Relative Sea-Level Changes and Submersion of Archaeological Sites

Home , Beach ridge, Chushka Spit, Liman (landform), Panticapaeum, Phanagoria, Taman Peninsula

N° 108 - 2007 29 Relative sea-level changes and submersion of archaeological sites along the northern shoreline of the Black Sea Variations relatives du niveau de la mer et submersion des vestiges archéologiques du littoral septentrional de la mer Noire

Alexey POROTOV Geographical faculty, Moscow State University Russia [email protected]

Abstract - This paper examines archaeological data from the northern Résumé - Cet article synthétise les données archéologiques disponi- coast of the Black Sea to evaluate the possibility of using them as sea-level bles le long du littoral septentrional de la mer Noire. L’objectif est d’éva- indicators for the past 3000 years. Despite the widespread presence of luer leur précision en terme de variation relative du niveau marin depuis submerged cultural remnants, limitations in the use of geoarchaeological 3000 ans. Paradoxalement, la grande richesse de vestiges submergés est as- indicators are related to the disturbance of cultural layers by wave action and sez peu utile pour préciser la mobilité du plan d’eau du fait des remaniements currents, and the scarcity of harbour remains. The review of existing data importants par la houle et les courants et de la rareté des sites portuaires from various sites shows the presence of submerged cultural layers that did fouillés. Cette étude conclut sur la présence d’une couche d’origine anthropi- not exceed 2.5-3.5 m below present, corroborating a slow sea-level rise during que vers 2,5‑3,5 m sous le niveau marin actuel, décrivant une montée lente du the first millennium AD. niveau marin au premier millénaire de notre ère.

1 - Introduction The scarcity of geomorphological RSL indicators in the Black Sea during antiquity has led to interest in coastal archaeology, One of the most important questions regarding the Black Sea’s dominated notably by Greek cultural layers. Late Bronze to Holocene paleoenvironments is concerned with the nature Early Iron Age societies and later Medieval cultures did not of Holocene sea-level rise and the reliability of low-amplitude leave notable traces in the coastal area. Within the context of sea-level fluctuations. Interest in palaeoenvironments at the our ongoing research into the paleogeographical evolution of time of Greek colonization of the Black Sea coast has led to the Black Sea during antiquity, this paper reviews sea-level special attention being paid to a speculated 1st millennium BC changes during the Classical period on the basis of archeological regression. Despite archaeological evidence for a low relative and geomorphological data from selected sites. sea level (RSL) during the second half of the 1st millennium BC to the second half of the 1st millennium AD, the amplitude and chronology of the so-called “Phanagorian regression” are unresolved (Balabanov and Izmailov, 1988). RSL mobility for the last 3000 years is important in reconstructing the palaeotopographies and evolution of the Black Sea’s largest ancient cities. There are numerous difficulties in reconstructing RSL changes since antiquity. Small sandy barriers have only been preserved in the inner part of semi-isolated gulfs and limans (e.g. the Gulf of Taman, Kerch strait etc.). On several coastal stretches of the Black Sea, coastline progradation during the subsequent period has buried beach ridges beneath younger coastal sediments. Unfortunately, such coastal archives are not widespread. In light of this, various indirect indicators, mainly lithological, must be used to reconstruct sea-level changes. Fig. 1 - The ancient settlements of the northern region of the Black Sea (after Tolstikov, 1997). For example, the absence of widespread peat layers has been Fig. 1 - Les cités antiques de la mer Noire septentrionale (d’après Tolstikov, overcome using relict beach and nearshore facies, although 1997). these have significant vertical error bars. Further difficulties have arisen due to radiocarbon discrepancies. This has created 2 - South-western Crimea and Bug liman a problem due to the 100-450 year offsets that can exist Underwater research on the south-western coast of the between radiocarbon and historical dates. Until now, much of Crimean peninsula (Fig. 1) has shown the presence of ancient the existing paleogeographical work using archaeological data structures and Hellenistic to medieval period ceramics has ignored the possible discrepancies between different types (Blavatsky, 1985; Kadeev, 1969). For example, the submerged of chronology. This calls into question the reliability of many remains lie adjacent to defense walls of the ancient port of existing palaeogeographical reconstructions. Chersonesos. The medieval towers presently lie 0.7‑1.0 m 30

A) B)

Fig. 2 - A. General plan of Chersonessos (after Tolstikov, 1997). B. Reconstruction of the submerged part of ancient Chersonesos (after Zolotarev, 2004): 1 - present shoreline; 2 - shoreline in antiquity (the last centuries BC) at a depth of 3.0-3.5 m ; 3 - stone wreckage (basement of watch tower?); 4 - slipways (?). Fig. 2 - A. Plan de la ville de Chersonèse (d’après Tolstikov, 1997). B. Reconstitution de la partie ennoyée de la Chersonèse antique (d’après Zolotarev, 2004).

below sea level. The archaeological material comprises indicate that between the 4th‑3rd centuries BC to the 10th‑11th amphorae and ceramic fragments from the Hellenistic (3rd to centuries AD RSL lay below present. Sea-level regression is 2nd centuries BC) and medieval (8th to 9th and 12th to 13th attested to by peculiar city planning in the port area, which centuries AD) periods, which not only date the structures, but is characterized by continuous urban expansion from the also attest to the use of an ancient land surface until the 13th 5th-4th centuries BC to the 10th‑11th centuries AD. After century AD. Hydroacoustic and underwater archaeological the 12th-13th centuries AD, sea-level rise caused the base of research (Zolotarev and Iones, 1979; Zolotarev, 2004) have “tower XXI” and the southeast outskirts of Chersonesos to elucidated numerous archaeological structures down to be flooded. Archaeological material from the Chersonesos depths of 3 to 3.5 m including harbourworks (moles, jetties coastal area indicates that between the foundation of the city and quays). The results of this study yielded evidence on the and the 10th-11th centuries AD sea level did not reach its extension of the ancient city and have allowed the ancient present position. Changes in urban planning during the 2nd- coastline, presently drowned 3.5 - 5.0 m below present, to be 3rd, 5th-6th, 9th-10th and 13th-14th centuries AD have been located (Fig. 2). Archaelogical research at ancient Chersonesos attributed to changes in economic and political life (Blagovolin (Blagovolin and Sheglov, 1968 and 1969) has revealed traces and Sheglov, 1968) and do not reflect rising sea level during the of historical RSL change. Wells, cellars, fish and water tanks 1st millennium AD (Shilik, 1997). On the basis of Chersonesos’ located along a coastal strip on the northern part of the city coastal geoarchaeology we propose a RSL curve for the area (Fig. 3). The data are confirmed by our researh on the Kerch- Taman coastline, despite regional differences for the Black Sea (Kaplin and Selivanov, 1999). Ancient Olbia is one of the best investigated underwater sites and has been significant in understanding RSL changes since antiquity. The drowned archaeological remains have enabled a reconstruction of the lower city. The layout of the underwater millier archaeology is given in Fig. 4. The two defensive structures d’années are located 2.0-2.3 m below present and have been constrained (Kyr.) to the 5th to 3rd centuries BC (Krijisky, 1984). Remnants of a defensive wall along the palaeo-liman coastline allow the eastern border of the lower city to be delineated. At depths of 2.2-3.1 m two amphora fields have been elucidated: m the first (southern) field yielded material from the 4th century BC, while the second, 50-60 m north of the former Fig. 3 - Relative sea-level changes for the region of Chersonesos (after zone, contains ceramic material from the end of the 6th to Blagovolin and Sheglov, 1968). Fig. 3 - Variations relatives du niveau de la mer à Chersonèse (d’après 4th centuries AD (Leipunskaya, 1984). Cultural layers from Blagovolin et Sheglov, 1968). the mid-1st millennium AD, on the outskirts of the lower city, 31 do not corroborate the so-called “Nymphaeum” transgression. Coastal stratigraphy has revealed mid-Holocene marine Underwater research at Olbia has shown that cultural layers sediments close to present. Despite the absence of chronological in the outer part of the lower city presently lie 2.5-3.3 m below constraints for this layer, the biostratigraphy allows us to MSL. These remains broadly attest to a mid-1st millennium BC correlate it with a mid-Holocene transgressive stage between sea level at 5.0-4.5 m below present. Ceramics indicate that the 4200 and 3500 years BP. Fragments of this marine terrace lower city continued to function until the 3rd century AD, and are widespread along the shorelines of the Kerch strait. indirectly testifies to moderate RSL changes between the end of Geomorphological data indicate that several coastlines are the 1st millennium BC and the first half of the 1st millennium also located at these depths. One of them has been studied AD. The absence of structures directly related to the sea level by Nevessky (1967) and concerns the period 6500 to 6000 yrs does not allow us to be more precise in RSL reconstruction. BP. A preliminary study of the late Holocene palaeo-shorelines Despite the large error margins, this reconstruction is consistent underlines the importance of Kerch’s submerged archaeological with the data from ancient Chersonesos. remains in precisely reconstructing the region’s sea-level The Black Sea’s northwestern limans contain numerous history. lithological and biostratigraphical traces of sea-level mobility Submerged Classical archaeology (defensive constructions, (Fig. 5). The bottom sediments adjacent to the Olbia Dniepr- wells, amphora fields, anchors), on the fringes of Cimmerian Bug liman comprise intercalated sandy layers containing Bosporus ancient settlements (Panticapaeum, Akra, fresh water molluscs. In the upper part of the Bug liman, cores Nymphaeum ; Fig. 7), now lie between 2.5-4.5 m below present have revealed peat layers at 4.0-5.0 m below present sea level. and testify to lower sea level during the second half of the Radiocarbon dates allow this sequence to be constrained to the 1st millennium BC and the early centuries AD (Nikonov, 1st millennium BC, at which time RSL was ca. 4.5-5.5 m below 1998). Unfortunately, the research has yet to reveal the present. The onset of this last transgressive phase has been remains of an ancient harbour with which to precisely tie in dated to 1600 years BP (uncalibrated radiocarbon age). the sea-level data. Only at Theodosia, south-east Crimea, have The ancient city of Kerkinitida is located on the south-western numerous remnants of ancient piers and moles been unearthed shoreline of Crimea, on a low-lying promontory that closes (Kolly, 1909). During construction works in the port area, the northern boundary of Kalamite bay (Fig. 6). According to more than 4000 ancient wood piles were found at 4 m below archaeological research in this area (Sheglov, 1978; Kutaisov, present MSL. The bases of the piles lie 8 m below present sea 1988), the stratigraphy of the settlement comprises two main level. Archaeological surveys of the adjacent sea floor have archaeological layers dating from: (1) the 5th century BC to revealed more than a dozen ancient amphorae, which have been the 2nd century AD; and (2) the Scythian to the second half of related to construction of the pier. These findings are one of the 2nd century AD. The first occupation layer contains several the most precise archaeological indicators of RSL change since sublayers that reflect the evolution of the ancient city. Despite a antiquity. Unfortunately, modern construction works have dearth of data pertaining to the palaeotopography of the ancient almost completely destroyed these remnants. city, there are several indicators that point to a low RSL position On the southwest coast of Kerch Strait lies the small settlement during the Late Bronze to Early Medieval times. It is primarily of Akra (Кulikov, 1997). Much of the settlement is now flooded attested to by flooding of the low part of the stratigraphic by the sea, and only the northwest portion of the city walls are sequence at 1.7-1.8 m below present (Kutaisov, 1988). On the located on a sand spit that separates lake Yanish from the sea. adjacent Kerkinitida coastal façade, there are many examples Underwater surveys (Shilik, 1991) have unearthed stone slabs, of submerged cultural layers at -3 m below present including ceramics and the base of defensive walls and towers at 4-4.5 m well floors and construction bases. On the southern outskirts below present MSL. The settlement has been dated between of Kerkinitida there is also evidence of occupation layers at the 4th century BC to the 4th century AD. The presence of -2.0 m, which overly late Holocene lagoonal clays and barrier 6th to 8th century AD archaeological remains at 1.3-2.4 m sands. Despite the absence of precise sea-level indicators, the below present shows that these now shallow coastal belts were geoarchaelogical data confirm a RSL position at 4-5 m below inhabited up until the early medieval period. Indirectly, the present during ancient times (Sheglov, 1978). remains constrain the beginning of the transgressive phase to the end of the 1st millennium AD. Research on the coastal area of Classical Nymphaeum has 3 - Kerch Strait elucidated cultural remains at 6.5 m below present (Fig. 8). Stone remains were found over a wide area down to depths Reconstruction of sea-level changes for the coastal of 1 to 4.5 m and attest to a drowned ancient coast (Scholl regions of Kerch Strait (Fig. 7) are based on three types of and Zinko, 1999 ; Zinko, 1994 and 2003). These constructions sedimentary archives: (1) submerged spits (palaeo-Tuzla, have been dated to the 4th to 3rd centuries BC on the basis palaeo-Chushka etc., Nevessky, 1958); (2) marine sediments in of ceramics. Stone anchors at -6.0 to -6.5 m from this and the the open part of Kerch strait (Skiba et al., 1975); and (3) late later medieval period suggest that the ancient harbour lies in Holocene coastal sediments (Fedorov, 1984). The stratigraphy the outermost part of the submerged area. has recorded changes in the nature of semi-enclosed liman Drowned archaeological remains at Nymphaeum and Akra environments around 6000 BP. On the coast, palaeo-spits such constrain sea level in the second half of the 1st millennium BC as palaeo-Tuzla, palaeo-Chushka and palaeo-Kamish-Burun to 5-5.5 m below present. Medieval ceramics date the Black have been located 6-9 m below present (Nevessky, 1967). Sea’s last transgressive phase to the second half of the 1st However, caution is needed because the chronology of the millennium AD. The archaeological data are consistent with palaeo-shorelines is based mainly on biostratigraphy. coastal stratigraphy. The radiocarbon age of shells from the 32

A) A)

B) C)

Fig. 5 - Late Holocene stratigraphy of Bug liman (after Shilik, 1997) A - Beach-near-shore sediments in Olbia. 1 - beach sand; 2 - cultural layer; 3 - mid-Holocene shelly sand; 4 - pre-Quaternary clay. B - Bottom sediment of the Bug liman. 1 - pre-Quaternary clay; 2 - liman; 3 - silty sand; 4 - silty clay; 5 - sand; 6 - shell; 7 - depth in m; 8 - Radiocarbon date. C - Structure and geochronology of the upper layer of liman sediments (after Molodich et al., 1984): 1 - clay; 2 - sandy clay; 3 - sands with shingle; 4 - silty clay; 5 - silt; 6 - shells; 7 - amphoras. Fig. 4 - A- Reconstruction of the submerged part of Olbia (after Krijisky, 1984). Fig. 5 - Stratigraphie fin-Holocène du Bug liman (d’aprèsS hilik, 1997). 1 - remnants of a stone construction; 2 - “amphoras fields”; 3 - eastern limit of the low town; 4 - basement of defensive walls; 5 - northern limit of the low town in IV-II BC; 6 - archaeological remnants. B- Present-day position of principal submerged remains at Olbia (position of remnants 1-7 is marked on figure 4A). Fig. 4 - Reconstitution des secteurs submergés d’Olbiza (d’après Krijisky, 1984).

A) B)

Fig. 6 - ��Coastal sediment structure of the south-western Crimea A - Coastline of the south-western Crimea. B - Ancient city of Kerkinitida (after Kutaisov, 1988): 1 - pre-Holocene loamy soil, 2 - with limestone debris; 3 - liman clay; 4 - barrier sand; 5 - soil; 6 - cultural layers; 7 - substratum. C - Barrier-spit of lake Sasyk (after Zenkovich, 1960): 1 - sand with shell; 2 - oolite sand; 3 - sand; 4 - grey clay; 5 - black clay; 6 - loamy soil; 7 - limestone. Fig. 6 - Stratigraphie littorale de la Crimée sud-occidentale. 33

Fig. 7 - Ancient cities on the coastline of the Kerch strait. Fig. 7 - Cités antiques du détroit de Kerch. lower marine terrace in Kerch Strait attest to a relatively late a radiocarbon age of 4400 to 3200 years BP. The presence of date for beach ridge formation ca. 1040 ± 80 years BP (Badiniva mid-Holocene transgressive deposits confirms that relative sea and Zubakov, 1976). level during this period did not exceed its present position (0 Preliminary geomorphological surveys in the coastal area ± 0.5 m). around ancient Nymphaeum have shed light on the sedimentary structure of marine terraces attributed to the Black Sea’s last Holocene transgressive stage (Fedorov, 1978). The silty 4 - Taman peninsula sands are intercalated with paleosols which contain scattered ceramic material and construction layers dating from the On the eastern shoreline of the Kerch Strait, archaeological 4th to 2nd centuries BC (Zinko, 2003). These are overlain by objects have been revealed by geophysical research (Abramov, coarse shelly sands which lie at 0 ± 0.5 m relative to present sea 1999 and Abramov and Vasil’ev, 2003). East of Chushka spit, level. The molluscan suite includes taxa such as Ostrea edulis, down to a depth of 1 m below present sea level, the remains of Chione gallina, Cardium edule, Chlamys glabra, Donax a defensive wall have been found (Fig. 9). The base of a wall trunculus with a dominance of Chione gallina (50 %), yielding lies at -2 to -2.6 m (Abramov and Vasil’ev, 2003). Underwater

W E

Fig. 8 - Coastal stratigraphy near ancient Nymphaeum. 1�� - soil; 2 - dune sand; 3 - sand with shells; 4 - loamy soil with cultural remains; 5 - shelly sand; 6 – constructions. Fig. 8 - Stratigraphie littorale du secteur de Nymphaeum. 34

defensive wall

Fig. 9 - Cultural remains on the Taman peninsula (from Abramov and Vasil’ev, 2003). A - ��map; B - ��underwater defensive structure: 1�� - ��coarse sand; 2�� - ��medium to fine sand; 3�� - silty�� clay; 4�� - stone�� rampart; 5�� - loamy�� soil; 6�� - paleo-soil�� horizon. Fig. 9 - Vestiges�� archéologiques submergés de la péninsule de Taman (d’après Abramov et Vasil’ev, 2003).

W/SW E/NE

Fig. 10 - Stratigraphy of the Gulf of Taman, Phanagoria area.�� 1�� - ��coarse shelly sand; 2�� - ��medium sand with shell debris; 3�� - ��fine sand with shell; 4�� - ��clay with shell; 5�� - silty�� clay; 6�� - loamy�� soil; 7�� - radiocarbon�� age, uncalib BP; 8�� - cultural�� layers IVBC-IIAD of ancient Pahanagoria (after Blavatsky, 1985). For the profile position, see Fig. 9, A - A . Fig. 10 - Vestiges�� archéologiques submergés de la péninsule de Taman (d’après Abramov et Vasil’ev, 2003).

excavations have shown a construction layer on pre-Holocene has revealed a sedimentary hiatus related to a hypothetical continental clays and loam soils. The depth of the defensive RSL fall between 3000 and 1500 years BP. This hiatus is a structures coincides with the Classical period on the western common feature of coastal archives in the Kerch Strait shoreline Kerch Strait. and has been attributed to the “Phanagorian regression”. The coastal stratigraphy of the westerly Chushka spit Renewal of nearshore sedimentation led to the accretion of 35 beach ridges, radiocarbon dated to 1300 to 1100 years BP and fragments, roofing tiles and other building remains are formed at a sea level 2-3 m below present. consistent with an ancient harbour (Kondrashov, 1995). In light Underwater archaeological studies of the flooded areas of of these archaeological data, relative sea level is inferred to Phanagoria (Blavatsky, 1985 ; Fig. 10) have revealed traces have changed by 5.0 to 5.5 m during the last 2500 years. These of stone pavements and ceramics at -3 m, dating to the 4th to findings are confirmed by data from the Black Sea’s northern 3rd centuries BC. Drowned archaeological layers in the gulf seaboard (Kaplin and Selivanov, 2004). allow us to constrain RSL to 4.5-5.0 m below present during the Archaelogical data of RSL changes in the Gulf of Taman 1st millennium BC (Blavatsky, 1985). The recent excavation of during the past 3000 to 4000 years are complemented by the submerged parts of the city of Phanagoria (Kuznetsov et al., study of sediment archives at various sites (Fouache et al., 2003, 2006) have revealed wooden frameworks filled with 2004, 2005). In the outer part of the Gulf of Taman, fossil sand stone, the surface of which lies at 1.2-1.4 m below present. barriers lie 2-4 m below present. This transgressive sequence This structure and the surrounding sea floor have yielded large reflects the onshore movement of sand tracts covering up quantities of ceramics dating to late antiquity and the early the underlying lagoonal facies. Radiocarbon dates from medieval period. The age of this construction is equivocal; the base of the barrier yielded an age of 2450 ± 70 years BP however, numismatic finds dating from the 3rd to 4th centuries (ca. 339 cal. BC – 50 cal. AD). The drowned barrier system AD serve as an upper time-boundary. represents one of the many examples of the “Phanagorian Underwater research on the submerged part of Patrey, which transgression” during the second half of the 1st millennium is located on the north-western coastline of the Gulf of Taman, BC, when relative sea level lay 5 to 5.5 m below present. As a has shown that the lower city had a width of about 400 m; rule, on the open stretches of the Black Sea the coastal forms this land surface is presently drowned 4 m below present. of this time have been destroyed by wave erosion during the According to the archaeological topography and the location last 1500 years. of remnants (stone vestiges, pits, ceramic finds) the coastline lies 360-385 m from the present, and is submerged 4.4-4.9 m below present (Osmanova, 1999). The occupation layers were 5 - Conclusion significantly eroded during the last transgressive phase. The scarce constructional remnants (the earliest of which are dated This preliminary comparison of drowned archaeological to the end of the 6th to the beginning of the 5th centuries BC) remains in the north-eastern Black Sea with existing are located 2.2 to 2.3 m below present. geomorphological data has allowed us to constrain RSL On the southern coastal flank of the Taman peninsula, around during the mid-1st millennium BC to 5.0-5.5 m below present. cape Panagia, underwater research has revealed limestone According to early medieval ceramics, this lasted until the 9th blocks and ceramics from the 4th century BC to the 3rd century to 11th centuries AD. Geomorphological data from Taman AD, presently submerged 5 m below present MSL. Offshore, peninsula and several other locations on the Crimean seaboard down to depths of 5-8 m, various types of anchors, amphora are broadly consistent.

6 - References

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