2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials

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Prepared by: David R. Winston Extension Dairy Scientist, Youth Department of Dairy Science (0315) Litton Reaves Hall, Room 2050, Virginia Tech 175 West Campus Drive Blacksburg, VA 24061 (540) 231-5693 [email protected]

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 ...... Dates in Dairy History ...... 3 Chapter 2 ...... People and Organizations ...... 6 Chapter 3 ...... Dairy Breeds ...... 9 Chapter 4 ...... Dairy Cattle Judging, Fitting and Showing ...... 11 Chapter 5 ...... Calf and Heifer Management ...... 14 Chapter 6 ...... Nutrition, Feeds and Feeding ...... 17 Chapter 7 ...... Lactation and Milking Management ...... 26 Chapter 8 ...... Dairy Products and Milk Marketing ...... 32 Chapter 9 ...... Miscellaneous ...... 38 Chapter 10 ...... Reproduction ...... 42 Chapter 11 ...... Genetics ...... 47 Chapter 12 ...... Animal Health ...... 52 Chapter 13 ...... Nutrient Management ...... 60 Appendix ...... Suggested Reading...... 63

Note Senior 4‐H'ers competing in district and state 4-H dairy quiz bowl contests in Virginia may be quizzed on any of the information contained within this year's study materials. Junior 4-H'ers will only be responsible for Chapters 1-9.

Disclaimer

This publication is a living document and is updated on an annual basis. Given the pace of change in today’s world, information can become dated very quickly. If you find information that has changed, feel free to contact the editor, so your suggestions may be included in the next revision. Thanks!

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 2 Chapter 1: Dates in Dairy History

1611 1890 First cows arrived at the Jamestown Colony Babcock test for butterfat developed 1624 1895 First cows arrived at the Plymouth Colony Pulsator invented 1810 1904 First dairy cooperative in the U.S. organized in Goshen, American Dairy Goat Association organized Connecticut 1905 1851 First cow testing association in the U.S. organized in First commercial cheese factory established in New York Michigan 1856 1906 First patent for condensed milk American Dairy Science Association founded First commercial butter factory established in New York First National Dairy Show held in Chicago 1857 Brown Swiss cattle recognized as an official dairy breed First successful condensory built by Gail Borden in in the U.S. Burrville, Connecticut National Dairy Council organized 1862 1914 Morrill Act enacted to create the Land Grant College Smith-Lever Act signed establishing the Cooperative System Extension Service 1868 1916 American Jersey Cattle Club founded National Milk Producers Federation founded 1877 1917 American Guernsey Cattle Club founded Journal of Dairy Science first published 1878 1922 Centrifugal cream separator invented Capper-Volstead Act passed by Congress to empower farmers and agricultural producers to market, price, 1880 and sell their products through cooperative means Brown Swiss Breeders Association founded 1926 1884 Dairy Herd Information testing program started Milk bottle invented 1931 1885 Hoard’s Dairyman cow judging contest begun Hoard’s Dairyman magazine first published 1932 Holstein-Friesian Association of America formed First plastic coated paper milk cartons introduced 1886 commercially Automatic bottle filler and capper patented 1935 1887 National Cooperative Sire Proving Program initiated Hatch Act enacted to create state agricultural experiment stations

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 3 1936 1964 First dairy cattle A.I. organization in Denmark Commercial introduction of plastic milk jug 1937 Red and White Dairy Cattle Association organized First list of sires proven in DHIA testing published by 1965 USDA National Dairy Herd Information Association organized Federal Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act, which 1967 provides for federal milk marketing orders, passed World Dairy Expo founded and holds first show 1938 1974 Artificial insemination began in the U.S. Nutrition labeling of fluid milk products begins First A.I. cooperative in the U.S. organized in New 1983 Jersey by E. J. Perry INTERBULL developed First bulk tanks used on farms Dairy and Tobacco Adjustment Act created National 1940 Dairy Promotion and Research Board and a 15-cent American Dairy Association founded dairy check-off Purebred Dairy Cattle Association formed 1989 1942 Animal Model first used for USDA genetic evaluations National Association of Animal Breeders organized 1993 1943 Bovine somatotropin, first product of biotechnology for The PDCA Dairy Cow Unified Score Card was first animals, approved copyrighted 1994 1945 Holstein-Friesian Association officially changes its name First edition of National Research Council’s Nutrient to Holstein Association USA, Inc. Requirements of Dairy Cattle published 1995 1949 Multi-trait Across Country Evaluations (MACE) for National Dairy Shrine founded bulls implemented by INTERBULL 1951 1998 Computer first used to calculate DHIA records in Utah Dairy Calf and Heifer Association founded First U.S. young sire sampling program established 2000 First successful embryo transfer in dairy cattle First U.S. commercial robotic milker installed in First commercial milk replacer for calves introduced Wisconsin 1953 Federal Milk Marketing Orders reformed to reduce the Frosty, the first U.S. calf resulting from frozen semen, number of orders was born 2001 1955 National Research Council’s Nutrient Requirements of Flavor control equipment introduced commercially Dairy Cattle most recently updated (7th edition) 1960 2002 National Mastitis Council founded North American Intercollegiate Dairy Challenge established

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 4 2003 Sexed semen becomes commercially available 2006 Dairy Cattle Reproductive Council founded 2009 Most recent revision of the PDCA Dairy Cow Unified Score Card Genomic predictions of genetic merit officially released by UDSA-AIPL Jersey Youth Academy established 2011 PDCA Showmanship Evaluation Card revised 2013 Council on Dairy Cattle Breeding assumes responsibility for publishing U.S. dairy genetic evaluations

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 5 Chapter 2: People and Organizations

ACRONYMS NCIMS ...... National Conference on Interstate ADA ...... American Dairy Association Milk Shipments ADGA ...... American Dairy Goat Association NDC ...... National Dairy Council ADSA ...... American Dairy Science Association NDHIA ..... National Dairy Herd Information Association AFBF ...... American Farm Bureau Federation NDPRB ...... National Dairy Promotion and Research Board AJCA ...... American Jersey Cattle Association NMC ...... National Mastitis Council AMS ...... Agricultural Marketing Service NMPF ...... National Milk Producers Federation AOAC ..... American Organization of Analytical Chemists NRC ...... National Research Council APHIS ...... Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service NRCS ...... Natural Resource Conservation Service ARS ...... Agricultural Research Service PDCA ...... Purebred Dairy Cattle Association CCC ...... Commodity Credit Corporation SWCD ...... Soil and Water Conservation District CME ...... Chicago Mercantile Exchange UDIA ...... United Dairy Industry Association CSS ...... Certified Semen Services USDA ...... United States Department of Agriculture DCHA ...... Dairy Calf and Heifer Association USDEC ...... United States Dairy Export Council DCRC ...... Dairy Cattle Reproductive Council YDLI ...... Young Dairy Leaders Institute DHIA ...... Dairy Herd Information Association DHIR ...... Dairy Herd Information Registry DAIRY INDUSTRY PIONEERS DRPC ...... Dairy Records Processing Center S. M. Babcock developed the butterfat test that was the DRINC ...... Dairy Research, Inc. basis for DHIA testing. EPA ...... Environmental Protection Agency Gail Borden received the first patent for condensed milk FASS ...... Federation of Animal Science Societies Dr. Gustaw Delaval invented the centrifugal cream FCS ...... Farm Credit Services separator. FDA...... Food and Drug Administration W. D. Hoard founded Hoard’s Dairyman, the national dairy farm magazine. FSA ...... Farm Service Agency Louis Pasteur invented pasteurization; considered the FSIS ...... Food Safety and Inspection Service first person to discover that bacteria cause food spoilage IDF ...... International Dairy Federation and disease. IDFA ...... International Dairy Foods Association Dr. Harvey Thatcher invented the milk bottle. IMS ...... Interstate Milk Shippers NAAB ...... National Association of Animal Breeders NADC ...... National Animal Disease Center

NAIDC ...... North American Intercollegiate Dairy Challenge NASS ...... National Agricultural Statistics Service

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 6 DAIRY INDUSTRY LEADERS DAIRY RELATED ORGANIZATIONS Jim Mulhern is President and CEO of the National Milk The mission of National All-Jersey, Inc. is to increase Producers Federation. the value of and demand for Jersey milk and to promote Corey Geiger is Managing Editor of Hoard’s Dairyman. equity in milk pricing. Jay Mattison is CEO and Administrator of National The Holstein Foundation’s education leadership DHIA. development and outreach programs serve youth and young adults representing all breeds of dairy cattle. Mike Opperman is Director of Editorial Content of Dairy Herd Management. The Council on Dairy Cattle Breeding oversees approval of records systems standards. The council appoints the Walt Cooley is Managing Editor of Progressive group to certify performance of DHI’s and other herd Dairyman. record providers. David Selner is the Executive Director of National Dairy The four Dairy Records Processing Centers (DRPC’s) in Shrine. the U.S. are: Agritech Analytics BREED ASSOCIATION LEADERS AgSource Becky Payne is Executive Director of the U.S. Ayrshire Amelicor Breeders Association. Dairy Records Management Systems Norman Magnussen is Executive Secretary of the Brown Dairy Farmers of America (DFA) is the largest dairy Swiss Cattle Breeders Association. cooperative in the U.S. Douglas Granitz is CEO & Executive Secretary of the Nestlé USA is the largest processor and distributor of American Guernsey Association. milk and dairy products in the U.S. John Meyer is CEO/Executive Secretary of Holstein Nestlé of Switzerland is the top dairy company in the Association USA, Inc. world based on dairy sales. Neal Smith is Executive Secretary and CEO of the Danone is the world’s largest yogurt maker. American Jersey Cattle Association. The New Zealand Dairy Board is the world’s largest Brenda Gudex is Executive Secretary of the American private exporter of dairy products. Milking Shorthorn Society. Dairy Commodities traded at the Chicago Mercantile Mandy Sell is Promotions Manager of the Red & White Exchange daily are: Dairy Cattle Association. Block and barrel cheese (cash) Butter futures AGRICULTURAL LEADERS IN GOVERNMENT Class III and Class IV milk futures and options Sonny Purdue is the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture. Dairy Management, Inc. (DMI) is a nonprofit Sen. Pat Roberts (R-KS) is Chair of the U.S. Senate organization formed by the National Dairy Board and Agriculture, Nutrition, & Forestry Committee. United Dairy Industry Association. It conducts programs in integrated marketing, communications, Rep. Collin C. Peterson (D-MN) is Chair of the U.S. promotion, and research for U.S. dairy farmers. House Committee on Agriculture. Organizations under the DMI umbrella are: American Dairy Association National Dairy Council U.S. Dairy Export Council

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 7 The American Dairy Science Association (ADSA) is an international organization of educators, scientists, and industry representatives who are committed to advancing the dairy industry. The Journal of Dairy Science is the organization’s official scientific publication. ADSA has two divisions in its organizational structure – Dairy Foods and Dairy Production. The National Dairy Shrine Museum is located in Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin.

ORGANIZATION HEADQUARTERS American Dairy Science Association Champaign, Illinois Council on Dairy Cattle Breeding Bowie, Maryland Dairy Calf and Heifer Association New Prague, Minnesota Hoard’s Dairyman Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin Milk and Dairy Beef Quality Assurance Center Stratford, Iowa National Dairy Shrine Denmark, Wisconsin National DHIA Verona, Wisconsin National Milk Producers Federation Arlington, Virginia

EVENT LOCATIONS All-American Dairy Show Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Eastern States Exposition (The Big E) West Springfield, Massachusetts National 4-H Dairy Conference Madison, Wisconsin North American International Livestock Exposition Louisville, Kentucky World Dairy Expo Madison, Wisconsin

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 8 Chapter 3: Dairy Breeds

The seven major breeds recognized by the Purebred Dairy Cattle Association are Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Holstein, Jersey, Milking Shorthorn, and Red & White.

AYRSHIRE GUERSNEY Place of origin ...... County of Ayr, Scotland Place of origin ...... Isle of Guernsey Arrived in the United States ...... 1822 Arrived in the United States ...... 1840 Mature bodyweight ...... 1,200 lb. Mature bodyweight ...... 1,250 lb. Permanent ID method ...... Photo or sketch Permanent ID method ...... Photo, sketch, ear tattoo Association name ...... U.S. Ayrshire Breeders Association Association name ...... American Guernsey Association Association headquarters ...... Columbus, Ohio Association headquarters ...... Columbus, Ohio Breed magazine ...... Ayrshire Digest Breed magazine ...... Guernsey Breeders Journal Guernsey milk is known for its golden color. BROWN SWISS

Place of origin ...... Switzerland HOLSTEIN Arrived in the United States ...... 1869 Place of origin ...... Netherlands and Germany Mature bodyweight ...... 1,400 lb. Arrived in the United States ...... 1852 Permanent ID method ...... Ear tattoo Mature bodyweight ...... 1,400 lb. Association name ...... Brown Swiss Permanent ID method ...... Photo or sketch Cattle Breeders Association Association name ...... Holstein Association USA, Inc. Association headquarters ...... Beloit, Wisconsin Association headquarters ...... Brattleboro, Vermont Breed magazine...... Brown Swiss Bulletin Breed magazine ...... The Pulse Brown Swiss cattle were originally used for milk, meat Holsteins make up about 90% of the U.S. dairy cow and draft purposes. Today’s Brown Swiss cattle are population. known for: High protein to fat ratio The three colors found in registered Holstein cattle are Longevity black, red, and white. Sound feet and legs On average, Holsteins produce the most milk per cow. Having few health problems

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 9 JERSEY NOTABLE ANIMALS Place of origin ...... Isle of Jersey Brown Swiss production leader Arrived in the United States ...... 1850s Lost Elm Prelude Pixy ET (65,430 lb.) Mature bodyweight ...... 1,000 lb. Holstein production leader Selz-Pralle Aftershock 3918 (78,170 lb.) Permanent ID method ...... Ear tag or tattoo Jersey production leader Association name ...... American Jersey Cattle Association Mainstream Barkly Jubilee (55,590 lb.) Association headquarters ...... Reynoldsburg, Ohio World lifetime milk production record holder Breed magazine...... Jersey Journal Gillette E Smurf Jerseys generally produce milk with the highest fat and Queen Mother of the Brown Swiss breed protein content. Jane of Vernon First bull to produce one million units of semen MILKING SHORTHORN Fisher-Place Mandingo-TW Place of origin ...... England DAIRY GOATS Arrived in the United States ...... 1783 Mature bodyweight ...... 1,400 lb. Capriculture is the study of goats and goat husbandry. Permanent ID method ...... Ear tattoo Breeds of dairy goats are: Alpine Association name ...... American Milking Nigerian Dwarf Shorthorn Association Oberhasli Association headquarters ...... Beloit, Wisconsin Sable Breed magazine ...... Milking Shorthorn Journal La Mancha Nubian Saanen RED & WHITE Toggenburg The American Dairy Goat Association is third in total Association name ...... Red and White Dairy Cattle Association dairy animals registered annually in the United States, following the Holstein and Jersey organizations. Association headquarters ...... Watertown, Wisconsin Breed magazine...... The Red Bloodlines The Red and White Dairy Cattle Association has an open herdbook with different levels of registry. The organization allows different breeds in their herdbook, not just red and white Holsteins.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 10 Chapter 4: Dairy Cattle Judging, Fitting and Showing

PDCA DAIRY COW UNIFIED SCORECARD Category Points Traits in Priority Order Frame 15 Rump (5) Stature (2) Front end (5) Breed characteristics (1) Back/loin (2) Dairy Strength 25 Ribs (8) Neck (2) Chest (6) Withers (2) Barrel (4) Skin (1) Thighs (2) Rear Feet and Legs 20 Movement (5) Thurl position (2) Rear legs – side view (3) Hocks (2) Rear legs – rear view (3) Bone (1) Feet (3) Pasterns (1) Udder 40 Udder depth (10) Fore udder (5)* Rear udder (9)* Teats (3) Teat placement (5) Udder balance and texture (3) Udder cleft (5) *In Holsteins, fore & rear udder are weighted equally at 7 points each.

DAIRY HEIFER SCORECARD (Unofficial)

Category Points Frame 40 Dairy Strength 20 Feet and Legs 30 Body Capacity 10

FINAL CLASSIFICATION SCORES Brown Swiss Holstein Jersey Excellent ...... 90-94 Excellent ...... 90-97 Excellent ...... 90-100 Very Good ...... 85-89 Very Good ...... 85-89 Very Good ...... 80-89 Good Plus ...... 80-84 Good Plus ...... 80-84 Desirable ...... 70-79 Good ...... 75-79 Good ...... 75-79 Acceptable ...... 60-69 Fair ...... 65-74 Fair ...... 65-74 Poor ...... 50-59 Poor ...... 60-64 Poor ...... 50-64

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 11 ANATOMY RELATED TO JUDGING SHOWMANSHIP The hock is used as the reference point to determine the When exhibiting a dairy animal, the parading circle height of the udder floor. before the judge should move clockwise. The parts of a cow’s anatomy that may be twisted to one When showing a dairy heifer, the rear leg nearest the side and called “wry” are the face and tail. judge should be placed farther back than the other. When showing a dairy cow, the rear leg nearest the The main udder supports are the median suspensory judge should be placed farther forward than the other. ligament, lateral suspensory ligament, and skin. One should lead a dairy animal from the left side of the The median suspensory ligament is the major support of animal when viewed from the rear. the udder and divides it in half when viewed from the rear. SHOW ETHICS The subcutaneous abdominal veins are also called the A dairy animal can be disqualified from being shown in milk veins. the show ring for the following reasons: Blind quarter JUDGING CONTESTS Permanent lameness The Hoard’s Dairyman Cow Judging Contest consists of Total blindness 5 picture classes. The contest begins with the January Freemartin heifer 10 issue each year. Tampering to conceal faults The National 4-H Dairy Cattle Judging Contest is held Ohio was the first state to make tampering with show at the World Dairy Expo in Madison, Wisconsin. cows a crime. There are four animals in a class in a 4-H dairy judging contest. PDCA SHOWMANSHIP EVALUATION CARD The All-American Invitational Youth Dairy Cattle Slight Discriminations Judging Contest is held at the All-American Dairy Show Exhibitor in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Inappropriate halter The (NAILE) Invitational Youth Dairy Judging Contest Lead strap tightly looped is held at the North American International Livestock Walks slowly backward into the ring Exposition in Louisville, Kentucky. Sidesteps when leading calf Has stiff outstretched arm HEIFER CLASSES Has poor posture – either overly stiff or slumped, The individual heifer classes in a dairy show are: sloppy Spring heifer calf Improper head carriage, animal’s nose is too high Winter heifer calf Calf’s head is not turned slightly toward judge when Fall heifer calf hide is felt Summer yearling heifer Stepping on or kicking at the animal’s front feet Spring yearling heifer Inappropriate size of calf for competitor Winter yearling heifer Animal Fall yearling heifer Minor instances of animal not handled well Is not alert Muzzle is not wiped clean Switch is not brushed and fluffed Clipping lines not properly blended

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 12 Moderate Discriminations Animal Exhibitor Legs not clipped Not wearing white clothing or show-approved Dirt/dust in hair coat professional attire Dirt/wax in ears Inappropriate or unprofessional attire that draws Feet not cleaned attention to the exhibitor Excessive use of hair sprays, powder and other Wearing clothing with farm or commercial fitting products advertising/logos Clipping too early; hair appears too long Does not know birth date, fresh date, breeding date, Incomplete clipping due date Excessive clipping Unable to recognize type faults of the animal Serious Discriminations Halter not fitting or put together properly Exhibitor Holding the lead strap too far from the halter Lead strap looped & fastened Has fingers in ring of the halter Striking the animal Failure to hold throat when needed Positioning animal’s rear legs by stepping on rear Improper head carriage, animal’s head held too low feet Unable to show animal to best advantage Fusses with or moves calf to the extreme Slow response to judge or ring official Minor instances of unsportsmanlike conduct Inattentiveness Is late to class Watching the judge too intently Wearing inappropriate shoes Over-showing Chewing tobacco Leading too slowly Carries or talks on a cell phone Has elbow or hands up Is too far to outside or inside of ring Animal Incorrect spacing to the animal in front when on Animal causing disturbances to others parade Disqualifications Failure to switch rear legs when the judge moves Violations of PDCA Show Ring Code of Ethics around the animal Unsportsmanlike conduct Doesn’t walk quickly into line Repeated striking of the animal Crowding or bumping other animals when pulled in Recommendation for Evaluation of the Topline line Topline is groomed, doesn’t distract from the Leaving extra space in line animal’s overall appearance, conforms to the Failure to maintain a straight lineup guidelines of the PDCA Showring Code of Ethics Moves excessively in line Unable to back up animal Legs incorrectly posed Does not keep animal straight from head to tail Chewing gum

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 13 Chapter 5: Calf and Heifer Management

ACRONYMS COLOSTRUM ADG ...... Average daily gain Colostrum is the initial milk secreted after calving. AFC ...... Age at first calving Colostrum contains antibodies that provide immunity from disease for calves. It contains a higher level of ECONOMICS protein than normal milk. Heifers account for 15 to 20 percent of total farm A newborn calf should be fed colostrum at an amount expenses on many dairy operations. equal to 10 percent of the calf’s bodyweight within the Feed costs account for 55 to 60 percent of the total cost first two hours of life. of raising dairy replacement heifers. If colostrum is pasteurized, it should be heated to 140°F for 60 minutes. PROJECT SELECTION Critical factors in colostrum management are quantity, Important points to consider when selecting a calf as a quality, timing, and cleanliness. project animal include: Storage options for excess colostrum are: Age Add preservative acid Breed Fermented Health Frozen Pedigree Refrigerated Conformation Frozen colostrum may be safely stored for a year.

IDENTIFICATION The Brix refractometer and colostrometer are on-farm tools for estimating colostrum quality. Methods commonly used to identify calves include: Conditions that can result in poor quality colostrum Eartag include: Photo Cows is dry less than 3-4 weeks Sketch Pre-milking Tattoo Leaking teats Freeze branding Dirty udder and teats Young cow LIQUID DIET Transition milk is milk harvested from the second, Liquid diet choices for pre-weaned calves include milk third, and fourth milking after calving. replacer, whole milk, and colostrum. A pre-weaned calf should be fed 10-17 percent of its body weight in milk or milk replacer daily. When a calf nurses, milk travels through the esophageal groove to the omasum and abomasum. It bypasses the rumen and reticulum. In a newborn calf, the reticulum and rumen are not yet fully developed.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 14 MILK REPLACER CALF HOUSING Conventional milk replacer should contain 20% crude Calf housing should be clean, dry, draft-free and well protein and 20% fat. ventilated. Accelerated milk replacer should contain 26-30% crude Warm calf housing is housing in which environmental protein and 15-25% fat. temperature is controlled. Recommended protein sources for milk replacers are: The temperature in cold calf housing varies with the Casein outside temperature. Modified wheat protein Systems of calf housing include: Dried skim milk Calf hutch Protein modified soy flour Pens on the floor Dried whey Counter-slope system Soy protein concentrate Elevated stalls Dried whey product Cold calf housing system Soy protein isolate Advantages of calf hutches include: Dried whey protein concentrate They are easily moved They provide better ventilation WEANING They prevent disease from spreading from one calf Weaning is the act of taking a young animal off of milk to another as the main source of nutrition. Grain intake should be the main criterion used for GROWTH deciding when to wean a calf. Calves should at least double their birth weight by 8 Before weaning a calf should eat at least 2-3 pounds of weeks of age. grain per day for three consecutive days. Average daily gain (ADG) is a significant factor in monitoring growth rates in dairy heifers. CALF STARTER Body size is the most important factor to consider in Calf starter should contain 18-22% crude protein. determining when to breed a heifer for the first time. There are several types of calf starters available. They Heifers usually show heats at 40% of mature are: bodyweight. They should start being bred at 55% of Commercial textured calf starters mature bodyweight and calve for the first time at Homemade grind and mix starters approximately 82% of mature bodyweight. Commercial pelleted starters Compensatory growth is a term used to describe a period of increased growth rate that follows a growth restriction imposed earlier in the heifer’s life.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 15 CALF HEALTH CUSTOM HEIFER REARING The leading causes of death in young calves are scours Custom heifer growing offers several advantages to and pneumonia. dairy producers who have been raising their own The major causes of calf scours include: replacements including: Inadequate colostrum Decreased labor requirement Overfeeding Increased milking herd management Overcrowding Increased facility capacity for milking cows Poor quality colostrum Herd expansion without capital investment with use Poor quality milk replacer of existing facilities Inadequate ventilation Increased feed inventory for milking cows Unsanitary calving conditions Potential for better replacement heifers Physical factors contributing to pneumonia in calves are Major elements associated with a contract for raising drafts, chilling, dampness, and poor ventilation. dairy replacements are: Time period Places where pathogenic organisms may gain entry into Amendments, renegotiations, and renewal a newborn calf’s body are the mouth, navel, and nose. Billing and payment procedures Signs of illnesses in calves include: Conditions for termination of agreement Poor appetite Definition of each party’s responsibility Nasal discharge Methods of charging for heifer grower services include: Lack of energy Per animal per day Cough Per pound of gain Drooping ears Option to purchase Elevated temperature Per animal Watery manure Feed plus yardage Dull eyes Either a 7% iodine solution or a 1:1 mixture of chlorhexidine and 70% alcohol should be applied on the calf’s navel within 30 minutes after birth to seal the entrance from disease causing organisms. A calf is 2 to 3 weeks old when it begins to chew its cud. Calves should be dehorned at about three weeks of age. Methods of dehorning calves are dehorning paste, cutting or gouging (Barnes type dehorner), and electric. Extra teats are also known as supernumerary teats. Between 30 and 40 percent of heifers born have extra teats. They should be surgically removed around 4 months of age.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 16 Chapter 6: Nutrition, Feeds and Feeding

ACRONYMS DEFINITIONS AA ...... Amino acid Acid ADF ...... Acid detergent fiber A substance that has a low pH (below 7.0) ADIN ...... Acid detergent insoluble nitrogen Alkaline A substance that has a high pH (above 7.0) ADP ...... Adenosine diphosphate Amino acids AMP ...... Adenosine monophosphate Building blocks of true proteins ATP ...... Adenosine triphosphate Anion BCS ...... Body condition score A negatively charged ion or particle BHBA ...... Beta hydroxybutyrate Annuals BUN ...... Blood urea nitrogen Plants that are seeded each year and whose CF ...... Crude fiber growth are completed in one crop year CP ...... Crude protein Baleage Wrapped, round bales of silage DCAD ...... Dietary cation-anion difference Body condition scoring DE ...... Digestible energy A system to evaluate the thinness or fatness of DM ...... Dry matter dairy cattle DMI ...... Dry matter intake Buffer FFA ...... Free fatty acid Any substance that can reduce changes in pH when an acid or alkali is added ME ...... Metabolizable energy Cation MUN ...... Milk urea nitrogen A positively charged ion or particle NDF ...... Neutral detergent fiber Chyme NDIN ...... Neutral detergent insoluble nitrogen Feed material found in the small intestine NE ...... Net energy Crude protein NEL ...... Net energy for lactation Total protein in a feed NEFA ...... Non-esterified fatty acid Cud NFC ...... Nonfiber carbohydrates Feed that a cow has regurgitated and is being re-chewed NIR ...... Near-infrared reflectance Digestible energy NPN ...... Nonprotein nitrogen The total energy in a feedstuff minus the energy NSC ...... Nonstructural carbohydrates lost in feces PUN ...... Plasma urea nitrogen Dry matter RDP ...... Rumen-degradable protein Portion of a feed that remains after water has RFQ ...... Relative forage quality been removed by drying in an oven

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 17 Eructation Rumen degradable protein Belching of gas by ruminant animals as a natural Protein or nitrogen that is degraded in the way for releasing gases produced during the rumen by microorganisms and incorporated fermentation process into microbial protein or freed as ammonia Esophagus Rumen undegradable protein Tube that connects the mouth to the rumen Protein that passes through the rumen and is Forage unchanged by microbes; also called by-pass Vegetative portion of plants in a fresh, dried, or protein ensiled state that is fed to livestock Rumination Green chop Process in ruminants when semi-liquid ingested Forage harvested (cut and chopped) in the field feed is regurgitated into the esophagus, re- and fed directly to livestock chewed, and re-swallowed for further digestion Hay Saliva Dried forage (grasses, alfalfa, clovers) used for Watery substance formed in the mouths of feeding farm animals animals, secreted by the salivary glands Mastication Silage (Ensilage) Chewing Green forage that is chopped and put into a silo, where it is packed or compressed to exclude air Metabolizable energy and undergoes an acid fermentation (lactic and Digestible energy minus the energy lost in urine acetic acids) that retards spoilage and gas Total mixed ration Negative energy balance A blend of all feedstuffs (forages & Occurs when the amount of energy taken into concentrates) in one feed the body is less than the amount of energy required by the body Transition period Period of time from three weeks prior to Net energy calving to three weeks after calving Actual amount of energy the body can use for growth, lactation, reproduction, and body Villi maintenance Small projections that line the small intestine wall Nutrient Any chemical substance that provides SALIVA nourishment to the body Saliva is the major buffer for maintaining optimum Palatability rumen pH. Taste or likability of a feedstuff The mature dairy cow produces 50 to 80 quarts of saliva Papillae per day. Tiny, finger-like projections that line the wall of the rumen The functions of saliva are to: Moisten food Perennials Provide fluid base for many nutrients Plants that have a life cycle of more than two Lubricate food years Provide the proper environment for bacterial growth Act as a buffer

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 18 RUMINANT SMALL INTESTINE The dairy cow is a ruminant, meaning it has a four- The segments of the small intestine are the duodenum, compartment stomach. jejunum and ileum. The stomach compartments are the reticulum, rumen, Fats are broken down in the small intestine. omasum, and abomasum. The liver is the first organ to receive blood from the small intestine. RETICULUM The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the small The reticulum is also known as the honeycomb. intestine. The reticulum is the stomach compartment located closest to the heart. LARGE INTESTINE Hardware disease occurs in the reticulum. The main functions of the large intestine are water absorption and storage of waste materials. RUMEN The rumen is also known as the fermentation vat. NUTRIENTS The rumen is the largest of the cow’s stomach The main processes for which a cow uses nutrients from compartments. It makes up 25% of the newborn calf’s her feed are maintenance, growth, production and stomach capacity and 80% of the mature cow’s stomach reproduction. capacity. The nutrients contained in feedstuffs are carbohydrates, Fermentation is the primary process that takes places in fats, protein, minerals, vitamins, and water. the rumen. Bacteria, fungi, and protozoa are types of organisms that ENERGY live in the rumen and digest feed. Major sources of energy for the dairy cow are fats and Carbon dioxide and methane are gases produced in the carbohydrates. rumen. Energy is most likely to be the limiting nutritional The ideal rumen pH is 5.9 to 6.2. The rumen is acidotic requirement for the high producing dairy cow. when rumen pH drops below 5.9. A calorie is a unit of measure of energy in a feed; it is the amount of energy required to raise 1 gram of water 1°C. OMASUM The omasum is also called manyplies. FATS The main function of the omasum is the dehydration of Fats are the most concentrated energy source in dairy partially digested feed. cattle rations. They contain 2.25 times the energy value of starch. ABOMASUM The recommended maximum level of fat in a lactating The abomasum is the enzyme and acid secreting portion cow’s ration is 5 to 7% of ration dry matter. of the ruminant stomach. The forms of fat used in dairy cattle rations include The abomasum is also called the true stomach. animal fats (tallow), protected fats (calcium soaps), and whole oil seeds (whole cottonseeds, whole soybeans). The primary acid found in the abomasum is hydrochloric acid. Fatty acids are the building blocks of fats and lipids.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 19 Saturated fatty acids are completely hydrogenated; each AMINO ACIDS carbon atom is associated with the maximum number of There are 20 standard amino acids. hydrogen atoms. They have no double bonds. The cow’s sources of amino acids are rumen Unsaturated fatty acids are not completely undegradable protein and rumen microbes. hydrogenated. They have one or more double bonds. Amino acids are classified as essential or nonessential. Whole oil seeds contain high levels of unsaturated fatty Essential amino acids must be provided in the diet. The acids. ten essential amino acids for milking cows are: Arginine CARBOHYDRATES Histidine The basic elements contained in carbohydrates are Isoleucine carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Leucine Cellulose and hemicellulose are structural carbohydrates Lysine that the cow can use as a source of energy. Methionine Starch, sugar, and pectin are nonstructural Phenylalanine carbohydrates that are highly digestible parts of feeds. Threonine Tryptophan VOLATILE FATTY ACIDS Valine Volatile fatty acids are the main products of The most limiting amino acids in dairy cattle nutrition carbohydrate digestion by rumen microorganisms. are lysine and methionine. The main volatile fatty acids produced in the rumen are Nonessential amino acids are produced by the cow and acetic acid (acetate), butyric acid (butyrate), and do not have to be provided in the diet. propionic acid (propionate). MINERALS Acetic acid is the primary source of energy and milkfat. Macrominerals are generally required in relatively large Propionic acid is a precursor for glucose; it is produced quantities. Requirements are usually stated as a percent from digestion of starch and grain. of ration dry matter. The macrominerals are: Calcium PROTEIN Magnesium The basic elements that are present in all proteins are Potassium carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Sulfur Most proteins contain 16% nitrogen. Chlorine Phosphorus To determine the crude protein content of a feed, Sodium multiply the nitrogen fraction by 6.25. Potassium is the mineral needed by the dairy cow in the If a farmer said he was feeding a 16% dairy feed, the 16% largest quantity. is referring to crude protein. Proteins derived from poultry, marine or vegetable sources may be used in ruminant rations. Proteins derived from ruminant sources may not be used in ruminant rations because of concerns about Mad Cow Disease.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 20 Microminerals (trace minerals) are required in relatively A dairy cow excretes or loses water through breathing, small quantities. Requirements are usually stated in feces, milk, sweat, and urine. parts per million (ppm). The microminerals are: Factors influencing the amount of water consumed by Cobalt dairy cattle include: Iodine Body size Manganese Water quality Zinc Diet Copper Environmental temperature Iron Relative humidity Selenium Milk production Water temperature VITAMINS Peak times for water consumption are as soon as cows Vitamins are classified as either fat-soluble or water- leave the milking parlor and when cows consume large soluble. amounts of dry matter (at feeding). The fat-soluble vitamins are Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Physiological functions of water in the body include: Vitamin E, and Vitamin K. A medium to transport nutrients Beta-carotene, found in most legumes and grasses, is a To carry waste products to the point of excretion precursor of Vitamin A. Functions as a universal solvent Vitamin E has functions similar to selenium. To cool the body at high environmental temperatures Vitamin K plays a role in the coagulation of blood. Serves as a fluid to lubricate joints The water-soluble vitamins are the B complex vitamins Serves as a substrate for metabolic reactions and Vitamin C. Serves as a fluid base for milk The B Complex vitamins are: Thiamine (B1) NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS Niacin (B3) Many factors are required to determine nutrient Biotin (B7) requirements of a lactating cow including: Choline Body weight Riboflavin (B2) Fat test Pantothenic Acid (B5) Body condition Folic Acid (B9) Age B12 Stage of lactation Vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid. Environmental temperature Vitamins are measured in International Units (IU). Milk production level Reproductive status WATER An average dairy cow drinks 30 to 50 gallons of water each day. Performance (growth or milk production) will be reduced the quickest through a lack of water as compared to other nutrients.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 21 LEGUMES Even distribution of silage within the silo to exclude air Legumes used in dairy rations include: is an important part of making good quality silage. Alfalfa Valuable nutrients that can be lost in seepage from a silo Clover are minerals, organic acids, protein, and soluble sugars. Peanuts Lactic acid is the most desirable acid produced during Soybeans ensiling. Butyric acid is an undesirable acid. Bird’s Foot Trefoil Heat damage in haylage is indicated by dark color and Lespedeza burnt odor. Peas Vetch CORN SILAGE Nitrogen fixing bacteria are associated with legumes. Corn silage has the best fermentation and preservation Phosphorus is critical for the establishment of legumes. characteristics with minimal seepage when harvested at 35% dry matter. HAY The desired pH or properly fermented corn silage is 4.0 Immature hay is more valuable as a feed for dairy cows or less. than mature hay because of: Cold flow ammonia may be added to corn silage to Higher nutrient content increase the crude protein content. Greater palatability Higher digestibility Kernel processing of corn silage increases starch Lower fiber digestibility. Relative feed value (RFV) combines digestibility and The recommended theoretical length of cut (TLC) for intake estimates into one number for an easy and corn silage harvested with a conventional harvester is ⅜ effective way to identify and market quality hay. RFV is inch. If harvested with a harvester fitted with a kernel expressed as a percent compared to full bloom alfalfa at processor, TLC should be ¾ inch. 100 percent RFV. Characteristics of corn that have been introduced through transgenics include: SILAGE Corn borer resistance Phases of silage fermentation are aerobic, anaerobic, Herbicide resistance stable, and feeding. High oil content Types of silage storage facilities include: Waxy corn Bunker silo Bt corn hybrids were genetically engineered to provide Upright/tower silo resistance to the European corn borer. Oxygen limiting silo Brown midrib corn varieties have lower lignin Trench silo concentrations, which increase fiber digestibility. Plastic bag The minimum recommended feeding rate from an upright silo is 2-4 inches per day in the winter and 4-6 inches per day in the summer. It is at least 6 inches per day for bunker silos. Plastic is generally considered the best material for covering a bunker silo.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 22 FORAGE TESTING FORAGE PARTICLE SEPARATOR Forage testing is the most reliable way of knowing the A forage particle separator can be used to: nutrient content of forages. Evaluate whether there is enough long fiber in the Forage testing methods include NIR and wet chemistry. ration Check for over mixing and particle size reduction A forage analysis report commonly contains: Develop baseline particle size information for Dry matter comparison Total digestible nutrients Check ration uniformity Neutral detergent fiber Determine optimum mixing order Crude protein Evaluate whether particle size changes with hay Net energy lactation quality Ash (mineral matter) Check for sorting Soluble protein Acid detergent fiber BY-PRODUCT FEEDS When sampling square bales of hay for forage testing, By-products can be successfully used as feed for dairy 20 bales should be sampled. cattle. Before including a byproduct in the ration, the A dry matter determination may be done quickly and following factors should be considered: easily on a forage sample at home using a microwave Nutrient composition oven, gram scale, paper plate and water glass. Availability Storage FIBER Ability to feed/use Fiber is needed in dairy cattle rations to: Cost Maximize dry matter and energy intakes Palatability Maintain normal milkfat percentage Consistency Maintain normal rumen function By-product feedstuffs include: Protect against post-calving difficulties Cottonseed hulls Digestibility of plant fiber decreases as the plant Cottonseed meal increases in age and/or in hot weather. Distillers grains Acid detergent fiber (ADF) consists of cellulose, lignin, Wheat middlings and lignified nitrogen components (heat damaged Dried brewers grain protein). Hominy feed Peanut meal The acid detergent fiber content of a high producing Whole cottonseed cow’s ration should be 18-21%. Soybean hulls Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) is used to predict feed Soybean meal intake. The compounds that make up neutral detergent Wet brewers grain fiber (NDF) are cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. IONOPHORES Ionophores alter rumen fermentation by boosting the production of propionic acid and reducing the production of acetic acid. Examples are Lasalocid and Monensin. Monensin is approved for use in lactating dairy cattle, but Lasalocid is not.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 23 MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS TOTAL MIXED RATION Common mineral supplements include: Advantages of feeding a TMR include: Dicalcium phosphate Eliminate selective feeding Magnesium oxide Lower percent fiber needed in ration Potassium chloride Consistent ration Limestone Easier to balance precisely Monocalcium phosphate High dry matter intake White salt Fewer digestive upsets Limestone is an excellent source of calcium. Free-choice mineral not needed Can feed a variety of by-products Higher milk production BUFFERS Reasons one might add buffers to a dairy cow’s ration GRAZING include: The most common reason that farm owners adopt Increase fat test grazing is cost reduction. The main costs cited for Improve digestibility reduction are feed and labor. Aid in adjusting to high-energy ration Advantages of intensive rotational grazing include: Maintain acid-base balance Improve milk quality Low input costs Improve intake Even manure distribution Improved weed control Buffers commonly used in dairy rations include: Low labor requirement Limestone (calcium carbonate) Sodium bentonite Reduced soil erosion Magnesium oxide Disadvantages of grazing include: Sodium bicarbonate Inconsistent quality Unable to balance ration properly DIETARY CATION-ANION DIFFERENCE Distance from parlor Dietary Cation-Anion Difference (DCAD) is a helpful Inconsistent quantity tool to prevent milk fever. Lower forage yield per acre The elements used to calculate DCAD are Sodium (+), Potassium (+), Chlorine (-), and Sulfur (-). GROUPING Ionic salts are used in pre-fresh cow rations to help When grouping the milking herd, several factors may be prepare cows for the sudden demand for blood calcium. considered including: Examples are: Body condition Ammonium chloride Production level Calcium chloride Stage of lactation Magnesium chloride Lactation number Ammonium sulfate Reproductive status Calcium sulfate Health Magnesium sulfate

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 24 BODY CONDITION SCORING MISCELLANEOUS Body condition scoring, based on a five-point scale, can A mature dairy cow has 32 teeth, but has no upper front be used to evaluate nutrition and health. A score of 1 is teeth. given to a very thin cow; a score of 5 is given to a very Feed is the largest cost in milk production. fat cow. Molasses are often added to dairy cattle rations to Targets for body condition scores at different stages of improve taste (palatability) and reduce dustiness. lactation are: Raw soybeans will turn rancid if they are ground. At calving ...... 3.0-3.25 Early lactation ...... 2.5 Peak milk production usually occurs 2-3 weeks before Mid lactation ...... 2.75 peak feed intake. Late lactation ...... 3.0 Milk urea nitrogen (MUN) shows how well nitrogen At drying off ...... 3.0-3.25 and fermentable carbohydrates are balanced in the ration.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 25 Chapter 7: Lactation and Milking Management

ACRONYMS Backflushing BST ...... Bovine somatotropin System for sanitizing teat cup liners between cow milkings BTMC ...... Bulk tank milk culture Bulk tank BTSCC ...... Bulk tank somatic cell count Large storage tank for cooling and storing milk at a CFM ...... Cubic feet per minute cold temperature until it is transported to a CIP ...... Clean in place processing plant; usually made of stainless steel CMT ...... California mastitis test Chronic mastitis Mastitis that continues over a long period of time, CNS ...... Coagulase-negative staphylococci with progressive development of scar tissue and DMSCC ...... Direct microscopic somatic cell count simultaneous reduction in milk yield IGF ...... Insulin-like growth factor Clean-in-place (CIP) IMI ...... Intramammary infection Capability to clean and disinfect the milk-contact rBST ...... Recombinant bovine somatotropin components of a milking system by circulating appropriate solutions through them without SCC...... Somatic cell count disassembly SCS ...... Somatic cell score Clinical mastitis WMT ...... Wisconsin mastitis test Mastitis characterized by visible abnormalities in the udder or milk DEFINITIONS Foremilk Acute mastitis First streams of milk stripped from the udder prior Mastitis characterized by sudden onset, redness, to milking swelling, hardness, pain, grossly abnormal milk, and Forestripping reduced milk yield Process by which the first few streams of milk are Agitator removed from the teat prior to milking to observe Stirs milk in the bulk tank to help with cooling and for abnormalities and to flush the teat canal to provide a uniform product mixture for sampling Inflammation Air injector Condition in which the cow’s body seeks to Device that allows controlled, cyclic admission of air eliminate or neutralize invading microorganisms during cleaning and sanitizing to produce slug flow and repair damaged tissue. conditions Intramammary infection Alternating pulsation Infection characterized by the presence of When cyclic movement of the liners of two teat microorganisms growing in the udder cups within a cluster alternates with the movement Involution of the other two liners Process by which udder tissue goes back to a non- Alveoli milk-producing state after drying off Spherical clusters of secretory cells in the mammary gland that are arranged in grape-like structures

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 26 Keratin Pulsation ratio Waxy substance produced by cells lining the teat The amount of time a pulsator creates vacuum to canal that serves as a plug between milkings and open the liner compared with the amount of time it aids in reducing penetration by microorganisms admits air to collapse the liner Lactation Pulsator Period of time when a cow is in milk The part of the milking system that causes the Liner slip alternate vacuum pressure between the teat cup Condition whereby a teat cup slides down the shell and liner surface of the teat, often accompanied by a squawk Residual milk Looped milkline Milk remaining in the mammary gland following Milkline that forms an enclosed circuit with two completion of milking full-bore connections to the receiver Ropy milk Lowline (or low-level) milking system Milk that contains strings of white blood cells System in which the milk inlet to the milkline or Sanitary trap receiver jar is below the animal standing level Vessel between the milk system and the air system Mastitis to limit movement of liquids and other An inflammation of the udder, most commonly contaminants between the two systems caused by infecting microorganisms Sanitizer Milk letdown Chemical solution used to kill bacteria on product Process through which milk is squeezed out of milk- contact surfaces producing tissue by the action of the hormone, Somatic cell count (SCC) oxytocin Measurement most commonly used as an indicator Milk meter of mastitis; an indicator of the extent of subclinical Device between the cluster and the milkline for mastitis present in a cow’s udder or number of measuring all the milk from an individual animal leukocytes present Milk stone Spontaneous recovery Milk-mineral deposit on milk handling equipment Ability of a cow to cure itself of an udder infection without the aid of antibiotics or other drugs Milkline Line that carries milk and air during milking and Stray voltage has the dual function of providing milking vacuum Small electric currents that flow through the and conveying milk to a receiver electrical grounded-neutral system and that pass through a cow’s body, adversely affecting her Myoepithelium behavior and performance Contractile tissue that forces milk out of the alveoli upon action of oxytocin Strutting Condition in which the teats point out too much Pulsation The cyclic opening and closing of a teat cup liner Subclinical mastitis Mastitis with no detectable change in the udder Pulsation rate itself and no observable abnormality of the milk The number of times per minute that the pulsator opens and closes Supernumerary teats Extra teats

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 27 Vacuum gauge Automatic milking systems milk cows without human An instrument to indicate the level of vacuum in the labor. Other names for automatic milking systems are system, relative to atmospheric pressure voluntary milking systems and robotic milking. Vacuum pump An air pump that produces vacuum in the milking MILKING EQUIPMENT system Parts of a milking unit include the claw, teat cup shell, Vacuum regulator (Vacuum controller) teat cup liner (inflation), milk tube, and short air tube. The part of the milking system that prevents the Teat cup liners (inflations) should generally be replaced vacuum level from exceeding a prescribed level every 1,000 – 1,200 cow milkings. Washline Specifically, the teat cup liner (inflation) is the only part Line that carries cleaning and sanitizing solutions of the milking system that touches the cow. during the cleaning process from the wash sink, vat Signs of a malfunctioning milking system include: or tank to the milking units, milkline or milking Excessive vacuum fluctuation vacuum line Slow milking Teat cups fall off HORMONES Flooded milk lines Adrenaline (epinephrine) can interfere with milk Squawking teat cups ejection when a cow becomes frightened or upset. Uneven milk flow Oxytocin is the hormone that causes milk letdown. It is A liner slip may be caused by: produced by the hypothalamus, but secreted from the Improper liner design posterior pituitary. Maximum oxytocin concentration in Vacuum fluctuations blood occurs one minute after beginning stimulation. Cluster weight Prolactin is the pituitary hormone that is critical in the Milking wet teats initiation and maintenance of lactation. Vacuum pressure at the teat end at the time of milking Estrogen and progesterone are ovarian hormones that should be 12 to 13 inches of mercury. are involved in the development of the mammary gland. CLEANING EQUIPMENT MILK PRODUCTION A standard milking equipment cleaning protocol The parts of the teat through which milk passes are the consists of four phases: teat cistern, sphincter muscle, and streak canal (teat Pre-rinse canal). Chlorinated alkaline cleaning Acid rinse Cows milked three times a day will normally produce 8 Sanitization to 15 percent more milk than cows milked twice a day. The key factors for adequate, effective cleaning of Cows calving in November, December, and January milking systems are contact time, water temperature, have the highest 305-day milk production. and chemical concentration.

MILKING FACILITIES Recommended temperature of water for washing the bulk tank, lines, and other equipment is 160°F. Types of milking parlors include herringbone, parallel, parabone, rotary, and side opening. Dirty equipment is most frequently the cause of high bacteria counts in milk. The herringbone parlor is the most common type in use today.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 28 MILKING PROCEDURES MASTITIS The recommended milking procedures are: The major factors involved in bovine mastitis are the 1. Provide a clean, low stress environment for cows. cow, microorganisms, and environment. 2. Check foremilk and udder for mastitis. Mastitis is the most costly disease in dairy cattle. 3. Pre-dip teats in an effective product and provide Economic losses due to mastitis are estimated to be a 20 to 30-second contact time. about $200 per cow per year. 4. Dry teats completely with an individual towel. Mastitis-related costs include: 5. Attach milking unit within 1 minute after the Reduced milk production (64%) start of stimulation. Drugs (5%) 6. Adjust units as necessary for proper alignment. Discarded milk (14%) 7. Shut off vacuum before removing unit. Veterinarian (3%) 8. Dip teats immediately after unit removal with an Early cow replacement cost (8%) effective product. Labor (1%) Consequences of long pre-milking stimulation include: Reduced cow sale value (5%) Lower production Lost milk premiums (variable) Higher somatic cell count (mastitis problems) The main types of mastitis are subclinical mastitis, Slower milking time clinical mastitis, acute mastitis, and chronic mastitis.

TEAT DIPS Symptoms of clinical mastitis include: Flakes When using a teat dip as a pre-dip, the dip should be left Stringy milk on the teat for at least 20 to 30 seconds before it is wiped Hot quarter off. Presence of blood The main reason for teat dipping after each milking Clots (post-dipping) is to reduce the rate of new infection in Watery milk the udder. Swollen quarter Solutions commonly used as teat dips include: The California Mastitis Test, conductivity, and strip cup Bronopol are on-farm screening tests to detect mastitis. Chlorine Potential causes of mastitis include: Hydrogen peroxide Failure to teat dip Quaternary ammonia Poor housing/environment Chlorhexidine Poor sanitation DDBSA Faulty milking equipment Iodine Poor milking practices Stray voltage CLOTH TOWELS Improper dry cow management When using cloth towels in udder preparation, the The most effective measures to prevent new mastitis following guidelines are recommended: infections are teat dipping and dry cow antibiotic Use a separate towel for each cow. treatment. Wash cloth towels using warm water. Do not let damp towels sit between uses because of The streak canal (teat canal) is the cow’s first line of yeast or mold contamination. defense against mastitis infections; leukocytes are the Dry towels immediately after washing or add bleach second natural line of defense. when washing.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 29 Steps in a good mastitis control program are: MASTITIS-CAUSING PATHOGENS Use functionally adequate milking equipment in the Culturing milk samples (on-farm or in a lab) can correct manner. provide information for mastitis prevention, treatment Dip teats after milking with an effective product. and control by identifying the mastitis-causing Treat clinical cases immediately with recommended pathogen. dosages. Contagious mastitis-causing pathogens are those Treat every quarter of every cow at dry off with an growing in the udder that are spread from cow to cow. effective dry cow product. Examples include: Cull chronic cows. Staphylococcus aureus (Staph. aureus) Mycoplasma species SOMATIC CELLS Streptococcus agalactiae (Strep. ag.) High numbers of somatic cells in milk are generally an Environmental mastitis-causing pathogens grow in the indicator of infection (mastitis). cow’s environment and contact the udder and teats Somatic cells include two types of cells: causing infection. They include bacteria classified as White blood cells (leukocytes) that move into the coliforms or environmental Streptococci. udder during inflammation Coliforms include: Epithelial cells from milk producing tissues Escherichia coli (E. coli) Normal milk generally has a SCC less than 200,000 cells/ Enterobacter species milliliter. Klebsiella species The legal limit for somatic cell counts in raw milk in the Environmental Streptococci include: United States is 750,000 cells/ml. The limit in the Streptococcus dysgalactiae European Community is 400,000 cells/ml. Streptococcus uberis U.S. milk and milk products exported to European Sources of environmental bacteria in dairy herds are: Union member countries must have a rolling average Soil somatic cell count less than 400,000 cells/ml. Bedding Mud Water Feedstuffs Feces Factors affecting the dairy cow’s environment are: Climate Herd size Frequency and duration of confinement housing Season of year Housing type Management of cows and facilities Many other pathogens may cause mastitis including other bacteria, fungi, and yeast.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 30 MILK QUALITY AND COMPOSITION Components that increase in concentration in The legal limit for bacteria counts in raw milk in the mastitic milk are: U.S. is 100,000 cfu/ml. Chloride Immunoglobulins Sources of on-farm milk contamination include: Leukocytes Air (dust) Lipase Dirt (outside of the cow) Sodium Feed Trace Minerals Interior of udder Antibiotics DRY PERIOD Equipment Insects The traditionally recommended length of the dry period Water for dairy cows is 45 to 60 days. Factors that can influence milk composition include: The most effective time to treat mastitis infections is at Age of cow drying off. Breed The purposes of dry cow antibiotic treatment are to Environmental temperature remove existing infections and prevent new infections. Estrus Benefits of dry cow antibiotic treatment include: Genetics Higher concentration of antibiotics than lactating Milking procedures products Nutrition Antibiotics remain longer Season No discarding of salable milk Somatic cell count Prevention of new infections Stage of lactation Blanket dry cow therapy is the practice of treating every Conditions that will cause a decrease in fat test include: quarter of every cow at drying off. Selective dry cow Finely chopped feeds therapy is the practice of treating only cows that have an Extremely hot weather intramammary infection before drying off. Selective dry Estrus cow therapy is a way to decrease the use of antibiotics in Low fiber content in ration food animals. Illness Mastitis has an effect on milk composition. Components that decrease in concentration in mastitic milk are: Calcium Casein Fat Lactose Phosphorus Potassium Solids not fat Total proteins Total solids

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 31 Chapter 8: Dairy Products and Milk Marketing

ACRONYMS Clarification ADV ...... Acid degree value Process that removes solid impurities from milk prior to pasteurization CFU ...... Colony forming units Cream CLA ...... Conjugated linoleic acid High fat milk product separated from milk COOL ...... Country of Origin Labeling Cryoscope CWT ...... Cooperatives Working Together Instrument used to test the freezing point of milk DIPP ...... Dairy Indemnity Payment Program to determine if water has been added DMC ...... Dairy Margin Coverage Cultured dairy products Dairy foods that have been fermented with lactic HACCP ...... Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points acid bacteria HTST ...... High temperature, short time Fluid milk NFDM ...... Non fat dry milk Packaged dairy products used as beverage milks NOP ...... National Organic Program Fluid products PI ...... Preliminary incubation Term traditionally used to define products PMO ...... Pasteurized Milk Ordinance including beverage milks, fluid cream items, and yogurts RDA ...... Recommended Daily Allowance Fluid utilization SNF ...... Solids not fat Proportion of Grade A milk in a market used to SPC...... Standard plate count produce fluid (Class I) milk TS ...... Total solids Fortification UF ...... Ultrafiltration Process by which vitamins are added to milk UHT ...... Ultra high temperature Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points USMCA ...... United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement System of quality control that identifies where mistakes often occur WTO ...... World Trade Organization Lactase DEFINITIONS Enzyme needed by humans to digest lactose A2 milk Lactose Cow’s milk that contains only the A2 variant of Milk sugar that gives milk its sweet flavor beta-casein protein (A1 is the other variant) Lactose intolerance Acid degree value Condition when a person cannot break down milk Test that detects rancidity in milk sugar Casein Lipase Enzyme that breaks down butterfat, leading to The primary protein found in milk rancidity Churning Process that turns cream into butter

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 32 Mailbox milk price Whey Price for milk of average composition and is a Fluid by-product of cheese making. weighted average for the market; accounts for all payments received for milk including performance MILK bonuses and premiums; also accounts for all Milk is nature’s most nearly perfect food. deductions such as promotion, hauling, capital Milk is 96-98% digestible. retains, and cooperative dues Animals other than the cow are also used to produce Manufacturers milk for human consumption throughout the world. Producers of cheese, butter, nonfat dry milk, and These animals include the goat, sheep, camel, water other storable dairy products buffalo, reindeer, horse, and yak. Manufacturing milk Cow’s milk consists of 87.4% water and 12.6% milk Grade B milk or the Grade A milk used in the solids. production of manufactured dairy products Milk solids can be divided into solids-not-fat (8.9%) and Milk class fat (3.7%). Describes how milk is used by the processor or in a marketing area Components of the solids-not-fat part of milk are protein (3.4%), lactose (4.8%), and minerals (0.7%). Pasteurization Process that destroys any disease-producing The minimum total solids-not-fat content in the legal bacteria that might be present in raw milk definition of milk is 8.25%. Phosphatase test PROTEIN Test used to determine if raw milk has mixed with pasteurized milk Milk contains casein and whey proteins. Processors Milk taste improves as the protein level in milk Firms that process raw Grade A milk into fluid increases. products. Raw milk LACTOSE Milk as it comes from the cow prior to processing Lactose is the major solids component of milk. Rennet The simple sugars that make up lactose are glucose and Substance containing many enzymes that is galactose. obtained from the lining of a calf’s stomach Rennin VITAMINS AND MINERALS Enzyme found in rennet that is used to coagulate Vitamin D is added to milk at processing time to protein (casein) when making cheese prevent rickets. It is essential for efficient use of Separation calcium and phosphorus in bone growth. Process of dividing milk into skim milk and cream Reduced fat (2% fat), lowfat (1% fat), and skim milk Standard place count must be fortified with Vitamin A to be nutritionally Test that measures bacterial content of raw milk to similar to whole milk. monitor milk quality The minerals found in milk that are important in bone Standardization growth are calcium and phosphorus. Process that assures that milk and dairy products will be uniform in protein and fat content

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 33 CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID MILK QUALITY TESTS Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is an 18-carbon fatty Raw milk quality tests used by milk plants include: acid present in milk, particularly from cows grazing Acid degree value pasture, which has been found to have cancer Antibiotic test prevention effects. Flavor CLA content is greater in higher fat products. Freezing point Leukocyte (somatic cell) count MILK QUALITY Preliminary incubation (PI) count Sediment test The expiration date on a milk carton is a customer’s Standard plate count assurance of a fresh dairy product. The “Real Seal” assures the customer that the product OFF-FLAVORS they are purchasing is a genuine dairy product. Common off-flavors in milk are: Advantages of high quality milk from a processor’s Acid point of view include: Bitter Improved flavor Cooked Long shelf life Feed Increased cheese yield Fermented Reduced hauling and handling costs due to low Foreign quality milk not having to be diverted to an Fruity alternative use Lacks freshness Advantages of high quality milk from a dairy producer’s Oxidized point of view include: Rancid Greater profitability Salty Increased milk yield Sour Low culling rates Off-flavors in milk are most commonly found in the Low treatment costs butterfat component. Reduced labor and labor cost An oxidized flavor can result from exposing milk to: Larger milk checks due to improved milk per cow Sunlight or fluorescent lighting (Light-oxidized) and premiums Copper bearing surfaces (Metal-oxidized)

ON-FARM MILK STORAGE Pigmented milk cartons are used to prevent an oxidized flavor. A bulk tank should be washed and sanitized every time it is emptied. A sour flavor occurs when there are large numbers of bacteria present in milk. Grade A raw milk must be cooled to 45°F or less within two hours after milking. After the first milking, the temperature of milk in a bulk tank should not reach higher than 50°F at any time. Milk temperature should be kept under 40°F to maintain the best quality.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 34 ANTIBIOTIC RESIDUES BUTTER Antibiotic residues are not allowed in milk for human It takes 21.2 pounds of whole milk to make a pound of consumption. Reasons for this regulation include: butter. Some people are allergic to antibiotics. (Main Butter must contain a minimum of 80% fat. reason) U.S. Grade AA is the highest grade of butter sold in the Milk that contains antibiotic residues is not good U.S. for cheese making. Bacteria may become resistant to antibiotics. One stick of butter = 1/2 cup = 1/4 pound = 8 Antibiotics are not a natural part of milk. tablespoons

PASTEURIZATION CHEESE Pasteurization increases the shelf life of milk by It takes 10 pounds of whole milk to make a pound of substantially reducing the total bacteria population. cheese. Pasteurization destroys lipase and other natural milk The protein content of milk most affects the amount of enzymes, which might cause off-flavor in milk during cheese one can get from a unit of milk. refrigerated storage. The major components of dried whey are lactose, The batch or holding method of pasteurization heats minerals, and protein. milk to 145°F for not less than 30 minutes. Cheese is classified according to its consistency. The The high temperature, short time method of classes are soft, semi-soft, hard, and very hard. pasteurization heats milks to 161°F for 15 seconds. Mozzarella cheese is the most popular variety of cheese in the United States. Cheddar is second most popular. BEVERAGE MILKS Feta and Roquefort are cheeses made from the milk of Milk is labeled according to the following standards: animals other than the dairy cow.

Grams CREAM of fat Calories per Label Other Names per cup cup Cream must contain at least 18% milk fat. Fat free Nonfat, skim 0 80 Cream varieties include: Acidified sour cream Lowfat 1% fat 2.5 100 Acidified sour half & half Reduced fat 2% fat 5 120 Cream in aerosol cans Whole 8 150 Half & half Titanium dioxide is often added to fat free milk to Heavy cream whiten the milk. Light cream Light whipping cream Reduced-fat sour cream Sour cream Sour half & half

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 35 FROZEN DAIRY PRODUCTS The current Federal Milk Marketing Orders are: Frozen dairy products include ice cream, frozen Appalachian custard, sherbet, and frozen yogurt. Arizona California (most recent addition) It takes 12 pounds of whole milk to make a gallon of ice Central cream. Florida Federal standards require ice cream to contain a Mideast minimum of 10% milk fat and 20% total milk solids by Northeast weight. Pacific Northwest Some premium ice creams contain 16% milk fat. Southeast Southwest CULTURED DAIRY PRODUCTS Upper Midwest Cultured dairy product examples include: MILK CLASSES Acidophilus milk Buttermilk Federal Milk Marketing Orders have four milk classes Crème fraîche based on how milk is used by the processor or in a Kefir marketing area. Sour cream Class I Yogurt Beverage milks Yogurt is a mixture of milk (whole, reduced-fat, lowfat, Class II or nonfat) and cream fermented by a culture of lactic Fluid cream products, yogurt, and manufactured acid-producing bacteria. Yogurt contains at least 3.25% products (ice cream, cottage cheese) milk fat and 8.25% solids-not-fat. Class III Authentic Greek yogurt is made by straining yogurt Cream cheese and hard manufactured cheese using muslin or cheesecloth to remove whey from the Class IV yogurt to make it creamy and thick. It takes four Butter and milk in dried form pounds of milk to make one pound of authentic Greek yogurt. MILK GRADES

FEDERAL MILK MARKETING ORDERS Fluid grade (Grade A) milk is milk produced under sanitary conditions that qualify it for fluid The Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937 consumption. Only Grade A milk is regulated under provided for Federal Milk Marketing Orders. Federal Milk Marketing Orders. The Secretary of Agriculture regulates Federal Milk The Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) is the Marketing Orders. document that establishes the standards for Grade A The federal orders specify minimum prices and milk. conditions under which regulated milk handlers must Manufacturing grade (Grade B) milk is milk not operate when selling fluid milk products within a meeting the fluid grade standards. Less strict standards specified geographic area. generally apply. There are eleven Federal Milk Marketing Orders in the Unites States. Component pricing is used in seven of the orders.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 36 MILK COOPERATIVES DAIRY PROMOTION The top five milk producing cooperatives in the U.S. Fifteen cents per hundredweight of milk sold are based on member milk volume in 2017 were: deducted from every dairy producer’s milk check to pay 1. Dairy Farmers of America for promotion and research through the dairy checkoff. 2. California Dairies, Inc. Started in 1937, June Dairy Month was originally called 3. Land O’Lakes, Inc. National Milk Month. The American Dairy Association 4. Edge Dairy Farmer Cooperative is the national leader for June Dairy Month. 5. FarmFirst Dairy Cooperative National Grilled Cheese Month is observed in April. The top 50 cooperatives accounted for 81 percent of National Ice Cream Month is observed in July. the milk produced in the U.S. in 2017. The dairy case is usually placed at the rear of the store because it causes shoppers to walk past many other COOPERATIVES WORKING TOGETHER products in order to get to the dairy case, which Cooperatives Working Together (CWT) is a dairy increases impulse buying. farmer-funded self-help program to address supply and The “Got Milk?” campaign was first used by California demand imbalances that can depress milk prices. The milk processors in 1993. It was retired by MilkPEP in CWT program focuses on providing export assistance. 2014 and was replaced by the “Milk Life” tagline. CWT is operated within the structure of the National Milk Producers Federation. DAIRY PRODUCT CONSUMPTION CWT’s funding comes from farmers who invest 4 cents As a person’s age increases, his/her milk consumption per hundredweight of milk sold. tends to decrease. McDonald’s is the fast food chain that uses the most ORGANIC DAIRY PRODUCTION milk in the U.S. Organic dairy production is a method of production Milk is the victory drink at the Indianapolis 500 each that uses: year. No hormones to promote growth No mammalian or poultry by-products in feed DIETARY GUIDELINES No antibiotics 100% organic feed According to the 2015 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, the following amounts of dairy are recommended in California ranks first among the states for the number the Healthy U.S.-Style Pattern: of organic dairy cows. For children ages 2 to 3 years: USDA's National Organic Program (NOP) regulates the 2 cup-equivalents per day standards for any farm, wild crop harvesting, or handling operation that wants to sell an agricultural For children ages 4 to 8 years: product as organically produced. 2 ½ cup-equivalents per day NOP standards for organic livestock production require For adolescents ages 9 to 18 years and adults: access to pasture throughout the grazing season and a 3 cup-equivalents per day diet consisting of at least 30% dry matter intake from MyPlate is an illustration of the five food groups in a pasture grazed during the grazing season, totaling at place setting based on the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for least 120 days. Americans; it is designed to help consumers make healthier food choices.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 37 Chapter 9: Miscellaneous

ACRONYMS 2018 DAIRY PRODUCTION RANKINGS CTAP ...... Current Test Day Analysis Program Total milk production DCR ...... Data collection rating 1. California 2. Wisconsin DIM ...... Days in milk 3. Idaho ECM ...... Energy corrected milk 4. New York ERPA ...... Estimated relative producing ability 5. Texas FCM ...... Fat corrected milk Number of dairy cows ME ...... Mature equivalent 1. California 2. Wisconsin PCDART ...... Personal Computer Direct Access 3. New York to Records by Telephone 4. Idaho RIP ...... Record in progress 5. Texas SMV ...... Slow moving vehicle Milk per cow TQM ...... Total quality management 1. Michigan 2. Colorado WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 3. New Mexico 4. Idaho Item Weight 5. Washington A gallon of milk ...... 8.6 pounds Cows per herd A quart of milk ...... 2.15 pounds 1. New Mexico 2. Arizona A bushel of corn ...... 56 pounds 3. Nevada A bushel of wheat ...... 60 pounds 4. Colorado A bushel of barley ...... 48 pounds 5. California A bushel of oats ...... 32 pounds Milk produced per person A bushel of soybeans ...... 60 pounds 1. Idaho 2. Wisconsin A hundredweight (cwt) ...... 100 pounds 3. South Dakota A kilogram ...... 2.2 pounds 4. Minnesota 5. Iowa U.S. DAIRY INDUSTRY AT A GLANCE IN 2017 Manufacturing states based on number of dairy plants Number of licensed dairy farms ...... 41,809 1. Wisconsin Number of dairy cows* ...... 9.3 million 2. New York Milk per cow per year ...... 22,774 pounds 3. California 4. Pennsylvania Milk production ...... 212.4 billion pounds 5. Ohio *The number of dairy cows reached its peak in 1945.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 38 2018 FORAGE PRODUCTION RANKINGS CULLING Corn silage production Reasons for culling a dairy cow from the herd include: 1. Wisconsin Low production 2. California Reproduction 3. Pennsylvania Feet and legs 4. New York Injury 5. Minnesota Mastitis Alfalfa production Udder 1. Wisconsin Disease 2. California Disposition 3. Idaho Dairy cattle can be sold privately on farm or in auction 4. Minnesota sales. Types of auction sales are consignment, dispersal, 5. Montana and reduction.

DHIA FARM BUSINESS MANAGEMENT The standard length of a DHIA record is 305 days. The necessary economic inputs for a dairy operation are The meaning of “305-2X-ME” on dairy records is that land, labor, capital, and management. the lactation record was adjusted to a 305-day lactation, A cooperative is a firm that is owned by its farmer twice a day milking, mature equivalent. members, is operated for their benefit, and distributes If one sees “3X” in a dairy animal’s production records, it earnings on the basis of patronage. means the cow was milked three times a day. Risk protection programs available to dairy farmers A DHIA record may be terminated if a cow has dried off, include: aborted or died. Dairy Margin Coverage Dairy Revenue Protection A lactation record is generally adjusted for lactation Livestock Gross Margin length, mature equivalent, and 2 times a day milking. Futures contracts Lactation records in progress can be used in calculation of USDA-AIPL Sire Summaries if they have at least one LABOR MANAGEMENT test and are a minimum of 40 days in length. The minimum wage in the U.S. is $7.25 per hour, A Data Collection Rating (DCR) is an indicator of the effective July 24, 2009. amount of information included in a production record Selection tools that a dairy manager can use when hiring and the resulting accuracy level when compared to a new employee include: production records with either less or more Application forms information. Reference checks National DHIA and Quality Certification Services offer Trial periods 20 DHI test plans to participating producers. Interviews Laboratory tests available through DHI include: Work tests Butterfat percentage The Worker Protection Standard is an Environmental Solids-not-fat percentage (SNF) Protection Agency (EPA) program designed to protect Somatic cell count (SCC) the nation’s agricultural workers from pesticides. Protein percentage Milk urea nitrogen (MUN) Johne’s disease

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 39 PRECISION DAIRY FARMING The top five countries selling dairy products to the Precision dairy farming is the use of technologies to United States in 2018 were: measure physiological, behavioral, and production 1. Canada indicators on individual animals to improve 2. New Zealand management strategies and farm performance. 3. Italy 4. Ireland Examples of precision dairy farming include: 5. France Daily milk yield monitoring Automatic temperature recording devices PHOTOPERIOD Milk component monitoring Milk conductivity indicators Long-day photoperiod, providing 16 to 18 hours of light Pedometers per day, may stimulate lactating cows to produce 5 Automatic estrous detection monitors pounds more milk per day on average. Accelerometers Melatonin is the hormone released by the pineal gland Daily body weight measurements in response to longer day length. Benefits of precision dairy farming include: Short-day photoperiod exposes cows to 8 hours of light Improved animal health and well-being followed by 16 hours of darkness. Dry cows exposed to Minimized adverse environmental impacts a short-day photoperiod produce more milk in the next Increased efficiency lactation than similar cows exposed to long day Risk analysis and management photoperiod or natural light conditions. Reduced costs More objective (less observer bias and influence) ANIMAL WELL-BEING Improved product quality According to the American Veterinary Medical Association, animal welfare is the ethical responsibility FARM BILL of ensuring animal well-being. Every five years, the U.S. Congress passes a bundle of Animal well-being is the condition in which animals legislation called the Farm Bill; it sets national policy for experience good health, are able to effectively cope with agriculture, nutrition, conservation, and forestry. their environment, and are able to express a diversity of The Agricultural Improvement Act of 2018 is the name species-typical behaviors. of the 2018 Farm Bill. The National Dairy Animal Well-Being Initiative is a producer-led effort to build consumer trust and TRADE confidence in the dairy industry’s commitment to animal The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement replaced well-being. the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). An animal rights activist is a person who believes that The top five countries buying dairy products from the an animal’s life has the same value as a human’s life and United States in 2018 were: has the goal of eliminating all systems that involve the 1. Mexico use of animals by humans. 2. Canada 3. China 4. South Korea 5. Japan

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 40 NATIONAL DAIRY FARM PROGRAM The National Dairy Farmers Assuring Responsible Management (FARM) Program was created by the National Milk Producers Federation in cooperation with Dairy Management, Inc. Its purpose is to show customers that the dairy industry is taking the very best care of cows and the environment, producing safe and wholesome milk, and adhering to the highest standards of workforce development. Standard for the program are revised every three years.

FREESTALLS The main reason that dairy cows refuse to use freestalls is improper size. The parts of a freestall include: Support post Neck rail Stall surface (bedding, mattress) Stall partition Brisket board (tube) Rear curb

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 41 Chapter 10: Reproduction

ACRONYMS Cryptorchidism AI ...... Artificial insemination Condition when one or both testes fail to descend from the abdomen into the scrotum, often affecting CIDR ...... Controlled internal drug release fertility CL ...... Corpus luteum Days open CR ...... Conception rate Days from calving until conception or successful ET ...... Embryo transfer breeding date FSH ...... Follicle stimulating hormone Days to first service Days from calving until first breeding date GnRH ...... Gonadotropin releasing hormone Embryo transfer IVF ...... In vitro fertilization Process of removing a fertilized ovum from a donor LH ...... Luteinizing hormone cow and transferring it to another cow or heifer; MOET ...... Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer Most embryo transfers are conducted on day 7 or 8 PGF2α ...... Prostaglandin F2α after breeding PR ...... Pregnancy rate Endometritis Inflammation of the uterine lining SCR ...... Sire conception rate Estrus TAI ...... Timed artificial insemination Period of heat in dairy cattle

DEFINITIONS Fertilization Process of joining an ovum and a sperm. It takes Abortion place in the oviduct Premature expulsion of a fetus Freemartin Anestrus Sterile heifer born twin to a bull Failure to have an estrous cycle French straw Artificial insemination (AI) Thin cylinder in which frozen semen is preserved Process of freezing semen from a bull and thawing it later to fertilize ova Gestation Period of pregnancy; it begins at fertilization and Calving interval ends at birth Period of time from one calving to the next calving, usually measured in months Infertility Describes the animal that is neither normally fertile Conception rate nor totally sterile Percent of services (breedings) that result in a pregnancy Involution Process where the uterus returns to normal size Corpus luteum after calving Temporary gland that forms on the ovary after the ovum is released; also called yellow body Metritis Infection of the uterus

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 42 Ovulation COW’S REPRODUCTIVE TRACT Process of releasing an ovum from the follicle on The parts of the cow’s reproductive tract are: the ovary Vulva Parturition Vagina Act of giving birth (also called calving, freshening) Cervix Pregnancy rate Uterus Percent of cows that become pregnant out of those Oviduct cows eligible to become pregnant in a given period Ovary of time, usually 21 days The broad ligament is the structure that holds the uterus Recipient and ovaries in their proper position. An animal that received a fertilized ovum from a The main functions of the ovary are production of ova donor. and secretion of hormones essential for reproduction. Retained placenta One hundred percent (100%) of the ova in a mature Condition when the fetal membranes remain cow’s ovaries were present at birth. attached to the maternal caruncles within the uterus The fertile life of an ovum after its release from the for an extended period of time after calving (greater follicle is 6 to 12 hours. than 24 hours). The site of semen deposition in natural service (bull) is Sire Conception Rate (SCR) in the vagina next to the cervix; in artificial An evaluation of artificial insemination (AI) insemination it is normally in the body of the uterus. service-sire fertility computed by the Council on The fetus develops in the uterus after the ovum is Dairy Cattle Breeding; calculated for Ayrshire, fertilized. Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Holstein, Jersey, and Milking Shorthorn bulls The placenta is the structure through which the fetus receives all of its nutrients. The placenta is attached to Sterility the uterus in dairy cattle by maternal caruncles and fetal Describes the animal that cannot reproduce cotyledons (placentones). Superovulation Process that involves treating a cow with a hormone (FSH) to increase the number of ova produced. Superovulation Process that involves treating a cow with a hormone (FSH) to increase the number of ova produced Transvaginal aspiration Use of ultrasonography to view the ovary while removing oocytes through the vagina using a needle; harvested oocytes are matured and fertilized in vitro Voluntary Waiting Period (VWP) Time period after calving when the dairy producer chooses not to breed a cow; most common VWP is 60 days Zygote A fertilized ovum

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 43 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE HORMONES Follicles develop in a wave-like pattern known as the Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) follicular wave. There are five phases of a follicular Secreted by the hypothalamus; wave: Controls the secretion of pituitary hormones (FSH Recruitment and LH) Selection Growth Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Dominance Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland; Regression Stimulates growth of follicles There are normally 2 or 3 follicular waves during an Luteinizing Hormone (LH) estrous cycle in cattle. Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland Causes the follicle to rupture and then causes the ESTRUS corpus luteum to replace the follicle; Increases dramatically in concentration 24 hours Duration of standing heat is usually 2 to 12 hours with prior to ovulation soon after the onset of estrus an average of 7 hours. Estrogen (E2) Pregnancy is the most common cause of a cow not Produced by the follicle; coming back into heat. It is estimated that 3 to 5% of Necessary for behavioral estrus and peaks at the pregnant cows exhibit estrus. onset of standing estrus Milk progesterone levels are low during estrus. Progesterone (P4) A silent heat is the condition where the physical signs of Produced by the corpus luteum; heat are difficult to detect. Necessary for the maintenance of pregnancy; Signs of estrus in dairy cattle include: Inhibits the release of GnRH from the Restlessness hypothalamus Bellowing Prostaglandin (PGF) Following and smelling another cow Produced by the uterus (endometrium); Mounting other cow Causes destruction or regression of the corpus Standing to be mounted luteum Clear mucus discharge from vulva Vulva becomes red and swollen ESTROUS CYCLE Standing to be mounted is the most reliable sign of The normal range in length of the estrous cycle is 18 to estrus. 24 days. Estrus synchronization programs include: On average, there are 21 days between heat periods in CIDR dairy cows. Ovsynch The phases of the estrous cycle are: Pre-Synch Follicular (active follicles are present) Co-Synch Luteal (corpus luteum is the dominant ovarian Heat-synch structure) The stages of the estrous cycle are: 1. Estrus: heat period 2. Metestrus: transition 3. Diestrus: corpus luteum present 4. Proestrus: prior to estrus

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 44 Heat detection aids used on dairy farms include: PREGNANCY RATE Heat expectancy charts Pregnancy rate is the combined effect of heat detection Tail chalk rate and conception rate. Pedometers Pregnancy rate is usually calculated every 21 days Accelerometers because that is the average length of the dairy cow’s Pressure sensors estrous cycle. Electronic heat detection systems Detector animals Pregnancy rate can be calculated for AI bred herds, bull bred herds, or a combination of both.

ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION ULTRASOUND Advantages of using artificial insemination over natural Ultrasound can be used in a reproductive management service include: program in several ways including: Safety Pregnancy determination Genetic improvement Determine embryonic losses Better disease control Determine if twins are being carried Better record keeping Monitor cystic ovaries Easier to prove bulls Determine sex of embryo Less expensive than keeping a bull

A cow should be artificially inseminated 5 to 15 hours GESTATION after the onset of standing heat. Average gestation length varies from 276 to 292 days. Liquid nitrogen is used to freeze and store semen. The Gestation length can vary due to many factors including: temperature of liquid nitrogen is -320°F. Age of the cow Frozen semen should be thawed in a warm water bath Breed of the cow (90 to 95°F) for a minimum of 40 seconds to maximize Sex of the calf the number of motile sperm. Number of calves carried Season of the year CONCEPTION RATE Brown Swiss cattle have the longest gestation period. Factors affecting a dairy herd’s conception rate include: Heat detection accuracy PARTURITION Herd (cow) fertility Cortisol is the hormone the calf triggers in response to Semen (bull) fertility stress to initiate parturition. Technician competency Relaxin is the hormone released prior to calving that Reasons cows don’t become pregnant when the herd is enables the cervix to soften and stretch in preparation bred by artificial insemination include: for expelling the calf. Failure to ovulate Fertilization failure Signs that a cow is near calving include: Hormone imbalance Udder full Poor quality semen Vulva enlarged Failure to inseminate Mucus discharge Improper insemination technique Restlessness Heat detection errors Relaxation of ligaments at tail head The normal birth position of a calf is front feet first with the head between the legs.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 45 CALVING INTERVAL Diseases that cause abortions in dairy cattle include: A herd’s average calving interval is influenced by several Brucellosis factors including: Campylobacteriosis (Vibriosis) Voluntary waiting period Chlamydia Estrus (heat) detection IBR Conception rate Leptospirosis Reproductive culling Listeriosis Neospora MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Trichomoniasis Cystic ovaries are found in 12-14% of problem breeders. The main functions of the testes are to produce sperm They develop in 10-40% of dairy cows during their and produce the male sex hormones. lifetime. Mature sperm are stored in the epididymus. Types of cystic ovaries are follicular cysts, luteal cysts, Sperm live 24 to 30 hours after being deposited in the and cystic corpus lutea. cow’s reproductive tract. It takes sperm 6 hours to Follicular cysts are thin-walled, anovulatory (not become capacitated (i.e., to develop the ability to ovulating) cysts. They secrete variable amounts of fertilize the ovum). estrogen. Sperm produce lactic acid during metabolism. Luteal cysts are thick-walled cysts. They secrete low Fructose is the primary sugar found in semen. levels of progesterone. The male reproductive hormones include: Cystic corpus lutea have characteristics similar to Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) normal corpora lutea. Stimulates sperm production Twinning in dairy cattle has several disadvantages Luteinizing hormone (LH) including: Stimulates sperm production Reduced milk production during the lactation Testosterone Calving difficulties are more frequent Responsible for the male sex drive (libido) Abortion rates are higher Twins are often weak at birth REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH Potential for a freemartin heifer Reproductive failure is the number one reason for Ninety percent (90%) of heifers born twin to a bull are culling in U.S. dairy herds. sterile. It usually takes 30 to 45 days after calving for a cow’s reproductive tract to return to normal. Incidence of metritis and endometritis is highest in summer. Retained placenta incidence is highest in summer. Poor nutrition and uterine infections are the leading causes of anestrus.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 46 Chapter 11: Genetics

ACRONYMS PL ...... Productive Life AGIL ...... Animal Genetics and Improvement Laboratory PPR ...... Progressive Performance Rating AIP ...... Animal Improvement Program PTA ...... Predicted Transmitting Ability BAA ...... Breed Age Average PTI ...... Production-Type Index BLAD ...... Bovine Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency RFID...... Radio Frequency Identification BLUP ...... Best Linear Unbiased Predictor RNA ...... Ribonucleic Acid CCR ...... Cow Conception Rate rRNA ...... Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid CE ...... Calving Ease RT ...... Recessive Tested CM$ ...... Cheese Merit RVC ...... Rectovaginal Constriction CVM ...... Complex Vertebral Malformation SB ...... Stillbirth DBH ...... Difficult Birth in Heifers SCE ...... Service Sire Calving Ease DCE ...... Daughter Calving Ease SDM ...... Spinal Dysmyelination DNA ...... Deoxyribonucleic Acid SMA ...... Spinal Muscular Atrophy DPR ...... Daughter Pregnancy Rate SNP ...... Single Nucleotide Polymorphism DUMPS ...... Deficiency of Monophosphate Synthase STA ...... Standardized Transmitting Ability EBV ...... Estimated Breeding Value TPI ...... Total Performance Index ETA ...... Estimated Transmitting Ability tRNA ...... Transfer Ribonucleic Acid FAIR ...... Farm Animal Identification and Records DEFINITIONS FM$ ...... Fluid Merit Allele FTI ...... Functional Trait Index Any of the alternative forms of a gene that may FUI ...... Functional Udder Index occur at a given locus GM$ ...... Grazing Merit Chromosome GMD ...... Gold Medal Dam A threadlike linear strand of DNA and associated GMO ...... Genetically Modified Organism proteins found in the nucleus of animal and plant cells that carries the genes and functions in the gPTA ...... Genomic Predicted Transmitting Ability transmission of hereditary information HCD ...... Haplotype for Cholesterol Deficiency Epigenetics HCR ...... Heifer Conception Rate The study of changes in organisms caused by JPI ...... Jersey Performance Index modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself MACE ...... Multiple-trait Across Country Evaluations Gene mRNA ...... Messenger Ribonucleic Acid The basic unit of inheritance NM$ ...... Lifetime Net Merit Gene mapping PA ...... Parent Average The process of determining where genes are located PCR ...... Polymerase Chain Reaction on individual chromosomes

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 47 Genome ANIMAL IDENTIFICATION The total genetic content of an organism is known Identification is the first step in a herd improvement as its genome program. Genomics A registration paper or certificate accompanies a The study of genes or gene products in an organism purebred animal and certifies its parentage. Genotype American ID numbers for dairy cattle consist of a three Genetic make-up of an individual letter country code followed by a twelve digit animal Heritability number and will be used by DHI organizations, breed Measure of the percent of phenotypic differences associations, and state animal health departments. The between animals for a single trait that can be country code for the U.S. is 840. transmitted to offspring Visibility is the most important feature when selecting Locus tags or brands for identification. Position that a given gene occupies on a chromosome NAAB CODE FOR SIRES Pedigree The NAAB code for a sire has three parts. A record of ancestry The number before the letter indicates the stud from Phenotype which the bull’s semen can be purchased. It is referred The observed trait of an individual resulting from to as the stud code. the effects of the genotype, the environment, and 1 = Genex/CRI their interaction 7 = Select Sires Predicted Transmitting Ability 11 = Alta Genetics Measurement of average superiority or inferiority 14 = Accelerated Genetics that will be transmitted to an offspring 29 = ABS Global Proteomics 200 = Semex The study of all of the proteins that genes create The letters indicate the breed. Purebred AY = Ayrshire A dairy animal whose sire and dam of the same breed are registered or who are eligible to be BS = Brown Swiss registered in a herdbook GU = Guernsey Reliability HO = Holstein Indicator of the accuracy of genetic evaluations JE = Jersey Siblings MS = Milking Shorthorn Technical term used to describe brothers and sisters RW = Red and White The number following the letters is an individual BASIC GENETICS bull identification number. The sire determines the sex of a calf. Example: 7HO00543 is the NAAB Code for Dairy cattle have 30 pairs of chromosomes. CARLIN-M IVANHOE BELL. The genetic make up of a population can be changed by migration, selection, mutation, and chance.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 48 ANIMAL MODEL Total Performance Index (TPI) is a genetic index used The Animal Model is the genetic method for evaluating by the Holstein breed that is determined by placing bulls and cows currently used. emphasis on production and type. The traits included are: When making its evaluation, the Animal Model uses Protein information from: Fat Parents (pedigree) Feed Efficiency Individual performance Type Progeny (offspring) Dairy Form Udder Composite GENETIC EVALUATIONS Feet and Leg Composite The Council on Dairy Cattle Breeding publishes U.S. Productive Life genetic evaluations. Cow livability Official evaluations are released in April, August and Somatic Cell Score December. Genomic evaluations are released monthly. Fertility Index Daughter Calving Ease A minimum of ten (10) daughters is required for a bull Daughter Stillbirth to have a bull proof published. Traits used in the Udder Composite Index for Holsteins The genetic base for genetic evaluations is updated are: every five years. It was most recently updated in Fore udder attachment December 2014 and is the average PTA of animals born Rear udder height in 2010. The next base change is scheduled for 2020. Rear udder width INTERBULL is the name of the International Bull Udder depth Evaluation Service based in Uppsala, Sweden. Udder cleft Front teat placement GENETIC INDEXES Rear teat placement Lifetime Net Merit (NM$) is a genetic index. It Teat length combines the following traits for Holsteins and Brown Stature Swiss: Traits used in the Body Weight Composite Index for Milk Holsteins are: Fat Stature Protein Strength Somatic cell score Body depth Productive life Rump width Feet and legs composite Dairy form Udder composite The Feet and Legs Composite Index for Holsteins is Body weight composite calculated using the traits of: Daughter pregnancy rate Foot angle Heifer conception rate Rear legs – rear view Cow conception rate Feet and legs score Calving ability* Stature Cow livability Health traits *NM$ for other breeds does not include calving ability.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 49 Traits used in the Dairy Capacity Composite Index for The Council on Dairy Cattle Breeding calculates two Holsteins are dairy form and strength. Calving Ease Summaries for the National Association of The Jersey Performance Index (JPI) is a genetic index Animal Breeders (NAAB): used by the Jersey breed that is determined by placing Service Sire Calving Ease measures a bull’s tendency emphasis on production and type. The traits included to sire calves that are born easily. are: Daughter Calving Ease measures the influence of PTA Protein the sire of the cow on calving ease. PTA Fat CFP Milk STILLBIRTH Productive Life It is recommended that farm employees record stillbirth Livability scores to provide accurate calf mortality information. Somatic Cell Score The scoring system is: Daughter Pregnancy Rate 1 = the calf was born alive and was alive 48 hours Cow Conception Rate postpartum Heifer Conception Rate 2 = the calf was born dead Functional Trait Index* 3 = the calf was born alive but died within 48 hours *There are 14 linear traits used for calculating the postpartum Functional Trait Index for Jerseys. Daughter Stillbirth measures the ability of a particular The Jersey Udder Index serves an indicator of mastitis cow (daughter) to produce live calves. resistance in Jerseys; it uses the following traits: Service Sire Stillbirth measures the tendency of calves Fore udder from a particular service sire to be stillborn more or less Rear udder height often. Rear udder width Stillbirth evaluations are expressed as percent stillbirths Udder cleft in heifers (%SBH), where stillborn calves are those Udder depth scored as dead at birth or born alive but died within 48 Teat placement hours of birth. Teat length

INBREEDING CALVING EASE Inbreeding can decrease mature equivalent (ME) milk Farm employees should assign calving ease scores at the production by 60 to 80 pounds per lactation for each time of calving to describe the event. The scoring percent increase in inbreeding. system is: Consequences of inbreeding include: 1 = No problem or unobserved Decreased general vigor 2 = Slight problem Decreased production 3 = Needed assistance Decreased reproductive performance 4 = Considerable force Increased calf mortality 5 = Extremely difficult Increasing similarity between animals Smaller mature size More recessive genes exposed Slower growth rate

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 50 UNDESIRABLE RECESSIVE TRAITS Undesirable recessive traits in Brown Swiss cattle are: Weaver Spiderleg Spinal Dysmyelination Spinal Muscular Atrophy Undesirable recessive traits in Holsteins include: Bovine Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Brachyspina Bulldog Complex Vertebral Malformations DUMPS Dwarfism Hairless Haplotype for Cholesterol Deficiency Imperfect Skin Mule-Foot (Syndactylism) Pink Tooth (Porphyria) Prolonged Gestation Undesirable recessive traits found in Jerseys are: Limber Legs Rectovaginal Constriction Undesirable recessive traits have not been documented for the Ayrshire, Guernsey, or Milking Shorthorn breeds.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 51 Chapter 12: Animal Health

ACRONYMS Disease BLV ...... Bovine Leukosis Virus A change in the normal state of the body, or one or more of its organs, which disturbs the proper BRSV ...... Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus performance of body functions BSE ...... Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy Enzyme BVD ...... Bovine Virus Diarrhea Protein that acts as a catalyst in starting or speeding DA ...... Displaced Abomasum up specific chemical reactions ELISA ...... Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Erythrocytes Red blood cells; only cells that have no nucleus FARAD ...... Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank Morbidity rate IBR ...... Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis Number of sick animals during a specified period of Ig ...... Immunoglobulin time IM ...... Intramuscular Mortality rate IV ...... Intravenous Number of dead animals during a specified period of MLV ...... Modified Live Virus time NAHMS ...... National Animal Health Monitoring System Pathogen Any microorganism that causes disease PCR ...... Polymerase chain reaction Phagocytosis VFD ...... Veterinary Feed Directive Process by which white blood cells engulf DEFINITIONS microorganisms Antibiotics Physiology Chemical agents given to animals that kill or stop Branch of biology that deals with the process, growth of bacteria. activities, and phenomena of life and living organisms Antibodies (immunoglobulins) Proteins synthesized by organs of the cow’s immune Toxin system that aid in the elimination of foreign Poison produced by microorganisms that kills cells substances such as microorganisms; the main Trocar immunoglobulin isotypes are IgA, IgE, IgG, and An instrument used to puncture the rumen in cases IgM of bloat Balling gun Zoonoses Instrument used to give an animal a pill. Diseases and infections that are transmitted Biosecurity between vertebrate animals and human beings Management practices that protect the herd from the entry of new diseases and minimize the spread and/or adverse effects of diseases in the herd Carrier An animal that is infected with a disease but has no clinical symptoms

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 52 NORMAL STATS FOR DAIRY ANIMALS DISEASE Temperature Diseases can be classified on the basis of their primary Calf: 102.5°F cause: Adult dairy cow: 101.5°F Environmental Genetic Pulse rate (cow) Infectious 60 – 70 heart beats per minute Metabolic Respiratory rate (cow) Infectious diseases of cattle result from the interplay 30 breaths per minute between three factors: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY The animal and its ability to resist disease (immunity) The basic tissues that make up a cow’s body are: An infectious agent (bacteria, viruses, and parasites) Connective The environment Epithelium Diseases in dairy cattle that are caused by a virus include: Muscle Blue tongue Nerve BLV The organ systems found in the body are: BRSV Circulatory BVD Digestive Cow pox Endocrine IBR Integumentary (skin) PI-3 Muscular Warts Nervous Diseases caused by a clostridial organism include: Reproductive Blackleg Respiratory Malignant edema Skeletal Overeating disease Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that Tetanus promotes cell growth and division. Examples of metabolic diseases are: The parathyroid gland is responsible for mobilizing Displaced abomasum calcium from the bone. Ketosis Ligaments connect one bone to another bone; tendons Laminitis connect a muscle to a bone. Milk fever The mitochondrion is known as the powerhouse of the Retained placenta cell because all energy is produced in this cell part. Diseases with a color in their name include: Approximately 400 pounds of blood are pumped Blackleg through the udder to produce one pound of milk. The Blue tongue external pudic artery is the major artery supplying blood Pinkeye to the udder. Red nose Red water White heifer disease White muscle disease

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 53 Zoonoses that may be transmitted from cattle to humans BLACKLEG include: Blackleg is an acute, fever producing disease of cattle Brucellosis and sheep. Cowpox The bacterium Clostridium chauvoei causes the disease. Cryptospirosis Blackleg most often occurs in pastured cattle during the Leptospirosis spring or fall. Listeriosis Q-fever Rabies BLOAT Ringworm Bloat is the condition when a cow cannot belch. Salmonellosis Cows grazing rapidly growing legumes are susceptible Tuberculosis to bloat. Gases associated with bloat are carbon dioxide and PROPER AND COMMON DISEASE NAMES methane. Proper Name Common Name Poloxolene may be administered to prevent or correct Acetonemia ...... Ketosis bloat. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy ...... Mad cow disease Simple laundry detergent can be used to alleviate bloat Brucellosis ...... Bang’s disease in cattle. Displaced abomasum ...... Twisted stomach BOVINE LEUKOSIS VIRUS Dystocia ...... Calving difficulty Bovine Leukosis Virus (BLV) is a retrovirus that infects Fibropapellomatosis ...... Warts lymphoid tissue. Hypocalcemia...... Milk fever The virus is transmitted to cattle mainly by direct Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis ...... Pinkeye exposure with infected blood, saliva, semen, and milk. Infectious bovine rhinotraceitis ...... Red nose Signs of BLV infection include: Laminitis ...... Founder Tumors in lymphoid tissues Listeriosis ...... Circling disease Enlarged lymph nodes Weight loss Papillamatous digital dermatitis ...... Hairy heel warts Decreased milk production Paratuberculosis ...... Johne’s disease Fever Parturient paresis ...... Milk fever Loss of appetite Pneumonic pasteurellosis ...... Shipping fever Rear limb weakness or paralysis Protruding eyeballs Pododermatitis ...... Foot rot Gastrointestinal obstructions Traumatic gastritis ...... Hardware disease Increased blood lymphocytes counts

ACIDOSIS Acidosis is a metabolic disorder that often occurs when a dairy cow eats too much grain.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 54 BRUCELLOSIS Management practices that can reduce cryptosporidiosis Brucellosis (Bang’s disease) is caused by a bacterium of in newborns include: the genus Brucella. Infections may cause: Provide clean, dry areas for cows to calve Abortions Feed colostrum using a clean bottle and sanitized Stillborn or weak calves nipple Retained placentas Provide clean, dry pens for calves Weight loss Allow pens to thoroughly dry between calves Reduced milk yield Feed and care for sick calves last The milk ring test is used to identify Brucellosis in DISPLACED ABOMASUM cattle. A displaced abomasum is the condition where the Undulant fever is the human equivalent of brucellosis. abomasum moves positions inside the body cavity and Drinking raw milk contaminated with Brucella bacteria twists, causing severe digestive problems. is the means of contracting the disease. Most displaced abomasums are left-sided (80-90%). COCCIDIOSIS Predisposing factors for a cow’s displaced abomasum Coccidiosis is a disease in calves that is also very include: common in poultry and is characterized by chronic Acidotic rations diarrhea. Advanced pregnancy High milk production Signs of coccidia in calves include: Hypocalcemia Watery scours with flakes of blood Lack of exercise Dull listlessness Lead feeding Mucus in the feces Selenium deficiency Dehydration Stress of calving Weight loss Methods to control coccidiosis include: FAT COW SYNDROME Accurate diagnosis and monitoring Fat cow syndrome is a disease when a cow gains too Maintain sanitation much weight during late lactation or the dry period. Limit stress Medicate The disease is almost always associated with other problems at calving including: There are two classes of anti-coccidial drugs. Displaced abomasum Coccidiocides kill coccidia as they migrate through Fatty liver syndrome the intestine, interrupting the organism’s life Mastitis cycle. Metritis Coccidiostats inhibit the coccidia’s growth and Milk fever development, preventing them from Retained placenta reproducing.

GRASS TETANY CRYPTOSPIROSIS Grass tetany is a metabolic disorder associated with a Cryptosporidium parvum is a protozoan parasite that has magnesium deficiency. been recognized as a common cause of diarrhea in calves and other animals, including humans. The disorder occurs most often in adult cows milking heavily and grazing lush green pastures.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 55 HARDWARE DISEASE Strategies for preventing new Johne’s disease infections Hardware disease is the general term used to describe a include: situation where a piece of metal has been swallowed and Prevent highly susceptible newborn calves and then collects in and/or pierces the reticulum. young animals from ingesting manure from adults, whether from the dam, the environment, A magnet is often given to an animal to prevent or feed and water. hardware disease. Calving areas should be dry, free of manure, and well bedded. HEAT STRESS Remove the calf from the dam immediately after The ideal environmental temperature range for dairy birth. cattle is 25 to 65°F. Do not use the same equipment to clean up manure A dairy cow can lose body heat through convection, and to load feed. conduction, radiation, and evaporation. Do not walk in feed bunks. Identify and remove infected animals and their Methods used to cool cows during heat stress include: manure. Shade Investigate all animals considered for purchase, and Air exchange buy only from test-negative herds with no history Air movement of Johne’s disease. Access to water Do not allow test-positive cows to calve. Sprinkle Sell at birth all calves from positive cows.

JOHNE’S DISEASE KETOSIS Johne’s disease is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium Ketosis (Acetonemia) is a condition when there is an paratuberculosis, which infects the small intestine of accumulation of ketones in the body. ruminant animals, especially cattle, sheep, and goats. The first signs of ketosis are: Cattle with Johne’s disease are usually infected soon Cow goes off feed after birth, but the first symptoms do not appear until 2 Ketone (acetone) smell on the cow’s breath to 4 years of age. Propylene glycol is fed or administered to cows to treat Clinical symptoms of Johne’s disease: ketosis. Diarrhea General unthriftiness Niacin may be added to feeds to aid in the prevention of Soft swelling in the jaw ketosis. Substantial drops in milk production Weight loss LAMENESS Susceptibility to other problems such as infertility A cow may experience lameness for many reasons Death including: Types of tests for Johne’s disease commonly used today Abscess are: Foot rot Tests that measure antibodies in blood serum Infection Tests that find the organism in manure by fecal Injury culture or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Soft sole syndrome Trimming too close No effective treatment can be recommended for Johne’s disease. Therefore, producers must concentrate on preventing new infections.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 56 Factors contributing to the cost of lameness include: Calcium glutamate is an intravenous injection for Treatment costs immediate and temporary treatment of milk fever. Nonsalable milk Reduced milk production MYCOTOXINS Reduced reproductive performance A mycotoxin is a toxin produced by a fungus, especially Increased risk of death and culling a mold. Lameness recurrence Members of the mycotoxin family that affect animals Elevated incidence of other disease include: Prevention costs Aflatoxin The most important practices for the reduction of foot Trichothecenes problems are hoof trimming and footbaths. Zearalenone The purposes of a footbath are: Fumonisin Remove irritants from the foot and between the Ochratoxins toes Ergot alkaloid Disinfect and cleanse the foot Clinical symptoms of mycotoxins in dairy cattle include: Dry and toughen the foot Abortions Substances commonly used in a footbath include copper Cystic ovaries sulfate, zinc sulfate, and formalin. Feed refusal The most common walk-through treatment for foot rot Gastrointestinal upsets is a 5% solution of copper sulfate. Infertility No milk MAD COW DISEASE Poor response to therapy Rise in metabolic disease due to liver malfunction Mad Cow Disease (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy) Silent heats is a fatal brain disease of cattle; it affects the brain and Unthriftiness spinal cord. Weight loss The disease originated in the United Kingdom. NEOSPOROSIS MILK FEVER Neosporosis is a disease that causes abortions and Milk fever is caused by a deficiency of blood calcium occasionally causes birth of weak “dummy” calves that related to an imbalance of calcium, phosphorus, and have serious brain infections. Vitamin D. A protozoan, Neospora caninum, causes the disease. Most cases of milk fever occur within 72 hours after Dogs are classified as a definitive host for the causative calving. organism. About 6 percent of dairy cows are affected by milk fever each year. PARASITES Groups of cows that are at greater risk of having milk Internal parasites in dairy cattle include: fever are older cows, fatty liver cows, and Jerseys. Lung worms Symptoms of milk fever include: Round worms Cow goes down Stomach worms Rapid heart rate Liver flukes Dilated eyes Coccidia Below normal body temperature

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 57 The brown stomach worm is the most economically PNEUMONIA detrimental parasite of cattle. Predisposing causes of pneumonia in calves include: Anthelminthics are a class of chemicals used to kill Poor ventilation internal parasites. High humidity External parasites in dairy cattle include flies, lice, mites, Dirty pens mosquitoes, and ticks. Poor nutrition Overcrowding Lice are most troublesome during winter and spring. Wide range of ages in one pen Types of flies commonly found around the dairy farm Drastic temperature changes are: Types of organisms that can cause pneumonia are: House fly Bacteria Stable fly Molds Face fly Parasites Horn fly Viruses Heel fly Yeasts Deer fly Pneumonia-causing bacteria include: The face fly spreads pinkeye. Pasteurella multocida The heel fly is associated with grubs or warbles in cattle. Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica House and stable flies need heat, moisture, and a suitable Haemophilus somnus breeding medium to survive and reproduce. Mycoplasma species The phases of a fly’s life cycle are: Pneumonia-causing viruses include: Egg Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus (IBR) Larvae Parainfluenza-3 virus (PI3) Pupa Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) Adult Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) Sanitation is the most effective management tool to RABIES control flies on a dairy farm. Rabies is a deadly viral infection that is mainly spread by PINKEYE infected animals. Pinkeye is a highly contagious disease characterized by Suspected cases of rabies are confirmed by: an infection of the cornea or membrane lining of the Fluorescent antibody test of brain eye; it is most prevalent during the summer. The By injecting brain tissue into mice and observing primary infectious agent is Moraxella Bovis, a bacterium. Non-domestic animals that can cause an infection of Measures for preventing pinkeye include: cattle with rabies include: Fly control Bat Vaccination Bobcat Clipping pastures to prevent seed-head Coyote development Fox Raccoon Skunk

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 58 RINGWORM ANTIBIOTICS Ringworm is a contagious disease caused by a fungus A cow may be given antibiotics in numerous ways that can be easily spread to other animals. The fungus including: infection invades the hair follicles and the outer layer of Intramuscular injection skin. Intravenous injection Tincture of iodine may be used to control ringworm. Intraperitoneal injection Intramammary infusion SCOURS Intrauterine infusion In the ration Scours is a disease in calves characterized by diarrhea, dehydration, and unthriftiness. It is easily transferred The jugular vein is the ideal location for most from one animal to another through the manure of an intravenous injections. infected animal. VACCINATIONS Bacteria that commonly cause scours among calves include Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Clostridium Calfhood vaccinations should be considered for the perfringens. following diseases: Blackleg Viruses that commonly cause scours among calves Brucellosis include Rotavirus and Coronavirus. BVD Protozoa that commonly cause scours among calves Clostridia include coccidia and Cryptosporidium. IBR Leptospirosis SHIPPING FEVER Malignant edema Shipping fever is a respiratory disease that cattle often PI-3 develop after being transported by truck or rail. Scours The major types of vaccines are killed and modified live. UDDER EDEMA Udder edema is a condition that exists when an MEDICINE CHEST excessive amount of lymph accumulates between the Suitable items for a medicine chest for the average herd skin and secretory tissue of the udder. include: Alcohol WARTS General use disinfectant Warts are caused by a virus and are contagious to other Iodine solution calves. Bloat remedy Teat and udder ointments WHITE MUSCLE DISEASE Adhesive tape Scissors White muscle disease is caused by a deficiency of Soap Vitamin E and/or selenium. Trocar and canula The best way to prevent the disease is to supplement Petroleum jelly Vitamin E and selenium. Sterile bandaging material Wash basin Syringe and needles

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 59 Chapter 13: Nutrient Management

ACRONYMS General categories of odor-controlling chemicals for BMP ...... Best management practices manure management are: Masking agents CAFO ...... Concentrated animal feeding operation Odor counteractants CNMP ...... Comprehensive nutrient management plan Enzymatic products EQIP...... Environmental Quality Incentive Program Manure testing (measuring nutrient content) may IPM ...... Integrated pest management reduce fertilizer purchases and/or prevent application of nutrients in excess of crop requirements. NPS ...... Non-point source Factors that affect the nutritive value of manure are: WATER Amount of added feed, bedding and water Climate Groundwater is water in the soil. It may resurface in a Crop brook, stream, or pond. Water in drinking water wells Method of application is from groundwater. Method of collection Surface water is water in any exposed body of water Method of storage including streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, and oceans. Soil characteristics The leading environmental issues facing farmers are Time of application phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) contamination of Type of feed ration ground and surface water. Runoff is the movement of nutrients across the surface NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION of soils to surface water (streams, rivers, ponds). Non-point source usually refers to pollution (nutrients, Leaching is the movement of nitrate (a nitrogen chemicals, toxins or pathogens) that contaminate containing compound) through soils to groundwater. ground or surface water. Well-managed alternative water sources usually provide Non-point source pollution originates from multiple animals cleaner water and help prevent exposure to and diffuse sources which are not readily identified. certain diseases. Examples of non-point sources of nutrient pollution include most farms, agricultural cropland, and suburban MANURE lawns receiving fertilizer. Manure storage allows manure to be applied according to crop needs rather than on a daily basis. BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES Types of storage facilities for manure are: Best management practices (BMP’s) are practices that Solid manure storage (dry stack barn) protect water quality while improving profitability of Slurry manure storage (anaerobic pit, earthen the farm. structure, or above ground tank ) The Soil and Water Conservation District (SWCD) is a Liquid manure storage (lagoon) local board that defines priority watersheds, approves Slurry manure storage is the most common type of conservation plans, and distributes cost share funds to manure storage on dairy farms. farmers for implementation of BMP’s.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 60 Cost-share is a financial incentive from the state or BEDDING MATERIALS federal government to the farmer to help pay for Common dairy cattle bedding materials include: equipment or practices that reduce pollution. Newspaper Best management practices for livestock farms include: Recycled manure solids Fencing animals out of bodies of surface water Sand Installation of an alternative water source Sawdust (green or kiln-dried) Installation of stream crossings Shavings Installation of buffer strips between cropland and Straw surface water Shoreline or creek bank stabilization and protection NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT Animal travel lane stabilization A nutrient management plan is a plan for the land Rotational loafing lot management system application of manure and fertilizer to meet crop needs. Installation of a storm water retention pond Planting small grain cover crops Animal density impacts nutrient management on farms Installation of a manure storage facility and is usually measured as animal units per acre. An Manure testing animal unit is 1000 pounds of live weight of any animal. Controlling surface water runoff Areas that contribute waste that must be handled are: Implementation of a nutrient management plan Feeding area Buffer strips are areas of grassland installed between Housing or loafing area cropland or feedlots and waterways to take up nutrients Holding pen area and prevent nutrients from running off into water. Milking parlor Runoff area Benefits of small grain cover crops include: Increase use of land applied nutrients WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Stabilize cropland Prevent erosion in wintertime The following factors should be considered when planning a waste management system: The rotational loafing lot management system consists Environmental (Rainfall, stream location, prevailing of vegetated exercise and rest areas installed to replace winds, evaporation, temperature, topography, dirt exercise lots. Its benefits are: soil type, surface drainage, water table depth) Runoff is reduced because grass growing on lots Operational (Herd size, cropping & feeding uses nutrients practices, land area, cropland for waste Soil erosion is reduced because grass growing on application, existing buildings & machinery) lots stabilizes soil Economic (Availability of capital and labor, future Cows stay cleaner expansion plans) Methods of reducing soil erosion include: Social (Neighbors, zoning) Contour cropping Legal Requirements (EPA General Permit, State and Cover crop local permits) Grass waterways Reduced tillage Soil seeding Strip cropping Terracing Wind breaks

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 61 COMPOSTING Composting requires air, moisture, nutrients, and carbon. Composting is an acceptable way of disposing of dead calves and cows. Two to six months are required for composting depending on the size of the animal and the rate of the compost reaction. Advantages of composting manure include: Reduces volume Doesn’t attract flies and insects Reduces potential for nutrient runoff Weeds and pathogens destroyed More uniform than manure Reduces fertilizer needs Excellent soil conditioner

FERTILIZER Fertilizer labels have three important numbers. The first number is the amount of nitrogen (N). The second number is the amount of phosphate

(P2O5).

The third number is the amount of potash (K2O). These three numbers represent the primary nutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). A bag of 15-10-5 fertilizer contains 15 percent nitrogen, 10 percent phosphate, and 5 percent potash.

2019 Virginia 4-H Dairy Quiz Bowl Materials 62 Appendix: Suggested Reading

Hutjens, M. F. 2008. Feeding Guide. W. D. Hoard & Sons Company, Fort Atkinson, WI. Knowlton, K. F., and J. M. Nelson. 2003. World of Dairy Cattle Nutrition. Holstein Foundation, Inc., Brattleboro, VT. Purebred Dairy Cattle Association. 2009. Dairy Cattle Unified Scorecard. Purebred Dairy Cattle Association, Madison, WI. Purebred Dairy Cattle Association. 2004. Showring Code of Ethics. Purebred Dairy Cattle Association, Madison, WI. Purebred Dairy Cattle Association. 2011. PDCA Showmanship Evaluation Card. Purebred Dairy Cattle Association, Madison, WI.