Insecticide Choice for Alfalfa May Protect Water Quality I I- I- Rachael Freeman Long Mary Nett Daniel H

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Insecticide choice for alfalfa may protect water quality i I- I- Rachael Freeman Long Mary Nett Daniel H. Putnam Guomin Shan w Jerry Schmierer Barbara Reed n

Some insecticides used for control- ling Egyptian alfalfa weevil have been detected in California’s surface waters and are of concern, I due to their impact on water quality and toxicity to some aquatic life. To assess the impact of insecticide choice on water quality, we collected tail-water samples from on-farm alfalfa sites in the northern Sacramento Valley over a 3-year period. Samples were To investigate the potential movement of organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides collected during irrigation after from alfalfa fields, the authors sampled inflows and outflows on alfalfa farms in the organophosphate and pyrethroid northern Sacramento Valley. UC Davis graduate student Corin Pease collects irrigation source water. sprays were applied. We found significant differences between insecticide classes in the mortality lfalfa is grown on over 1 million (Malathion) and dimethoate (Cygon); of Ceriodaphnia dubia (water flea), A acres in California. With an an- the pyrethroids permethrin (Ambush), a test organism used to detect nual value of $873 million in 2001, it lambda-cyhalothrin (Warrior) and pesticides in water. Nearly all sites ranks as one of the state’s top field cyfluthrin (Baythroid);and the car- where organophosphate insec- crops in gross revenue. Alfalfa is pri- bamate carbofuran (Furadan) (Sum- ticides were used resulted in 100% marily used as high-quality feed for mers and Godfrey 2001). An average water flea mortality in a 24-hour dairies, the state’s number one agricul- of 708,600 pounds of these insecticides test of tail-water samples: tural enterprise at about $4.6 billion in was applied to about 1 million acres of ppthroid-treated sections of the 2001. Fields are harvested 6 to 8 times California alfalfa annually from 1998 same fields exhibited insignificant a year in the Central Valley, which through 2000, with multiple applica- flea modality. The pyrethroids we produces more than 60% of the state’s tions on some fields (DPR 2002). The used provided significantly better crop. In this region fields are typically majority of these applications were made for weevil and aphid control in control of Egyptian alfalfa weevil flood irrigated with 4 to 6 inches of water between harvests. late winter/early spring, with a than the organophosphates, with no The major insect pest of alfalfa in smaller number of applications to significant differences in beneficial California is the Egyptian alfalfa wee- control various worms during the insect counts. Although water runoff vil (Hypera brunneipennis). The larvae summer. The use of organophos- does not always occur in alfalfa feed on foliage, causing yield and phates predominated; chlorpyrifos, fields, insecticide choice may be an quality losses to the first and some- phosmet, malathion and dimethoate important tool for prbtecting water times second hay harvests. The most accounted for an average of 87% of the quality. In addition, consideration common strategy for Egyptian alfalfa mass (weight) of total insecticides ap- should be given to the fact that weevil control involves spraying fields plied and 64% of the insecticide appli- pyrethroids, while they proved once or twice each spring. Insecticides cations to alfalfa statewide from 1998 advantageous in these experiments, currently used in California for weevil through 2000. Carbofuran accounted can affect beneficial species and do control include the organophosphates for 9% of the mass applied and 9% of have high toxicity to fish at (OP) chlorpyrifos (Lorsban and Lock- the applications, and the pyrethroids extremely low concentrations. On), phosmet (Imidan), malathion permethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin and I CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2002 163 cyfluthrin accounted for 4% of the mass applied and 27% of the applications in the same period (DPR 2002).

Water quality concerns Irrigation and storm-water runoff from agriculture, including alfalfa, have been implicated as contributing to the presence of chlorpyrifos, mala- (SWRCB). Section 303(d) of the federal control. Although modern alfalfa vari- thion and carbofuran in California sur- Clean Water Act mandates that total eties are resistant to many pests, a cul- face waters at levels that cause maximum daily load (TMDL) restric- tivar has yet to be developed that is mortality to the water flea Ceviodaphnia tions be developed to improve water resistant to the Egyptian alfalfa weevil dubia (SWRCB 2002; deVlaming et al. quality in affected waterways. A (Summers 1998).Planting other for- 2000; Foe and Sheipline 1993). The de- TMDL is the maximum quantity of a ages such as berseem clover or oats tection of these insecticides has caused pollutant that can enter a water body into established alfalfa mitigates wee- several waterways to be classified as without adversely affecting beneficial vil damage, but is limited by market failing to meet water quality stan- uses. The TMDLs for chlorpyrifos, acceptance and management con- dards, as defined by the U.S. Environ- malathion and carbofuran must be es- straints. mental Protection Agency and the tablished between 2005 and 2011 for Most growers continue to use insec- State Water Resources Control Board the Central Valley (Region 5), depend- ticides for compelling economic rea- ing on the waterway. sons. However, all insecticides do not Regulatory implications. An agree- present the same risks to the environment between the California Depart- ment, nor do all insecticide-treated ment of Pesticide Regulation (DPR) fields affect natural waterways. Insec- and the SWRCB outlines a four-stage ticides differ in properties such as process for protecting water quality solubility, adherence to soil particles (see page 148). The first step involves and toxicity to aquatic invertebrates voluntary grower efforts to reduce off- (table 1).Therefore, certain classes of site movement of an insecticide, while insecticides may be better suited to later steps require further restrictions prevent off-site pesticide movement or regulation by DPR or the regional from farms where irrigation water water quality boards. At this writing, drains into natural waterways. regulators were encouraging volun- Measuring water quality. Aquatic tary steps to reduce the presence of biologists commonly use C. dubia as a these compounds in natural water- test organism to help characterize the ways. However, further restrictions risk of toxins to aquatic invertebrates and regulations may be forthcoming (devlaming and Norberg-King 1999). for some insecticides such as chlor- Although the use of this invertebrate pyrifos. as the key predictor of the environ- Alfalfa management limitations. mental impact of pesticides has been There are few nonchemical manage- the subject of debate, it continues to be ment practices available to control used to detect pesticides in water due Egyptian alfalfa weevil. While early to its extreme sensitivity to toxins Alfalfa, one of California's top field crops, harvest can reduce feeding damage, present at very low (parts per billion is used primarily as feed for the state's this option is often not economically [ppb])concentrations (table 1). dairy industry. The federal Clean Water viable or is restricted by spring rains. The objective of this study was to Act will require Central Valley growers, including alfalfa farmers, to limit Beneficial insects such as parasitic evaluate the insect control efficacy of insecticide pollution in waterways in wasps are natural weevil enemies but organophosphates and pyrethroids, as coming years. generally do not provide sufficient well as their effect on the mortality of

164 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, VOLUME 56. NUMBER 5 C. dubia in tail-water samples obtained from alfalfa production fields.

Field studies Commercial alfalfa fields (22 in 1999,9 in 2000 and 10 in 2001) were se- lected as study sites in the northern Sacramento Valley (table 2). In 1999 and 2000, nearly all fields were di- vided into two distinct test areas: one received an organophosphate insecticide for weevil control and the other received a pyrethroid treatment. Each test area was a 20- to 60-acre block and each farm was considered a replica- tion. In 2001, monitoring was restricted to seven alfalfa fields treated with lambda-cyhalothrin (a pyrethroid) at labeled rates. Each year, all fields were treated with insecticides once in the late winter/early spring when weevils reached economic threshold levels of 15 to 20 larvae per sweep, or when significant damage to the alfalfa was ob- which occurred 22 to 62 days after the its the toxicity of metabolically acti- served (Summers and Godfrey 2001). fields were sprayed. During our study, vated organophosphate insecticides Application dates ranged from March in 1999 there were 10 rainfall events such as chlorpyrifos (Bailey et al. 10 to April 9 in all 3 years. Insecticides with a total of 2.7 inches; in 2000, 1996).If the addition of PBO renders a were applied by air or ground at 10 to 8 events with 2.8 inches; and in 2001, toxic sample nontoxic, organophos- 15 gallons per acre within each field. 7 events with 1.5 inches. Rainfall was phate insecticides are indicated as a There was a range of days between ap- not sufficient to cause runoff from the likely source of C. dubia mortality. The plication and water runoff sampling, treatment fields. Tests for mortality of other set of serial dilutions was used due to irrigation differences. C. dubia were done according to stan- to determine the dilution necessary to Toxicity testing. Water samples dardized 24-hour and 96-hour toxicity render the original field sample non- were collected from each test area us- testing procedures. toxic. ing standard methods employed by Dilution tests. During both 1999 Chemical analyses of pyrethroids. the UC Davis Aquatic Toxicology and 2000, all field samples that re- In 2001, chemical analyses were per- Laboratory (Emanuel and Cabugao sulted in 100% mortality within formed on tail-water samples from the 2000). We collected 2 gallons of unfil- 24 hours were resampled and diluted alfalfa study fields treated with tered water from the head irrigation with varying amounts of control wa- lambda-cyhalothrin to confirm the ap- ditch as water entered the alfalfa fields ter. A dilution series was created with parently negligible transport of the in- (source water) and 2 gallons from the concentrations of 50%, 25%, 12.5%, secticide in irrigation runoff indicated end of the field as the water flowed off 6.25%, 3.12%, 1.56% and 0.78% by vol- by our mortality tests. One-liter (tail water). All sites had one to several ume of the original tail-water sample. samples were collected from the locations where water exited the These dilutions were then subdivided source water, and replicate 0.5-liter fields. Toxicity testing occurred within to create two sample sets, in addition samples were collected from the tail 48 hours of collection. In 1999 and to laboratory water as a control. In one water. Five sites were sampled during 2000, all water samples were collected set, we added piperonyl butoxide the first irrigation, 41 to 53 days after from the first irrigation of the year, (PBO) at 100 ppb (pg/L), which inhib- the alfalfa fields were sprayed for wee-

CALIFORNIAAGRICULTURE, SEPTEMBEK-OCTOBER 2002 965 Organophosphate Pyrethroid

tored included lady beetles (Hippodamia spp.), lacewings : OP versus pyrethroid significantly (Ckrysoperla spp.), minute pirate bugs different at P < 0.0001 (Orius spp.),big-eyed bugs (Geocoris spp.), damsel bugs (Nabis spp.), aphidiid wasps and Collops beetles. Pests included Egyptian alfalfa weevil, pea and blue alfalfa aphid (Acyrtkosipkon spp.) and spotted alfalfa aphid (Tkerioapkis sp). In 2000, n aphids were sampled by taking 10 " 17 8 9 1011151618202224252627 1 7 8 91011151618202224252627 stem samples per plot in four areas of Field site the field and recording averages per stem per treatment. Insect counts were Fig. 1. Effect of insecticide choice on mortality of C. dubia (water flea) in a 24-hour test pooled for the pyrethroid (lambda- from 15 paired field comparisons, Sacramento Valley. Samples were taken from alfalfa cyhalothrin and cyfluthrin) treatments tail water flowing from fields due to irrigation events after insecticide application. In all organophosphate tail-water samples, when piperonyl butoxide (PBO) was added because there were no significant dif- mortality was zero; prevention of mortality with PBO is an indication of ferences in insect counts between organophosphate toxicity. All organophosphate insecticide tail-water samples were these treatments (P > 0.05). Data diluted more than 85% before mortality of C. dubia was reduced to zero. were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA with Tukey-Kramer HSD vil control, and one site was sampled for means separation. %$ Precount during the second irrigation 62 days Water sampling for insecticides Chlorpyrifos after treatment. All water samples Pyrethroid were extracted into hexane within We made direct comparisons 24 hours after collection and stored between organophosphate- and

Q. at -4°F). All samples were analyzed pyrethroid-treated areas in 16 fields. W a a using a gas chromatograph/mass Several other experimental sites were ?lo T - T spectrophotometer, to a detection limit eliminated due to contamination of the of 50 ppt (parts per trillion [ppt]) for pyrethroid treatment with an organo- lambda-cyhalothrin. phosphate insecticide, no water run- Suspended solids. During each off, source-water contamination, no study year, we also collected total sus- paired treatments, application change, pended solid (TSS) samples from irri- no weevil treatment, no pyrethroid gation source water and tail water sample or no confirmation of organo- from 15 of the study field sites to de- phosphate mortality (table 2). termine the quantity of soil particulate Organophosphates.In 1999 and matter moving off alfalfa fields. 2000,14 of 16 tail-water samples col- Insect counts. Insect populations lected from organophosphate-treated " were quantified in 1999 and 2000 in alfalfa plots caused 100% mortality to 1999 2000 plots that were treated with chlor- C. dubia within 24 hours (fig. 1).One Year pyrifos or pyrethroids, by taking 10 chlorpyrifos-treated tail-water sample sweeps with a standardized sweep net caused 100% mortality in 3 days (site Fig. 2. Average number of weevils per sweep (k SE) in 1999 and 2000 for per treatment in four areas of the field. 31, and one phosmet tail-water sample precounts (prior to treating fields) and for Average counts of beneficial insects caused 50% mortality within 1 day chlorpyrifos- and pyrethroid-treated fields and pests were recorded before and af- (site 27). The source-water samples (mean of 10 paired sites in 1999 and 8 ter fields were sprayed in March, and from these same fields had nearly zero paired sites in 2000). Different letters refer to significant differences between also just prior to the second, third and mortality, except three sites (16,25,27) treatments at P < 0.05. fifth harvests. Beneficial insects moni- that had between 10% and 20% mor-

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h $100 Source water vE vl -Z 80 9 U w 60 U C tality. This low level of C. dubiu mor- a, 40 tality in the source samples could have 3 been due to the presence of toxins in - J 20 the source water, or natural variation e in the response of the organism in 0 laboratory tests. Mortality in labora- 24 31 33 39 40 39 27 28 29 30 38 37 17 26 41 tory control water was zero in all but one of the sites in a 24-hour test. Field site Dilution tests. In a 96-hour dilution Fig. 3. Total suspended solids (TSS, mg/L) for source- versus tail-water samples, 1999- test, organophosphate tail-water 2001. Average TSS for source water was 30.1 mg/L versus 16.2 mglL for tail water, with samples collected from 18 sites were no significant difference at P > 0.17. diluted to less than 15% of the initial concentration before mortality of test in the samples collected from C. dubia was reduced to zero. In most pyrethroid-treated alfalfa fields Weevil control samples, it was necessary to dilute the (fig. 1).Although slight mortality was In 1999 and 2000 the pyrethroid in- samples to less than 6% of the initial observed in these treatments, these re- secticides lambda-cyhalothrin and concentration before mortality was sults are likely well within those that cyfluthrin controlled the Egyptian al- zero. When PBO was added, the test could be expected from natural varia- falfa weevil significantly better than organism survived in all these tion in the control-water samples. the organophosphate chlorpyrifos, but organophosphate-treated tail-water Pyrethroid analyses. Samples were both treatments kept the weevils be- samples. After 96 hours, mortality in taken in 2001 from six pyrethroid- low the threshold level of 15 to 20 lar- the laboratory control samples was be- treated fields, to analytically evaluate vae per sweep (fig. 2). In 1999 and tween 10% and 20% at three sites (11, the presence of pyrethroids in tail- 2000, there were no significant differ- 18,25). With PBO, mortality in the water samples. Lambda-cyhalothrin ences in beneficial insect counts be- laboratory control samples was be- was not detected by gas chromato- tween the chlorpyrifos or pyrethroid tween 5% and 20% at six sites (9,10, graph/mass spectrophotometer analy- treatments (data not shown). There 12,20,22,24). Mortality for these con- sis in any of the source- or tail-water were no significant differences in trol samples was likely within the samples to a detection limit of 50 ppt aphid counts during harvests 1,s and range of normal experimental varia- (ng/L). Lambda-cyhalothrin added to 5 in the chlorpyrifos versus pyrethroid tion. Dilution tests were not done for source water (spiked) at 0.1 to 10 ppb treatments. In the second harvest in sites with less than 100% mortality af- resulted in recoveries ranging from 1999, there were significantly more ter 24 hours (sites 3 and 27). 53% to 74%, substantiating that sam- aphids in the pyrethroid treatments Pyrethroids. There was near zero pling methods did not interfere with compared with chlorpyrifos-treated mortality of the C. dubia in a 24-hour detection (table 3). fields, and similar trends (but lack of significance) in 2000.

Properties of insecticides Regardless of the application rate or specific organophosphate insecticide applied for Egyptian alfalfa weevil control, exposure to irrigation tail water from all organophosphate-treated field sites caused mortality to C. dubiu. In contrast, we did not observe significant C. diibiu mortality in irrigation tail water collected from pyrethroid-treated alfalfa fields, nor did we find pyrethroid resi- dues in tail-water samples to a detection limit of 50 ppt (ng/L).

CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2002 167 However, weevil levels were below economic thresholds in most cases. En- tomologists have been cautious about the use of pyrethroids in alfalfa due to potential impacts upon beneficial insects and insect interactions, possibly causing outbreaks of other pests that could require additional insecticide treatments (L. Godfrey, C. Summers, personal communication). Alfalfa is also considered a year-round reservoir for beneficial insects that may help control pests in other crops (such as Pollution from sediment in runoff, above, was not found to be a significant problem cotton) and excessive pyrethroid use on the alfalfa farms tested. may disrupt this important function. In our study we did not observe Differences in solubility, binding in the tail water (fig. 3), indicating that any adverse effects of pyrethroid use coefficients and toxicity (table 1) may the alfalfa crop may trap sediments. in alfalfa on beneficial insect popu- account for the differences we found Particulate matter moving from agricul- lations, as compared with chlor- between classes of compounds. Pyre- tural fields may be subject to TMDLs in pyrifos treatments. This could have throids are hydrophobic with very the future. The National Academy of been due, at least in part, to timing. low water solubility. They are rap- Sciences considers 25 mg/L a very high Entomol-ogists have known that idly adsorbed to leaf surfaces and level of protection for aquatic life, proper timing of insecticide appli- soil organic matter and apparently which in most cases was met in our cations may produce a selective are not readily transported in runoff tail-water samples. action on the pest and natural enemy in the aqueous phase (table 1).Pyre- In contrast to pyrethroids, organo- complex. The alfalfa fields in our throids can move off-site attached to phosphate insecticides are moderately study were treated in late winter/ soil particles, where they may accu- water-soluble, have lower binding co- early spring when aphid and mulate in silt deposits and poten- efficients than the pyrethroids, and beneficial insect popu-lations were tially provide a source of exposure to may move in solution with irrigation extremely low. Other studies have aquatic life. or rainwater (table 1).Exposure to tail- shown similar results in alfalfa, For alfalfa, this does not appear to water samples, 22 to 62 days after or- where early-season treatment for be a severe problem because its deep ganophosphate field application and Egyptian alfalfa weevil had minimal roots and vigorous canopy help pro- diluted to 15% to 1.6% of the initial effects on beneficial insects. tect the soil from being transported concentration, still resulted in C. dubia We did observe an effect on aphid during irrigation or due to wind ero- mortality in a standard 96-hour toxic- populations during the second harvest sion. The total suspended solids (TSS) ity test. Similarly, in a previous study period. In 1999 there were signifi- data collected during our study researchers showed C. dubia mortality cantly more aphids in the pyrethroid- showed that very little soil or sedi- in irrigation tail water collected from treated plots during the second ment moved off-site in irrigation tail chlorpyrifos-treated alfalfa fields up to harvest, and the same trend was ob- water (fig. 3). The concentration of TSS seven irrigations after application served during 2000. However, these in irrigation sourte-water samples av- (devlaming, unpublished data). aphid counts declined significantly by eraged 30.1 5 9.5 mg/L compared with the third cutting and never required Tradeoffs: efficacy, pest control 16.2 k 2.9 mg/L for tail water, a differ- insecticide treatments. ence that was not statistically signifi- The efficacy of weevil control in pyre- There are often limitations and cant (P > 0.17). However, where throid-treated fields was significantly tradeoffs with regard to pesticide source water was high in TSS, there better than in the organophosphate- choice in terms of efficacy, effect on was a tendency for a reduction in TSS treated fields in our studies (fig. 2). nontarget organisms, economics, and

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risks to the environment. The use of pyrethroids and their potential impact upon beneficial insects must be weighed against the propensity of organophosphate insecticides to move off-site in tail water. Insecticide choice, water quality This study demonstrated that alfalfa fields sprayed with organophosphate insecticides have the potential to contribute concentrations of organophosphates in tail water sufficient to Clean water laws are targeted to protect beneficial water uses such as habitat for cause mortality in the test organism wildlife and aquatic organisms. Insecticide choice may be an important factor to consider C. dubia. Mortality occurred in all the in areas where alfalfa runoff affects waterways. Above, birds feed on insects and observed field sites 22 to 62 days after rodents in fields near an irrigation water source. application under a range of application rates and field conditions. Samples required considerable dilu- R. Freeman Long is UC Cooperative Ex- #US EPA/600/R-97/114. Duluth, MN. tion before mortality was eliminated, tension (UCCE) Farm Advisor, Yo10 [DPR] California Department of Pesti- suggesting that prevention of organo- cide Regulation. 2002. Summary of pesti- County; M. Nett is owner, Water Quality cide use report data 1998-2000, indexed by phosphate runoff by growers may be Consulting, Colorado Springs, Colo. commodity. Sacramento, CA. http:// difficult without changes in pest con- (formerly Walnut Creek, Calif..); D.H. www.cd pr.ca.gov. trol techniques or irrigation practices. Putnam is UCCE Specialist in Arfarfn and Emanuel M, Cabugao K. 2000. Standard Operating Procedures of the UC Davis The group of pyrethroid insecticides Forages, UC Davis; G. Shun is Research Aquatic Toxicology Lab. UC Davis. 448 p. we examined was not detected in tail Scientist, Dow Agrosciences, Indianapolis Foe C, Sheipline R. 1993. Pesticides in water. They were effective at control- (formerly Dept. of Entomology, UC Davis); surface water from applications on or- ling the targeted Egyptian alfalfa wee- J. Schmierer is Farm Advisor, Colusa chards and alfalfa during the winter and spring of 1991-92. Technical report. Cen- vil in our study and had no effects on County; and B. Reed is Farm Advisor, tral Valley Regional Water Quality Control beneficial insects. Glenn County. Thanks to the California Board, Sacramento, CA. However, the potential of pyre- State Water Resources Control Board for [PAN] Pesticide Action Network database. 2002. www.pesticideinfo.org. throids to affect beneficial insects, and providingfundsfor this work; Corin Pease, Summers CG. 1998. Integrated pest their high toxicity to fish (especially Irene Wibawa and Dave Brown for assis- management in forage alfalfa. IPM Rev from application drift onto waterways), tance with thefieldwork; and the UC Davis 3: 127-54. should be carefully considered when Aquatic Toxicology Lab. Summers CG, Godfrey LD. 2001. Egyp- tian alfalfa weevil and aphids. UC IPM Pest choosing insecticides. Many factors may References Management Guidelines for Alfalfa Hay, mfluence the movement of insecticides, UC Davis. such as agronomic practices in differ- Bailey HC, DiGiorgio C, Kroll K, et al. [SWRCB] State Water Resources Control ent crops, soil type and pesticide prop- 1996. Development of procedures for iden- Board. 2002. California 303(d) list and prior- tifying pesticide toxicity in ambient waters: ity schedule. Approved by US EPA, May 12, erties including water solubility Carbofuran, diazinon and chlorpyrifos. 1999. Sacramento, CA. www.swrcb.ca.gov. (Werner et al. 2002). While the full bio- Environ Toxicol Chem 15:837-45. [USDA] U.S. Department of Agricul- logical significance of C. dubia mortal- deVlaming V, Connor V, DiGiorgio C, et ture. 2002. Preferred values from the al. 2000. Application of whole effluent tox- USDA pesticide property database. ity caused by organophosphate icity test procedures to ambient water http://wizard.arsusda.gov/acslJppd b.html. insecticides is not known, choice of in- quality assessment. Environ Toxicol Chem Werner I, Deanovic LA, Hinton DE, et al. secticide may be important to prevent 19142-62. 2002. Toxicity of stormwater runoff after contamination in areas where surface deVlaming V, Norberg-King TJ. 1999. A dormant spray application of diazinon and review of single species toxicity tests: Are esfenvalerate (Asana) in a French prune or- water runoff from alfalfa fields directly the tests reliable predictors of aquatic eco- chard, Glenn County, Calif. Bull Environ impacts natural waterways. system community responses? Report Contam Toxicol 68:29-36.

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