renate Numela & Caine Geoffrey.1991. Making connections: teaching and the human brain. Association For Supervision And Curriculum Development Alexandria, Virginia. Cain, Ranate et al. (2005). 12 Brain/mind Learning Principles in Action. Corwin Press. Chewapanthusri, Kamonpan. (No date). Deal, N.(1998). Getting teacher educators caught in the web. T.H.E.Journal.26(1), from http://www.proquest.umi,com/pqdlink Eken, D. K. (1996). Ideas for using pop songs in the English language .M, Griffee, D.T. (1992). Songs in action. Herfordshire, England: Phoenix ELT. Harmer, Jeremy.(2002). How to teach English. English Teaching Forum, 34, 46-47. Jackson, J.(1999). Issue theme: Brain-based learning. The reporter Presidents’ remakes. Retrieved February 2, 2004, from http://www.coe.uga.edu/gascd/newsletters /spring_1999.pdf. Jensen, Eric.(1998). Teaching with the brain in mind. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Alexandria, Virginia USA. K, Loraine, Gjerlow Kris and Obler.(2000). Language and the Brain. University Press. Kathleen.; Savage, Lance and Bailey.(1994). New Ways in Teaching Speaking. Bloomington, Illinois USA. Khotbantao, Soontorn. 2005. Principles of Brain-Based Learning. Student at Eastern Asia University Press. Krish, Pramela. A Role Play Activity with Distance Learners in an English Language, Classroom. National University of Malaysia (Bangi, Malaysia).Retrived from http://www.iteslj.org/article/krish-roleplay.htme Krashen, S. D. (1983). Principles and practices in second language acquisition. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press. Lems, K. (1996, March). Music across the ESL curriculum. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the TESOL, San Francisco, CA. Lo, R. & Li, H.C. (1998). Songs enhance learner involvement. English Teaching Forum, 36, 8-11, 21. Ministry Of Education. (2002). The Basic Education Curriculum The Office of Basic Education Commission, Bangkok. Richards, Jack & Renandya, Willy. (2002). Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. Scott, R. (1981) Speaking in Communication in the Classroom. London: Longman. Sousa,D.(1998) How the Brain Learns(with the learning manual). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press Incorporated. Sprenger, Mairlee. 2002. Becoming a “Wiz” at Brain-Based Teaching. Corwin Press, INC. California. The decade of the brain, from http://www.principalspartnership.com. Thongpubal, T. (2010). The Use of Task-Based Learning to Develop Communicative English Speaking Ability of Matthayomsuksa III Students. Unpublished master’s thesis, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand. Ur, P. (1996). A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wongsothorn, A. (2539). English Assessment. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University.

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Appendix A Lesson Plan

Subject: English Level: Grade 6 Students Topic: Great vocations Duration: 50 Minutes ...... Goal: Students can ask and describe places using superlative Contents - World record The Nile is the longest river in the world. The Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world. The Vostok Station is the coldest place of the world. superlative : tallest, shortest, longest, coldest, driest, fastest, biggest, most expensive, most beautiful Language Focus A : What’s the longest river in the world? B : Place + verb to be + superlative The Nile is the longest river in the world. Materials - Textbook : Go Go loves English - Tape recorder - places’ picture - Word cards Objectives • To enable students to pronounce the vocabularies correctly. • To enable students to describe and ask about places using superlative. Procedure Warm up. ( 5 Minutes ) BBL: We have two types of memory: spatial and rote “remember” game - divide students into two groups, A and B - Group A tell the name of country each begin by the teacher “ During vacation I would like to go to… - students from group B repeat the places of group A Presentation (10 minutes) • Show students the pictures of the well know places over the world. - Do you know where it is? - Do you how long / big / tall it is? - Would you like to go there? • students pronounce the superlatives. • Students pronounce name of the countries. - asking about and describing places using superlatives A: What’s the longest river in the world? B: The Nile is the longest river in the world. Practice (20 minutes) BBL: We understand best when facts are embedded in natural, spatial memory • describe picture of the places which the teacher shows in a whole class • describe picture of the places which the teacher shows by random • students practice asking and describe places using superlative in pair

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Production (15 minutes) • Ask the students to choose the place where they would like to go best, then draw the picture and present in front of the class • Show students’ picture on the board to discuss • The teacher gives the benefits of describing places, thing or people in their real life situation. Evaluations • Checking the assignments • Checking the correctly of speaking • Observing class attendance

Appendix B Speaking Score Sheet

Category N Gramma Vocabular Pronunciati Comprehensi scor Fluency Evaluati o. r y on on e on 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

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31 32 33 34 35 adapted from Cherice Montogomery (2011) and Rcampus (Online; http://www.rcampus.com)

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Effects of Using Multiple Intelligence Theory Based Activities on English Reading Comprehension and Students’ Interest in Learning English of Matthayomsuksa III Students at Taweethapisek School

Taweesak Sukeemok Dr. Anchalee Jansem Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract The purpose of the study was to the effects of using multiple intelligences theory based activities on reading comprehension and students’ interest of Matthayomsuksa III at Taweethapisek School. The sample of this study was 49 students at Taweethapisek School, Bangkok in the second semester of the academic year 2011. They were recruited by convenience random sampling. They were the experimental group which was taught through the multiple intelligences activities. This study was used with One Group Pretest-Posttest Design. The instruments used in this study were eight lesson plans , reading comprehension test and students’ interest questionnaire. The data were statistically analyzed by percentage, mean and t-test for Dependent Sample. The result of this study indicated that 1.) The students’ reading comprehension significantly increased to the .05 level after learning English through multiple intelligences theory based activities. 2.) The students’ interest significantly increased to the .05 level after learning English through multiple intelligences.

Keywords: Multiple Intelligence, English Reading Comprehension, Students’ Interest in Learning English

Introduction Reading is an essential skill in daily life. It is the key tool to the knowledge of all academic areas. Good readers will be in progress and succeed in their lives. Addition to, Andreasson and Braten (201, pp. 520-537) states that reading skill is an important equipment for teachers’ knowledge, experiences and abilities. Besides, it helps people develop thinking and the quality of life, too. Nowadays, most people are exposed to media printed in English. Because of the fact that reading is the most important skill of all four, if the students can develop their reading ability, they will be able to search for the information they need from textbooks or multimedia : internet or other medias more effectively.There is no reason why English is the most important foreign language in Thailand. In addition, the Ministry of Education has provided English subjects in the curriculum at the elementary and high school levels.To be successful in studying English, students should practice and try to use the language continually (Kanpanich et al. (1999).Therefore, English reading ability is a tool and skill that help people access information that can be applied in their daily lives. However, the quality of students’ English reading abilities is still questionable. According to research on reading English in Thai schools students’ proficiency does not meet standards Thongwisut(1998) English abilities of the students in secondary schools were found to be insufficient. The major concern regarding this problem would be reading this problem would be reading instruction. Teachers should develop teaching methods in order to deliver their effective instruction to develop students’ reading abilities. A recommended theory accepted to improve of student learning and reading is the application of Multiple Intelligences into teaching.

The theory of multiple intelligences accounts for individual differences. It helps teachers organize the lessons that uniquely empower every child in the class. The theory suggests that

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children learn, process information and express knowledge in different ways (Hickey, 2004). The Multiple Intelligences activities have been developed from a core concept of an individual’s different intelligence and the way to integrate activities that link the contents and student learning. The theory of Multiple Intelligence was introduced by Howard Gardner (1983). He presented 8 human separate intelligences as follow : Linguistic Intelligence , Logical-Mathematical Intelligence ,Visual/Spatial Intelligence ,Bodily - Kinesthetic Intelligence , Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence , Interpersonal Intelligence, Intrapersonal Intelligence, and Naturalist Intelligence. The Multiple Intelligence theory emphasizes multi ways of human intelligences. A number of studies showed the effective results of using multiple intelligence activities in teaching English and various settings (Kraiwatnussorn & Komsan 2001; Pathomworachat 2003) Therefore, teaching and learning activities should support each student’s intelligences. In the language class, the teacher can integrate multiple- intelligences-based activities to develop reading skill and provide the learners with more chances to be engaged in their learning.Sanhachawee (2009).

There are many ways to develop the reading abilities of the students. The teachers can use the teaching approaches: mind mapping, 4 mat, creative thinking, six hats, and multiple intelligences. The researcher chooses the multiple intelligences theory uses for teaching activities to develop reading ability. Accoording to Aunwattana and Muangchoo (2009) was to study the relationship among Multiple Intelligences and the ability in English language reading of the first year students in Rajamangala University of Technology Phra Nakhon. The results revealed that the ability in English language reading of the first year students was related to Multiple Intelligences. Rattanawijit (2001) states that learners have the different abilities, and the insisted that teachers should analyze each student’s strength and how he/she learns in order to arrange teaching and learning activities that are suitable for them to learn and they bring learning activities to be suitable for them.

Interest in English is the one in the important part of teaching English because it is the beginning points of perception from reading. If the students feel happy to study English, they are active to learn. As Phetweera (2007, p.74) states that interest is the pleasure of individuals shown during doing activities and they want to participate the activities willingly. They see the importance of something, and perceive, and respond it. When they respond to perceive, they accept it. Moreover, they comprehend the reading because they have the positive opinions and attitudes and Roller (1992, p. 4276-A) stated that the interest in reading English of students grade III, IV and V in the government school, Arkansas, USA. Moreover, she was to study the development of college students in twenty years ago whether they still had a change the interest in reading English or not. The sample was the students from Arkansas School and was to survey the interest in reading from fourteenth categories. It was up to sex, class level, ability, sex and class level and sex and ability. The results showed that the students still studied by self access learning continuously although they graduated from the college for a long time. In contrast, if the students are not happy to study English, they are not interested in English and do not get the benefits from it. They could result in having negative feelings toward upset, bored, in other words, interest is still a basis in learning. Students’ interest in English is one major variable that affects teaching and learning English reading. If students feel happy to study English, they are active to study learn Phetweera (2007) stated that interest is the pleasure of individuals shown during doing activities because they want to participate with interest, students see the importance of something and perceive and response it.

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According to the interconnectedness of English reading comprehension, teaching activities based on the Multiple Intelligence Theory, and students’ interest in learning English, this research aims to study the effects of using multiple intelligence theory-based activities on English reading ability of Matthayomsuksa III students. The results will provide additional alternatives of how to employ instructional activities.

Purpose of the Study This study will be conducted with purposes as follows : 1. To study the effects of using multiple intelligences theory- based activities on English for reading comprehension of Matthayomsuksa III students at Taweethapisek School. 2. To study the effects of using multiple intelligences theory based -activities on English for students’ interest in learning English of Matthayomsuksa III students at Taweethapisek School.

Significance of the Study The findings in Multiple Intelligence study will add alternatives to teaching activities for EFL students at Taweethapisek School. This study can uncover the effects of using multiple intelligence theory- based activities on English reading comprehension and students’ interest in learning English. The findings proceed base on the multiple intelligences theory can be applied in EFL reading classes for other levels. Moreover, this study can provide teachers who are interested in teaching reading Englishwith a practical activities.

Scope of the Study The participants of this study include 51 Mattayom III students. They were recruited from the population of 603 students studying at Taweethapisek School during the second semester of the academic year 2011 convenience sampling will be a technique for sample recruitment. This study was carried out from January to February, 2012 with a total number of 24 hours of teaching and learning.

Definition of terms 1. English Reading Skills refers to the ability to comprehend the overall meaning of texts including finding the details, main ideas, interpretation and conclusion of the reading material. Multiple Intelligences Theory refers to the eight styles of learning as follows : 1. Linguistic Intelligence (“word smart”) 2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”) 3. Spatial Intelligence (“picture smart”) 4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (“body smart”) 5. Musical Intelligence (“music-smart”) 6. Interpersonal Intelligence (“people smart”) 7. Intrapersonal Intelligence (“self smart”) 8. Naturalist Intelligence (“nature smart”) 2. Students’ interest in Learning English refers to the combination of the positive feeling, pleasure, active participation and paying attention through the practicing while learning English. 3. Multiple Intelligence- based activities refers the integrated activities to be the benefit develop abilities of reading comprehension suitably by using games, songs, mind mapping, etc.

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In conclusion, the main purpose of this research is to study the effects of using multiple intelligence based activities on development ability of reading comprehension as well as their interest in learning English Multiple Intelligence activities help the learners improve reading comprehension, this technique should be applicable to reading classrooms at intermediate and advanced levels.

Statement of Hypotheses At the completion of teaching English through Multiple Intelligence, 1. The students’ reading comprehension after learning English throughMultiple Intelligence- based activities was higher than before the experiment. 2. The students’ interest in learning English after learning English through Multiple Intelligence-based activities was higher than before the experiment.

Methods 1. Participants The steps of selecting the participants as follows: 1.1 The participants of this study were recruited from the population of 603 students at Taweethapisek School during the second semester of the academic year 2011. 1.2 The convenience sampling was a technique for sample recruitment. 1.3 The 49 participants of this study were from 5 of 12 classrooms that the researcher will teach. 1.4 The researcher selected only 1 of 5 classrooms because the researcher was the advisor and taught them. 1.5 This study was carried out from January to February,2012 with a total number of 24 hours of teaching and learning. 2. Instruments The instruments of this research project consisted of: 2.1 Pre-test and post-test Before the experiment started, the students took the pre-test to determine their reading English and do the questionnaires about interest in learning. At the completion of the experiment that lasted 8 weeks, the students took the posttest to determine their reading English. They also did questionnaires to express their interest in reading English. 2.2 The Test The test consisted of 30 items including main idea 5 items, pronoun references 5 items, vocabulary 10 items, details from the story 10 items. 2.3 Lesson Plan There are 8 lesson plans. The researcher designed the lesson plans based on the following procedures: 1) Analyzing foreign language curriculum issues by Office Office of The Basic Education Commission, 2) Analyzing curriculum of Taweethapisek School in foreign language subject. 3) Choosing the contents for the lesson plans. 4) Writing the lesson plans by using a Multiple Intelligence based lesson plan designed by Professor Dr. Aree Sanhachawee (1992) from Applied Multiple Intelligence book. 5) Having the lesson plans examined by three experts: the supervisor, a colleague and the head of English Department at Taweethapisek School. The accuracy of language use and the practicality was the key aspects of this stage.

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Table 1: Summary of The Eight Ways of Teaching Teaching Strategies Instructional Intelligence Rationale Learning Activities Lectures, discussions, Read about it, write Linguistic Encourage the word games, storytelling, about it, talk about it, students to choral reading, journal listen to it transparent the writing story and communicate to others very well. Brain teasers, problem Quantity it, think Logical- Analyze and solving, science critically about it, put it Mathematical sequence of the experiments, mental in a logical framework, story to solve the calculation, number experiment with it problem in reading games, critical thinking Visual presentations, art activities, imagination See it, draw it, Spatial Image and draw the games, mind-mapping, visualize it, color it, pictures, interpret metaphor, mind-map it and transparent Visualization from lessons to create the pictures Build it, act it out, Bodily- Image and move by Hands-on learning, touch it, get a “gut Kinesthetic gesture from drama, dance, sports that feeling” of it, dance it simulation and role teach, tactile activities, play. relaxation exercises Rhythmic learning, Sing it, rap it, listen to Musical Use songs and rapping, using songs that it music for linking teach stories Cooperative learning, Teach it, collaborate on Interpersonal Use the stories for peer tutoring, community it, interact with respect doing the involvement, social to it cooperative reading gatherings,simulation and interact with other people. Individualized Connect it to your Intrapersonal Use the self- instruction, independent personal life, make abilities and the study, options in course choices with regard to potential of study, self-esteem it, reflect on it effectively. building Nature study, ecological Connect it to living Naturalist Encourage the awareness, care of things and natural students animals phenomena understand the surrounding environments .

2.4 Questionnaires The questionnaire consisted of rating scale statements. Descriptively analyze and identify changes in reading English how students view. The items covered interest in learning English questionnaire by improving from Cheethanom (2010).

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Data Collection The data collection procedures included 1) Having every participant do the questionnaires to express in English reading in order to investigate interest of each participant before the experiment starts; 2) Having participants do the pre-test; 3) Teaching the participants based on the lesson plans constructed by the researcher. Each lesson plan will be taught 2 periods per week.( 50 periods per period); 4) Having participants do the same questionnaires and take the post-test at the completion of the 16th period; and 5) Analyzing all data.

Data Analysis The data of this study included mean scores and t-test dependent: 1. Compare pre-test with post-test reading comprehension scores using t-test of dependent to analyze the scores differences. (the score from pre and post test from the same sampling group). 2. Compare mean scores gained in the pre-experiment with those of post-experiment questionnaires. 3. Conclude the data and answer research question. 4. The findings were reported and discussed.

Findings The research findings were presented according to the two main objectives : (1) effects of using multiple intelligence theory based activities on English reading comprehension and students’ interest in learning English of Matthayomsuksa III at Taweethapisek School (2)

Questionnaire Results 1) Effects using multiple intelligence theory based activities on English reading comprehension and students’ interest in learning English of Matthayomsuksa III at Taweethapisek School The first research objective was to the effects of using multiple intelligence theory-based activities on reading comprehension and students’ interest in learning English of Matthayomsuksa III students at Taweethapisek School. The pre-test and post-test scores assessed by two raters were calculated and statistically compared to find if there was any improvement in reading comprehension and students’ interest.

Table 2 A Comparison of pre-test and posttest mean scores of Matthayomsuksa III students’ reading comprehension and interest in learning English before and after using multiple intelligences theory activities by t-test.

Test Number of Mean S.D. t-test p-value students

Pre-test (1) 49 11.14 3.464 -18.490 0.000* Post-test(2) 49 15.47 3.215

*P<.05 As shown in the table 2, the mean score of the post-test ( 15.47 ) was higher than that of the pre-test ( 11.47 ). The t-test demonstrated a significant difference between pre-test and posttest mean scores at the .05 level. The results indicated that Matthayomsuksa III students

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Conclusion and Discussion The study and the research findings are summarized. Then, the application, the limitation of this study, and the further studies are discussed.

Research Objectives and Findings The research aimed at studying the following objectives. 1. The first objective was to study the effects of using multiple intelligences theory based activities on English reading comprehension of Matthayomsuksa III students at Taweethapisek School. The findings indicated that a significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test mean scores at the .05 level. Ninety five percent of Matthayomsukasa III students improved their English for reading comprehension through multiple intelligences theory activities. Due to the process of reading comprehension through multiple intelligences theory, the students learned through the activities and reading process systematically by using communication, movement, imagination, music, logic and thinking, interpersonal, intrapersonal and observation the surroundings environments. These activities helped the students be interested in activities and learning; moreover, they comprehend the reading process better more, and helped them interpret, kept the main idea, free thinking, and conclude the story quickly. Addition to Pandum (2008) studied the relationship of multiple intelligences and adversity quotient of secondary school III students in Ratchaburi. 2. The second objective was to study the effects of using multiple intelligence intelligences theory based activities on the students’ interest in learning English of Matthayomsuksa III students at Taweethapisek School. The findings indicated that a significant difference between the pre-test and the post-test mean scores at the .05 level.

According to the students’ opinions, it was found that students agreed that the multiple intelligences theory activities helped them be interested in learning English. Moreover, students agreed that the multiple intelligences activities were interesting, motivated them to learn English comprehend grammar, vocabulary and reading skill.

In conclusion, the findings indicated that the students significantly improved their reading comprehension and students’ interest in learning English. The results proved that the multiple intelligences theory activities could help reading comprehension and students’ interest. Furthermore, it was found that the students agreed with the benefits of using multiple intelligences theory activities on reading comprehension and students’ interest in learning English.

Discussion There are two main research results to be discussed in this study. Firstly, the students’ improvement in reading comprehension in learning English after using multiple intelligences activities. And secondly, the students’ interest in learning English after using multiple intelligences improve their learning English. 1. The students’ improvement in reading comprehension in learning English after using multiple intelligences activities. Firstly, students’ reports for each lesson plan revealed that the lesson plans used in the research created a variety of activities for the students and were helpful in their learning. As

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(Hickey,2004) the theory of multiple intelligences (MI) accounts for individual differences. It helps teachers organize lessons that uniquely empower every child in the class. The theory suggests that children learn, process information and express knowledge in different ways. Moreover, in prompting the English proficiency of Thai students, educators have recognized the importance of moving away from traditional teacher – centered approaches to learner centered ones. A learner- centered approach requires substantially more than merely asking students unique. According to findings about the brain and how we learn Caine and Caine (1991), every brain is unique. We all possess the same set of brain systems that are integrated differently. In order to advocate learner –centered approach, learners should be exposed to diversified learning processes which enable them to achieve curriculum goals. This is confirmed by Gardner who argues that challenge of this millennium is whether we can make individual differences central to teaching rather than treating everyone in uniform way (as cited in Berman, 2001). Secondly, the results reading comprehension test show that the students’ reading comprehension, their improvement is better after using multiple intelligences theory activities. This indicated that the students who did not interest and comprehend the reading comprehension well in the pre-test and when using the Multiple Intelligences (MI) theory activities. According to imply of MI in the New City School began in 1988. The teachers formed teams to read chapters in The Frames of Minds.Horre (2004), reports that MI implementation allows students to practice solving real-life problems, performs well on standardized tests and strive toward excellence. As a positive side effect, the MI journey New City School also enhanced faculty collegiality (Interpersonal Intelligence). 2. The students’ interest in learning English after using multiple intelligences improve their learning English.The findings of the questionnaire revealed that the students’ interest in learning English after using multiple intelligences improve their learning English. The results indicated that the interest in learning English and the students are happy to learn English. The MI theory help them know their strong points and weak points and teachers help the students aware of the potential and the individual differences. According to Altan (2002), competent teachers must be aware of individual differences. In addition, the theory of multiple intelligences theory, students’ success does not depend merely on mathematic and linguistic skills. Rather, focus should be on all of a child’s intelligences. The theory helps students understand their abilities, recognize their strengths, work with their weaknesses and build their self confidence (Greenhawk, 1997). Another reason for the students’ reading comprehension and interest in learning English although the multiple intelligences theory activities used in this learning English focused on the students’ reading comprehension,interest and experiential learning and did not rely on lectures, some participants because they would have preferred love to perform everything in the good ways. According to Kallenbach and Viens (2004), for some learners, a traditional teaching approach is still good fit based on the lack of exposure ways to other ways of learning. This preference may have resulted from negative learning experiences which incorrectly assume that learning cannot be enjoyable. Some students might be familiar with activities that relied heavily on lecture. Due to time constraints, activities based on lectures provided the opportunities for the students to reflect or analyze to the concepts they were learning. This may have caused some difficulties in adjusting to the participative activities used in learning process.

Limitations of the Study 1.The activities was conducted in the class which was limited 50 minutes (one period) and might have affected the students’ motivation and the atmosphere in the classroom. 2. It was difficult to arrange for authentic classroom situations for the activities.

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3. The preparation of the students because there are no permanent classroom,their basic knowledge, etc.

Implications of the Study The multiple intelligences theory based activities on reading comprehension and students’ interest in learning English of Matthayomsuksa III at Taweethapisek School can be used to study for the other levels of students in order to raise their awareness of different intelligences. It can also help students’ potential and the outstanding intelligences. It helps teachers plan their lessons in a way that takes individual differences into consideration and prepare their students for real world experiences.

Recommendations For Further Studies Recommendations for further studies are presented as follows: 1. Researchers should study the effects of using multiple intelligences theory activities in writing. 2. In order to be more specific regarding the integration of MI, the activities should be constructed for use at the other levels of education. 3. It is suggested for further studies to consider time (the periods/) as important factor when designing MI based on activities. 4. It is suggested for further studies to provide authentic classroom situations for the activities where the application of MI can be evaluated in real classroom context.

The findings and discussion of this research concluded this investigation. This research adds to the insufficient body regarding MI activities among the students. The references and appendices the follow provide background.

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A Comparative Study of the Grammar-in-Context Approach and the Grammar Translation Approach in Tense Usage of Thai EFL Students

Proyfon Wongchaochan Dr. Prapaipan Aimchoo Western Languages Department, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University

Abstract The purpose of this study was to explore English language achievement of Thai university students who learn English via two different approaches, grammar-in-context and grammar translation. This study also focuses on the overall progress of the students in tense usage. The participants of the study are 59 Business English major students who are in their first year at Rambhai Barni Rajabhat University. The participants were divided into two groups and were given a 10-week treatment. The experimental group was taught by the grammar-in-context approach while the control one by the grammar translation approach. The instruments of the study are lesson plans designed according to the approaches, pretest and posttest. Data collected from the pretests and posttests of both groups were compared. and analyzed by mean scores, standard deviation, and t-test for independent samples. The findings showed a statistically significant difference in overall grammar test within each group as well as between the two groups at the .05 level. Statistically significant difference was found in overall writing test within the groups and between the two groups.

Keywords: Grammar-in-context approach, grammar translation approach

Introduction Grammar is vital for learning English language. If students have no grasp of grammar knowledge, they would not be able to form sentences in which are required to convey or communicate effectively and they would fail to understand any sentences correctly (Anugkakul, 1982). Grammar is considered to be the foundation of all language knowledge (Weaver, 1996). Studying grammar involves the learning of words, phrases, and clauses that are embedded together into sentences. Furthermore, tenses are included in area of studying grammar (Bennui, 2008). Therefore, English tenses were taught in all level of English classes in Thailand. Students can use the knowledge of grammar to listen, read, speak, and write effectively. With the realization of the importance of grammar, one of the most highly stressed points of learning a foreign language is grammar. In Thailand, one of the approaches used to teach grammar is called the Grammar Translation Approach. According to Harmer (2007), it is the idea of presenting students with short grammar rules and word lists, and giving them translation exercises in which have to make use of the same rules and words. Teaching process starts with an explanation (usually in the learner’s mother tongue) of a grammar point and practice in the application of the grammar and vocabulary of the lesson.

A number of studies reflect the problems of the grammar translation approach in teaching English language. Students lack opportunities to practice the English language (Thornbury, 1999). Moreover, learning another language in a traditional classroom is like doing a jigsaw. Instead of seeing only one piece at a time, the students should be given the whole picture or context. The result is students can only memorize the structures but cannot communicate in the real life situation (Nunan, 1998S; Sa-Ngiamwibool, 2005).

However, most educators agree today that students must eventually know how to use the language in the real situation authentic communication situations. This goal can best be

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achieved if the forms of language are presented and practiced in communicative contexts, where focus on meaning and content is primary (Hadley, 1993).

The dominance of communicative language teaching has led to one crucial aspect of language pedagogy, namely the context in which that pedagogy takes place (Bax, 2003). Weaver (1996) asserts that the grammar-in-context approach is a rationale and practical ideas for teaching grammar. It is not taught in isolation. This approach aims at communicative ability rather than language accuracy. It also helps the students to be able to communicate.

The grammar-in-context approach allows the students to perceive both forms and functions of a target grammar in a particular context and it enables the students to see different forms and functions of a target grammar in various contexts, to understand the relationships between grammar and context (Sa-Ngiamwibool, 2005). The instructional technique that allows learners to explore grammar through context has something in common with the technique of inductive approach.

The language instruction in Thailand is partially caused by the application of teaching methodologies. The researcher, therefore, has assumed that one of the two approaches (the grammar-in-context approach and the grammar translation approach) can have beneficial supports towards the students learning English. As a result, the researcher aims at studying the learning outcomes conducted by the approaches of the grammar-in-context approach and the grammar translation approach.

Purposes of the study 1. To compare the English achievement between students who learn grammar via the grammar-in-context approach with those who learn grammar via the grammar translation approach. 2. To study the overall progress of the students’ development in term of tense usage.

Research Questions 1. Are there any differences between the pretest and posttest results of the students who learn grammar by the grammar-in-context approach and the grammar translation approach? 2. How do the students who learn English language in the two approaches develop their understanding about the tenses?

Significance of the Study This study provides evidence of English writing ability and tense development through authentic text using grammar-in-context approach. The findings from this study have proven the effectiveness of the grammar-in-context approach in an English learning. EFL teachers could benefit from this study in terms of teaching writing ability.

Scope of the Study The participants of the research were 59 students purposively selected from two groups of Thai first –year Business English students who enrolled in the Forms and Usage in Modern English I in the second semester of the academic year 2011 at Rambhai Barni Rajabhat University. The 31 subjects in the experimental group received the grammar-in-context approach, and the other 28 subjects in the control group received the grammar translation approach.

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Variables Independent variables included two approaches in teaching grammar: grammar-in-context approach and grammar translation approach.Dependent variables were the Business English major students’ achievement in their use of verb tenses.

Definition of Terms Grammar-in-Context Approach refers to the teaching of grammar and context in a meaningful situation in the teaching of English (Sa-ngiamwibool, 2005). The model used in this study consists of three stages: 1) Exploration, 2) Explanation, and 3) Expression (Sysoyev, 1999).

Grammar Translation Approach refers to the traditional academic style of teaching which has always placed a heavy emphasis on grammar explanation and translation as a teaching and learning technique. The model used in this study consists of three steps: 1) Presentation, 2) Practice, and 3) Production.

Grammatical errors refer to the errors resulting from the learner’s inability to conform to the grammar rules of standard written English. This study refers to one specific aspect of grammar, which is tense. There are six tenses in this study: the simple present, present progressive, simple past, past progressive, present perfect tenses and the future simple tenses.

Tense Development refers to language processing abilities or proficiency that the learner successfully achieves in term of tense usage.

Method The research was conducted after the following procedures: 1. Participants in this research were fifty-nine first-year Business English major university students enrolled in Forms and Usage in Modern English I in the second semester of the 2011 academic year. The selection of the subjects in this study was obtained through what might be considered purposive sampling, as the researcher also taught the subjects of the study. The fifty-nine students were then randomly divided into two groups. The thirty-one subjects in the experimental group received the grammar-in-context approach, and the twenty-eight subjects in the control group received the grammar translation approach.

2. Three instruments were used in the study. The pretest and posttest test consisted of forty multiple choice questions and one writing topic. Twenty lesson plans, ten for the experimental group and the other for the control group. Rubric for writing assessment

3. The data were carefully collected through the following steps: In the first week, all fifty- nine participants were informed of the course syllabus. Then, they were given the pretest. From the second week, the researcher taught both groups as planned. The control group spent fifty minutes following the course syllabus. Afterwards, the tenses were taught using the major three steps of the grammar translation approach: presentation, practice and production. Conversely, the experimental group spent fifty minutes following the course syllabus. Students practiced applying the tenses using the grammar-in-context approach. The teaching steps consisted of three stages: Exploration, Explanation, and Expression. The exploration step in every lesson of the grammar-in-context lessons started with warm-up or lead in activities to introduce the paragraph topics, then the paragraph reading with related tenses distributed to the students for exploring the major tenses in the context. The explanation step usually began with both students and teacher in a group or as a whole class analyze forms and

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usage of the major tenses in the context. The expression step allowed the students to apply forms and usage of the tenses through written pieces of work. In week 11, the participants of both groups were given the posttest. Scores from both groups were collected. The purpose was to investigate the students’ progression of development in using the tenses.

4. Statistics used in the study were mean scores, standard deviation, and t-test for ndependent samples.

5. The data were analyzed as follows: 5.1 The grammar tests in the pretest and posttest were marked (one point per item) in order to compare the scores before and after the treatment. The mean scores of the pretest and posttest, standard deviation, and t-test for independent samples were employed to analyze the data from the grammar test.

5.2 The pre-test and the post-test writing were analyzed separately with a total score of twenty points. The scores from the multiple choice questions were not included. The fifty- nine student compositions were assigned to two qualified raters, who were also English teachers. The numbers of errors of the writing test were analyzed in tables to determine the differences before and after learning, via the two approaches. For each error, 0.5 marks were deducted from the total. The scores provided by the raters were calculated to find their coefficient and the reliability of the raters were assessed using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The individual scores provided by Rater 1 and Rater 2 were then calculated for means.

Finding The findings of the study were presented in tabular as follows: Research Question1: Are there any differences between the pretest and posttest results of the students who learn grammar by the grammar-in-context approach and the grammar translation approach?

Research Question 2: How do the students who learn English language in the two approaches develop their understanding about the tenses?

Table 1: A Comparison of the Mean Scores of Pretest and Posttest of the Control Group n Pretest Posttest (M) S.D. (M) S.D. t p-value

Grammar test 28 6.96 2.74 9.21 3.28 -5.320 .000*

Table 1 shows that the mean scores of the pretest (M= 6.96) and the posttest (M= 9.21), it is evident that the posttest score result is higher. This reveals that the mean scores of the grammar test within the control group was were significantly different at the level of .05.

Table 2: A Comparison of the Mean Scores of Pretest and Posttest of the Experimental Group n Pretest Posttest (M) S.D. (M) S.D. t p-value

Grammar test 31 10.82 1.09 12.82 1.91 -6.447 .000*

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Table 2 shows the mean score of the pretest (M=10.82) and the posttest (M=12.82), are compared, it is evident that the posttest score result is higher. This reveals that the mean scores of the grammar test within the experimental group was were significantly different at the level of .05.

Table 3: A Comparison of the Mean Scores on the Pretest of the control and experimental groups n Pretest n Pretest (M) S.D. (M) S.D. t p-value

Grammar test 28 6.96 2.74 31 10.82 1.09 -7.621 .000*

Table 3 shows that the different mean scores of the pretest obtained from the control and experimental groups. When the mean score of the control group, (M= 6.96) and the mean score of the experimental group (M=10), are compared. The mean scores of the grammar pretest from both the experimental and the control groups were significantly different at the level of .05.

Table 4: A Comparison of the Mean Scores on the Posttest of the control and experimental groups n Posttest n Posttest (M) S.D. (M) S.D. t p-value

Grammar test 28 9.21 3.28 31 12.82 1.91 -5.574 .000*

Table 4 shows that the different mean score of the control group, (M= 9.21) and the mean score of the experimental group (M=12.82), are compared. The mean scores of the grammar posttest from both the experimental and the control groups were significantly different at the level of .05. However, the scores of the experimental group were higher than those of the control group.

Table 5: A Comparison of the Mean Scores of Pretest and Posttest Writing of the Control Group n Pretest Posttest (M) S.D. (M) S.D. t p-value

Writing test 28 16.70 1.52 17.48 1.24 -4.014 .000* Table 5 shows that the mean scores of the pretest (M= 16.70) and the posttest (M= 17.48). The mean scores of students before and after the experimental were significantly different at the level of .05.

Table 6: A Comparison of the Mean Scores of Pretest and Posttest Writing of the Experimental Group n Pretest Posttest (M) S.D. (M) S.D. t p-value

Writing test 31 17.45 1.09 18.25 1.91 -6.447 .000*

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Table 6 shows the mean score of the pretest (M=10.82) and the posttest (M=12.82), are compared, it is evident that the posttest score result is higher. This reveals that the mean scores of the grammar test within the experimental group was were significantly different at the level of .05.

Table 7: A Comparison of the Mean Scores of Pretest of the Control and Experimental Groups n Pretest n Pretest (M) S.D. (M) S.D. t p-value

Writing test 28 16.70 1.52 31 17.45 1.02 -2.263 .032*

Table 7 shows that the different mean scores of the pretest obtained from the control and experimental groups. When the mean score of the control group, (M= 16.70) and the mean score of the experimental group (M=17.45), are compared. The mean scores in the writing pretest from both the experimental and the control groups were significantly different at the level of .05.

Table 8: A Comparison of the Mean Scores of Posttest of the Control and Experimental Groups n Posttest n Posttest (M) S.D. (M) S.D. t p-value

Writing test 28 17.48 1.24 31 18.25 .84 -2.583 .016*

Table 8 shows that the different mean score of the control group, (M= 9.21) and the mean score of the experimental group (M=12.82), are compared. The mean scores in the writing posttest from both the experimental and the control groups were significantly different at the level of .05. However, the scores of the experimental group were higher than those of the control group.

In terms of the qualitative findings, both the experimental and the control groups were assigned to write paragraphs before and after the lesson. Regarding the experimental group, the participants mostly showed the improvement of grammar knowledge after they were taught by the approach of the grammar-in-context. They remarkably gained confidence in the written compositions. When the writing scores of the control group was analyzed, the researcher found that the participants showed the less errors in the aspect of unclear meaning after they had more chances to see plenty of grammatical sentences from the text. Where the experimental group was concerned, they might have benefited from experiencing those correct usages of grammar and tenses from the given article.

Data from 8 tables has been used to answer both research questions.

Discussion The findings of this research displayed both of the two groups; the experimental group learned English grammar via the grammar –in- context approach, and the control group learned English grammar via the grammar translation approach improved their English ability in term of tense usage. The details of the findings were discussed in the next section.

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The students in the control group gained a significant higher score after receiving the grammar translation. The mean scores of the control group were significantly different at the level of .05. The fist reason to support the findings was because the grammar translation lessons were started by presenting the grammatical rules. According to Freeman (1986) and Hadley (1986), presenting and explaining rules of each tense with learners’ native language help them become more familiar with the grammar rules. In addition, the students in the control group practiced a sentence writing every two weeks. To do this probably helped them to improve their writing skill. Moreover, this research studied the comparison of the two approaches; grammar translation and grammar- in-context on students’ tense usage improvement. After practicing, the findings revealed that the overall mean scores of the students in the experimental group were significantly higher after using the grammar-in- context approach. It also showed statistically significant difference between the experimental group and the control group. In the case of overall writing quality, there was statistical significant difference between the experimental and the control groups. The students in the experimental group improved their tense usage development because the model of the grammar-in-context approach consists of three steps which are the Exploration step, the Explanation step, and the Expression step. It was found that the Exploration step provided students’ opportunities to discover tense and sentence patterns in the text by themselves. They had chances to experience several sentences containing correct usage of tenses and they could analyze what verb tenses were shown in the text. It means that the more the students have chances to see the texts with modeled sentences, the more they get the forms and patterns of the tense usage, which is consistent with the previous study of Sa-ngiamwibool (2005). Sa-ngiamwibool mentioned that this step allowed the learners to explore the target grammar in various contexts, notice it, inductively discover its rule or rules, and make a decision in applying the rule or rules in other contexts. Also, the Explanation step encouraged students to analyze forms and usage. In addition, the Expression step allowed the students to apply forms and usage through written pieces of work. According to Sysoyev (1999), he mentioned that this step helped students focus equally on form and on meaning in using their language in communication.

Suggestion As the findings of this research revealed, the paragraph topic did not allow and facilitate the learners to create sentences with the use of major six tenses. However, students can be motivated to write more, not only in a paragraph of at least 10 sentences. The free writing composition can be used in the next research in order to evaluate other content areas of language.

Recommendations for Further Studies Writing is the passive skill which students produce the language after they have learned, especially from reading. Therefore, researchers should apply the grammar-in-context to study the relationship between reading and writing.

Limitation of the Study 1. Although students in two groups were randomly chosen with the same major. They have similar experience and backgrounds in learning language; the English level of each group is considered a mixed ability class which created a large gap through the experiment. As a results comparison between the control and experimental groups are made more difficult.

2. This study focused on accuracy of six tenses and did not touch other accuracy of grammar and content. As a result, most students corrected only errors indicated by the teacher.

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References Anugkakul, K. (1982). The Achievement of English Grammatical Structure Learning of Mathayomsuksa 3 students in Bangkok Metropolis. Bangkok: Graduate school, Srinakharinwirot University. Bax, S. (2003). The end of CLT: a context approach to language teaching. English Language Teaching Journal, 57: 278-287. Bennui, P. (2008). A Study of L1 Interference in the writing of Thai EFL Students. Malaysian Journal Of ELT Research, Vol. 4, pp.72-102. Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English. Person Education Limited. Nunan, D. (1998). Teaching grammar in context. ELT Journal, 52:101 Sa-Ngiamwibool, A. (2005). Developing a Grammar-in-Context Model for EFL Adult Learners. Suranaree University of Technology. Thornbury, S. (1999). How to Teach Grammar. Person Education Limited. Weaver, C. (1996). Teaching grammar in context. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

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Man and Technology: Alienation in Ray Bradbury’s “The Murderer”

Artittaya Phumphiboon Asst. Prof. Dr. Supaporn Yimwilai Department of Western Languages, Faculty of Humanities, Srinakarinwirot University

Abstract This study was aimed to examine the relationship between man and technology, and the impacts of technology on the main character in Ray Bradbury’s short story, “The Murderer.” The researcher employed the concept of alienation in order to examine the main character’s sense of alienation in technological society. After the investigation, it was found that the relationship between man and technology was negative if people were dominated by technology. In the society full of various kinds of technology, the main character struggled with the impact of technology; he felt alienated. He was found alienated in various aspects: powerless, meaningless, normless and social-isolated.

Keywords: alieanation, technology, science fiction , slave morality

Introduction In the past, man dreamed of a utopian society where technology could make life much more convenient, but these positives are often counteracted by an equal or even greater amount of negatives. Since the realization that technology could lead to manipulation and dependency, the effects of technology on humans have been a major topic of debate. Throughout history, man has been sounding this alarm in many forms, with books, articles, movies, plays and science fictions being the reactionary works against technology. Science fiction presents the common theme of the reaction against the influence of science and technology over mankind. Science fiction was used as a device for communication. Because science fiction can delve into the future, it is the perfect tool by which to demonstrate consequences of modernity. Science fictions do not only portray the future ramifications of technology, but also provide a reflection of the society in which we currently live. We are able to see our present society and ourselves. In other words, science fictions are the outstanding instruments for social criticism. Consequently, this study is aimed to remind readers of the effects caused by technology on human presented in a science fiction short story of Ray Bradbury.

Objectives The main purposes of the study are to examine the relationship between man and technology, and to investigate the impacts of technology on the main character in Ray Bradbury’s short story “The Murderer.”

Conceptual Frameworks In this study, theory of alienation was employed as tools for the analysis. In the Marxian sense, under capitalism, Karl Marx believed that industrial workers would inevitably be alienated by work process (Cox 6). Based on Marx’s Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, alienated labor is distinguished by four major aspects: alienation from work, alienation from product of labor, alienation from other fellow men, and alienation from human nature. The worker is alienated from the product because they can never possess the products of their own labor since the products are transferred and belonged to someone else.Base on the class structure of society, the workers are also alienated from those who exploit their labor and control the things they produce. Finally, the workers become alienated from his human species or nature because working phenomenon degenerates them to the

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same species of animals: eating, drinking, and procreating (Ollman 152). Alienated, in Marx’s view, thus plays a crucial role in leading to social revolution to change society toward a non-alienated future.The Marxist’s concept pointed out that workers experienced the feeling of alienation because his nature is destroyed during the production system of capitalism driven by the capitalist and machine.

Furthermore, alienation is the feeling of the lack of trust in one’s social or physical environment or oneself. Raymond L. Calabrese states that alienation is dissatisfaction with one’s personal existence. It is an estrangement from one’s social group such as family, workplace, or community (116). Alienation is also the result of the search for individual’s identity when the answer cannot be trusted (117). The alienation of the individuals is the feeling of malaise or illness toward self and life expressing through mood, thought, and appearance (Warren 294). In “Encyclopedia of Psychology,” alienation is the state causing conflict such as self-alienation, loss of a sense of identity, a feeling of depersonalization which comes from some environmental pressure(8).

In conclusion, alienation means a concept describing the estrangement or the feelings of individuals from the society, work, products of work, a specific situation or process and self. It is a source of the lack of trust in one’s social or physical environment or oneself. The alienation of the individuals is the feeling expressing through moods, thought, and appearances. Many writers noted that one of the main causes of alienation is rapid social change including technological development, which at least three different types of alienated behavior. The first type is man’s inability to adapt to rapid change. The second is related to social change, which has produced a trend towards urban living, and results in depersonalized living relationship. Third, social upheaval has introduced doubts and finally disagreements about all types of behavioral standards. Since social change has an alienating effect on man’s relationship to the world around him; therefore, it is very interesting to investigate the alienation of humans in the modern technological world. In this study, the researcher will focus on alienation caused by technology.

However, technology has been being developed very fast and the world has been rapidly transformed. The more the world is changed, the more the world becomes strange for humans and they finally experience the state of alienation. According to Melvin Seeman, alienation can be categorized into five types: powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, social isolation and self-estrangement (783). These five types of alienation caused by technology are viewed as what threaten human existence embedded on their culture and societal norm. In addition, they have varied degrees of alienation, which alienate people from human nature. 1. Powerlessness means the lack of strength or absence of power. People who feel powerless may feel out of control, hesitant, afraid and unwilling to express their feelings and fearful. It leads people to self-abusive behaviors, compulsive behaviors, or depression. 2. Meaninglessness means having no goals or emptiness. People who feel meaning less sense a lack of purpose in life and live their lives purposeless. It leads them to despair, alienation and confusion. 3. Normlessness means the individuals’ subjective estrangement from social norms that guide behaviors and their adaptation of unapproved ways to achieve means. People suffering normlessness have lost all personal sense of social obligation or trust in others. 4. Social Isolation means the sense of loneliness and separation from others. An isolated individual does not have the normal social supports to cope with stress. They respond to life problems with nonconventional reactions.

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5. Self- estrangement means alienation from the self. The individual is estranged from himself because he alienates from ideal human condition and human nature. Data Analysis To analyze the study, the researcher examines the impacts of technology by employing the theory of alienation as a tool to analyze. The aspects of alienation are then investigated on the main character, Albert Brock in “The Murderer.”

Results “The Murderer” is Ray Bradbury’s short story in the collection of short stories entitled The Golden Apple of the Sun. The protagonist of the story is Mr. Albert Brock, a man who feels uncomfortable to live his life like other people in his society. He lives in the society where all people are engaged in the activities involving technology: listening to music, watching motion pictures, talking on the phone, or communicating in some other ways. His uncomfortable feeling about technology has increased until he feels that technology threatens his life. He decides to do something against the technology; he destroys all technology in his life. He calls himself the murderer because he kills the machines he has met. His unusual behaviors lead him to be sent to meet the psychiatrist in the Office of Mental Health Center.During the interview of psychiatrist, Brock reveals the aspects of alienation He is considered alienated in three aspects: powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, social- isolation and self-estrangement.

Powerlessness The definition of the powerlessness could be used to understand the sources and reasons for Brock’s state of powerlessness in the technological society. He lacked of power and significance because his life was not under his own control but was determined by external agents: machines and people in the society and that were the cause of powerlessness of Brock during the story.

The First External Agent: Machines The power and significance of Brock were lost since he realized that machines were beyond control and became the powerful agents over him. In the story, machines were the very necessary part of people and got too involve in every step of human’s life, especially, the communicative machines: telephones, wrist-radios-devices people wore on their wrists used to call others, and intercom-devices used to communicate or announce in a building. During the story, Brock’s powerlessness was expressed through the way machine threatened his life and his terrifying feeling about machines.

The threatening of machines appeared since Brock’s life absolutely depended on machines. Every step of his habit was automatically arranged and controlled by machines. The machine beds rocked him sleep and shook him awake. A house sang opera to him during showering and created sounds in every comer: poetry reading, weather reporting, novel reciting and crooning-when-he-go-to-bed. Even in his sleep, the house taught Spanish to him. A door could blame him before entering the house if his shoes were dirty. A vacuum chased to swallow every dust or ash he dropped. Brock felt nervous of the machines and felt uncomfortable to be controlled by the machines. He said “One of those blathering caves where all kinds of electronic Oracles make you feel a trifle larger than a thimble” (80). As a result, he began to destroy all machines in his house.

According to Jashinsky and Smothers, when individuals feel powerless, they may feel hesitant, afraid and fearful (1269-70). This can be seen in the story that Brock demonstrated

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228 his sense of powerlessness with communicative technology by expressing fearfulness of them. Even though, in the beginning of the story, Brock tried to show psychiatrist that he predominated over all machines by using the word “victim” in the beginning of the interview when he talked about the ruined machine. As he said, “Fine. The first victim, or one of the first, was my telephone. (76)” That was just the way Brock used to express against the dominance of technology because during the rest of the interview, he revealed his fear and paranoid of machine. When the psychiatrist asked Brock to narrate why he hated the telephone, Brock expressed his feeling that he was frightened and feared by telephone and it made him feel powerless. He said that “It frightened me as a child” (76). The metaphor “as a child” inferred that Brock felt he lacked of power and was controlled by telephone.

Brock tried to describe how scary the telephone was. He explained that “Uncle of mine called it the Ghost Machine. Voices without bodies. Scared the living hell out of me” (76). Comparing to the ghost machine, Brock clearly showed his horrifying feeling toward the telephones that they were as the devices connected him with a ghost since there were sounds coming without bodies.

The fearfulness made him feel unpleasant and he emphasized that life with machines was uncomfortable as he said “Later in life I was never comfortable.(76)” Brock added more descriptions that the phone could control human’s behaviors by making man become impersonal. People became impersonal because with no reality, no real voices and no real feelings, it was easier for people to say anything they wanted via the phones whether it was good or bad, right or wrong and true or false. Man is not the person who controls the phone; on the other hand, he is controlled by it. Brock told his feeling of being controlled by telephone that “Seemed to me a phone was an impersonal instrument. If it felt like it, it let your personality go through its wires. If it didn’t want to, it just drained your personality away until what slipped through at the other end was some cold fish of a voice, all steel, copper, plastic, no warmth, no reality. It’s easy to say the wrong things on telephones; the telephone changes your meaning on you” (76).

The Second External Agent: People in the society Besides being controlled by the telephone, Brock also thought that communicative technology was a convenient tool for others used to dominate him. Brock felt lack of strength to cope with communicative technology. He thought that telephones and wrist watches were the tools used to dominate human’s life. They were used to call someone whether he wanted to be called or not. Brock thought that he was called by anyone, anytime and anywhere. He said that “Then, of course, the telephone’s such a convenient thing; it just sits there and demands you call someone who doesn’t want to be called. Friends were always calling, calling, calling me. Hell, I hadn’t any time of my own” (76). He was called by his wife to report where he was now. He was called by his friends to listen what his friends wanted to express. Moreover, he was called by strangers to do poll question and even advertising. Therefore, he thought that he was threatened by both the telephones and the wrist watches and the people who used them. As he expressed in the story “…‘Convenient for who?’ I cried. Convenient for friends… Convenient for my office, so when I’m in the field with my radio car there’s no moment when I’m not in touch ” (78).

Brock describes the word “in touch” as a threaten power which made him suffer. He felt uncomfortable to be in touch all the time. It liked he was controlled by others all the time. He expressed his negative feeling about the word “in touch” that “In touch! There’s a slimy

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phrase” (78). Moreover, he felt the ways people and technology could be in touch him all the time make him powerless he tried to describe using the word “grip”, “paw”, and “maul” instead of the word “touch”. In the story, he said that “Touch, hell. Gripped! Pawed, rather. Mauled and massages and pounded by FM voices ” (78).

Meaninglessness In “The murderer”, meaninglessness of the protagonist, Mr. Albert Brock, were described during the story. Brock was narrated as a purposeless person. He preferred life without technology, but it is unavoidably in the society; he has no choices and that leads him meaningless.

Brock sensed a lack of purpose in life and lived his life purposeless because what Brock preferred and what social systems allowed became inverted. Brock despaired to live in the society, which is full of technology because he thought it is too late to oppose the major group of the society. As he said, “They were almost toys, to be played with, but the people got too involved, went too far, and got warpped up in a pattern of social behavior and couldn’t get out, couldn’t admit they were in, even”(81).

Normlessness Since normlessness is the lack of commitment to shared social conventions of behaviors, Brock was considered normlessness because his thought, feeling and behaviors were considered abnormal and completely unacceptable to others. His actions were totally different from the main stream’s norm in the society.

“The Murderer” portrayed the technological society where people were too addicted with machines. They preferred to spend life with technology. All people were busy dealing with communication units. They enjoyed music coming from every direction and every corner of the building like it moved with them all the time. There were voices said from ceiling of the building, from wrist radios and telephones. Televisions, phonographs, or any motion pictures were projected everywhere. The society was completely busy with all kinds of machines. As Bradbury narrated in the story:

“When it wasn’t telephone it was the television, the radio, the phonograph. When it wasn’t the television, the radio, the phonograph it was motion pictures at the corner theatre,…it was music by Mozzek in every restaurant; music and commercial on the buses… and my [Brock’s] horror chamber of a radio wrist watch on which my friend and my wife phoned every five minutes.”(76-77)

Contrasting to the busy society, Brock preferred silence. He hatefully refused technology and did not follow the main norm of the majority. In consequence, he was considered a psychotic man and needed help, as in the story: “I’m here to help you, said the psychiatrist, frowning” (75). Finally, he got a punishment for his actions and was sent to the Office of Mental Health Center. In the opening scene, Bradbury contrasts the full of music scene with the quiet room where Brock is confined. When the psychiatrist entered the room he felt that the room was unusual as Bradbury explained “the psychiatrist sat across from his patient [Brock] in the unusual silence which was like the gathering of a storm”(75). As normally being busy with machines, the psychiatrist, one of the main streams of the society, sensed that being in silence was wrong and uncomfortable. Using the words “unusual silent” was the way Bradbury wanted to show that silence was something considered should not be happened in the normal situation in the society which could refer that Brock was considered as an unusual man.

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Although Brock was consider abnormal by the people in the society , he continued protesting technology. In the beginning of the story, Brock openly showed everybody in the society that he hated technology by destroying all public machines: bus radio and intercom in his office. As a result, he got punishment and the people in the society angrily glared at him because he made them missed the connection via machines. Therefore, the psychiatrist suggested Brock to protest by following rules of the society. He asked Brock to join a fraternity of radio haters and to protest legally. The psychiatrist used the word “democracy” to refer that the things that Brock had done is not acceptable in the society. However, Brock had joined the fraternity, but it was not successful. On the other hand, he was laugh at by others who thought what was he doing was nonsense and crazy. As he said, “I did join fraternities, picket, pass petitions, take it to court. Year after year I protested. Everyone laughed” (79).

That makes Brock realizes that he had the different norm from the others in the society as he said “And I, said Brock am that thing best called a minority” (79). He tried to follow the norm of the society that following the steps of protesting legally but he thought that as being the minority in the society, what he did is always neglected. And he thought he was astray. As he said “I was out of steps.(79)” When he could not rely on the norm of the society, he became normlessness. The effect of normlessness is to introduce alienation, isolation and desocalization. Therefore, individuals lose the sense of what is right or wrong. However, the psychiatrist tried to ensure Brock to follow the rules in the society which was considered the majority rules that Brock must follow. But Brock begins to commit crime, killing his own technology.

Social-isolation At the end of the story, Brock showed the sense of social-isolation since he tried to move himself out of the busy society. At first, Brock tried to show others people that machines were not good for human by protesting openly, but He was not accepted. In addition, being in the society, Brock unavoidably faced using devices, or the people who used them. He had no choices, so he decided to create his own atmosphere. He tried to move far away from the connection to others in the society. He began to destroy all busy machines in his house and preferred the silence that happened next. As he said, “Silence happened next. God, it was beautiful” (78). Since being in the society mean connecting with others and facing many kinds of technology, Brock decided to exile himself out of the society with no machines and no people. He compared his action that it was as he closed a door and locked by a big bolt. As he said: “I just rode around feeling of the silence. It’s a big bolt of the nicest, softest flannel ever made”(79).

“The Murderer” is one of Ray Bradbury’s short stories that can represent the issue of the negative effect of technology. Also, the experiences of alienation as presented through the protagonist, Mr. Albert Brock. He is considered the alienated person since he lives in the society with the states of powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, and social-isolation.

Technology in Brock’s Society In “The Murderer”, people in the society are totally depended on various kinds of machines and they become a part in human’s life. Technology is so advanced and can do everything like human. It becomes a member of the family since at home it can provide everything for human: cleaning house, preparing meals, being a friend, singing and reading. It is also the member of the society since in the public place people in the society are engaged in the activities involving of technology: listening to music, watching motion pictures, talking,

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231 talking on the phones or communicate in other ways. However the most concerned thing is that technology unknowingly intervene the relationship of people in the society. They gradually prefer to connect with artificial machines rather than to interact with their real own specie. No one in the society concerns about this point but Brock naturally realizes the consequences.He tries to escape from what his society is as a result he senses alienation.

Brock is considered alienated in four aspects: powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, and social-isolation. During the story, it can be seen very clearly that Brock feels the state of powerlessness in the technological society. He lacked of power and significance because his life was not under his own control but was determined by external agents: machines and people in the society and that were the cause of powerlessness of Brock during the story. In “The murderer”, meaninglessness of the protagonist, Brock, are describe during the story. Brock was narrated as a purposeless person. He preferred life without technology, but it is unavoidably in the society; he has no choices and that leads him meaningless. Brock was considered normlessness because his thought, feeling and behaviors were considered abnormal and completely unacceptable to others. His actions were totally different from the main stream’s norm in the society. At the end of the story, Brock showed the sense of social- isolation since he tried to move himself out of the busy society.

References Buff, Carol. “Meaning of Life.” Encyclopedia of Psychology. New York:Oxford University Press. 2000. Print. Bradbury, Ray. The Golden Apples of the Sun. London: Transworld Publishers, 1956. Calabrese, Raymond L. “Alienation.” Encyclopedia of Psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. 2000. Print. Cox, Judy. “An Introduction to Marx’s Theory of Alienation.” International Socialism. Web. 1998.1-18. 24 March 2010. Jashinsky, Terri L. and Smothers, Melissa K. “Power and Powerless.” Encyclopedia of Counseling. USA:SAGE Publications, Inc., 2008. Print. Ollman, Bertell. Alienation: Marx’s Conception of Man in Capitalist Society. Eds. Maurice Cowling et.al. Cambridge :Cambridge Up, 1976. Print. Seeman, Melvin. “On the Meaning of Alienation.” American Sociological Review 24(6), 1959.Print. Warren, Donald I. “Alienation.” Grolier Academic Encyclopedia. 1991. Print.

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Committee

Conference President Dr. Prapaipan Aimchoo

Secretariat Asst. Prof. Dr. Supaporn Yimwilai Mr. Pornpol Wuttikrikunlaya

Organizing Committee Registration 1. Asst. Prof. Nittaya Wangkangwan 2. Ms. Wiraya Dankamphaengkaew 3. Ms. Niramol Tajakan 4. Ms. Sasibut Eakpirompong 5. Dr. Sunporn Eiammongkhonsakun

Master of Ceremony 1. Dr. Anchalee Jansem 2. Asst . Prof. Dr. Kittipol Tinothai 3. Mr. Narathip Thumawongsa 4. Mr. Prin Tanawong 5. Ms. Fuanglada Chomchuen 6. Ms. Suchada Boon-itt

Academic Affair 1. Asst. Prof. Dr. Supaporn Yimwilai 2. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nitaya Suksaeresup 3. Dr. Sirinan Srinaowaratt 4. Asst. Prof. Penny Diskaprakai 5. Ms. Saranya Tarat 6. Ms. Supatcharee Manatat 7. Ms. Worasiri Boonsue

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Public Relations 1. Ms. Aranya Srijongjai 2. Ms. Warintorn Dandee 3. Mr. Nantawat Kunyatong 4. Dr. Usaporn Sucaromana

Finance and Meal 1. Ms. Sunee Wongwien 2. Asst. Prof. Duangchai Amrapala 3. Ms. Rossana Muttawee 4. Asst. Prof. Nattha Kaewcha

Evaluation 1. Ms. Sombun Piyasinchart 2. Dr. Walaiporn Chaya 3. Ms. Panwadee Mesnukul 4. Ms. Supatcha Jennasombut

Venue and Audio –Visual Aids 1. Ms. Piyawan Kullamai 2. Mr. Chan Boonnak 3. Mr.Pratya Kana 4. Mr. Siriwat Wongudomsin 5. Dr. Somsak Kaewnuch

Reader Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tipa Thep-Ackarapong Assoc. Prof. Chaleawsri Phiboonchon Asst. Prof. Dr. Ubon Sanpatchayapong Asst. Prof. Kanjana Charttrakul Asst. Prof. Dr. Supaporn Yimwilai Dr. Narat Kanpracha Dr. Tuangtip Klinbubpha

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