ECOLOGIA BALKANICA 2013, Vol. 5, Issue 1 June 2013 pp. 149-172

Plant Essential Oils from Apiaceae Family as Alternatives to Conventional Insecticides

Asgar Ebadollahi*

Young Researchers Club, Ardabil Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, IRAN *Corresponding author: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. Main method to control insect pest is using synthetic insecticides, but the development of insect resistance to this products, the high operational cost, environmental pollution, toxicity to humans and harmful effect on non-target organisms have created the need for developing alternative approaches to control insect pest. Furthermore, the demand for organic crops, especially vegetables for the fresh market, has greatly increased worldwide. The ideal insecticide should control target pests adequately and should be target-specific, rapidly degradable, and low in toxicity to humans and other mammals. Plant essential oils could be an alternative source for insect pest control because they constitute a rich source of bioactive chemicals and are commonly used as flavoring agents in foods. These materials may be applied to food crops shortly before harvest without leaving excessive residues. Moreover, medically safe of these plant derivatives has emphasized also. For these reasons, much effort has been focused on plant essential oils or their constituents as potential sources of insect control agents. In this context, Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) family would rank among the most important families of plants. In the last few years more and more studies on the insecticidal properties of essential oils from Apiaceae family have been published and it seemed worthwhile to compile them. The focus of this review lies on the lethal (ovicidal, larvicidal, pupicidal and adulticidal) and sublethal (antifeedant, repellent, oviposition deterrent, Growth inhibitory and progeny production) activities of plant essential oils and their main components from Apiaceae family. These features indicate that pesticides based on Apiaceae essential oils could be used in a variety of ways to control a large number of pests. It can be concluded that essential oils and phytochemicals isolated from Apiaceae family may be efficacious and safe replacements for conventional synthetic insecticides.

Keywords: Apiaceae family, essential oils, phytochemicals, natural insecticides, lethal effects, sublethal effects.

Introduction most of the systemic and organic Currently different kinds of preventive insecticides to control insect pests. Although and curative control measures are practiced these methods are effective, their repeated to get protection from insect pests. Among use for several decades has its consequences. those, synthetic pesticides such as It has been estimated that about 2.5 million organochlorines, organophosphates, carba- tons of pesticides are used on crops each mates, pyrethroids and neonicotinoids have year and the worldwide damage caused by been considered to be the most effective and pesticides reaches $100 billion annually. easy to use tools against insect pests. Most Repeated applications of synthetic insecti- of the farmers are not aware with the ill cides has disrupted natural enemies in the effect of chemical pesticides and still using biological control system and led to

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Plant Essential Oils from Apiaceae Family as Alternatives to Conventional Insecticides outbreaks of insect pests, widespread including attracting or repelling insects, development of resistance and protecting themselves from heat or cold; and environmental and human health concerns utilizing chemical constituents in the oil as (BENHALIMA et al., 2004; BUGHIO & defense materials. In general, they are WILKINS, 2004; SANNA et al., 2004; complex mixtures of 20-60 organic TAPONDJOU et al., 2005). In this context, compounds that give characteristic odour efforts are being made worldwide to replace and flavour to leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, these chemicals with biological alternatives barks and rhizomes. In industrialized (biopesticides), which are less toxic to the countries, EOs could be useful alternatives environment. to synthetic insecticides in organic food Plants offer an alternative source of production, while in developing countries; insect-control agents because they contain a they can be a means of low cost protection range of bioactive chemicals, many of which (Cosimi, et al., 2009). Bioactivity of these EO are selective and have little or no harmful depends on its chemical composition which effect on non-target organisms and the varies with plant part used for extraction, environment. Because of the multiple sites harvesting time, plant age, and nature of the of action through which the plant materials soil and growth conditions. EOs are complex can act, the probability of developing a mixtures comprised of a large number of resistant population is very low (ISMAN, constituents in variable ratios. EOs contain 2006). Botanical insecticides degrade rapidly natural flavors and fragrances grouped as in air and moisture and are readily broken monoterpenes (hydrocarbons and down by detoxification enzymes. This is oxygenated derivatives), sesquiterpenes very important because rapid breakdown (hydrocarbons and oxygenated derivatives) means less persistence in the environment and aliphatic compounds (alkanes, alkenes, and reduced risks to nontarget organisms ketones, aldehydes, acids and alcohols) that (ISMAN, 2008). Among natural products provide characteristic odors. Many EOs certain highly volatile EOs currently used in isolated from various plant species belong- the food, perfume, cosmetic and ing to different genera, contain relatively pharmaceutical and agricultural industries high amount of monoterpenes. Jointly or show promise for controlling insect peat, independently they may contribute to the particularly in confined environments such protection of plants against herbivores, as greenhouses or granaries. Because of this, although some herbivores have counter much effort has been focused on plant EOs adapted to them (DEVI & MAJI, 2011; as potential sources of commercial insect SAFAEI-KHORRAM et al., 2011). Plant EOs control agents. From the standpoint of pest show wide and varied bioactivities against control, one of the most valued properties of both agricultural pests and medically EOs is their fumigant activity against important insect species, ranging from insects, since it may involve their successful toxicity with ovicidal, larvicidal, pupicidal use to control pests in storage without and adulticidal activities to sublethal effects having to apply the compound directly to including oviposition deterrence, anti- the insects. In this context, EOs have feedant activity and repellent actions as well received much attention as potentially as they may affect on biological parameters useful bioactive compounds against insects such as growth rate, life span and showing a broad spectrum of activity reproduction (EBADOLLAHI, 2011b; ZOUBIRI against insects, low mammalian toxicity, & BAALIOUAMER, 2011a,b). Accordingly, the degrading rapidly in the environment and use of plant EOs can lead to the local availability (BAKKALI et al., 2008; KOUL identification of new bioinsecticides. et al., 2008; RAJENDRAN & SRIRANJINI, 2008). Some of the plant families known as EOs are secondary metabolites that plants excellent sources of EOs with insecticidal produce for their own needs other than for properties that Apiaceae family is one of nutrition. The aromatic characteristics of them. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) is one of the EOs provide various functions for the plants best known families of flowering plants,

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Asgar Ebadollahi which comprise 300–450 genus and 3000– many analogs of one class) (REGNAULT- 3700 species. They are aromatic plant and ROGER et al., 2012). EO are natural products have a distinctive flavor which diverse that contain natural flavors and fragrances volatile compounds from the fruits and grouped as monoterpenes (hydrocarbons leaves. The plants of Apiaceae and oxygenated derivatives), sesquiterpenes (Umbelliferae) family are occurring (hydrocarbons and oxygenated derivatives) throughout the world, but it is most and aliphatic compounds (alkanes, alkenes, common in temperate regions and rare in ketones, aldehydes, acids and alcohols) that the tropics. The most obvious distinctive provide characteristic odors. Among feature of the family is the inflorescence, components of EOs, terpenes especially which is a simple or compound umbel. monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenes have Umbelliferae refers to the characteristic been shown to be toxic to a variety of insects umbellate inflorescence. Having bilaterally (HUMMELBRUNNER & ISMAN, 2001; LEE et symmetric flowers towards the outside of al., 2002; ERLER, 2005; STAMOPOULOS et al., the inflorescence tends to make the 2007). Previous studies have also shown that inflorescence as a whole resemble a single the toxicity of EOs obtained from aromatic flower (BERENBAUM, 1990; CHRISTENSEN & plants against insect pests is related to the BRANDT, 2006). The family includes many oil’s main components such as 1.8-cineole, herbs, spices and medicines, would rank carvacrol, eugenol, limonene, α-pinene and among the most important families of plant. thymol. For example, EOs from seeds of Although a number of review articles Coriandrum sativum, and Carum carvi L. were have appeared in the past on the various tested in the laboratory for volatile toxicity aspects of EOs bioactivities (ISMAN, 2000; against Sitophilus oryzae, Rhyzopertha BINDRA, et al., 2001; PETERSON, & COATS, dominica (F.) and Cryptolestes pusillus 2001; BAKKALI et al., 2008; ISMAN et al., 2008: (Stephens). Coriander contained linalool TRIPATHI, 2009: EBADOLLAHI, 2011b: (1617 ppm of the oil) as the main product ZOUBIRI & BAALIOUAMER, 2011b; active against the three pests. Camphor-rich REGNAULT-ROGER et al., 2012) but the fractions (over 400 ppm) were very toxic to present paper emphasizes on the potential Rhyzopertha dominica and Cryptolestes of Apiaceae EOs in insect-pest management. pusillus. The caraway profile included In fact, the present study attempted to carvone, limonene and (E)-anethole as major explain the efficiency of EOs from Apiaceae components. Carvone was the most effective family and their components as (972 ppm) monoterpenoid against Sitophilus phytochemicals with lethal and sublethal oryzae. In addition, (E)-anethole at 880 ppm effects against insect pests. was toxic to Rhyzopertha dominica while vapors of limonene (1416 ppm) fractions Lethal toxicity killed adults of Cryptolestes pusillus only The insecticidal activity of many EOs (LOPEZ et al., 2008). In the study of from Apiaceae has been evaluated against a EVERGETIS et al. (2009) insecticidal number of insects. The isolation and properties of six different taxa of the identification of the bioactive compounds Apiaceae family (Heracleum sphondylium ssp. and EOs from Apiaceae are of utmost pyrenaicum, Seseli montanum ssp. tomasinii, importance so that their potential Conopodium capillifolium Coss., Bupleurum application in controlling insect pests can be fruticosum L., Oenanthe pimpinelloides L. and fully exploited. Table 1 shows lethal toxicity Eleoselinum asclepium Bert.) were evaluated of EOs isolated from Apiaceae family against Culex pipiens third to fourth instar against different insect pests that published larvae in order to delineate the relationship since 2000. EOs have several characteristics between the EOs phytochemical content and that improve their efficacy as insecticides. larvicidal activity. Results indicated that the They are both phytochemically diverse oil of Oenanthe pimpinelloides, which contains (containing many biosynthetically different mainly nonoxygenated monoterpenes, compounds) and redundant (containing possesses the highest activity, displaying a

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LC50 value of 40.26 mg/l. On the contrary, pipiens were evaluated by EVERGETIS et al. the EO of Eleoselinum asclepium, which is (2012) and their LC50 values calculated as consisted of pinenes and oxygenated >150, 10.15, 53.61, 67.39, 56.73, 47.40, 86.46, monoterpenes, was the less active (LC50 40.13, >150, 40.31, 111.99, 122.54, 80.32 and value of 96.96 mg/l). These results reveal 44.17 mg/l, respectively. The EO derived that the nonoxygenated monoterpenes from the endemic in Greece plant Athamanta possess potent insecticidal activities against densa was determined as the most active Culex pipiens. Our recent study showed that since displayed the highest toxicity against Azilia eryngioides (Pau) Hedge Et Lamond oil mosquito larvae, with LC50 value 10.15 had a strong insecticidal activity on adult of mg/l. The EO tested contains a series of Sitophilus granarius and Tribolium castaneum. compounds which were not found in the Major components in this oil were α-pinene other EOs tested, such as bisabolene and the (63.8%) and bornyl acetate (18.9%). The unidentified compounds C14H30O, 37.03 μl/l concentration and 48-h exposure C12H25O2N and C13H27O2N, which have to time was enough to attain 100 % mortality study more thoroughly in order to of all the insects. The EO concentration to determine their activities. The Apiaceae EOs cause LC50 in S. granarius was 20.05 μl/l, with toxic effects against insect pests have whereas it was 46.48 μl/l in Tribolium known to contain the active terpenes such as castaneum after a 24-h treatment. Results anethole, camphor, carvone, cymene, revealed that the insecticidal activity of A. linalool, thymol, α-pinene and β-pinene, eryngioides EO could be related to these which are common constituents of many constituents (EBADOLLAHI & MAHBOUBI, Apiaceae Eos (Table 2). From above studies, 2011). Larvicidal activities of EOs isolated it could be found that the efficacy of EOs from fourteen different taxa of the Apiaceae varies according to the phytochemical family including Angelica sylvestris L., profile of the plant oil and the entomological Athamanta densa Boiss. & Orph., target. In fact, toxicity of EOs to insects was Chaerophyllum heldreichii Orph. Ex Boiss., influenced by the chemical composition of Ferulago nodosa (L.), Laserpitium pseudomeum the oil, which in turn depended on the Orph., Heldr. & Sart. Ex Boiss., Peucedanum source, season and ecological conditions, neumayeri (Vis.) Reichenb, Peucedanum method of extraction, time of extraction and officinale L., Pimpinella tragium Vill., plant part used. Bioactivity of EOs is also Pimpinella peregrina L., Pimpinella rigidula affected by interactions among their (Boiss. & Orph.) H. Wolf, Scaligeria cretica structural components. Even minor (Miller), Seseli parnassicum Boiss. & Heldr., compounds can have a critical function due Smyrnium rotundifolium Miller and to additive action between chemical classes Thamnosciadium junceum (Sibth. & Sm.) and synergism or antagonism. Hartvig against 3rd-4th instar larvae of Culex

Table 1. Summary of reports indicating lethal toxicity of essential oils isolated from Apiaceae family.

Plant species Insecticidal activity and tested insect Reference Ammi visnaga Ovicidal activity against Mayetiola destructor. LAMIRI et al., 2001 Adulticidal and ovicidal activity against TRIPATHI et al., 2001b Callosobruchus maculatus. Larvicidal against third instar larvae of Aedes AMER & MEHLHORN, aegypti, Anopheles stephensi and Culex 2006a,b Anethum graveolense quinquefasciatus. Adulticidal activity on callosobrucus chinensis UPADHYAY et al., 2007 Fumigant toxicity against Callosobruchus chinensis. CHAUBEY, 2008 Fumigant antitermitic activity against Reticulitermes SEO et al., 2009 speratus.

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Fumigant toxicity against adults of Callosobruchus CHAUBEY, 2011a chinensis Fumigant toxicity against Callosobruchus maculatus EBADOLLAHI et al., 2012 adults. Contact and fumigant toxicity against adult male YEOM et al., 2012 and female of Blattella germanica. Angelica archangelica Fumigant toxicity against Lycoriella mali adults. CHOI et al., 2006 Contact and fumigant toxicity against adults of KIM et al., 2003a Lasioderma serricorne. Angelica dahurica Adulticidal on Sitophilus oryzae and Callosobruchus KIM et al., 2003b chinensis. Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Angelica sylvestris EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens. Adulticidal fumigant toxicity against PAPACHRISTOS & Acanthoscelides obtectus. STAMOPOULOS, 2002 Larvicidal against Anopheles dirus and Aedes aegypti. PITASAWAT et al., 2007 Apium graveolens Larvicidal against Lucilia sericata. KHATER & KHATER, 2009 Adulticidal and larvicidal activity against early KUMAR et al., 2012 fourth instars of A. aegypti. Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Athamanta densa EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens. Larvicidal effect against the second instar gypsy Athamanta haynaldii KOSTIĆA et al., 2013 moth larvae. Fumigant toxicity on adult of Sitophilus granarius EBADOLLAHI & Azilia eryngioides and Tribolium castaneum. MAHBOUBI, 2011 Azorella cryptantha Toxic effects on Ceratitis capitata. LÓPEZ et al., 2012 Bifora radians Adulticidal effect on Lipaphis pseudobrassicae. SAMPSON et al., 2005 Fumigant toxicity against adults of Tribolium Bunium persicum MORAVEJ et al., 2009 castaneum. Bupleurum fruticosum Larvicidal against Culex pipiens larvae EVERGETIS et al., 2009 Fumigant toxicity against eggs, nymphs, and adults CHOI et al., 2003 of Trialeurodes vaporariorum. Larvicidal against Aedes aegypti and Culex LEE, 2006 quinquefasciatus. Larvicidal against Anopheles dirus and Aedes aegypti. PITASAWAT et al., 2007 Adulticidal effect against Sitophilus oryzae, LOPEZ et al., 2008 Rhyzopertha dominica and Cryptolestes pusillus. Carum carvi Fumigant antitermitic activity against Reticulitermes SEO et al., 2009 speratus. Contact toxicity against Sitophilus zeamais and FANG et al., 2010 Tribolium castaneum adults. Adulticidal on Meligethes aeneus. PAVELA, 2011 Contact and fumigant toxicity against adult male YEOM et al., 2012 and female of Blattella germanica. Adulticidal activity against Sitophilus oryzae and SAHAF et al., 2007 Tribolium castaneum. Adulticidal activity on callosobrucus chinensis. UPADHYAY et al., 2007 Ovicidal, larvicidal and Adulticidal against SAHAF & MOHARRAMI callosobrucus maculatus. POUR, 2008a Carum copticum Toxicity against the workers of the Odontotermes GUPTA et al., 2011 obesus termite. Fumigant toxicity against adults of Tribolium confusum, Rhyzopertha dominica and Oryzaphilus HABASHI et al., 2011 surinamensis. RAJKUMAR & JEBANESAN, Centella asiatica Larvicidal against Culex quinquefasciatus. 2005

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Chaerophyllum Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of EVERGETIS et al., 2012 heldreichii Culex pipiens. Contact and fumigant toxicity against adults of KIM et al., 2003a Lasioderma serricorne. Cnidium officinale Adulticidal on Sitophilus oryzae and Callosobruchus KIM et al., 2003b chinensis. Larvicidal against Culex pipiens third to fourth Conopodium capillifolium EVERGETIS et al., 2009 instar larvae. Fumigant toxicity against eggs, nymphs, and adults CHOI et al., 2003 of Trialeurodes vaporariorum. Adulticidal effect on Lipaphis pseudobrassicae. SAMPSON et al., 2005 Fumigant toxicity against adults of Sitophilus oryzae, LOPEZ et al., 2008 Rhyzopertha dominica and Cryptolestes pusillus. Larvicidal activity against Ochlerotatus caspius. KNIO et al., 2008 Coriandrum sativum ZOUBIRI & BAALIOUAMER, Toxicity against Sitophilus granarius adults. 2010 Larvicidal activity against Anopheles stephensi. SEDAGHAT et al., 2011 Adulticidal against Tribolium confusum and KHANI & RAHDARI, 2012 Callosobruchus maculatus. Contact toxicity on Diaphorina citri adults. MANN et al., 2012 Ovicidal activity against eggs of Tribolium confusum TUNC et al., 2000 and Ephestia kuehniella. Larvicidal against Culex quinquefasciatus. PRAJAPATI et al., 2005 Adulticidal activity on Callosobrucus chinensis. UPADHYAY et al., 2007 Fumigant toxicity against Callosobruchus chinensis. CHAUBEY, 2008 Fumigant activity against Sitophilus oryzae adults. CHAUBEY, 2011b Cuminum cyminum Fumigant toxicity against Callosobruchus maculatus EBADOLLAHI et al., 2012 adults. Larvicidal against early fourth instar larvae of RANA & RANA, 2012 Culex quinquefasciatus. Contact and fumigant toxicity against adult male YEOM et al., 2012 and female of Blattella germanica. Cymbocarpum Larvicidal effects on Drosophila melanogaster. AKSAKAL et al., 2012. erythraeum Larvicidal against Aedes aegypti and Culex Daucus carota LEE, 2006 quinquefasciatus. Larvicidal against Culex pipiens third to fourth Eleoselinum asclepium EVERGETIS et al., 2009 instar larvae. Larvicidal against third instar larvae of Aedes AMER & MEHLHORN, Ferula gummosa aegypti, Anopheles stephensi and Culex 2006a,b quinquefasciatus. Ferulago angulata Insecticide effects on Tribolium castaneum. ATASHI et al., 2012 Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Ferulago nodosa EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens. Fumigant toxicity against adults of Tribolium LEE et al., 2002 castaneum. Contact and fumigant toxicity against adults of KIM et al., 2003a Lasioderma serricorne. Adulticidal on Sitophilus oryzae and Callosobruchus KIM et al., 2003b chinensis. Foeniculum vulare Adulticidal effect on Lipaphis pseudobrassicae. SAMPSON et al., 2005 Fumigant toxicity against Lycoriella mali adults. CHOI et al., 2006 Larvicidal against Anopheles dirus and Aedes aegypti. PITASAWAT et al., 2007 Adulticidal activity on callosobrucus chinensis. UPADHYAY et al., 2007 Aphidicidial activity against Brevicoryne brassicae. ISIK & GORUR, 2009 Larvicidal activity against Culex pipiens. MANOLAKOU et al., 2009 Larvicidal activity against Aedes albopictus. CONTI et al., 2010

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Fumigant activity against Sitophilus oryzae and EBADOLLAHI, 2011c Sitophilus granarius adults. Adulticidal on Meligethes aeneus. PAVELA, 2011 Larvicidal activity against Anopheles stephensi. SEDAGHAT et al., 2011 ZOUBIRI & BAALIOUAMER, Fumigant toxicity on Sitophilus granaries. 2011a Fumigant toxicity against Callosobruchus maculatus EBADOLLAHI et al., 2012 adults. Larvicidal against early fourth instar larvae of RANA & RANA, 2012 Culex quinquefasciatus. Fumigant toxicity on adults of Callosobruchus MANZOOMI et al., 2010 maculatus. EBADOLLAHI & ASHOURI, Heracleum persicum Adulticidal against Plodia interpunctella. 2011 Larvicidal activity against Anopheles stephensi. SEDAGHAT et al., 2011 Adulticidal against Callosobruchus maculatus. IZAKMEHRI et al., 2012 Heracleum sphondylium Larvicidal against Culex pipiens larvae. EVERGETIS et al., 2009 Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Laserpitium pseudomeum EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens. Ligusticum hultenii Termiticidal activity against Coptotermes formosanus. M EEPAGALA et al., 2006 Contact toxicity on third instar of Pseudaletia Ligusticum mutellina PASSREITER et al., 2005 unipuncta. Oenanthe pimpinelloides Larvicidal against Culex pipiens larvae. EVERGETIS et al., 2009 Contact and fumigant toxicity against Tribolium Ostericum sieboldii LIU et al., 2011a castaneum and Sitophilus zeamais adults. Larvicidal activity against Ochlerotatus caspius. KNIO et al., 2008 Larvicidal against Culex pipiens. KHATER & SHALABY, 2008 Petroselinum sativum Ovicidal and larvicidal activity against Plodia RAFIEI-KARAHROODI et al., interpunctella. 2011 Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Peucedanum neumayeri EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens. Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Peucedanum officinale EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens. Ovicidal activity against eggs of Tribolium confusum TUNC et al., 2000 and Ephestia kuehniella. Fumigant toxicity against adults of Tribolium LEE et al., 2002 castaneum. Larvicidal, Adulticidal and ovicidal activities towards Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti and Culex PRAJAPATI et al., 2005 Pimpinella anisum quinquefasciatus. Adulticidal effect on Lipaphis pseudobrassicae. SAMPSON et al., 2005 Fumigant toxicity against Lycoriella ingénue. PARK et al., 2006 Larvicidal activity against Ochlerotatus caspius. KNIO et al., 2008 Fumigant toxicity on Pediculus humanus capitis TOLOZA et al., 2010 adults. Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Pimpinella peregrina EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens. Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Pimpinella rigidula EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens. Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Pimpinella tragium EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens. Polylophium Larvicidal against Anopheles stephensi and Culex VERDIAN-RIZI & Involvucratum pipiens HADJIAKHOONDI, 2007 Adulticidal and larvicidal against Callosobruchus TAGHIZADEH-SARIKOLAEI Prangos acaulis maculatus. & MOHARAMIPOUR, 2010 Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Scaligeria cretica EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens.

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Larvicidal against Culex pipiens third to fourth Seseli montanum EVERGETIS et al., 2009 instar larvae. Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Seseli parnassicum EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens. Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of Smyrnium rotundifolium EVERGETIS et al., 2012 Culex pipiens. Thamnosciadium Larvicidal against third to fourth instar larvae of EVERGETIS et al., 2012 junceum Culex pipiens. Fumigant toxicity against Anopheles stephensi. PANDEY et al., 2009 Fumigant antitermitic activity against Reticulitermes SEO et al., 2009 speratus. Trachyspermum ammi Contact and fumigant toxicity against adult male YEOM et al., 2012 and female of Blattella germanica. Fumigant toxicity against adults of Callosobruchus CHAUBEY, 2011a chinensis.

Table 2. Summary of reports on main components in the introduced Apiaceae essential oils as insecticides.

Plant species Main constituents Reference Isobutyrate (14.0%), 2,2-dimethylbutanoic acid (30.1%), KHALFALLAH et al., Ammi visnaga croweacin (12.2%) and linalool (12.1%). 2011 Anethum graveolense Carvone (57.3%) and Limonene (33.2%). SEFIDKON, 2001 α-Pinene (19.1%), δ-3-carene (16.0%), β-limonene (8.0%) and NIVINSKIENCE et al., Angelica archangelica osthol (3.6%). 2003 3-Carene (12.7%), beta-elemene (6.2%), beta-terpinene (3.5%) and Angelica dahurica ZHAO et al., 2011 beta-myrcene (1.9%). β-Phellandrene (42.9%), α-pinene (24.6%), myrcene (4.7%) and EVERGETIS et al., Angelica sylvestris germacrene D (4.4%). 2012 (Z)-3-Butylidenephthalide (27.8%), 3-butyl-4,5-dihydrophthalide Apium graveolens SELLAMIA et al., 2012 (34.2%) and α-thujene (7.9%). β-Bisabolene (12.7%), β-pinene (8.8%), trans-ocimene (5.1%) and EVERGETIS et al., Athamanta densa Myrcene (4.3%). 2012 α-Pinene (63.8%), bornyl acetate (18.9%), β-pinene (2.6%) and EBADOLLAHI & Azilia eryngioides linalool (2.1%). MAHBOUBI, 2011 Azorella cryptantha α-pinene, α-thujene, sabinene and δ-cadinene. LÓPEZ et al., 2012 Bifora radians (E)-2-tridecenal (47.2%) and (E)-2-tetradecenal (23.4%). BASERA et al., 1998 ρ-Cuminaldehyde (16.9%), γ-terpinen-7-al (10.5), ρ-cymene (8%) Bunium persicum AZIZI et al., 2009 and γ-terpinene (4.2%). α-Pinene (37.8%), β-pinene (28.5%), β-phellandrene (21.6%) and EVERGETIS et al., Bupleurum fruticosum cis-ocimene (5.4%). 2009 (R)-Carvone (37.9%), D-limonene (26.5%), α-pinene (5.2%) and Carum carvi FANG et al., 2010 cis-carveol (5.0%). Carum copticum Thymol (41.3%), α-terpinolene (17.4%) and ρ-cymene (11.7%). SAHAF et al., 2007 α-Humulene (21.0%), β-caryophyllene (19.0%), OYEDEJI & Centella asiatica bicyclogermacrene (11.2%) and germacrene B (6.2%). AFOLAYAN, 2005 Chaerophyllum Sabinene (71.76%), β-Phellandrene (10.86%), α-terpineol (3.35%) EVERGETIS et al., heldreichii and γ-terpinene (2.54%). 2012 cis-Butylidene phthalide (33.2%), 3-butyl phthalide (21.1%), cis-3- Cnidium officinale CHOI et al., 2002 isobutylidene phthalide (10.1%) and terpinen-4-ol (8.5%). Conopodium α-Pinene (37.8%), Sabinene (29.1%), p-Cymene (4.6%) and EVERGETIS et al., capillifolium Limonene (4.1%). 2009 Linalool (57.1%), trans-anethol (19.8%), c-terpinene (3.8%) and Coriandrum sativum KNIO et al., 2008 geranyl acetate (3.2%). Caryophyllene oxide (6.1%), α-pinene (4.8%), geranyl acetate ROMEILAH et al., Cuminum cyminum (4.1%) and âcaryophyllene (3.4%). 2010

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Cymbocarpum (E)-2-Decenal (52.2%), (2E)-dodecenal (15.7%), 8S.14-cedranediol AksakAl et al., 2012. erythraeum (8.5%) and ntetradecenal (5.5%). Carotol (66.7%), daucene (8.7%), (Z,Z)-α farnesene (5.8%) and ÖZCAN & Daucus carota germacrene D (2.3%). CHALCHAT, 2007 Sabinene (35.3%), α-Pinene (27.4%), Myrcene (5.9%) and β- EVERGETIS et al., Eleoselinum asclepium Pinene (5.2%). 2009 Sabinene (40.1%), α-pinene (14.3%), β-pinene (14.1%) and p- Ferula gummosa ABEDI et al., 2008 cymene (8.46%). ,.α-Pinene (27٪), cis-ocimene (22٪), and bornyl acetate (8.5٪) and GHASEMPOUR et al Ferulago angulate trans-verbenol (5.8%). 2007 ,.α-Pinene (30.8٪), β-Phellandrene (10.2%), myrcene (6.6%) and EVERGETIS et al Ferulago nodosa camphene (4.3%). 2012 Methyl clavicol (43.5%), α-phellandrene (16.0%) and fenchone Foeniculum vulare CONTI et al., 2010 (11.8%) . (E)-Anethole (47.0%), terpinolene (20.0%), γ-terpinene (11.6%) Heracleum persicum SEFIDKON et al., 2004 and Limonene (11.5%). Heracleum Octyl acetate (17.4%), limonene (13.1%), trans-β-farnesene (6.3%) EVERGETIS et al., sphondylium and germacrene-D (5.0%). 2009 Laserpitium α-Pinene (49.5%), sabinene (24.7%), β-pinene (8.5%) and α- EVERGETIS et al., pseudomeum Phellandrene (6.7%). 2012 BRANDT & Ligusticum mutellina Myristicin (39.3%) and alpha-phellandrene (23.4%). SCHULTZE, 1995 Oenanthe γ-Terpinene (43.2%), o-Cymene (14.4%), β-Sesquiphellandrene EVERGETIS et al., pimpinelloides (8.2%) and β-Pinene (6.7%). 2009 Myristicin (30.3%), α-terpineol (9.9%), α-cadinol (7.2%) and β- Ostericum sieboldii LIU et al., 2011a farnesene (6.2%). ROMEILAH et al., Petroselinum sativum Apiol (18.2%), α-pinene (16.1%) and β-pinene (11.1%). 2010 Peucedanum γ-Terpinene (32.2%), α-pinene (21.2%), β-phellandrene (12.7%) EVERGETIS et al., neumayeri and cis-ocimene (4.7%). 2012 1-Bornyl acetate (81.1%), 2,3,4-trimethyl bezaldehyde (4.6%) and EVERGETIS et al., Peucedanum officinale liminene (2.7%). 2012 trans-Anethol (76.7%), anisalacetone (7.1%), estragol (6.1%) and Pimpinella anisum KNIO et al., 2008 anisaldehyd (1.5%). α-Brgamontene (62.1%), aristolene (19.9%), β-selinene (3.7%) and EVERGETIS et al., Pimpinella peregrina calaren (3.4%). 2012 β-Selinene (23.2%), trans-isomiristicin (7.7%), α-zingiberene EVERGETIS et al., Pimpinella rigidula (7.7%) and miristicin (6.7%). 2012 Germacrene (23.3%), germacrene B (19.2%), geigerene (10.2%) EVERGETIS et al., Pimpinella tragium and pregeigerene (5.1%). 2012 VERDIAN-RIZI & Polylophium Limonene (60.3%), perillaldehyde (25.8%), α-pinene (7.1%) and HADJIAKHOONDI, Involvucratum perillalcohol (6.6%). 2007 δ-3-Carene (25.5%), α-terpinolene (14.7%), α-pinene (13.%) and MESHKATALSADAT Prangos acaulis limonene (12.9%). et al., 2010 β-Farnesene (29.2%), germacrene D (28.3%), sabinene (13.7%) EVERGETIS et al., Scaligeria cretica and α-pinene (8.7%). 2012 α-Pinene (32.2%), Sabinene (16.9%), β-Phellandrene (19.0%) and EVERGETIS et al., Seseli montanum Myrcene (4.9%). 2009 β-Sesquiphellandrene (30.3%), germacrene D (13.0%), EVERGETIS et al., Seseli parnassicum germacrene B (10.6%) and β-elemene (10.8%). 2012 Smyrnium Myrcene (11.2%), furanodiene (11.8%), germacrone (5.6%) and α- EVERGETIS et al., rotundifolium selinene (5.2%). 2012 Thamnosciadium Limonene (40.7%), cis-ocimene (18.5%), terpinolene (12.9 %), EVERGETIS et al., junceum trans-isomirticisin (10.1%). 2012 Thymol (41.7%), γ-terpinene (27.7%), p-cymene (24.40%) and β- Trachyspermum ammi PARK et al., 2007 pinene (1.4%).

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Sublethal toxicity 8 min repellency. The effect of thymol from Investigations in several countries the EO of Tachyspermum ammi against confirm that some plant EOs not only have Anopheles stephensi was investigated by lethal toxicity, but possess repellency PANDEY et al. (2009). The larvicidal, against insect pests as well as exhibited oviposition deterrent, vapour toxicity and feeding inhibition or harmful effects on the repellent activity against the malarial vector reproductive system and growth of insects. were evaluated. Thymol (major component In the following, repellent, Antifeedant, in Trachyspermum ammi oil) showed an LD50 oviposition deterrent, growth inhibition and value of 48.88 mg/ml toward fourth-instar progeny production effects of some EOs larvae of A. stephensi. So it was 1.6-fold more from Apiaceae family that recently toxic than the oil, which showed an LD50 published will be discussed as sublethal value of 80.77 mg/ml. After treatment with toxicityies; vapours of thymol the egg laying by female a- Repellent: The repellents are adults of this fly was significantly more desirable chemicals as they offer protection reduced compared to the treatment with the with minimal impact on the ecosystem, as EO. The evaluation of the egg hatching and they drive away the insect pest from the larval survival showed similar results. The treated materials by stimulating olfactory or vapour toxicity assay exhibited an LC50 other receptors. Concern over health value of 185.4 mg/mat for the crude oil implications from the use of residual and against adults of A. stephensi, whereas broad insecticidal spray treatments has been thymol showed an LC50 value of 79.5 impetus for research on alternative mg/mat. After 1 h, the treatment of adult methods. Repellents from plant origins are flies with 25.0 mg/mat of thymol considered safe in pest control for minimize demonstrated complete repellency. The pesticide residue; ensure safety of the same degree of repellency was obtained by people, and environment. Repellents may the oil of Trachyspermum ammi at the dose of play a very important role in some 55.0 mg/mat. This indicates that thymol situations or in some special space where possesses two-fold activity. Moreover, the the insecticides are not able to use. Many repellency of α-pinene, myrcene, carvacrol, plant EOs and their components have been thymol and caryophyllene oxide was found shown to have good repellent activity 2, 4, 6, and 24 h after treatment against against insect pests. Insect repellent activity Tribolium castaneum adults. In addition, of some EOs from Apiaceae family caryophyllene oxide and α-pinene gave 85 summarized in Tables 3. The major and 82% at 0.001 mg/cm2, respectively and promising uses for EOs in the human health hydrogenated monoterpenoids such as are for repelling biting flies. The anti- thymol, carvacrol, and myrcene also showed mosquito activities of some of EOs from more than 77% at 0.03 and 0.006 mg/cm2 Apiaceae plants are shown in table 1 (lethal repellent activity (KIM et al., 2012). These toxicity) and table 3 (repellency). In 2007 monoterpenoids are major constituents in RAJKUMAR & JEBANESAN, investigated the the many Apiaceae EOs. Results emphasize repellent effect of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. the performance of EOs and components EO against the malaria fever mosquito isolated from Apiaceae family as repellents. Anopheles stephensi Liston in mosquito cages. The repellent properties of the tested EOs The oil was tested at three concentrations: 2, are not unexpected given that EO products 4 and 6%. In general, a dose-dependent are generally considered broad spectrum effect was noticed. The highest because of multiple active ingredients and concentration (6%) led to the highest modes of action. In conclusion, the repellency effect. The results showed identification of these potential repellent repellency effect at the highest plants from the local flora will generate local concentration (6%) lasted up to 150 min employment and stimulate local efforts to whereas ethanol (as a control) showed only enhance public health.

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Asgar Ebadollahi Table 3. Summary of reports indicating repellent of essential oils isolated from Apiaceae family.

Plant species Tested insect Reference AMER & MEHLHORN, Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, Culex quinquefasciatus 2006c Anethum graveolens Adults of Tribolium castaneum CHAUBEY, 2007 RAFIEI-KARAHROODI et Adults of Plodia Interpunctella al., 2009b Angelica sinensis Blattella germanica LIU et al., 2011b PAPACHRISTOS & Adults of Acanthoscelides obtectus Apium graveolens STAMOPOULOS, 2002 Aedes aegypti KUMAR et al., 2012 female Culex pipiens adults KANG et al., 2009 RAFIEI-KARAHROODI et Adults of Plodia Interpunctella al., 2009b Carum carvi Blattella germanica, Periplaneta americana and Periplaneta YOON et al., 2009 fuliginosa Adults of Meligethes aeneus. PAVELA, 2011 RAJKUMAR & Centella asiatica Anopheles stephensi JEBANESAN, 2007 Tribolium castaneum ISLAM et al., 2009 female Culex pipiens adults KANG et al., 2009 Blattella germanica, Periplaneta americana and Periplaneta YOON et al., 2009 Coriandrum sativum fuliginosa MISHRA & TRIPATHI, Sitophilous oryzae and Tribolium castaneum 2011 Adults of Diaphorina citri MANN et al., 2012 Cuminum cyminum Sitophilus oryzae adults CHAUBEY, 2011b Adults of Sitophilous zeamais, Cryptolestes ferrugineus COSIMI et al., 2009 and larvae of Tenebrio molitor female Culex pipiens adults KANG et al., 2009 Foeniculum vulgare RAFIEI-KARAHROODI et Adults of Plodia Interpunctella al., 2009b Adults of Meligethes aeneus. PAVELA, 2011 Ferula assa-foetida Adults of Ectomyelois ceratoniae PEYROVI et al., 2011 AMER & MEHLHORN, Ferula galbaniflua Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, Culex quinquefasciatus 2006c RAFIEI-KARAHROODI et Petroselinum sativum Adults of Plodia Interpunctella al., 2009b Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti and Culex PRAJAPATI et al., 2005 Pimpinella anisum quinquefasciatus Culex pipiens ERLER et al., 2006 Pturanths tortosus larvae and moths of Phthorimaea operculella SHARABY et al., 2009 Adults of Tribolium castaneum CHAUBEY, 2007 Tachyspermum ammi Anopheles stephensi PANDEY et al., 2009

b- Antifeedant: Feeding deterrents or known to exhibit antifeedant properties antifeedants are materials that inhibit against insects (HUMMELBRUNNER & feeding but do not kill the insect directly. ISMAN, 2001; TRIPATHI et al., 2001a; KIRAN et However, the insect may remain close to the al., 2007; BENZI et al., 2009; EBADOLLAHI, plant but will die from starvation or 2011a; AKHTAR et al., 2012). In the following, dehydration rather than feeding from it. antifeedant activity of some EOs from Such deterrents can be found among all of Apiaceae family that recently published will the major classes of secondary metabolites. be discussed. The effect of Petroselinum Many EOs and their components have been sativum, Foeniculum vulgare, Carum carvi and

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Plant Essential Oils from Apiaceae Family as Alternatives to Conventional Insecticides Anethum graveolens EOs on nutritional can feed on other plants than its targeted indices of 15 days old larvae of Plodia host, it can be easier to direct away than if it interpunctella demonstrated by RAFIEI- is highly specialized in one host. The range KARAHROODI et al. (2009a). In other study, of insect species targeted may be chosen by the EO extracted from Carum copticum was either the chemical structure of the inhibitor tested against Tribolium castaneum, for or by the composition of a mixture of antifeedant activity (SAHAF & inhibitors, if different inhibitors are active MOHARAMIPOUR, 2009). In this study, against different species within the range. several experiments were designed to The practice of using feeding inhibition measure the nutritional indices such as allows us to develop and exploit naturally relative growth rate (RGR), relative occurring plant defense mechanisms, consumption rate (RCR), efficiency of thereby reducing the use of traditional pest conversion of ingested food (ECI) and management chemicals. feeding deterrence index (FDI). Results indicated that nutritional indices were c- Oviposition deterrent, growth significantly varied as EO concentrations inhibition and progeny production effects: increased and Carum copticum decreased Many Apiaceae EOs and their constituents RGR, RCR and ECI significantly. Carum were evaluated against insect pests for their copticum EO increased FDI as the oil efficiency on oviposition, egg hatching, concentration was increased, showing high growth inhibition and fecundity and feeding deterrence activity against Tribolium progeny production. In the following, these castaneum. In the study of KOSTIĆA et al. effects from recent studies will be discussed. (2013) ethanol solutions of EO obtained PAPACHRISTOS & STAMOPOULOS (2002) from Athamanta haynaldii (Borbás & Uechtr.) revealed that along with Adulticidal Tutin. was tested for their toxicity and fumigant toxicity and repellent effect of antifeedant activity against the second instar Apium graveolens, this oil had a reduce gypsy moth larvae. Tested oil showed low fecundity, decrease egg hatchability, to moderate larvicidal effect in both residual increase neonate larval mortality and toxicity test and in chronic larval mortality adversely influence offspring emergence. bioassay. However, antifeedant index Toxic and developmental inhibitory activity achieved by application of tested solutions of the EOs from Anethum graveolens and in feeding choice assay was significantly Trachyspermum ammi against Tribolium higher in comparison to control. They stated castaneum were tested. The EOs reduced the that low toxic and high antifeedant oviposition potential and increased the properties (antifeedant index 85-90%) make developmental period of the insect. these EOs suitable for integrated pest Fumigation of these EOs inhibited management programs. Accordingly, development of larvae to pupae and the exploration of the influence of chemical pupae to adults and also resulted in the complexity of EOs on feeding behavior of deformities in the different developmental insects can assist in the development of new stages of the insect (CHAUBEY, 2007). In crop protection products for use in similar study, along with insecticidal and integrated pest management systems. oviposition effects, egg hatching and Understanding the role of each constituent developmental inhibitory activities of in the efficacy of the oil renders an Anethum graveolens, Cuminum cyminum and opportunity to create artificial blends of Trachyspermum ammi were determined different constituents on the basis of their against Callosobruchus chinensis. These EOs activity and efficacy against different pests. reduced the oviposition potential, egg Feeding inhibitors have several advantages hatching rate, pupal formation and in plant protection, compared to traditional emergence of adults of F1 progeny on the chemical methods. The host choice of insect with fumigated by sublethal doses. generalists and specialists may be modified Furthermore, these oils caused chronic when inhibitors are used. If an insect species toxicity as the fumigated insects caused less

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Asgar Ebadollahi damage to the grains (CHAUBEY, 2008). of the control when Tribolium castaneum Most of the EOs tested seem to have no adults were fumigated with 40 and 80% of effect upon the eggs hatchability, but 24-h LC50 of α-pinene and β-caryophyllene increase the first instar larval mortality alone. Similarly, oviposition was reduced to before penetration into the seeds. Those 56.4% and 36.52% of control when T. results must be due either to direct toxicity castaneum adults were fumigated with 40 towards larvae or to an indirect effect such and 80% of 24-h LC50 of α-pinene and β- as repellency and/or antifeedant activity. caryophyllene binary combination. The Oviposition deterrence of EOs from dry percentage of larvae transformed into the seeds of Carum copticum with six pupae and percentage of pupae transformed concentrations (0.02-0.5l oil per one gram into adult were decreased when fumigated seed) was determined against Callosobruchus with two sublethal concentrations of α- maculatus by SAHAF & MOHARAMIPOUR, pinene and β-caryophyllene alone or in 2008b. At the highest concentration (0.5 l per binary combination. Pupation in treated one gram seed) oviposition deterrence was larvae was reduced to 70.8% and 55%, 85% reached to 100%. ISIK & GORUR (2009) and 64.2%, and 64.2% and 34.2% of control studied the aphidicidial activity of when Tribolium castaneum larvae were Foeniculum vulgare EO against cabbage fumigated with 40 and 80% of 24-h LC50 of aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L., under α-pinene and β-caryophyllene alone or in laboratory conditions. Applications of binary combination respectively. Adult Foeniculum vulgare EO significantly reduced emergence was reduced to 50.8% and 39.2%, the reproduction potential of the cabbage 66.7% and 45.8%, and 47.5% and 15.8% of aphid and resulted in higher mortality. The control when Tribolium castaneum larvae biological activity of EO extracted from were fumigated with 40 and 80% of 24-h Coriandrum sativum against eggs, larvae and LC50 of α-pinene and β-caryophyllene alone adults of Tribolium castaneum was reported or in binary combination respectively by ISLAM et al. (2009). On the developmental (CHAUBEY, 2012). In the study of IZAKMEHRI inhibition, individuals fumigated at the et al. (2012), lethal and sublethal effects of larval stage confirmed that the percentage of EO from Heracleum persicum were evaluated larvae reaching to pupal stage and pupae to on the adults of Callosobruchus maculates. The adult stage, decreased significantly LC50 value of Heracleum persicum in fumigant (P < 0.001) with increasing dosage toxicity was 136.36 μl/l air after 24 hours. concentration. Effect of the EO from Ferula The results showed that sublethal assa-foetida was investigated on some concentration of EO (78.78 μl/l air) reproductive behaviors of Ectoyelois negatively affected the longevity and ceratoniae (Zeller) under field and laboratory fecundity of female adults. The sex ratio of conditions. The EO can prevent pheromone Callosobruchus maculatus offspring was not release in the females and/or disrupt male significantly affected by EO. Inhabitation of searching behavior. Preliminary results egg hatching or ovicidal effect of EO from laboratorial data showed interference extracted from seed of Parsley, Petroselinum in pheromone production in females. Time sativum, on the eggs of Ephestia kuehniella period and number of pheromone was studied by SALAHI et al. (2012). The LC50 production was decreased in the presence of value of this oil for ovicidal effect on eggs of the EO (KAMELSHAHI et al., 2010). In the Ephestia kuehniella was assessed as 860 µl/l other study, fumigation of Tribolium air. In another study, the EO and extracts castaneum adults with two sublethal obtained from the seeds of Angelica concentrations of α-pinene, β- archangelica were used to determine the caryophyllene, main component of several efficacy in terms of antifeedancy and growth members of Apiaceae family, and its binary inhibition of Spodoptera littoralis Boisd. combination reduced oviposition potential larvae. Significant acute toxicity was caused of insect. Oviposition was reduced to only by the EO (LD50 96 μg/larva). 71.91% and 58.54%, and 68.20% and 48.09% Significantly higher chronic toxicity was

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Plant Essential Oils from Apiaceae Family as Alternatives to Conventional Insecticides found for the extracts obtained using lower fecundity and ultimately lower the organic solvents (LD50 was estimated at 0.32, population of insect pest (AHMED et al., 0.82 and 0.52 mg/g for benzene, acetone 2001). Rapid action of EOs or its constituents and methanol, respectively), compared to against insect pests is an indicative of the EO (LD50 = 7.53 mg/g). All the tested neurotoxic actions. Treatments the insects extracts and the EO caused growth with natural compounds such as EOs or inhibition. The highest larval growth pure compounds may cause symptoms that inhibition was caused by the benzene indicate neurotoxic activity including extract, with ED50 estimated at 2.4 μg/g. All hyperactivity, seizures, and tremors extracts and the EO also showed antifeedant followed by paralysis (knock down), which activity. However, the benzene extract are very similar to those produced by the showed the highest efficacy (ED50 = insecticides pyrethroids. ENAN (2001) 0.31 μg/cm2), while the least efficacy was suggested that toxicity of constituents of EO shown by the water extract (ED50 = is related to the octopaminergic nervous 1.92 μg/cm) (PAVELA & VRCHOTOVÁ, 2013). system of insects. Relatively few studies EOs have been reported to have low vapour have been done on insecticidal activity or density than fatty oils. Hence, they are fumigant toxicity of caryophyllene oxide. Its readily volatilized. This could be the reason high toxicity may result from the inhibition why most of the eggs that might have of the mitochondrial electron transport hatched could not survive. These studies system because changes in the concentration revealed good results for utilizing sublethal of oxygen or carbon dioxide may affect doses of EOs and its constituents (as respiration rate of insect, thus eliciting antifeedant, repellent, reduction of egg fumigant toxicity effects (EMEKCI et al., laying, and hatching, progeny production 2004). Several reports indicate that EOs and and growth inhibitors) along with lethal monoterpenoids cause insect mortality by dose for insect pest management. inhibiting acetylcholinesterase enzyme (AChE) activity. Effects of furanocoumarins Conclusion and pthalides isolated from Angelica The most attractive aspect of using EOs acutiloba Kitagawa var. sugiyame Hikino and/or their constituents for pest control is against Droshophila melanogaster revealed the their favorable mammalian toxicity because hypothesis that the insecticidal properties of many EOs and their constituents are the plant extracts are connected with the commonly used as culinary herbs and spices AChE (Acetylcholinesterase) inhibition and as medicines. It is found that the use of (MIYAZAWA et al., 2004). Thymol binds to biopesticides will help in preventing the GABA receptors associated with chloride discarding of thousands of tons of pesticides channels located on the membrane of on the earth and provide the residue free postsynaptic neurons and disrupts the food and a safe environment to live (DEVI & functioning of GABA synapses (PRIESTLEY et MAJI, 2011). The present review shows a al., 2003).Further studies on cultured cells of range of EOs and phytochemicals from Periplaneta americana (L.) and brains of Apiaceae family that exhibit interesting Drosophila melanogaster demonstrated that insecticidal properties against several inst eugenol mimics the action of octopamine pests. and increases intracellular calcium levels Elucidation of the mode of action of oils (Enan, 2005). Ethanolic extract from the and their constituents is of practical fruits of Pimpinella anisoides V Brig. exhibited importance for insect control because it may activity against AChE and BChE give useful information on the most (Butyrylcholinesterase), with IC50 values of appropriate formulation and delivery 227.5 and 362.1 μg/ml, respectively. The means. Volatile oil can disrupt most abundant constituents of the extract communication in mating behavior of insect were trans-anethole that exhibited the high by blocking the function of antennal sensilla activity against AChE and BChE with IC50 and unsuccessful mating could lead to a values of 134.7 and 209.6 μg/ml,

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Asgar Ebadollahi respectively (Menichini et al., 2009). It is Reference confirmed that the insecticidal activity of EOs and/or monoterpenes is due to several ABEDI D., M. JALALI, G. ASGHARI, N. mechanisms that affect multiple targets. SADEGHI. 2008. Composition and The physiological pattern of plants varies antimicrobial activity of oleogumresin with the seasons and that within the same of Ferula gumosa Bioss. essential oil plant species different varieties may using Alamar Blue. - Research in produce different chemical types having Pharmaceutical Sciences, 3(1): 41-45. different effects on insects. From this point AHMED K. S., Y. YOSUI, T. LACHIKAWA. of view, it is very difficult to establish a 2001. Effect of neem oil on mating and clear relation between botanicals and insects oviposition behavior of azuki bean because different varieties or even different weevil, Callosobrucus chinensis L. parts of the same plant species give different (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). - Pakistan effects. Accordingly, analytical studies Journal of Biological Sciences, 4(11): should be carried out to determine the exact 1371-1373. chemical structure of the extracted EOs and AKSAKAL Ö., H. UYSAL, D.A. ÇOLAK, E. to clarify how each of their constituents METE, Y. KAYA. 2012. Inhibition influences insect physiology and behaviour. Effects of Essential Oil of Cymbocarpum Moreover, EOs are complex mixtures of erythraeum (Dc.) Boiss., on percentage various molecules. Their biological effects of survival from larvae to adult in might be either the result of a synergism of Drosophila melanogaster and its all molecules or could reflect only those of chemical composition. - Maku Febed, the main molecules. Almost literature cases 3(1): 32-36. analyses only the main constituents of EOs. AKHTAR Y., E. PAGES, A. STEVENS, R. In that sense, for biological purposes, it BRADBURY, A. G. DA CAMARA, M. B. could be more informative to study the ISMAN. 2012. Effect of chemical entire oil rather than some of its complexity of essential oils on feeding components because the concept of deterrence in larvae of the cabbage synergism seems to be important. looper. - Physiological Entomology, 37: In conclusion, the development of 81-91. natural or biological insecticides will help to AMER A., H. MEHLHORN. 2006a. Larvicidal decrease the negative effects of synthetic effects of various essential oils against chemicals. Negative effects refer to residues Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex larvae in products and insect resistance. I believe (Diptera, Culicidae). - Parasitology that the present study with the utility of Research, 99: 466–472. Apiaceae EOs and phytochemicals together AMER A., H. MEHLHORN. 2006b. Persistency with the previous studies on others support of larvicidal effects of plant oil extracts the biopesticidal nature of the plant derived under different storage conditions. - EOs. These oils can be used as a cheap, safe Parasitology Research, 99: 473-477. and efficient alternative as well as a AMER A., H. MEHLHORN. 2006c. Repellency supplement, in the developing countries to effect of forty-one essential oils against protect the crops against the various plant Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex pathogens. For all these reasons, we can mosquitoes. - Parasitol Research, 99: infer that the EOs could be considered as a 478-490. natural alternative in the control insects. ATASHI N., M. HAGHANI, H. MOHAMMADI, However, for the practical application of the A. JAAFARI, M. ABDOLLAHI. 2012. EOs as novel insecticides, further studies on Evaluation of essential oils of two the safety of the oils to humans and on Iranian local plants, Ballota aucheri development of formulations are necessary (Lamiaceae) and Ferulago angulata to improve the efficacy and stability and to (Apiaceae) on Tribolium castaneum reduce cost. (Col.: Tenebrionidae). Proceedings of the 20th Iranian Plant Protection Congress;

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