Cultural Trauma as a grid for Theatre History Studies
I start thanking Laura Izarra for making SPECTRESS happen in University of São Paulo, where we have now a permanent group on Cultural Trauma Studies. The Bibliography I present in the end it is one of the achievements of this group that have been working both with the inputs of visitors from foreign universities as well as with the contributions of USP researchers that went abroad. My own investigation started, moved by the SPECTRESS Project but conjoining with the research on Theatre History I was involved with. Since I was planing to make an specific research on the so called Yeats “dance plays”, or “Noh plays” and touched by the coincidence of Yeats having staged the first of these plays, “At the Hawks Well” in London, for a small public of British aristocrats and, after, in second session, to a war charity organized by the Royals, three weeks before the Easter Rising, I’ve found interesting to investigate whether this apparently, at least, ironic fact, of the most important National poet be so distant from that events at the time they happened, could be better examined. My first, and today I can say, naïve hypothesis, was that the political tensions that preceded and conspired to the emergence of the Rising, which actually at that time I totally ignored, could have fuelled an escapist movement of Yeats, from his commitment with a National and popular Theatre to a more formalistic and aristocratic theatrical perspective. In psychoanalytical terms Yeats dance plays would had reflected a reaction to the eminent Civil war after 1912, and even towards de First World War, after 1914, and, the continuity of their writing in the same mood in the years that followed the Rising – “The only Jealousy of Emer” and “The Dreaming of the Bones” in 1919, and “Calvary” in 1920 – would express a traumatic reverberation and histrionic forsake of the actual civil war that would emerge in 1922. Well I didn’t know very much about the rising at that time, and less yet about the dispositions of Yeats towards it. In fact the most I knew about him was related with the partnership he had with English scenographer and theatre director Gordon Craig between 1910 and 1913, which resulted in the adoption by the Abbey Theatre of a Craig’s invention, the so called “screens”, in the production of a few plays, most notably in the 1911’s production of The Hour Glass. I had studied deeply this partnership two years ago through their exchange of letters, researching in the Craig’s archives on the Bibliotheque National de France, in Paris, and in the Victoria & Albert Museum, in London. Well I’ll come back to this soon. Before I must develop a bit the point about trauma issue and how this time I’ve been spending in Dublin, since January, and everything I could get about the Rising and about Yeats’s “Plays for Dancers”, have changed my mind about that first hypothesis. My new Hypothesis, built in the two months research I did in Dublin, is that Yeats doesn’t seem to have been traumatized in any way at all. On the contrary, I will try briefly to sustain, the answers that he gave as an artist and as a public man, reflect more his awareness of the importance of answering in some way to those facts, even that these answers were more staged than really deeply felt, or expression of a traumatic grief. In other words, Yeats reacted to the Easter Rising directly and pragmatically. He wrote, at least one famous poem and one play that explicitly mentioned it, and came back to the theme until his last and testimonial play The Death of Cuchulain. What I’m saying is that these answers don’t expressed a traumatic reaction in anyway and configured, much more, a very studied and detached response to it, dealing with the situation in a cold, for not saying cynical, manner. Let’s examine some facts. It’s historical. The tensions between Yeats and the Irish Nationalism began much earlier than the 1916 episodes. We can think here in two kinds of tensions. One that would be an internal, and never completely solved, in his own dramaturgy, between a highly lyricist approach and a more dramatic drive; and other between his project of a National drama captured through the old Celtic myths and a highly intellectual poetry, and the more realistic and naturalistic strategies, as for example that ones adopted by John Synge and Sean O’Casey in their dramaturgy. Well we could say that the happenings of the 1910’s could have pushed an intensification of this previous tensions towards a radical move in Yeats theatre to a more abstract drama, with much more intensified lyric drives than before, and this time incorporating the dance, as a language in itself, and the Noh theatre and its way to deal with metaphysical matters. But we couldn’t go further than this. Taking now the immediate and known reactions of Yeats to the Rising, lets examine two of them. Firstly we can face his poem “Easter 1916’ through the reaction it provoked in his beloved Maud Gone. We could imagine how important would be for him her opinion about it, but we should say that his poetic integrity spoke more louder than his affections and couldn’t uncover the detached manner with which he dealt with the Rising. Maud Gone wrote in a letter of November 8th from 1916: “No I don’t like your poem, it isn’t worthy of you and above all it isn’t worthy of the subject – Though it reflects your present state of mind perhaps, it isn’t quite sincere enough for you who have studied philosophy & know something of history. Know quite well that sacrifice has never turned a heart to stone though it has immortalized many & through it alone mankind can rise to God…There are beautiful lines in your poem, as there are in all you write but it is not a great WHOLE, a living thing which our race would treasure & repeat & which would have avenged our material failure by its spiritual beauty”. (GONNE, 1992, p. 217) A second fact that can be mentioned is the one related to repercussion of the Rising in the Abbey Theatre. As you probably know at least half of the actors and actress of the theatre was involved directly in the Easter Rising’s events, and one of them, Sean Connolly, died during the combats. Another member of the theatre, the prompter, Bernard Murphy, was responsible for saving under the Abbey’s stage, arms and pamphlets. Well, in the week of the Rising and in the following weeks there was a split between these artists politically engaged and the director of the theatre at that time, John Irvine, who was a Unionist. In the minute book of the 5th of June, the first after the Rising, which relate the meeting between Yeats, Lady Gregory, and Fred Harry, the auditor and a forth member of the board, Mr. W. Bailey, we can read: “The matter of the dismissal of the company on the 27th May, 1916, was then discussed. This dismissal was decided upon the recommendation of M. St. John Ervine, manager whose statement as to acts of insubordination and failure to attend a special rehearsal in Limerick of The Playboy of the Western World made this dismissal necessary. A wok’s notice was given to the players concerned but the players refused to perform during the week of the notice, and the company disbanded. The best means of getting together a new company was then considered. After a long discussion an arrangement was come to by the Directors and members present that the theatre would be closed for an indefinite period until such time as a Company could be got together again”. Although it seems implicit that the split in the company provoked by the Rising couldn’t be ignored, the simple fact that that meeting treats it as a single case of insubordination, without even mentioning those tragic events of two months before, it is enough to show how detached Yeats and Lady Gregory actually were from that events. Well, these two mentioned evidences could be seen as external facts towards my original object, the “Plays for Dancers”. So, we go now to the plays in themselves, trying to find out whether they reflect in anyway some anxiety of Yeats towards the political and military crashes of that period. We can say that amongst a lot of recent approaches to the matter the best answer I’ve found is in a recent article from Chris Morash, “The Dreaming of the Bones and 1916”, in which, besides recognizing a certain bewilderment of Yeats and an attempt of reviewing and in a certain way sublimating it, Morash show clearly how there is, mainly, detachment and a certain irony in his approach. Dreaming of the Bones would be a rhetoric strategy to deal with that surprising and uncomfortable situation, besides being actually, artistically, the best realized as expression of this Yeats’s formal turn. Now I would like to quickly mention the profitable way in which my specific research on The Plays for Dancers developed in this period. Yeats’s “Plays for Dancers” have been read by scholar approach as mainly derived from a turn of the Irish poet, made in early 1910s, towards the Japanese Noh theatre. They were taken also as a necessary step in his own Theatrical philosophy, preparing his mature works in prose, like A Vision of 1925. Although most of these readings recognize that Gordon Craig has gave some inputs to this Yeats movement, almost all restrain this influence to the mask issue, and even the few that points to Craig’s screens as relevant in the matter don’t go further than just mentioning it as a minor fact. My point here is to suggest that the so called Craig’s “Scene Project”, and the models he built to sustain it, were not just crucial for the building of the new concept of theatrical space that emerges clearly in the Yeats’s Plays for Dancers, but, even supposedly discarded after 1913, have long lasted as very much useful in Yeats further productions of that plays in the Abbey theatre. Yeats made a strong use of the lessons Craig gave to him about staging, what indeed he recognized at the time it happened, but, afterwards, was keen in totally omitting it, mentioning Craig shortly and rarely after the first staging of At Hawks Well, in London, in 19161. From then on, he always stressed the stage strategies implied in that plays as his own “invention”, no mentioning Craig, even if it just as an inspiration, anymore. I’m writing an article where I’ll try to suggest that although Craig and his screens have stayed literally in the shadows of that project, they were its axial support until late times, as for example in the Abbey Theatre’s productions of The Dreaming of the Bones in 1931, and of At The Hawks Well in 1933. Actually, there
1 “Certain Noble Plays”. are strong evidences that Yeats assumption that he has invented his own way to stage that plays is unsustainable, built on a self-created myth, and in a reverential scholar’s reading of his plays based only in stage directions and supported not in actual but rather imaginary staging. Supporting this presumption I’ve found a designed sheet of paper, in the prompt book from the 1931’s production of “The Dreaming of the Bones”, which shows how Craig’s screens were literally still being used by the Abbey Theatre at that time, and under Yeats supervision. I have also discovered in the Abbey’s promptbook of the “At the Hawks well production”, in the work copy of William O’Gorman, the actor that makes the role of young Cuchulain, or the Young Man as the stage direction name it (he is also the Young Man in the 1931 production of “The Dreaming of the Bones”, written in pencil writing “behind the screen”, just in the moment that the character gets out of the scene. So with these two strong evidences and discussing with all the scholars that wrote about “The Plays for Dancers”, I’m proposing a revision of previous assumptions about Yeats’s theatre. Actually, we could say that although looking for the trauma issue in Yeats I’ve found another matter, more related to my previous research on Yeats and Craig. These founds couldn’t really answer my first doubts about Yeats supposed hysterical movement towards the historical and social trauma of Ireland independence war years, but at least enabled me to be introduced to the complex field of cultural trauma studies, in which a feel myself as a beginner and towards which I will try to go deeper from now on. Even though, I could develop in this Trinity College Dublin stay some reasoning about the matter. The common sense idea of trauma, thought in a collective perspective (Holocaust, Wars, revolutions) or in a psychological and individual one (sexual abuse, violent losses) implies in a dialectics of the memory between those things that we cannot remember (the unbearable pains, or experiences) an the ones we are not able to forget, even trying desperately to avoid. The trauma would be that thing that inscribes itself in a soul/memory, in a psychological view, or in a nation mentality, in a more anthropological and sociological perspective, till the point that even when is repressed, contained, or apparently erased, insists in come back, emerging involuntarily. The trauma will be always returning to haunt the consciences/souls with its not extinguishable presence. Not dealing with these memories brings neurosis, and forcing oneself to face them in all their impossible bearableness brings a possibility of cure, or at least of relief. Well for all I saw and heard of the Easter Rising, and fortunately there was a lot of information playing around in the period I was in Dublin, between January and March of 2016, it doesn’t seem to me that it was technically a cultural traumatic event in itself. I’m not diminishing the pain and tragic consequences of the Rising, and the hundreds of people who died have all my respect, but what I’m saying is that, contrarily to the classic cultural traumatic events which are unforgettable or impossible to be erased, the Easter Raising in particular was since the beginning an sacrificial effort strategically thought to be always remembered. Whether because it was consciously staged as a flag or message for the future generations, and undoubtedly it was very effective indeed as a fundamental root of the Irish Republic, or because was immediately historicized and captured politically by all its agents as something that shouldn’t be forgot, as Professor David Fitzpatrick has brilliantly showed in a speech in Trinity College in January 26th named “Instant History: 1912, 1914, 1916”. From the point of view of trauma, as we can find in the dictionary the taken from Greek word, it would mean literally ‘ wound ’: a deeply distressing or disturbing experience; emotional shock following a stressful event of physical injury, which may lead to a long-term neurosis; physical injury.” In fact, the Irish historical event that I didn’t hear many people talking, and indeed, from which I felt a great difficult in hear anybody saying something about is the civil war that followed the Independence treatise, and in which Irish killed Irish based on the disagreements with the solutions brought after the war against the British. It is in this matter, and in the difficulties I’ve noticed Irish people have to deal with, that, I can presume, there is actually a traumatic experience deeply collective and generalised, that deserve to be better examined. As Christian Wicke, who was a SPECTRESS researcher in São Paulo last year has pin pointed in his report, we could accept here Jeffrey Alexander’s distinction between “socially constructed cultural trauma”, and “real trauma”. In this sense, it’s worthy to mention yet some happy coincidences, with which I was gifted in this travel research on cultural trauma in Ireland, related with Yeats’ theatre works and the Easter Rising. They are the publishing of the “Rebellion Papers” by the Irish Times, the showing of the TV series “Rebellion”, the opening of O’Casey’s play “The Plough and the Star” at the Gate Theatre, the opening of John Synge “Juno and the Paycock” at the Abbey Theatre, and the opening of the group ANU performance “1916 Tour Beyond Barricades”. But beyond that, the most interesting of all Dublin cultural attractions viewed was for me the wonderful exhibition organized by the Trinity College Science Gallery “Trauma: Built to Break”, which combined art installations and scientific demonstrations around the theme we are here trying to attend. The most interesting work of many was for me the one of Professor Shane O’Mara, one of the curators of the exhibition. The work was called “Brain under stress - Research Demonstration”, signed by Professor O’Mara and Áine Kelly, and still made accessible to anyone through the article “Why Torture Doesn’t work: The Neuroscience of Interrogation” (Harvard University Press, 2015). There the mentioned researchers defends that: “Extreme psychological and physiological stress when applied during interrogation is a definition of torture. Our Knowledge of the negative effects or even mild stress in the accuracy of memory calls into question the scientific, not to mention moral, validity of using extreme stress to extract accurate information from the human brain”. (O’MARA, 2016, p.32) This is quote interesting to reinforce the Alexander point about the difference between trauma, thought as physical and individual phenomenon and cultural trauma, whether socially constructed as the Easter Rising has seemed to me or, other ones, more deeply inscribed in a society mind and soul. To conclude I will return to Yeats and, admitting to have abandoned my first hypothesis on his traumatic experience with the Easter Rising, add some interesting founds I have made in looking on the psychoanalytical research of David Lynch about him. According with Lynch, “Yeats was great in spite of himself, a talent so formidable that his art could redeem even his most cranky and dubious peculiarities. In assessing one’s response to Yeat’s poetry then, one is faced with a paradox similar to that which his friends and co-workers faced in assessing him as man. On one hand there is the manifest beauty of the created things; on the other, the more or less troubling feeling that it is, after all, only artifice (…) Perhaps the best way to describe what distinguishes this from what we usually admire in poetry is to say that it suggests not self- expression but self-invention. (LYNCH, 1979, p.2-3) (…) Self-invention is the narcissistic (and perhaps in literature the pre-eminently romantic subject; (…) my problem was to find an appropriate psychological language for it. (LYNCH, 1979, p.197) (…) The symptoms of his pathology were not always - or even often – the sort that usually get called ‘neurotic’, or ‘psychotic.Yeats was not mad, nor is his poet one of the ‘taken’. His affectations could (and did) seem to have some odd and eccentric, but he never displayed the sort of obviously hysterical or compulsive behaviour commonly associated with mental illness. He was a visionary but was not subject to psychotic delusions.” (LYNCH, 1979, p.202) Bibliographical References
ALBRIGHT, Daniel, “Yeats’s Noh Plays and the 19th-Century Mystery Tradition”, China Academic Journal, Electronic Publishing House, http://www.enki.net, 2000. ______, “Yeats and Modernism”, in The Cambridge companion to W.B. Yeats, edited by Marjorie Howes, John Kelly, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006, pp.59-76. BLOOM, Harold, “Four Plays for Dancers”, in Yeats, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1972. CAVE, Richard Allen, Collaborations – Ninette de Valois and William Butler Yeats, Alton, Dance Books Ltd., 2011. ______& WORTH, Libby (editors), Ninette de Valois- Adventurous Traditionalist, Binsted, Dance Books, 2012. DONOGHUE, Denis, Yeats, Fontana Paperbacks, 1971. ______, “Yeats and his Drama”, in The Cambridge companion to W.B. Yeats, edited by Marjorie Howes, John Kelly, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006, pp. 128. DORN, Karen, Players and painted stage: the theatre of W.B. Yeats, Brighton and Totowa, Harvester Press and Barnes and Nobles, 1984. EBURY, Katherine, “‘A New Science’: Yeats’s A Vision and relativistic cosmology”, Irish Studies Review, Vol. 22, n.2, 2004, pp.167-83. ELLIS, Sylvia, The Plays of W.B. Yeats – Yeats and the Dancer, London, St. Martin’s Press, 1995. FLANNERY, James, “W.B. Yeats, Gordon Craig and the Visual Arts of the Theatre, in Yeats and the Theatre, edited by Robert O’ Driscoll and Lorna Reynolds, London, Macmillan, 1975, pp. 82-108. GONNE, Iseult, Letters to W.B. Yeats and Ezra Pound from Iseult Gonne: a girls that new all Dante once, edited by A. Norman Jeffares, Anna MacBride White and Christina Bridgwater, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. GONNE, Maud, The Gonne-Yeats letters 1893-1938: “Always your friend”, edited by Anna MacBride White and A. Norman Jeffares, London Hutchinson, 1992. KLANKERT, Tanja, “Strange Relations: Cultural Translation of Noh Theatre in Ezra Pound’s Dance Poems AND W.B. Yeats’s At the Hawk’s Well, Word and Text - A Journal of Literary Studies and Linguistics, Vol. IV, Issue 2, December/2914, pp. 98-111. KRYCI, Hale, “Yeats’ ambivalence toward Irish nationalism in ‘September 1913’ and ‘Easter 1916’”, Procedia -Social and Behavioral Sciences 158, Science Direct, www.sciencedirect.com, 2014, pp. 119-23. LYNCH. David, Yeats – The poetics of the Self, Chicago/London, Chicago University Press, 1979. MCATEER, Michael, Yeats and European Drama, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010. MORAN, James, Staging the Easter Rising: 1916 as theatre, Cork, Cork University Press, 2005. MORASH, Christopher, “Bewildered Remembrance: W.B. Yeats’s The Dreaming of the Bones and 1916”, Field Day Review, 11. 2015. OKAMURO, Minako, “Beckett, Yeats and Noh: …but the clouds… as Theatre of Evocation, Samuel Beckett Today-Aujourd’hui, Volume: 21, 2009, pp.165-177. O’MARA, Shane & KELLY, Áline, “Brain under Stress”, in Catalogue oh the exhibition Built to Break, Science Gallery Dublin, 2016. PUCHNER, Martin, “William Butler Yeats: Poetic Voices in Theatrical Spaces”, in Stage Fright: Modernism, Anti-Theatricality, and Drama, Baltimore and London, 2002, pp.119-37. SATO, Yoko, “‘At the Hawks Well’: Yeats’s Dramatic Art of Visions”, Journal of Irish Studies, Vol. 24. IASIL-JAPAN, 2009, pp27-36. SEKINE, Masaru, “Yeats and Japan: The Dreaming of the Bones”, Irish University Review, 45.1, Edinburgh University Press, 2015, pp. 54-68 TAYLOR, Richard, The Drama of W.B. Yeats – Irish Myth and The Japanese No, New haven and London, Yale University Press, 1976. ______, “Assimilation and Accomplishment: No Drama and Unpublished Source for At the Hawks Well, in Yeats and the Theatre, edited by Robert O’ Driscoll and Lorna Reynolds, London, Macmillan, 1975, pp. 137-158. THILLIEZ, Christiane, “From one theatrical Reformer to Another: W.B. Yeats’s unpublished letters to Gordon Craig, in Aspects of the Irish Theatre, Lille, Editions Universitaires, 1972, pp. 275-86. VENDLER, Helen H., Yeats’s Vision and the Later Plays, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1963. WORTH, Katherine, The Irish drama of Europe from Yeats to Beckett, London, Athlone Press, 1978. WRIGHT, David G., Yeats’s Myth of Self: The Autobiographical Prose, Totowa, New Jersey, Gill and Macmillan, Barnes and Noble Books, 1987. YEATS, W.B., Plays for an Irish Theatre, London & Stratford-upon-Avon, A.H. Bullen, 1911. ______Two Plays for Dancers, Churchtown, Cuala Press. 1919. ______Four Plays for Dancers, London, Macmillan & Co. Limited, 1921. ______, Plays in Prose and Verse, written for and Irish Theatre, and generally with the Help of a friend, London, Macmillan and Co. Limited, 1922. ______, Plays and controversies, New York, The Macmillan Company 1924. ______, “Introduction by William Butler Yeats to Certain Noble Plays of Japan by Pound & Fenollosa”, in The Classic Noh Theatre of Japan, New York, New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1959. Pp.151-63 ______, The Bounty of Sweden: a meditation; and a lecture delivered before the Royal Swedish Academy; and certain notes, Shannon, Irish University Press, 1971. ______, The Collected Plays of W.B. Yeats, London, Macmillan, 1972,
______, A Critical Edition of Yeats’s A Vision, Edited by George Mills Harper and Walter Kelly Hood, London and Basingstoke, The Macmillan Press, 1978. ______, W.B. Yeats – Selected Plays, Edited by Richard Cave, London, Penguin Books, 1997.
Bibliography on Trauma and Literature
Aberbach, David. 1989. Surviving Trauma: Loss, Literature and Psychoanalysis. New Haven: Yale University Press. Abraham, Nicolas and Maria Torok. 1994. The Shell and the Kernel. Vol. I. Ed. and trans. Nicholas T. Rand, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Adami, Valentina. 2008. Martin Amis’s Time’s Arrow as Trauma Fiction. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Agamben, Giorgio. 1999. Remnants of Auschwitz: The Witness and the Archive, D. Heller-Roazen, trans., New York: Zone. Ahmed, Sarah. 2006. Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Others, Objects. Durham, London: Duke University Press. Alexander, Jeffrey C., et. al. 2004. Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press, Ltd. Antze, Paul, and Michael Lambek. 1996. Tense Past: Cultural Essays in Trauma and Memory. New York: Routledge. Bal Mieke, Jonathan Crewe & Leo Spitzer, eds. 1999. Acts of Memory: Cultural Recall in the Present, Hanover & London: UP of New England. Barrett, Deirdre. 1996. Trauma and Dreams. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Baudrillard, Jean. 2003. The Spirit of Terrorism. New Edition. London and New York: Verso. Belau, Linda, and Petar Ramadanovic, eds. 2002. Topologies of Trauma: Essays on the Limit of Knowledge and Memory. New York: Other Press. Bennert, Jill. 2005. Empathic Vision: Affect, Trauma, and Contemporary Art. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Bennett, Jill, and Rosanne Kennedy. 2003.World Memory: Personal Trajectories in Global Time. Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Beverley, John. 2004. Testimonio: On the Politics of Truth. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Boheemen, Christel van. 2006. Joyce, Derrida, Lacan and the Trauma of History: Reading, Narrative and Postcolonialism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Booth, Wayne C. 1988. The Company We Keep: An Ethics of Fiction. Berkeley: University of California Press. Boswell, Matthew. 2011. Holocaust Impiety: in Literature, Popular Music and Film. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Bracken, Patrick. 2002. Trauma: Culture, Meaning, and Philosophy. London; Philadelphia: Whurr. Bromberg, Philip M. 2001. Standing in the Spaces: Essays on Clinical Process Trauma and Dissociation. London: Taylor and Francis. Bromberg, Philip M. 2011. The Shadow of the Tsunami and the Growth of the Relational Mind. London and New York: Routledge. Butler, Judith. 2004. Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence. London; New York: Verso. Campbell, Sue. 2003. Relational Remembering: Rethinking the Memory Wars, Lanhan, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. ---. 2004. Undoing Gender. New York: Routledge. Caruth, Cathy, ed. 1995. Trauma: Explorations in Memory. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ---. 1996. Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Collins, Jo and John Jervis, eds. 2008. Uncanny Modernity: Cultural Theories, Modern Anxieties. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Connerton, Paul. 1989. How Societies Remember. Cambridge, England; New York: Cambridge University Press. Cotsell, Michael. 2005. The Theater of Trauma and the Psychological Struggles for the American Mind, 1900-1930. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Craft, Linda J. 1997. Novels of Testimony and Resistance from Central America. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. Craps, Stef. 2005. Trauma and Ethics in the Novels of Graham Swift: No Short-Cuts to Salvation. Brighton & Portland: Sussex Academic Press. ---. 2013. Postcolonial Witnessing: Trauma out of Bounds. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Crosthwaite, Paul. 2009. Trauma, Postmodernism and the Aftermath of World War II. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Crownshaw, Richard, Jane Kilby and Antony Rowland, eds. 2010. The Future of Memory, New York and Oxford: Berghan Books. Cvetkovich, Ann. 2003. An Archive of Feelings: Trauma, Sexuality, and Lesbian Public Cultures. Durham and London: Duke University Press. Cyrulnik, Boris. 2005. The Whispering of Ghosts: Trauma and Resilience. New York: Other Press. ---. 2009. Talking of Love: How to Overcome Trauma and Remake your Life Story. London: Penguin. ---. 2011 (1999). Resilience: How Your Inner Strength Can Set You Free from the Past. David Macey trans., London: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin Books. Daniels, Patsy J. 2001. The Voice of the Oppressed in the Language of the Oppressor: A Discussion of Selected Postcolonial Literature from Ireland, Africa, and America. Literary Criticism and Cultural Theory. New York: Routledge. David-Ménard, Monique. 1989. Hysteria from Freud to Lacan: Body and Language in Psychoanalysis. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Davoine, Françoise, and Jean-Max Gaudillière. 2004. History Beyond Trauma: Whereof One Cannot Speak, Thereof One Cannot Stay Silent. New York: Other Press. Denzin, Norman K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln. 9-11 in American Culture. Walnut Creek: AltaMira. Derrida, Jacques. 2001. The Work of Mourning, edited by P. Brault and M. Nass, Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press. DeSalvo, Louise A. 1989. Virginia Woolf: The Impact of Childhood Sexual Abuse on Her Life and Work. Boston: Beacon Press. Di Prete, Laura. 2006. 'Foreign Bodies': Trauma, Corporeality, and Textuality in Contemporary American Culture. London and New York: Routledge. Doane, Janice L., and Devon L. Hodges. 2002. Telling Incest: Narratives of Dangerous Remembering from Stein to Sapphire. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Douglas, Ana and Thomas A. Vogler, eds. 2003. Witness and Memory: The Discourse of Trauma. New York: Routledge. Draaisma, Douwe, 2000. Metaphors of Memory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Edkins, Jenny. 2003. Trauma and the Memory of Politics. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. Elsass, Peter. 1997. Treating Victims of Torture and Violence: Theoretical, Cross- Cultural, and Clinical Implications. New York: New York University Press. Eng, David L. and David Kazanjian, eds. 2003. Loss: The Politics of Mourning. Berkeley: University of California Press. Everstine, Diana Sullivan, and Louis Everstine. 1993. The Trauma Response: Treatment for Emotional Injury. New York, NY: W.W. Norton. Eyerman, Ron. 2001. Cultural Trauma: Slavery and the Formation of African American Identity. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. Fanon, Frantz. 1967. Black Skin, White Masks. New York: Grove Press. ---. 1963. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press. Farrell, Kirby. 1998. Post-Traumatic Culture: Injury and Interpretation in the Nineties. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Fassin, Didier and Richard Rechtman. 2009. The Empire of Trauma: An Inquiry into the Condition of Victimhood. Trans. Rachel Gomme. Oxford: Princeton University Press. Felman, Shoshana. 1982. Literature and Psychoanalysis: The Question of Reading, Otherwise. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Felman, Shoshana and Dori Laub, M.D. 1992. Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis, and History. New York: Routledge. Felman, Shoshana, and Martha Noel Evans. 2003. Writing and Madness: (Literature/Philosophy/Psychoanalysis). Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press. Freud, Sigmund. 1977. Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety(Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. Freud, Sigmund and Joseph Breuer. (1893) 2001 “On the Psychical Mechanism of Hysterical Phenomena: Preliminary Communication”, in James Strachey, Anna Freud, Alix Strachey, & Alan Tyson, eds. and trans. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud vol. II (1893-1895), London: Vintage: 3-17. Freud, Sigmund, Josef Breuer, and Nicola Luckhurst. 2004. Studies in Hysteria. London; New York: Penguin Books. Freud, Sigmund, and James Strachey. 1989. Beyond the Pleasure Principle. Standard ed. New York: Norton. ---. 2000. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. New York: Basic Books. Freyd, Jenifer. 1998. Betrayal Trauma: the Logic of Forgetting Childhood Abuse. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Garber, Linda. 2001. Identity Poetics: Race, Class, and the Lesbian Feminist Roots of Queer Theory. New York: Columbia University Press. Garrat, Robert F. 2010. Trauma and History in the Irish Novel: The Return of the Dead. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Gert, Buelens, Samuel Durrant and Robert Eaglestone, eds. 2014. The Future of Trauma Theory: Contemporary Literary and Cultural Criticism. London and New York: Routledge. Gifford, Don. 2011. Zones of Re-membering: Time, Memory, and (Un)Consciousness. Amsterdam, New York: Rodopi. Gilmore, Leigh. 1994. Autobiographics: A Feminist Theory of Women's Self- Representation. Reading Women Writing. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ---. 2000. The Limits of Autobiography: Trauma and Testimony. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. Goodwin, Jean, and Reina Attias. 1999. Splintered Reflections: Images of the Body in Trauma. [Basic Behavioral Science]. 1st ed. New York: Basic Books. Granovsky, Ronald. 1995. The Trauma Novel (American University Studies Series III, Comparative Literature). New York: Peter Lang. Greenberg, Judith, ed. 2003. Trauma at Home: After 9/11. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Gross, Andrew S. and Susan Rohr. 2010. Comedy, Avant-Garde, Scandal: Remembering the Holocaust after the End of History. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter. Haaken, Janice.1998. Pillar of Salt: Gender, Memory, and the Perils of Looking Back. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. Halbwachs, Maurice. 1992. On Collective Memory. Lewis A. Coser, ed., trans. and intro., Chicago and London. The University of Chicago Press. Hartman, Geoffrey. 1996. The Longest Shadow: In the Aftermath of the Holocaust. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Hayes, Peter y John K. Roth, eds. 2010. The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies. Oxford (England), New York: Oxford University Press. Heberle, Mark. 2001. A Trauma Artist: Tim O’Brian and the Fiction of Vietnam. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. Henke, Suzette. 1998. Shattered Subjects: Trauma and Testimony in Women's Life- Writing. Gordonsville, Virginia: Palgrave McMillan. Herman, Judith L., 2001 (1992). Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence ― from Domestic Abuse to Political Violence. London: Pandora. Herrero Dolores, and Sonia Baelo-Allué, eds. 2011. The Splintered Glass: Facets of Trauma in the Post-Colony and Beyond. Amsterdam; New York: Rodopi, Cross/ Cultures 136. ---. eds. 2011. Between the Urge to Know and the Need to Deny: Trauma and Ethics in Contemporary British and American Literature. Universitätsverlag C. Winter: Heidelberg. Hipp, Daniel. 2005. The Poetry of Shell Shock: Wartime Trauma and Healing in Wilfred Owen, Ivor Gurney And Siegfried Sassoon. Jefferson, N.C.: Mcfarland & Co. Horvitz, Deborah. 2000. Literary Trauma: Sadism, Memory and Sexual Violence in American Women’s Fiction. Albany: State University of New York. Huyssen, Andreas, 1995. Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of Amnesia. London and New York: Routledge. Ibsch, Elrud, ed. 2000. The Conscience of Humankind. Literature and Traumatic Experiences. Amsterdam; Atlanta, GA: Rodopi. Kaplan, E. Ann. 2005. Trauma Culture: The Politics of Terror and Loss in Media and Literature. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. Kauffman, Jeffrey, ed. 2010. The Shame of Death, Grief and Trauma. New York: Routledge. Keniston, Ann. 2007. Literature After 9/11. London: Taylor & Francis. Kilby, Jane. 2007. Violence and the Cultural Politics of Trauma. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. King, Nicola. 2000. Memory, Narrative, Identity: Remembering the Self. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Kirmayer, L, et. al. eds. 2008. Understanding Trauma: Integrating Biological, Clinical, and Cultural Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kleber, Rolf J., et. al. eds. 1995. Beyond Trauma: Cultural and Societal Dynamics. New York: Plenum Press. Kluge, Aukje and Benn E. Williams, eds. 2009. Re-examining the Holocaust through Literature. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. Kohlke, Marie Luise, and Christian Gutleben, eds. Neo-Victorian Tropes of Trauma: the Politics of Bearing After-Witness to Nineteenth-Century Suffering. Amsterdam/ New York: Rodopi. Krokel, Carl. 2011. War Trauma and English Modernism: T.S: Eliot and D.H. Lawrence. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Lacan, Jacques. 1978. The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis. 1st American ed. New York: Norton. Lacan, Jacques, and Anthony Wilden. 1968. The Language of the Self; the Function of Language in Psychoanalysis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. LaCapra, Dominick. 1998. History and Memory after Auschwitz. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ---. 2001. Writing History, Writing Trauma. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Laplanche, Jean. 1976. Life and Death in Psychoanalysis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Leys, Ruth. 2000. Trauma: A Genealogy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Loew, Camila. 2011. The Memory of Pain. Women’s Testimonies of the Holocaust. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Loftus, Elizabeth F., and Katherine Ketcham. 1994. The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse. 1st ed. New York: St. Martin's Press. Luckhurst, Roger. 2008. The Trauma Question. London; New York: Routledge. MacCurdy, Marian Mesrobian. 2007. The Mind's Eye: Image and Memory in Writing about Trauma. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. MacNair, Rachel M. (2002) 2005. Perpetration-Induced Traumatic Stress: The Psychological Consequences of killing. New York: Authors Choice Press. McNally, Richard. 2005. Remembering Trauma. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Mairowitz, David et. al. 2002. September 11, 2001: American Writers Respond. Wilkes: Etruscan Press. Mandel, Naomi. 2006. Against the Unspeakable: Complicity, American Slavery, and the Holocaust. Charlottesville VA: University of Virginia Press. Mengel, Ewald, et. al. eds. 2010. Trauma, Memory and Narrative in South Africa: Interviews. Amsterdam/New York: Rodopi. Micale, Mark S. and Paul Frederick Lerner. eds. 2001. Traumatic Pasts: History, Psychiatry, and Trauma in the Modern Age, 1870-1930. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. Miller, Nancy K. and Jason Tougaw. 2002. Extremities: Trauma, Testimony, and Community. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Mitchell, Juliet. 2000. Mad Men and Medusas: Reclaiming Hysteria. New York, NY: Basic Books. Modlinger, Martin and Philipp Sonntag, eds. 2011. Other People’s Pain: Narratives of Trauma and the Question of Ethics. Oxford; Bern: Peter Lang. Moglen, Helene. 2003. The Trauma of Gender: A Feminist Theory of the English Novel. Berkley and London: University of California Press. Moran, Patricia. 2007. Virginia Woolf, Jean Rhys and the Aesthetics of Trauma. Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Nelson, Holly Faith et. al. eds. 2009. Through a Glass Darkly: Suffering, the Sacred, and the Sublime in Literature and Theory. Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. Olick, Jeffrey K. 2003. States of Memory: Continuities, Conflicts, and Transformations in National Retrospection. Politics, History, and Culture. Durham: Duke University Press. Parkin-Gounelas, Ruth. 2001. Literature and Psychoanalysis: Intertextual Readings. Basingstoke. New York: Palgrave. Parr, Adrian. 2008. Deleuze and Memorial Culture: Desire, Singular Memory and the Politics of Trauma. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Phelan, Peggy. 1997. Mourning Sex: Performing Public Memories. London and New York: Routledge. Pine, Emilie. 2011. The Politics of Irish Memory: Performing Remembrance in Contemporary Irish Culture. Basignstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Rabkin, Leslie Y. 1960. Psychopathology and Literature. San Francisco: Chandler Pub&Co. Ramadanovic, Petar. 2001. Forgetting Futures: On Memory, Trauma, and Identity. Lanham; Boulder; New York; Oxford: Lexington Books. Robben, Antonius, and Marcelo M. Suarez-Orozco. 2000. Cultures under Siege, Collective Violence and Trauma. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Robins, Charles Edwards. 2003. New York Voices: The Trauma 9/11. Madison: Psychosocial Press. Robinson, Alan. 2011. Narrating the Past: Historiography, Memory and the Contemporary Novel. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Rogers, Kim Lacy, et. al. eds. 2004. Trauma: Life Stories of Survivors (Memory and Narrative). New Brunswick, N.J. : Transaction Publishers. Rose, Gilbert J. 1996. Trauma and Mastery in Life and Art. Madison, Conn.: International University Press. Rothberg, Michael. 2000. Traumatic Realism: The Demands of Holocaust Representation. Minneapolis; London: University of Minnesota Press. ---. Multidirectional Memory: Remembering the Holocaust in the Age of Decolonization. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Rothschild, Babette. 2000. The Body Remembers: The Psychophysiology of Trauma and Trauma Treatment. New York: Norton. ---. 2003. The Body Remembers Casebook: Unifying Methods and Models in the Treatment of Trauma and PTSD. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Saltzman, Lisa, and Eric Rosenberg, eds. 2006. Trauma and Visuality in Modernity. Hanover and London: University Press of New England. Scarry, Elaine. 1985. The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World. New York: Oxford University Press. Schacter, Daniel L. 1996. Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past. 1st ed. New York, NY: Basic Books. ---. 1999. Memory, Brain, and Belief. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ---. 1999. The Cognitive Neuropsychology of False Memories. Hove, East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press Ltd. ---. 2003. How the Mind Forgets and Remembers: The Seven Sins of Memory. London: Souvenir. Schacter, Daniel L., Joseph T. Coyle, and the Harvard Center for the Study of Mind Brain and Behavior. 1995. Memory Distortion: How Minds, Brains, and Societies Reconstruct the Past. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Schmitz, Helmut and Annette Seildel-Arpaci, eds. 2011. Narratives of Trauma. Discourses of German Wartime Suffering in National and International Perspective. Amsterdam; New York: Rodopi. Schwab, Gabriele. 2010. Haunting Legacies. Violent Histories and Transgenerational Trauma, New York: Columbia University Press. Sedgwick, Eve K., 2003. Touching, Feeling: Affect, Pedagogy, Performativity. Durham and London: Duke University Press. Seidler, Victor J. 1994. Recovering the Self. Morality and Social Theory. London and New York: Routledge. Sicher, Efraim. 2005. The Holocaust Novel. New York and London: Routledge. Sontag, Susan. 2003. Regarding the Pain of Others. 1st ed. New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux. Sorkin, Michael and Sharon Zukin, eds. 2002. After the World Trade Center: Rethinking New York City. New York and London: Routledge. Steffen, Therese. 2000. Crossover: Cultural Hybridity in Ethnicity, Gender and Ethics in Literary and Visual Works. Stauffenburg Verlag. Steward, Victoria. 2003. Women’s Autobiography: War and Trauma. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Tal, Kali. 1996. Worlds of Hurt: Reading the Literatures of Trauma. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. van der Kolk, Bessel A. 1987. Psychological Trauma. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. van der Kolk, Bessel A., Alexander C. McFarlane, and Lars Weisæth. 1996. Traumatic Stress: The Effects of Overwhelming Experience on Mind, Body, and Society. New York: Guilford Press. Vickroy, Laurie. 2002. Trauma and Survival in Contemporary Fiction. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. Virilio, Paul. 2002. Ground Zero. London and New York: Verso. Wald, Christina. 2007. Hysteria, Trauma and Melancholia: Performance Maladies in Contemporary Anglophone Drama. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Wajnryb, Ruth. 2002 (2001). The Silence: How Tragedy Shapes Talk. Champaign: University of Illinois Press. Whitehead, Anne. 2004. Trauma Fiction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Whitfield, Charles L. 1995. Memory and Abuse: Remembering and Healing the Effects of Trauma. Deerfield Beach, Fla.: Health Communications. Zizek, Slavoj. 2002. Welcome to the Desert of the Real: Five Essays on September 11 and Related Dates. London and New York: Verso. ARTICLES Bloom, Sandra L. 2004 (1999). "Trauma Theory Abbreviated.” Philadelphia, 1999. Community Works.