The days of the week and Dark Age politics Rausing, Gad Fornvännen 90:4, 229-239 http://kulturarvsdata.se/raa/fornvannen/html/1995_229 Ingår i: samla.raa.se The days of the week and Dark Age politics By Gad Rausing

Rausing, G. 1995. The days of the week and Dark Age politics. Fornvännen 90, Stockholm.

It is advocated that by the intermediary of returning soldiers and officials the Ger- mani of the North adopted not only the concept of the seven-day week but also the names of the days of the week from the Romans of the late Empire. They re- named them by association to their own gods. The Romans themselves seem to have introduced the seven-day week during the reign of Augustus although lhe days of the week may not have been named until considerably låter. The setling up of the state cult to Sol Invictus by Aurelian in 274 is considered of crucial im­ portance. This may have been the time when the first day of the week was named alter the chief god of the imperial house. In the Migration Perieid the political di­ vision of Europé is also mirrored in the terminology of the week days. A Gothic, a Frankish and a Northern vexabulary evolved. The Bajuvari and the Alamanni adopted Gothic terms, which were derived from Greek. The Franks borrowed those of their catholic Latin subjects and the Germani of Seandinavia and the North Sea coast translated the Latin terms into their own language.

Gad Rausing, Case Postale 22, CH-1820 Terrilet, SwilzerUind.

We do not know how our earliest ancestors the whole period has been named the "Roman counted time. Some way of determing the time Iron Age". Many finds testify to the close trade of the year must have been necessary even be­ relations between the Roman Empire and fore the emergence of politically organized so­ Seandinavia in the former's heyday, and we cieties made it so, with their demands for the may also be certain that many Scandinavians various time-related services performed by the visited the Empire and served in the Empire's citizen. Agriculture became possible only when forces. Such contacts have left traces beyond the farmers could defme and determine the the purely material ones. We can see the Ro­ times of the various recurrent activities, even man influence in many fields, such as political the earliest farmers must be able to determine organization, dress, arms and armour, lan­ the proper time for sowing. Dividing the year guage and religion as well as in the names of into limar months did not help, these moving the week's days. These we all know, they have through the solar year. The week as such, the been familiar to us for centuries. Some of us group of seven days, seems originally to have may even recognize Tyr, Oden, Tor and Freja been a Babyionian concept, the number being lin king behind these names, but rather few of decidecl by the sun, the moon and the five us realize that these gods are really Roman planets visible to the naked eye (Hermodsson, ones masquerading as Norse. 1970), one which seems to have been adopted In "De Bello Gallico" Caesar lists a number by the Romans in Augustus' times, although of Celtic gods, describing them by Roman the days of the week may not have been named names as "... Mercury ... Next to him they (the until considerably låter. Celtic tribes of Gallia) reverence Apollo, Mars, During the first four centuries of our era, the Jupiter and Minerva." He also notes that "the material culture of the Scandinavians was so customs of the Germani are different ... They strongly influenced by that of the Romans that recognize as gods ... the Sun, the Mexin and

Fornvännen 90 (1995) 230 Gad Rausing

Fire ..." Almost certainly the Germani wor- över Europé all had one group of gods in com­ shipped also other gods already i Caesar's mon, and just as all Greeks, from Sicily and day. A century låter Tacitus teils us that Massilia to Bactria, worshipped Zeus, Athena in their ancient songs, their only way of remember- and all the gods of the Olympus. Some of the ing or recording the past, (the Germani) celebrate early Germanic gods mentioned by Tacitus an earth-born god, Tuisco, and his son Mannus ... sank into oblivion, or at least we do not meet To Mannus they assign three sons ... for whom are them in Viking Age tales, whereas others sur­ named the Ingaevones, the Herminones and the Is- taevones ... Hercules once visited them ... Mercury is vived for a long time. Isis and the Twins disap­ the deity whom they chiefly worship and to whom peared without a trace, as did the Bull, whereas they offer human sacrifices on certain days (here not only the Sun but also the Moon retained speaks a civilized Roman, one whose ancestors had their power for several centuries after Taciti not practiced human sacrifice for centuries but one time. who enjoyed seeing men killed in the arena), ... they placate Hercules and Mars with regular sacrifices ... During the first four centuries of our era the Some of the Suevi also sacrifice to Isis ... Ertha or influence of Roman material culture was strong mother-Earth ... the deiues (which) are described in enough in Seandinavia for the perkxi to be Roman language as Castor and Polux ... the name called the "Roman Iron Age", even though no being Alcis ... (Could this be a mistake for "Alces"?) part of Seandinavia was ever occupied or Do the twin axe-men from Stockhult and settled by the Romans. It should be noted that those from Grevensvaenge as well as the figures rather few Roman objects of the types so com­ on the bronze tubes from Fogdarp represent mon in south Seandinavia have been found in these divine twins? Quite evidently the Norse Germania Libera. It seems that, at the time, the pantheon of the time housed also other gods, Germanic nations in direct contact with the Ro­ of whom we know little, among them the Sun mans on the Limes were hostile, whereas the and the Moon, mentioned by Caesar. Romans could maintain contacts with German­ Låter, Mercury was to be identified with ic nations behind their enemies. The lack of Oden, although Tacitus does not refer to Oden Roman artefacts in the western parts of pres- as we know him but to his "predecessor", the ent-day Germany suggests that Germanic war­ old spear-god of the Bronze Age, probably that riors from the nations living there did not en­ same Mercury of the Cimbri to whom the two ter the Roman service. inscriptions south of Miltenberg on the Rhine At the time of the Empire many Germani were dedicated sometime in early imperial served Rome, mostly men from far beyond the times. Tacitus did not mean that the Celts and limes. Many of those who survived their period the Germani worshipped Roman Mercury, of service returned to the "old country", there Hercules and Mars nor Egyptian Isis but gods to be buried with their Roman weapons and of their own, gods whose functions more or less decorations. Such returning soldiers and offici- corresponded to those of the Romans, gods als were well versed in Roman thought and whom he could best describe to this readers by traditiems, probably influendng their country- making them the "barbarian counterparts" of men to a certain extent. Most likely the Ger­ the latter. mani of Seandinavia and adjacent countries im­ The Germanic god whom Cesar called Sol ported not only material but also immaterial was probably the old Germanic sky god, Ull, goods from the Roman province, among these and those gods whom Cesar equated with the concept of the seven-day week and the Moon and with Fire were respectivdy a moon knowledge of the gods to whom the days of the goddess corresponding to Diana or Luna, and Roman week were dedicated. Tor, the god of lightning and of thunder, Who were these gods, whom do we find in probably the one to whom men sacrificed axes our Christian diary? already in neolithie times. Even though there French quite clearly retains the names of lhe were many local gods the main gods were the Roman gods liir whom the days were named, same all över the Germanic world, just as, some whereas the Germani evidently substitutet! centuries earlier, the numerous Celtic tribes all their own gods för those of Rome in these

Fornvännen 90(1995) The days of lhe week and Dark Age politics 231

Latin French English Swedish Dies Domini Sol Dimanche Sunday Söndag Dies Lunae Luna Lundi Monday Måndag Dies Martis Mars Mardi Tuesday Tisdag Dies Mercuri Mercury Mercredi Wednesday Onsdag Diesjovis Jove Jeudi Thursday Torsdag Dies Veneris Venus Vendredi Friday Fredag Dies Saturni Saturn Samedi Saturday Lördag

names. Rydbeck (Lars Rydbeck, pers. comm. makes it quite clear that Sun was one of the 11/1 1995), suggests that naming the days for chief gods also of the Iron-Age Germani. gods in the Roman pantheon may have been Already at the time of the republic Sol, the connected with the important part played by sun, was one of the most populär and promi­ astrology at this time and låter. Thus "dies So­ nent gods of Rome and even though some of lis" and "dies Lunae" may have been inspired his attributes were låter assigned to Apollo, by not by Sol Invictus and by divine Luna but by the end of the second century the sun, Sol, the the sun and the moon as celestial bodies, just as god who ruled in heaven, became the main the names of the other days of the week may god of the Severan emperors. have been inspired by the names of the planets The culture of the Christian eastern part rather than by those of the gods. But even if so, of the Empire always deeply influenced its it seems likely that the Germani borrowed the western half. Titus Flavius Clemens, consul in concept of the week, and the names of its days, 95 A.D., and his wife Domitilla were accused of in late Imperial times. "atheism" and it is rather likely that, as the 4th- It also seems that the names of the days of century tradition has it, Domitilla was a Chris­ the week were borrowed before Christianity tian. Already the consul of the year 91, Acilius became the official religion in the Empire. Her- Glabrio, had been executed on this charge— modsson (Lars Hermodsson, Pers. comm. 11/1 but also on that of having fought as a gladiator. 1995) means that the very fact that the In 112 Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithy- names were translated, Norse gods lending nia, asked the emperor what to do with the their names, rather than adopted with their Christians in his province. Marcia, the concu- Roman names, the latter to be distorted över bine of Commodus (180-192) was a Christian the centuries, proves the "week-day goods" to (Chadwick, 1993), and Tertullian (160-220) have been worshipped in the rLinpire at the could dalin that "we are but of yesterday and time when the Germani began to count tlie we have filled all you have—cities, islands, time in weeks. forts, towns, assembly halls, even military camps, tribes, town councils, the palace, senate Sunday, Söndag, dies Domini and fiirum. We have left you nothing but the Sunday, "söndag", the first day of the week. In temples." (Tertullian, Apol. 37. From Chad­ pre-Christian times the day was named for Sol, wick, 1993, p. 65.) Laler in the third century the name being changed when Christianity be­ the emperor Phillip (244-249) may have been came the "state religion". a chrypto-C.hristian. Towards the end of lhe Man had long worshipped life-giving Sun, 4th century Christianity had established itself the earliest direct evidence for this in northern as the majority religion in the eastern part of Europé being affordecl by those megalithic mo­ the F.mpire and become wide-spread in the numents so planned that the sun could plav an western part (Brown, 1989, p. 104) and in the active part in the ceremonies performed. The first half of the fifth century Christianity was spiral patterns so common in Bronze Age art imposed everywhere by mob violence from be­ seem to represent the sun in its divine aspect, low. but only Caesar's statement, quoted above. In 274 Aurelian set up a state cult to Seil In-

Fomvännen 90 (1995) 232 Gad Rausing victus, believing the Sun-god to have brought p. 104 ff.) points to the iconographic evidence him victory in Syria. This may have been the which suggests that, long before Caesar's days, time when the first day of the week was named the Germani of the Bronze Age worshipped for the chief god of the Imperial House. the moon in its two aspects. If so, no memory Even though Christ and Mithras had oustecl of this survives in the sagas or in the preserved him from the first place in the hearts of men al­ myths. Still, the fear of the moon is deeply im- ready in the third century, Sol remained one of bued, and even today many people fear being the chief gods at least unto 363, the year in "moonstruck" or, to use the latin expression, which Julian died. However, when Constantine becoming lunatics. When the Germani named accepted Christianity as a state religion in 312, the days of the week the moon was evidently after the battle of Pons Milvius, Christianity still important enough a god to give its name to turned the crucial corner from heresy to ortho- the Dies Lunae of the Romans, and the Moon doxy. It is unlikely that the most important day remained powerful enough ftir the laws of Ca­ of the week would have been named for Sol at nute to lörbid moon-worship (Branston, 1994, any time after Aurelian's death, but quite im­ p. 51). Frirtunatdy, in early Christian days the possible for it to be so named after 312. moon, as such, was no longer directly associ­ It seems that returning Germanic soldiers ated with the pagan goddess, Diana"s day con­ brought the name of the first day of the week sequently remaining the day of the moon, be­ north, simply translating the name, dies Solis, coming harmless monday, Lundi. assigning the day to the Germanic sun god. This must have happened while Sol was still su- Tuesday, Tisdag, Dies Martis preme in the Roman pantheon, i.e. sometime The old Germanic name for the day was Zistac, between the years 274 and 312 AD. old English Tiwesdäg, Tyr's day. In pagan Ger­ Låter, those Germanic nations to whom the mania, Tyr was the God of War, the closest name implied a religions observance and counterpart of Mars. Hermodsson (1970) whose citizens wanted to mark their new Chris­ points to the inscriptions from Housestead tian religion, chose to change the name once near Hadrian's wall, dedicated by the numerus again, the day of the sun becoming the Day of Hnaudilridi to Mars Thincsus, whom we rec­ the Lord, Dies Domini, "dimanche" in modern ognize in German "Dienstag". French. But still, like old soldiers, the pagan When the Franks accepted Christianity in gods did not die—to many contemporaries the fifth century, that religion seems to have they appeared to have faded away, but in the been strong enough in Gallia for the pagan stars at night these gods had found shapes, names of the week-days no longer to be contro- more suitable to their impassive eternity than versial, so just as the long-Christian people of in perishable statues wrought by mortals. the land had not found it necessary to replace Throughout the Middle Ages, the stars still Luna, Mars, Mercury, Jove, Venus and Saturn, hung above Christian Europé, disturbing re- only replacing Sol's name with that of the minders of the immortality of the gods, whose Lord, even militant Frankish Christian con- attributes still rested on the planels which ruled verts could do the same. the behaviour of civilized men up till the end of the 17th century—and, perhaps, even today. Wednesclay, Onsdag This was the Dies Mercurii of the Romans. Ori­ Monday, Måndag, dies Lunae ginally Mercury was the protector of the grain To the Romans this was the day of Diana, the stores and, as such, also the god of trade and of huiitress, who was also a moon goddess. Re- merchants, but by the time of the late Empire, markably enough the Romans called the day Mercury was a fully developed chtonic god, simply "dies lunae", the day of the moon, rath­ one who conveyed dead men's souls to the er than than "dies Dianae", as might have been nether world, one whose eibvious counterpart expected. in the Norse pantheon was Oden, the god of Klavs Randsborg (Kivik, Acta Arch. 64, 1993, the dead. In the late sagas also Oden appears

Fornvännen 90(1995) The days of the week and Dark Age politics 233 in a double guise, as the god of war and of war- man who was to be deified under that name, leaders, but also as a god of deceit, a god of we meet a Germanic god, whom the Romans merchants and of tradesmen, an artful per- compared with Mercury and another, whom jurer who sends his faithful to their death as they compared with Mars, evidently Wodanaz David sent Uriah the Hittite. and Tiwaz, Oden and Tyr. Men still remembered Mercury's having been, or being, the protector of the coin stores. Thursday, Torsdag, dies Jovis Did Tacitus have this aspect of Mercury in Jove was a god of many aspects, among them mind when searching for a Roman equivalent being the god of thunder. Tor was his obvious of a Germanic god? If so, the latter must be not counterpart among the Germani, Thursday, only a god of death and of deceit but also a god Donnerstag and Torsdag being names speak- of the harvest—and evidently Oden was also a ing for themselves. god of the harvest since, as such, he could de­ Tor was an ancient thunder-god, populär in mand human sacrifice when the harvest failecl. Seandinavia but worshipped also on the Conti­ This is attested by the Ynglingasaga's tale of nent, where we meet him in an inscription on a king Domalde's fäte several centuries after Ta­ fibula from Nordendorf in Bavaria, in the citus' time, when that Swedish king was sacri­ Saxon baptismal oath and in placenames all ficed by his people after a series af bad har- över Germany. Already in Neolithie times axes vests. were sometimes deposited in the foundations The Ynglinga Saga, which teils of events in of buildings and in running water. In both the 3rd century, describes Oden as human cases the god to whom these sacrifices were of­ enough, a priest who is also extremely success­ fered was probably the Thunderer. Låter he ful both as a general and as a politician, one was worshipped as Tor, the god of combat. Tor who identified himself with the Wodanaz of was the only one of the ancient gods who man­ the early Germani and took his name. Already aged tei hold his own against the Asa gods and three hundred years låter, the Anglo-Saxem låter, in the 1 Oth and 11 th centuries, Tor and sources describe Oden as the God of the Dead his followers, rather than Oden, led the resist- and also the god of wisdom. Only in the very ance against Christ, until political conditions in latest sources, in the Icelandic sagas, do we Norway suddenly turned him into a warrior meet him as "all-Father" some ten generations saint, Olaf. after Christianity's definite victory in the is­ land. In the prosaic Edda Snorre states that Friday, Fredag, dies Veneris Oden was "all-Father", but the prosaic FZdda Venus, the goddess of love, for whom the day also states that "all-Father" was the oldest god, was named in Rome, found her Norse counter­ that he had existed since the beginning of part in Freja, the goddess of love and fertility. time, that he had treated Heaven, Earth and Hermodsson (1970) suggests that the friday Man, that he was omnipotent. This earliest was named for Frigg, Oden"s staid wife, rather "all-Father" was not Oden but Tyr, old Ger­ than lör Fröja, but the latter is the only possi­ manic Tiwaz. ble candidate being, like Venus, the goddess When was "historical Oden" first identified of love. The choice of Freja indicates that with Mercury, the harvest god who was also the the name was adopted only after Nerthus had god of the dead? Already Tacitus teils us (Anna­ given rise to Njord, Frö and Freja, i.e. at a time les 13, 57) that in the year 58 A.D., when the laler than that of Tacitus. Hermunduri and the Chatti met in battle, both sides had promised their enemies to Mars and Saturday, lördag, dies Satumi to Mercury (Branston 1984, 102). This is a Most handbooks have it that "lördag" means close paralld to Orosios' description of Cae- "löghardag", the day of the weekly washing, pio's and Mallus' defeat at the hands of the perhaps the washing of laundry rather than Cimbri and the Theutoni in 105 B.c;. Seime 200 that of the body. This may be the correct inter­ years before the time of "historical" Oden, the pretation, but it seems rather peculiar to intro-

Fomvännen 90 (1995) 234 Gad Rausing duce such a mundane term among the divine Tuisco, Mannus, Ingvaz, Hermanaz and Ista- names. naz had been forgotten, but by Viking times, if In Rome, Saturday was named for Saturn, not earlier Nerthus had become Njord with his that god with the dual personality who was a son Frö and his daughter Freja, the Thunderer ruler of the Golden Age, the son of Uranos. He had become Tor, Wodanaz had merged with a gave man agriculture, but he was also a dark nameless immigrant to become Oden, Sun had god, one who devoured his own children and become Ullr. Some of the pagan gods survived who castrated his own father, being banished for a long time, not only in the names of the for this by Zeus. But Saturn seems also to have seven days but also in the hearts of men, as liv­ been a god of fire, candles being traditionally ing gods with power över life and death. burned on his feast-days, the Saturnalia. Was Among them, Tyr was to prove remarkably there any Norse god resembling Saturn, one longlived. On July 15th, 1099 Robert of Nor­ who could give his name to Saturn's day? Yes, mandy and his men stormed the walls of Jeru­ perhaps. salem to the age-old battle-cry "Tyr help us", Jan Ekermann (Dir. Jan Ekermann, Norden­ almost two hundred years after his grand- gatan 11, 603 64 Norrköping, pers. comm. 2/4 father's grandfather's grandfather, Gånge-Rolf, 1994) suggests that Loke did so, that most re­ had been baptized, to become Rollo, first duke markable and most mysterious of the Norse of Normandy (Bengtsson, 1937). gods, the evil god, the personification of fire in Occasionally also Oden and Tor took part in its destruciive aspect. the affairs of men. The Norwegian Borglunda Loke seems to have been a double personal­ Saga teils how, more than another hundred ity. Voluspå claims that Oden and Höner gave years låter, a short time before Christinas 1208, Ask and Embla spirit and soul, Oden's brother an old man visited a blacksmith to have his Lodur giving them blood and a healthy com- horse shod, daiming to be Oden on his way to plexion. Already Branston identified this Lo­ Sweden where "four nights laler king Sverker dur with Loke. Even though he was a half- and king Erik fought at Lena". And even låter, breed giant, being the son of Fahrbaute (the in the high Middle Ages, the men of Havick, in lightning) and Laufey, Loke always appears Roxbouroughshire, Scotland, called on Tyr among the gods, having become Oden's foster- and on Oden, their battle-cry being "Teer ye- brother at the beginning of time (Lokasenna). bus, ye Teer ye Oden" (Tyr help us, thou Tyr, This would make Loke/Loptr/Lodur the ap- thou Oden!). (Philippson, 1929, 161 and 117, propriate counterpart of Saturn and the likely Anm. 1.) choice when it came to pick a name för the Even though Christianity required its adher- "day of Saturn". If so, the present Norse name ents to forswear all the pagan gods, these "lördag" was not derived from "löghardagher", found it easy to adapt themselves to the new "the day of washing", but from "Lodur-dagh- times. Oden may have been, and probably was, er", dre "day of Lodur" or of Loke, this name a newcomer in Seandinavia, one who had been gradually deteriorating into Laughur-dagher, introduced sometime in the second or early perhaps in Christian times and deliberately, in third century AD. He had taken över some of order to obliterate the memory of the evil god. the duties of the old Spear-God, the god of the dead, he had assumed some of Tyr's functions. The twilight of the gods Having finally been dethroned, he became the How long did the names of the week's days re­ master of the Wild Hunt, as such to terrify the tain their pagan character, how long were the people of the northern forests until quite re­ gods remembered, when were the gods forgot­ cently. ten? The female aspect of Nerthus, to whom men Many of the "old" Germanic gods had been were sacrificed, became Freja and låter merged forgotten by late pagan times or were, at least, with Mary. no longer mentioned in those sources from the The old Thunderer, Tor of the Viking Age, period which have happened to survive. Thus led the resistance against White Christ, but fi-

Fomvännen 90 (1995) The days of the week and Dark Age politics 235

nally also Tor had to surrender. Olof Tryggva- reckoned time in one-, three-, five-, ten- or 15- son's Saga teils of Olof once meeting Tor on day periods, the seven-day week being un­ the high seas. Tor claimed that "the men of this known until introduced with Christianity. The island called on me for help until you, oh king, names given to the days of the Christian week killed all my friends. Does this not call for re- in early Irish are generally assumed to have venge?" He then threw himself into the sea, been the same as those still surviving in mod­ "never to be seen again". Olof went on to meet ern Irish dialects. Roman names for the days of his fäte at Svolder, where he fell in battle in the the week adopted in the Sth century. In Scot­ summer of the year 1000 AD. (Branston 1984, tish Gaelic, they are 116). Di Domhnaich Lord's day (latin dommiaci) But still Tor had the last laugh. A god and Di Luain Moon-day most of his functions may be as old as the hills Di Mairt Mars' day but still be able to change his name and to Di ciadain First-fast-day adopt new functions. Tor assumed the name Diardaoin Between-fast-day Di h-Aoine Fast-day (Latin ieiunium) and shape of another of his opponents, Olof Di Sathairne Saturn's day Haraldsson, sainted king of Norway, who fell at Stiklastad on July 29th, 1030. In this guise he The names for Monday, Tuesday, Saturday became the patron saint of Norway. and Sunday were evidently borrowed from Even though the sagas never mention her, provincial Latin with the Christian concept of also the old snake-goddess of the Bronze Age the seven-day week, whereas the names for survived for a long time. In 1350 Birgitta com- Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are local plained of the Swedes sacrificing to snakes ones, conditioned by the demands of the new (Klemming 1861, 198), and the superstitious religion. We do not know whether the Celts on honor of our rather harmless snakes prevalent the Continent used the same names but, if so, it in our days is probably the result of centuries of seems unlikely that their Germanic neighbours Christian indoctrination. (Is the corresponding borrowed from them. abhorrence of spiders the result of a similar, However, Daibhi O Croinin (1993), suggests deliberate, campaign against Loke?) Perhaps that the ancient Irish were familiar with several the snake goddess still yields some power? At different systems. The Oxford Manuscript least we were taught until quite recently that a MS 17, which contains works by Abbo of Fleury, gun which had been used to kili a crow or a Byrluferth of Ramsey and Beda Venerabilis, magpie, Oden's sacred birds, will never again contains a marginal note (fol., 71 v) on the hit anything—unless a snake, the goddess' sa­ weekdays secundum Hebreos, secundum antiquos cred animal, is shot out of its barrel! gentiles, secundum Siluestrum papam, secundum Anglo.s and secundum Scottos. Germani, Celts, Byzantines and Goths The "Hebrew days" are listed in much the The Germani met not only Romans but also same way in many mediaeval manuscripls. The men of other nations from whom they could, second list is that of the Roman names of the and did, borrow ideas and concepts. Can we be 3rd or 4th centuries. The list of the names ac­ quite certain that the Germani adopted their cording to Sylvester was derived from the apo- names for the days of the week from Latin cryphal Acta Sylve.stri, from about 500 A.D., ac­ rather than from some other language, from cording to which Sylvester, pope A.D., 314-335, some other people with whom they maintained urged Christians to abandon the pagan names close contacts? The Celts, the Goths and the of the days of the week in favour of such more Byzantines spring to mind as possible interme- in keeping with the new religion. It is not diaries. known whether these names were ever ad­ First the Celts. Unfortunatdy we know next opted anywhere or whether they remained but to nothing about the languages and dialects a pious thought. spöken by the Celts on the Continent. In pre- The lisl according to the Anglo-Saxons re­ Christian times the Celts of Britain and Ireland flects the use in England in late Saxon times.

Fornvännen 90(1995) 236 Geul Rausing

Nomina dierum Nomina dierum Nomina dierum Nomina dierum Nomina dierum secundum Hebreos secundum secundum secundos secundos antiquos gentiles Siluestrum papam Anglos Scottos Prima sabbati I lies solis Prima feria Sttnnandaeg Dies scrol Secunda sabbati Dies lunae Secunda feria Monendaeg l)iu luna Tercia sabbati Dies martis Tercia feria Tifesdaeg Diu mart Quarta sabbati Dies mercurii Quarta feria /odnosdaeg Dm iath Quinta sabbati Dies iouis Quinta feria /imresdaeg Diu ethamon Sexta sabbati Dies ueneris Sexta feria Frigedaeg Diu niach Septima sabbati Dies saturni Sabbatum Saeterdaeg Diu satur

Four of the lists thus contain correct historical Remain the Goths, those tribes from northern forms, whereas lhe list "according to the Scot­ Europé who founded a kingdom on the north­ tos", i.e. according to the Irish, give us names ern shore of the Black Sea in the end of the which are quite different from the "standard" second century, and who were to overrun Italy, ones of låter times. Of these, "dies scrol" seems France and Spain in the 5th century. Unlörtu- to be the Latin "dies" together with "scrol", a nately very little is known about their language, word written "srol" in "Cormads Glossary" of mainly from the translation of the Bible into 1134, which means "Sun". "Dies Scrol" is thus Gothic. mongrel Latin-Irish version of latin "Dies So­ It seems that they adopted the week as a unit lis". On the either hand, the "diu" of the other of measurement while still living in presenl-day days is good Old Irish. The words lör Monday, Ukraine, i.e. before 375, even though the word Tuesday and Saturday are clearly borrowed "wiko" meant "sequence" or "regularity" rather from Latin, whereas "iath", "ethamon" and than "7-day period" (Hermodsson, 1970). "triach" seem to be unique to Irish. The Goths borrowed the names fcir the days Neither these oldest Irish names nor those of of the week from the Greek. Even though the the High Middle Ages seem to have influenced only name known fcir certain is that for Friday, the Germani when they chose their names for we may draw certain conclusions from old the days of the week. Bajuvarian-Alamannic and from Old High Ger­ Then what about the Byzantine Greeks? In man forms. To judge from Old Bavarian and pre-Christian times the Greeks did not count Old High German, Gothic Tuesday was proba­ the days in units of seven, the concept "week" bly called "Areindags", which we recognize in being unknown until introduced with Christia­ Bavarian Frtag and in Old High German Erin- nity, According to the early Christian work "Di- tag. Quite evidently this is Greek "Areos heme­ dachä" (very early 2nd century A.D.) the names ra", the Day of Åres, the war god. In old Bawa- of the days were rian Thursday was "Pfinztag", ultimately from Greek "pempti imera", fifth day, probably bor­ Sunday "kiriaki imera" or, simply, "kiriaki", rowed by way of" Gothic. Friday was "Paraskai- the Lords day Monday deuteri, second day we" in Gothic, derived from Greek "paraskeni", Tuesday triti, third day day of" preparalion. In Old High German ihis Wc-dnesday tctarli, fourth day day was called "Pherintag", borrowed either Thursday pempti, fiii.li day from Gothic of directly from Greek. Friday paraskeni, day of preparalion Saturday sabb.ilo The Gothic names for the days of the week were thus borrowed from the Greek, not trans­ Quite evidently these names did not inspire lated, which suggests that they were borrowed those used by the Scandinavians, and we may at a time when their meaning was no longer assume that the Scandinavians did not borrow alive, when it was no longer necessary to find a their method of counting the lime from tlie Gothic correspondent to the Greek gods, i.e. East-Roman Empire. when Åres was no longer a "living god" in that

Fornvännen 90(1995) The days of the week and Dark Age politics 237 society from which the name of the day was Celander, H. 1911. lj)kes mytiska Ursprung. Svenska borrowed, in the Byzantine army or ad­ Landsmål, Stockholm. Chadwich, H. M. 1899. The Cult ofOthin. London. ministration. This would mean that the Goths Chadwich, H. 1993. The Early Church. London. borrowed the concept of a seven-day week Collinder, B. 1958. Snorri Sturluson. Snorres Edda. when they accepted Christianity, complete with Oskarshamn. the names of the days, sometime in the 4th or Craigie, W. A. 1914. The Religion of Ancient Seandina­ Sth centuries, much too late for the Gothic via. London. Davidson, H. E. 1964. Gods and Mytlis of Northern Eu­ names to be adopted by the Scandinavians. ropé. London. The Gothic names being adopted by the Ala- Davidson, H. E. 1967. Pagan Seandinavia. London. manni and by the Bajuvari confirm the sagas' Dumézil, G. 1939. Mythes et Dieuxdes Germains. Paris. statements concerning the political relation­ — 1948. Ijoki. Les Dieux et les Hemmes. I. Paris. — 1958. Lldéologie tripartile des Indo-Européens. Brux­ ships between these nations and the Goths in elles. the Sth century. The very fact that the Bajuvari — 1966. De nordiska gudania. En modern framställ­ and the Alamanni adopted the (ostro?-)gothic ning av de nordiska gudarna och deras betydelse terms, which were derived from the Greek, fcir vår kultur. Stockholm. whereas the Franks borrowed those of their Elgquist, E. 1952. Studier rörande Njordkultens spridning bland de nordiska folken. Stockholm. catholic Latin subjets and the Germani of Sean­ Gascoigne, B. 1978. The Christians. St. Albans and dinavia and of the North-Sea coast translated London. the latin terms into their own language, illu­ Fergusson, J. 1982. The Religions of lhe Roman Empire. strates the political division of Migration-Period London. Europé into three great groups, the Gothic, the Gimbutas, M. 1982. The Goddesses and Gods of Old Eu­ ropé. London. Frankish and the Northern ones. Green, M. 1986. The Gods of lhe Cells. Gloucester. Hald, K. 1963. The Cult of Odin in Danish Place- Names. Early English and Norse Studies presented to Bibliography Hugh Smith. London. Adam of Bremen. Historien om Hamburgstiftet och dess Hauck, K. 1955. Lebensnonnen und Kultmythen in ger­ biskopar. Transf E. Svenberg. Stockholm 1984. manischen Stammes- und Henscliergeiieulogien. Sae- Amtoft, K. 1948. Nordiske Giuleskikkelser i hehyggelsehis- culum, 6. torisk Belysning. Copenhagen. Heim, K. 1918. Isis Sueborurn? Paul und Braunes Bei­ Baetke, W. 1937. Die Religion der Germanen in Qjtellen- träge, pp. 527-533. zeugnissen. Berlin. — 1913-1953. Altgeniuimsche Religionsgeschichte I Bing, J. 1914. Germanische Religion der älteren (1913), 11(1937, 1953). Bronzezeit. Mannus 6, pp. 149-180. — 1968. Wodan. Amhreitung und Wanderung eines — 1916. Ull. En mytologisk unders0gelse. Mimi og Kultes. Amsterdam. Minne. pp. 107-124. Hdten, W. van 1902. Uber Marti Thinsco. Aelisia- Baetke, W. 1934. Art und Glauhe der Germanen. Ham­ gis. Paul und Braunes Beiträge. 27, pp. 137- burg. 153. — 1937. Die Religion der Germanen in Quellen-Zeugnis- Hermodsson, L. 1970. Die germanischen Wochlagsna- sen. Hamburg. men. Kungl. Humanistiska Vetenskapssamfundet Bailey, C. 1932. Pluises in the Religion of Ancient Rome. i Uppsala, Årsbok 1969-70. Oxford. Karlsson Lönn, M. 1987. Hedendom och Kristendom. Bengtsson, F. G. 1937. En Korstägshistoria. Sv. Kultkontinuitet från Yngre Järnålder lill Medeltid. Me­ Dagbl. 27/3 1937. ta 87: 4. Branston, B. 1984. Tiu losl Gods of England. London. Larsson, L. 1974. The Fogdarp Find. Medd. Lunds Bråte, E. 1914. Vanema. Sv. Hum. Förb. Skrifter 21. Univ. Hist. Mus. Stockholm. Leyen, F. v.d. 1938. Die Götter der Gemumen. Miin­ Brown, P. 1989. The World of Ixite Antiquity. London. chen. Burenhult, G. 1980. Götalands Hällristningar, I. Stock­ Ljungberg, H. 1938. Den nordiska religionen och kristen­ holm. domen. Studier över det nordiska religionsskiftet — 1973. 'Lite Rock Carvings of Götaland, II. Lund. under vikingatiden. Uppsala. Caesar, C. J. De Bello Gallico. Tlie Conquest of Gaul. — 1947. Tor. Undersökningar i indoeuropeisk och nordisk S. A. Handforth transf Harmondsworth, 1951. religionshistoria. I. Uppsala. Carrington, P. 1957. The Early Christian Church. Cam­ O Croinim, Dhaibi. 1993. The Oldest Irish Names of the bridge. Days of the Week. Dublin Inst. for Advanced Studies. Cassiodorus Senator. Chronica. Ed. Th. Mommsen. Odéen, N. 1928. Vanamyternas religionshistoiiska bety­ Berlin, 1894. delse. Festskr. t. Kock. Lund.

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— 1929. Studier över den nordiska gudavärldens Schreiber, H. 1979. Auf den Spuren der Goten. Reinek- uppkomst. Acta pbilologica Scandinavica 4. pp. Hamburg. 122-171. Schröder, E. R. 1933. Quellenbuch zur Germanischen Olrik, A. 1903. Danmarks Heltedigtning. I. Kopenha­ Religionsgeschichte. Berlin. gen. Schuette, G. 1919. Hjemligt Hedenskah. Kopenhagen. — 1911. Myterne om Loke. Svenska Landsmål. Snorre. Edda Snorra Sturlusonar. Hafnia. 1848-1887. — 1925. Odins Vlidl. Danske Studier. Strohacker, E. F. 1965. Germanentum und Spätanti- Olsen, M. 1939. Nordisk Kultur. V. Stednavn. Kopen­ ke. Zuerich. hagen. Ström, F. 1954. Diser, nornor, valkyrior. FruklbarlieLskull — 1915. Hedenske Kultminder i Norske Stednav- och sakralt kungadöme i Norden. KVHAA Handling­ ner. Krisliania. ar. Filol.-Filosof. Serien. Stockholm. Olsen, O. 1965. Hörg, Hov og Kirke. Aarb. f. Nord. — 1961. Nordisk Hedendom. Tro och Sed i Förkristen Oldkyndighed og Historie. Tid. Göteborg. Palm, T. 1938. Tro och Kult vid Vikingatidens Slut. Ström, A. V. 8c Bilzais, H. 1969. Germanische und Bal- Svenska Folket Genom Tiderna. I. Malmö. thische Religion. Lund. Pedersen, K. N. H. 1876. Om Nordboemes Gudedyrkelse Strömbeck, D. 1935. Sejd. Lund. og Gudelro i Hedenobt. Kopenhagen. Tacitus. Germania. In: The Complete Works of Taci­ Phillipson, A. E. 1953. Die Genealogie der Gölter in Ger­ tus. Ed. Moses Hädas. New York. 1942. manischer Religion, Mythologie und Theologie. Thompson, A. E. 1966. The Visigoths in the Age of Ulfi- Randsborg, K. 1993. Kivik: Archaeology and Icono­ la. Oxford. graphy. Acta Archaeologica 64: 1. — 1982. Romarn and Barbarians. Lhe Decline of tlie Rimbert. Rimberti Vita Anskarii et Magistri Adam Western Empire. Wisconsin University Press. Bremensis: Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesia Pon- Turville-Petré, E. O. G. 1964. Myth and Religion of the tificum. Ausgewählle Quellen zur Deutschen Geschichte North. London. des Miltebdleis. Ed. R. Buchner. XI. Berlin. 1961. Vries, J. D. 1933. Studien över Germaansche Mytho­ Roth, Anna Birgitta. 1961. Ijoki in Scamlinaimin Mylho- logie. V. De Wodan-Vereering bij West- und logy. Skrifter utgivna av Kungl. Hum. Veten­ Noord-Germanen. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche skapssamfundet i Lund, 61. Lund. Taal- en Letterhmde, 52, pp. 185-216. Salin, B. 1903. Heimskringlas tradition om Åsarnas — 1934. Odin am Baum. Studia Gemmnica. Lund. invandring. Studier till Oscar Montelius. Stockholm. — 1956-57. Allgemumisclie Religionsgeschichle, I-II. — 1904. Die Altgermanische Thierornamentik. Stexk- Berlin. holm. Wessén, E. 1924. Studier till Sveriges hedna mytologi Schj0dt, J. P. 1981. Om Ij>ke endnu engang. Arkiv för och fornhistoria. Uppsala Universitets Årsskrift. nordisk filologi, 96. — 1921. Forntida gudsdyrkan i Östergötland. Medd. Schäferdiek, K. 1967. Die Kirche in den Reiclien der från Östergötlands Fornminnesförening. Linköping. Westgoten und der Suewen bis zur Errichtung der wesl­ Wilke, G. 1923. Die Religion der Indogermanen in ar­ gotischen katholischen Staalskirche. Berlin. chäologischer Belrucbtiing. Leipzig. Schmidt, L. 1969. Die Westgermanen. Miinchen. Williams, J., Shaw, M. & Denham, V. 1985. Middle — 1969. Die Ostgermanen. Miinchen. Saxon Palaces at Northampton. London.

Veckodagarna som spegel av politiska förhållanden under folkvandringstiden Varje dag ger oss redan med sitt blotta namn bjuder till spekulationer om hur gammalt direkt kontakt med den hedniska forntiden. namnskicket kan vara här i Norden, inom det Detta gäller inte bara nutidssvensken, utan ock­ anglosaxiska, respektive det latinska språkom­ så danskar och norrmän, tyskar, engelsmän, rådet. I ovanstående artikel har Gad Rausing fransmän och mänga flera. Däremot är detta sökt att bena upp begreppen och kommer fram inte fallet för islänningar och slaviskspräkiga, till att germanerna under sen kejsartid som ett vilka genom kyrkans diktat fått en avindividua­ kulturlän kom att ta till sig bäde sjudagars- liserad tideräkning med en så prosaisk namn­ veckan och veckodagarnas namn. Hans teori är givning av veckodagarna att namnet blott mar­ att det var hemvändande legosoldater som för­ kerar dagens nummer inom veckan i förhållan­ medlade länet. de till »Herrens dag», söndagen. I det inledande avsnittet slår förf. fast att den Veckodagarnas namn är fascinerande och in­ materiella kulturen i Skandinavien under de

Fornvännen 90(1995) The days of the week and Dark Age politics 239

första fyra århundradena av vår tideräkning sä nan Diana. Tisdag, Dies Martis, sammanställs till den grad influerades av romarna att arkeo­ med krigsguden Tyr, onsdag med Wodan, el­ logerna valt att kalla hela tidsavsnittet for Ro­ ler Oden, som i mycket hade egenskaper ge­ mersk järnålder. Kontakterna med Imperiet mensamma med romarnas Mercurius. Torsda­ var emellertid inte bara materiella, också på det gen, var hos romarna helgad ät åskguden Jupi­ andliga planet tillgodogjorde sig nordborna åt­ ter, analogin med åskguden Donar (Tor) var skilligt inom de mest skiftande sektorer, så up­ inte långsökt. Fredagen har namn efter kär­ penbarligen också då det gällde namngivning- leksgudinnan Freja som hade samma funktion en av veckans dagar. Det är nämligen ytterst som Venus, namngiverskan till romarnas fre­ romerska gudanamn som döljer sig bakom den dag, »dies Veneris». Lördagens namn, som of­ fernissa som givit veckodagarna deras till gu­ tast uppfattats som »löghardag», dvs. veckotvät­ darna Tyr, Oden, Tor och Freja närmast asso­ tens dag är Rausing mera benägen att uppfatta cierande namn. som härlett ur ett »Lodur-dagher», dvs. Lokes Gör man upp en enkel tabell finner man att dag och associerar Loke med Saturnus. de romerska gudanamnen röjer sig i de frans­ Efter att ha ägnat ett avsnitt ät länge kvar­ ka namnen på veckodagarna medan germa­ dröjande reminiscenser av nordisk hedendom nerna ersatt dem med egna gudanamn. Av allt ställer Rausing frägan om det kan finnas alter­ att döma måste namnöversättningen ha skett i nativa förklaringar till varifrån germanerna en tid då veckodagsgudarna ännu dyrkades i övetagit veckodagarnas namn. Kan förmedlan­ Imperiet, dvs. innan kristendomen blev statsre­ det ha skett från kelter, goter eller bysantinare? ligion. Svaret blir komplext. Det förefaller som om go­ Argumentationen förs vidare under genom­ terna övertagit sjudagarsveckan och dess gre­ gång av veckodag för veckodag, här i kort sam­ kiska dagsnamn som begrepp från grekerna manfattning: tillsammans med kristendomen pä 300- eller Söndagens namn förs tillbaka till år 274 dä 400-talet och sedan förmedlat detta till alle- kejsar Aurdianus till åminnelse av en seger i manner och bajuvarer medan frankerna över­ Syrien införde kulten av Den Obesegrade So­ tog dessa från sina latinska undersåtar. Germa­ len (Sol Invictus) eftersom han ansåg sig ha sol­ nerna i Skandinavien och längs Nordsjökusten guden att tacka for segern. Det är logiskt att översatte däremot de latinska termerna till sitt förmoda att veckans första dag dä gavs namn eget språk. Detta illustrerar påtagligt den poli­ efter kejsarhusets favoritgud. För germanerna, tiska klyvning som härskade i folkvandringsti­ som enligt Caesar ocksä hade en solgud var dens Europa mellan goter, franker och nord­ namngivningen lätt att acceptera, liksom ocksä germaner. att den påföljande dagen skulle vara månens Jan Peder Uimm dag, hos romarna associerad med mångudin­

Fornvännen 90 (1995)