The British THE PSYCHOLOGIST is the official monthly Bulletin of The British Psychological Society. It will publish official statements on behalf of the Psychological Society when appropriate, and from time to time. Society It will also provide a forum for discussion and controversy among The British Psychological Society was members of the Society. As a consequence, views expressed in any founded in 1901, and incorporated by section of this journal which are signed by the writer are the views Royal Charter in 1965. Its principal exclusively of that writer: publication in this journal does not constitute objects are "to promote the endorsement by the Society of the views so expressed. This is in no way advancement and diffusion of a affected by the right reserved by the Managing Edttor to edit all copy knowledge of psychology pure and published. applied and especially to promote the Equally, publication of advertisements in THE PSYCHOLOGIST is not efficiency and usefulness of Members of an endorsement of the advertiser nor of the products and services the Society by setting up a high standard advertised. Advertisers may not incorporate in a subsequent of professional education and advertisement or promotional piece the fact that a product or service has knowledge; to maintain a Code of been advertised in THE PSYCHOLOGIST. The Society reserves the right Conduct for the guidance of Members to cancel or reject any advertisement without notice. and Contributors, and to compel the observance of strict rules of professional conduct as a condition of membership; Information for Contributors to maintain ... a Register of Chartered The Managing Editor welcomes Psychologists". • News of Members (Extract from The Charter). • Reports from Divisions, Sections, Branches and Special Groups of the Society Officers of The Society • Brief reports of research recently published which would be of interest to psychologists in other fields (200- 400 words) President: Professor Anthony Gale • Feature articles of general interest to psychologists, up to a maximum of 2,000 words. These should be written as for an intelligent, educated but President Elect: non-specialist audience, shared knowledge of theory should not be assumed, Professor Peter E. Morris and references kept to a minimum. Two copies of all submissions should be Vice President: sent, typed on A4 paper, double-spaced, for the attention of the Managing Professor Antony J. Chapman Editor at Leicester. Deputy President: • Photographs Dr Fraser N. Watts • Illustrations, drawings Honorary Treasurer: Mr Jack G. W. Davies , O.B.E. • Cartoons Appropriate visuals are always welcome. Photocopies of original works should be Honorary General Secretary: submitted in the first instance, to the Managing Editor at Leicester. Dr Ann M. Colley • Academic articles Articles of a more academic nature should be submitted to Glynis Breakwell, one of the Honorary Editors (address on page 1). These should be between 2,000 and 3,000 words, typed doublespaced and submitted in triplicate. Academic articles may be subject to anonymous review: authors' names and affiliations should therefore not appear on the manuscript, but be presented on a separate page. Reprints will be available for such articles.

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Incorporating The Bulletin of The British Psychological Society Vol. 2 No. 11 November 1989

Published by Features The British Psychological Society, Democracy, Bureaucracy and the Psychologist St Andrews House, John Raven explains why psychology should replace economics 456 48, Princess Road East, in policy development Leicester LE 1 ?DR. Psychological Safety in Student-centred Learning Telephone: 0533-549568. • Beatrice Heywood-Taylor looks at the relationship between stu­ 473 ~"------~ dent and teacher Managin~ Editor: Reminiscences of a Wartime Army Psychologist Elizabeth apston~-~ Edgar Anstey reflects on his experiences 475 ------~~. Honorary Editors: Glynis Breakwell, Academic Department of Psychology, A Critique of the Evaluation of the "Child Development University of Surrey, Programme" (Barker and Anderson 1966) Guildford, Jim Stevenson 460 Surrey GU2 5XH. Tel: 0483 571281 Response to Critique of the CDP's Evaluation Document 9 Graham Davey, Walter Barker and Richard Anderson 463 Department of Social Science & Humanities, City Universtty, Research in Brief 467 London EC1V OHB. Conference Reports 469 Tel: 01 253 4399 News 471 Assistant Editors: Media Watch 472 Art: Les Prince Books Received 479 Books: Chris Fife-Schaw Computer Column: Tony Gillie Letters 467 Conference Reports: Computer Column 492 Marcia Kelson Interviews: Celia Kitzinger Research in Brief: Geoff Lowe Society Special Features: Round the Board Room Tables Andrew Stevens Colin Newman reports on a meeting of the Professional Affairs 494 Board Editor/al Sub-Committee: Dates of Meetings 494 Mary Boyle Ann Colley News of Members 497 Lynda Phillimore Announcements 495 Maryon Tysoe Jenny West Advertisers' Announcements 498 Diary 502 Book Review Consultants: Michael Billig The lighter Side Cary Cooper A Balance Sheet on Bathing Judith Greene John Morton Nicky Hayes reports on recent research 504 Mark Williams Illustrations Cover and Democracy, Bureaucracy and the Psychologist (p.458) - Sigismund Rhomboid dvertising: Psychological Safety in Student-centred Learning (p.473) - David Wilcox G. Scott, , Portrait of Edgar Anstey (p.475) - Rosalind Eastman 30-32 So ampton Street, London C2E ?HR. Contributors are reminded that copyright for all material published in The Psycho­ Tel: 01-la40 2032 logist resides with The British Psychological Society unless otherwise specifically Tele~ 299181 stated. It is a condition of acceptance of all feature articles that they are not of­ Fa;/61-37\?155. fered elsewhere, and that first serial rights are available to the Society unless clearly stated otherwise. Material published by the Society may be offered else­ where by the author, but only after publication in The Psychologist and only on / \ condition notice of this prior publication is included with any subsequent publica­ tion elsewhere: wording is given on the inside front cover. DEMOCRACY

·I AND 6 THE PSYCHOLOGIST

Citizens have the utmost difficulty in in­ fluencing the way the two thirds of their Why psychology should replace "income" devoted to taxation is ultimate­ ly spent. The extent of these changes is not generally recognised. In all EEC coun· economics as the key discipline tries, approximately 45 per cent of GNP is spent directly by governments. This does not include local authority expendi­ in poiicy development ture or expenditure by the nationalised industries. When this is added on, the Public servants and politicians should be gulclecl by psychological figure comes to some 65 per cent. This still does not include the effects of legis· considerations, rather than economic ones, John Raven argues. Only lation requiring firms to install such when the Insights available through psychological research are things as safety and pollution-control applied to public policy can we ensure that public servants and equipment or motorists to insure their politicians act in the public Interest. cars. Nor does it include grant and levy legislation which is designed to ensure that people spend much of their "own" n writing the best case for social re­ the past 40 years, dramatic changes money in ways deemed appropriate by search that has ever been published, have come about in the way in which government. When these are added, IRothschild (1982) argued that social society is organised. We now live in the total comes to some 75 per cent. scientists had not laid claim to the major what is essentially a managed world One can argue about the figure of 75 role which they should be playing in economy (see Raven, 1982 for a dis­ per cent, and one can argue about such modern societies. Maintaining that mod­ cussion of the evidence). The national things as how much control govern­ ern societies could not function economies of which it is composed, ments actually have over the way in effectively without a great deal of social transnational corporations and interna­ which citizens spend transfer payments, research, he argued that social scien­ tional trade are all managed on the but the general conclusion that govern­ tists had generally failed to perceive the basis of explicit information. Decisions ments play the dominant role in need for studies of the requisite type are taken by people ("wise men" or not) managing modern economies is indis­ and scale. They tended to mount and not by the invisible hand of the putable. studies which were too academic and economic marketplace. The role of individualistic. Undergraduate training in money has been overturned: instead of These changes have come about for psychology tended to lead researchers providing a mechanism whereby people the best of reasons. An economy man­ to avoid messy policy-relevant studies, can vote with their pennies to determine aged by the invisible hand of the the results of which would not be be­ the direction in which things develop, marketplace gave us little control over yond dispute, and to avoid pressing control of prices and spending is now the quality of the urban environment, home the implications of such studies used to orchestrate the achievement of crime, the inequitable distribution of in­ as they did carry out by engaging in goals established through the (informa­ come, plague and disease, politically-relevant debate. And social tion-based) politico-bureaucratic environmental despoilation and pollution scientists were too inclined to criticise process. "Customers" are typically no by producers or consumers, or even each other's work in ways which made longer the individuals conjured up by continued economic development itself. funding agencies reluctant to invest economic theory, but corporate giants The immense social costs of dealing more money in social research. purchasing on behalf of thousands, ii with the by-products of an industrial ci­ not millions, of people - for health ser­ vilisation, and providing the education, Rothschild did not spell out the social vices, local authorities, airlines, national highway, and regulatory infrastructure changes which formed a context for his governments and defence alliances. required for its effective operation, were remarks. However, the fact is that, over

458 November 1989 The Psychologist not subject to market forces. Only an • was unacceptable to many tenants - single-class suburbs - many as large as extension of explicit management will and for good reasons: it imposed a whole towns - made it very difficult for give us control over international forces sedentary way of life upon them (be­ young people who aspired to other which have until now been beyond con­ cause they felt that any noise they ways of life to make contact with like­ trol - such as the worldwide depletion of made would disturb their neighbours); minded people and gain sufficient physical and biological resources, poll u­ it bred isolation (because they had insight into their values and way of life tion, population growth, exploitation of difficulty getting to know their neigh­ to make meaningful choices. Further­ third world countries, international bours because they could not see more, bureaucratic rules made it difficult movements of money, tax evasion and them from their living rooms and for tenants to establish the community unjustifiable marketing practices on the therefore did not recognise them support networks which are associated part of transnational companies, and when they met); it was unadaptable to with "unplanned" working class com­ war. Only an increase in world manage­ their particular needs (because they munities and this forced many people to ment will enable us to further improve, could not alter it in the way that - as lead isolated lives of demeaning de­ or even maintain, the quality of life - the the growth of DIY has since demon­ pendence on welfare agencies and wealth - of modern society. strated - many owners of two-storey tranquillisers. The significance of these observations housing do as a matter of course); tt These further observations illustrate that is this: while it has frequently been ob­ made for the deterioration of family not only do we need some (social­ vious that there was a need to evaluate relationships (because they were un­ research based) means of ensuring that particular policies - and especially pilot able from their kitchens to supervise public servants attend to the needs of programmes - the central importance of children at play outside); and access their clients and try to invent better evaluation and social accounting in was often difficult (because the lifts ways of meeting those needs, we also modern society has generally not been went wrong or were vandalised). need to: (a) legitimise !he notion that appreciated. • was more costly to build than equival­ choice is required in public provision; ent two-storey housing (b) provide the public with the (social Not only has the importance of such ac­ research-based) information they need tivity been underestimated, with the • was more costly to maintain than two to make meaningful decisions; (c) pro­ result that the establishment of more storey housing vide public servants with the (social and better social research and develop­ research-based) tools they need to ad­ • accommodated fewer people per acre ment units has not been identified as minister that choice; and (d) (in part the key development which is needed if than tv10 storey housing - which had the added advantage, if properly de­ through social research) evaluate and we are to find better ways of running improve each of the choices so as bet· veloped at the same density of per­ modern society, there has been little ter to meet the needs of those sons per acre, of providing highly de­ discussion of either the institutional concerned. base which is required if social re­ sirable garages, gardens and access searchers are to perform their role to public open space. If we require such an elaborate infra­ effectively or the concept of science and structure to administer public housing Despite this high quality research, which research which should inform decisions reached the pernickety standards de­ effectively why have it at all? First, be­ about which research should be funded. cause it was necessary to build manded in civil service research units, housing, and whole new towns, on an no action was taken. Building high rise unprecedented scale. Second, because family housing continued into the 1980s. The disaster is now recognised for what those for whom public housing was in­ tended had, in the past, been very it is and these expensive tall blocks are being demolished. badly catered for (and sometimes mer­ cilessly exploited by) builders, [2]···~ However, apart from emphasising that landowners and landlords. Third, be­ the first set of conclusions could only cause, although those concerned had a have been established through social clear need for housing, they often research, the main point I want to make lacked the resources which would have i1J :::•• here is, not that the policies in force been required to transform that need were misguided, but that we need to into an economic demand. Fourth, be­ evolve structures and procedures which cause, even when they did have the (I ~ will make it possible to ensure that ac­ necessary cash, they often did not have tion is taken on the basis of good the collateral information and power to information. Later in this article I will ensure that they were not exploited. argue that psychologists have a crucial And, fifth, because the knock-on effect Housing research and the role to play in promoting the evolution of of a large number al street people or such structures and in deveioping and impoverished families who lived in poor bureaucrats operating appropriate procedures. and insanitary housing would be so great, both immediately in terms of dis­ To underline the importance and nature There is, however, something else to be of the social research required, the re­ ease and crime and, in the longer term, learnt from housing research because through the community's inability to sults of two programmes of research our research and that of colleagues will now be summarised. make use of the considerable talents working elsewhere (Willmott, 1963; Will­ which undernourished and alisnated In the course of research conducted at mott & Young, 1960, 1966) also yielded youth could otherwise develop. (It may the Building Research Station between other important insights. Not only did be noted that these needs still exist 1959 and 1963 my colleagues and I people want a wide variety of different among our vast army of poorly paid and (Raven, 1967; Stone 1961) found that types of housing, and wish to avoid the unemployed people, and, in particular, high-rise family housing: grey uniformity which is associated with among the single unemployed.) In short, public housing, the creation of vast if one left it to the market, one did not

The Psychologist November 1989 459 get enough provision and a large pro­ the money spent on secondary educa­ one cannot, in the same classroom, fos­ portion of that provided was socially tion is wasted so far as the ter qualities like toughness and unacceptable and had serious negative development of human resources is strength, instant obedience and the consequences for everyone. concerned. Secondary schools do little ability to stick up for oneself, and to foster the qualities which most par­ qualities like creativity, initiative, sensi­ There is one more lesson to be learnt ents, teachers, employers and ex-pupils tivity to the germs of new ideas, and the from housing research. Public servants think they are there to foster and which ability to communicate effectively. If one were, and remain, remarkably blind to other research shows it is, indeed, most is to foster the latter qualities with any issues which involve linkages between important for them to foster. The pupils, it is necessary to legitimise the departmental responsibilities. One of qualities which are required include in­ provision of a variety of educational pro­ these has to do with the linkages be­ itiative, the ability to work with others grammes directed towards the tween housing policy and economic and the ability to understand and in­ development of different competencies. development. To accumulate the fluence society. This conflicts with the current emphasis "points" required to demonstrate "need", on equality in public provision and edu­ one had both to have children and to There are many reasons why schools cation in particular. have lived in the same locality for many tend to neglect these goals. Most were years. If one moved from one local not obvious until research was under­ Yet other barriers to the introduction of authority to another one went back to taken and, even then, their discovery generic-competency-oriented education the bottom of the waiting list. This mar­ was usually "accidental" because little of stem from concepts of the role of the kedly restricted geographical mobility. the research was explicitly initiated with teacher and the criteria applied in staff One survey showed that 84 per cent of a view to identifying the forces which appraisal. If teachers are to foster high public housing tenants in England were deflect schools from their goals. HMI level competencies they must pay atten­ unwilling to move under any circumstan­ and the DES tended to assume that ex­ tion to the needs of individual pupils ces. hortation was all that was necessary: if and try to invent better ways of meeting teachers did not follow their prescrip­ them. Yet teachers are not expected to Adam Smith and Hayek have argued tions the problem was assumed to have be innovators and inventors. No time is that it is precisely this inability to ap­ to do with teacher training or manage­ set aside for such activities. Their job is preciate connections, relationships and ment. In reality, the problems are viewed as being to do the bidding of cumulative consequences which is the deep-seated and non-obvious, having to elected representatives. There is no strongest argument for leaving such de­ do with value conflicts, beliefs about the means of getting credit for engaging in cisions to the invisible hand oi ihe way the public sector should operate the difficult, demanding, frustrating, and marketplace. Unfortunately, it was pre­ and the absence of the tools needed to risky business of trying to find better cisely the failings of the marketplace manage individualised, competency­ ways of meeting each student's needs. which led people to try to manage these oriented, educational programmes. A Thus it emerges that, if education is to processes. What is more, with the aid of great deal of further research and de­ be brought into secondary schools, it information technology, we are now in a velopment activity - much of it of a will be necessary for the pupils' parents much better position to study and iden­ fundamental nature - is required if the to evolve new understandings of how tify relevant relationships and barriers are to be overcome (Raven, public sector institutions should work consequences. The true conclusion to 1977, 1983, 1987a,c, 1989; Raven, and the role of public servants, includ­ be drawn is that we need to establish Johnstone & Varley, 1985). ing teachers. policy research, evaluation, and devel­ opment units whose brief it is to The reasons schools have tended not to Other notable conclusions are that the examine such issues, and then to find foster these qualities include lack of un­ public servants responsible for the de­ some way of ensuring that public ser­ derstanding of the psychological nature velopment and implementation of vants take account of the results. of the desired competencies, how they educational policy have failed: (a) to are to be fostered and how progress to­ monitor and attend to the needs and re­ ward them is to be assessed. The actions of the clients of the educational assessment problem is of particular im­ system; (b) to capitalise on the wide Exhortation and failure in portance because what happens in variety of different talents which can be education schools is mainly determined by what is fostered among pupils for their own and assessed in the certification and place­ society's benefit; (c) to harness the wide Another, and in many ways even more ment process and not by the priorities variety of motives which can be tapped disturbing, set of examples of the failure of teachers, pupils, employers or even to fuel enthusiasm for educational acti­ of public servants to act on information ministers of education. vities; and, most importantly, (d) to act and consider the needs of their clients on such information as was available. comes from education. Education was When one studies the processes which one of the first sectors of the economy lead to the development of competen­ to be socialised, for two main reasons: cies like initiative, leadership and the first, because education is intended to ability to solve problems, one discovers benefit everyone in society and not just that such qualities can only be fostered "Vast misuse of public those who pass through the system; in the course of activities which the second, because the poor are in no po­ pupil values. Yet teachers have no tools money'' sition to pay for the education of their to help them to identify individual pupils' So here we have evidence - much of chiidren and this is not only unfair on values, concerns and priorities, or to which has been available for 20 years - the children concerned but is also likely monitor the growth of these high level of another vast misuse of public money, to deprive society of their talents. competencies in the course of individ­ further evidence of the need to provide ualised educational programmes. Good though the reasons for socialising variety within the public sector and fur­ ther evidence of the need to hold public education are, research we have con­ As soon as a serious attempt is made servants accountable against different ducted since 1965 (Raven, 1977, to implement programmes designed to 1988b) shows that some two thirds of foster such qualities, one discovers that criteria.

460 November 1989 The Psychologist In the context of the current Zeitgeist it environmental policy - including job de­ is important to emphasise that the prob­ sign and transportation. As a result, we An economist's or a lem could not be solved by "returning" spend a lot of time treating diseases psychologist's solution? the activity to the marketplace. The rea­ which are caused by the over-consump­ sons for this are: (a) if our society is to tion of milk and beef products, The public has become increasingly develop, many attitudes and skills - themselves produced as a result of spe­ conscious of the kinds of problems dis­ which it is the responsibility of the edu­ cific agricultural policies, and diseases cussed above. They have found themselves increasingly unable to get cational system to identify and foster - caused by pesticides or hormones the need to be widely shared in society and use of which is encouraged by agricul­ public servants to act in the public inter­ not just possessed by an elite; (b) we tural policy. We spend a lot of time est or to get from public servants decisions which take account of all the need a wide variety of people who pos­ treating depression caused by neigh­ factors which ought to be considered. sess different combinations of specialist bourhoods which breed isolation. We information the need for which cannot urgently need to find ways of involving This is why, in our quality of life surveys become clear until after the event and more people in the community-support (Raven, 1980) we found that, while which it is therefore difficult to purchase networks which could better cater for people were dissatisfied with their as an individual; (c) many people are in our pension, welfare, child-care, educa­ washing machines and cars, more dis­ no position to pay for themselves or tion, economic development, satisfied with the quality of the their children; and (d) the main benefits environmental quality, crime prevention environments in which they lived, and are not going to be derived by people and health needs, and do so in a way still more dissatisfied with social, wel­ fare, health and educational provision, as individuals but by them as members as to avoid implying that such activity is of a society which has developed as a not "real work" which merits financial re­ they were most dissatisfied with their re­ whole. If everyone is going to benefit ward (for a fuller discussion see lationships with public servants and politicians. (even those who have no children), Robertson, 1985 and Ferguson, 1980). everyone should pay. We treat the symptoms of stress Despite the fact that numerous surveys People would be most likely to pay, as caused by the way we organise work. have shown that a majority of people in individuals, for those "educational" pro­ And we treat accidents and lead poison­ the UK do not want to abolish public grammes which were most likely to lead ing caused by motor vehicles - the need provision and are willing to pay higher to credentials which would in turn buy for which in turn derives in part from the taxes in order to get better public provi­ entry to protected occupations. But way we provide and finance housinq sion, it is the growing awareness of problems like those mentioned above those credentials would neither testify to (for this deters people from moving the development of important com­ home in order to live nearer their place which has fuelled public support for "pri­ petencies nor lead those who provided of work) and the way we organise job vatisation". The next question we must address is, therefore, whether this rep­ the courses to focus on such competen­ allocation (for this does not make it cies. What is more, those who could easy for people to find work near their resents anything more than clutching at a straw. pay and expect to recover the costs homes). The way we allocate position from increased personal income would and status creates a "demand" for ex­ There is ample evidence that both large be those who used the educational sys­ pensive "education" which, in reality, and small companies frequently fail to tem most ruthlessly to promote their confers few benefits on those con­ act in the public interest and are often own advancement. Yet such are not the cerned other than a passport to a anything but innovative (Sutherland, sort of people whom we should be ap­ protected occupation. 1949; Roberts & Wainer, 1966; Bellini, pointing to senior management 1980; Etzioni, 1984; Kanter, 1985; positions in our society. The people we Ekins, 1986). The privatised legal sys­ need are those who are most com­ tem is anything but cheap, responsive mitted to orchestrating communal action to clients' needs or well suited to meet­ for the common good. ing their needs. Nor does it have a One could multiply examples of the defi­ reputation for acting in the public inter­ ciencies of public provision - in health, est. The reduced operating costs welfare, defence, and the management sometimes obtained by privatising ser­ of agribusiness and international trade vices are often only achieved at the (Rose, 1980; Klein, 1980). At a more expense of the weakest members of the micro level, the inability of public ser­ workforce. Indeed, special legislation vants to act in the public interest is well has been introduced to enable the firms documented in Chapman's book Your concerned to evade pension and social Disobedient Servant, (1979). However, security requirements. Further "savings" in concluding this section, we may re­ are made by externalising the costs of turn to, and underline, the need to do monitoring and policing the activities of more to examine the linkages between •••••• larger operations like telephones and one area of policy and another. transport. Breaking up large organisa­ tions does not necessarily make their The policies which are currently enacted •••••• services cheaper, more efficient or more tend to be domain specific. Thus, the responsive to customer needs; witness, way we provide for social security on the one hand, what has happened makes for the subjection of large num­ ••••• as the provision of old people's homes bers of people to a demeaning and has been turned over to small private dehumanising way of life which kills in­ ••••WJ landlords (revealing that, to exercise itiative and enterprise. The way we economic power effectively, one needs provide health care separates it from many non-economic powers) and, on agricultural policy, housing policy and ·-··•••• ~ • the other, the fact that breaking up the The Psychologist November 1989 461 Bell telephone system in the US has in­ I would like to suggest that it is crucial from representative - democratic pro­ creased costs to the consumer by a to the future of the world as we know it cess required to oversee the public factor of three and deregulation of air to find alternative ways of solving the sector activities which dominate our so­ travel, which at first reduced fares, later problems highlighted above. There is ciety will be considerable. It is therefore led to the concentration of 80 per cent ample evidence (e.g. in the writings of important to note that such civic activity of US air traffic in four companies and Robertson (1985), Ekins (1986), Thurow contributes to the efficiency of our so­ then to increased fares. (1983) and George (1988)) that the ciety and the quality of life of all. In economic marketplace does not work in other words it is wealth creating activity. Other forms of privatisation equally offer the public interest and that we have It therefore merits financial reward. (In no solution to the other problems we built our standard of living on economic order to discourage immediate rejection have discussed: one tends either to cre­ processes which are non-sustainable. of this possibility it should be noted that ate vast private monopolies in place of To give effect to information on the the costs of operating the economic public monopolies or to create private long-term social, ecological, physical marketplace are enormous: two thirds of organisations which are dependent for and environmental consequences of al­ the cost of the average articles goes on their continued existence on the patron­ ternatives we must find ways of making distribution and marketing. Yet this work age of one or more public servants or managed economies work. - unlike the chore of supervising the public service departments. The prob­ public sector - tends to be viewed as If we are to do this we will need to de­ lems of monitoring and running them - contributing to wealth creation.) and stimulating innovation and con­ velop new expectations of public sumer responsiveness within them servants, new criteria against which to remain. judge their performance (such as "it is important to take innovative action in Implications for In the light of these observations it the public interest"), new appraisal tools psychologists would seem that faith in privatisation is to assess their performance against misplaced. The solution to the problems these criteria, new concepts of bureau­ My objectives thus far in this paper which plague us will be provided by cracy and their functioning, new ways of have been to show that modern society psychologists, not economists. thinking about the relationship between needs psychologists to: bureaucracy and government, new • carry out evaluations of a wide variety forms of democracy which enable us to • • f . of public policies, to identify barriers ensure that politicians and public ser­ Admg on m_ormahon to theii effective operation and to con­ vants are more inclined to act in the tribute to the invention of better received public interest, new concepts of citizen­ policies; The basic problem is lo find ways of en­ ship and new concepts of wealth and suring that public servants act on wealth-creation. All of these are essen­ • examine the workings of the public information, in an innovatory manner, in tially tasks for psychologists. sector as an organisation; the public interest. I would suggest that If the kind of innovation in the social this is to be achieved by introducing • develop the tools required to adminis­ process envisaged above is to come new staff appraisal systems and a new ter diversity in public policy and pro­ about, there is a need for an unpre­ institutional framework which will make vide feedback from each group of cedented public debate about the goals it easier to supervise the activities of clients; of society, the state of that society and public servants and ensure that they act what is to be done about it. This debate • develop the tools to take stock of or­ in the public interest. cannot take place without the assist­ ganisation in the public service, and for staff appraisal, staff guidance, Paradoxically, despite the fact that the ance of the media, and those who take placement and development so that: UK has, by international standards, one part in that debate need some mechan­ (i) it is possible to ensure that public of the highest levels of awareness of ism through which they can make their servants pay attention to, and take these problems - as well of others views known. Modern information tech­ action on, the information provided; which might be termed the "green agen­ nology (such as Prestel) makes it easy (ii) public servants can get credit for da" - it is unlikely that the solutions will for people to vote from their living exercising high level competencies evolve here, because we have one of rooms. But the value of feedback of this and (iii) the public service - for which the lowest levels of interest in innova­ sort is not only dependent on the dis­ most of us now work either directly or tion, doing new things, finding new semination of information. It is also indirectly - can make the best use of ways of doing things, doing things effi­ dependent on psychologists' developing the available talent in energetic, inno­ ciently and effective management. Our sets of survey questions which yield vative, activity; organisational structures do not promote more meaningful results than those ob­ innovation and encourage their mem­ tained from opinion polls. II meaningful • above all, to contribute to the evol­ bers to pay attention to clients' needs. conclusions are to be drawn from such ution of new concepts of democracy, Structures of promotion do not ensure data it will also be necessary for those the public service, the role of the pub­ that it is in the employee's interests to concerned to develop understandings of lic servant, wealth, wealth-creation, act with the long term needs of the or­ democracy which do not imply that ma­ work and citizenship. ganisation or its clients in mind jority decisions should be binding on all, (Freeman, 1973, 1974; Raven, 1984c; but which instead imply that some These observations have major implica­ Kanter, 1985; Graham et al., 1987). means must be found to enable people tions for the kind of research we see Finding ways of overcoming these prob­ with different priorities to get equitable ourselves undertaking, the criteria we lems and fostering the concerns, and treatment, geared to their priorities, from apply to research proposals and the creating the structures, which would the public service. products of research, the institutions we seek to establish to carry out that re­ help us to resolve this dilemma and re­ Furthermore, the time required for many search, the relationships we seek to lease energy to promote social members of the population to engage in establish between researchers and pol­ innovation is clearly yet another specifi­ the kind of participative - as distinct icy makers and the public, and the cally psychological task.

462 November 1989 The Psychologist may never have been discussed with therefore seems that Eisner's (1985) pupils or parents and may therefore not emphasis on the "art" of educational have their support. And employers and evaluation and "educational connois­ universities may still be selecting their seurship", while important in legitimising entrants on the basis of conflicting crite­ the kinds of activity advocated here, is ria. Under such circumstances, what is unfortunate in that it fails to challenge required is an evaluation which (a) uses the concept of science which informs the available evidence to infer what the most academic thinking - and especially effects of properly developed inputs, in that of the Joint Committee on Evalu­ various contexts, would be likely to be; ation. Likewise it emerges that (b) identifies the barriers which are pre­ administrators' ccncern to avoid "d upli­ venting the programme being more cation" is as misguided as their quest to effective (and it is important to note that initiate research which will give unar­ many of these barriers may have their guable answers to clearly defined origins in the sociological functions questions. As a profession, we therefore which schools perform for society rather need to encourage those who control than the educational process itself); and the funding of pclicy-relevant research (c) attempts to evaluate outcomes to fund research into important issues which it would require a considerable in­ even when neither we nor they know vestment in fundamental research how it is to be done and even when ii is (based on yet-to-be invented psycho­ clear from the start that the ccnclusions metric models) to evaluate properly (a will be debatable. beliefs, expectations and attitudes we fuller discussion of these issues will be Although many people will find what has foster in the course of undergraduate found in Hamilton, 1977; Raven, been said disturbing, it is important now education. The concluding sections of 1984a,c, 1985; Eisner, 1985). to share another insight which has this paper address some of these is­ An evaluation which does not endeav­ emerged in the course of 30 years of sues. our comment on (i) all important policy research. This is that such work outcomes of an educational process (in­ regularly points to the need for studies cluding both the positive and negative of, and public debate about, fundamen­ The concept of research outccmes), (ii) all important barriers to tal social values, political beliefs and the effective implementation of the pro­ beliefs about the operation of the public Accuracy and unarguability are widely gramme whether deriving from service itself. A few examples wili illus­ believed to be the hallmarks of science. resources, psychological and pedagogic trate the point. This view dominates the thinking of the understanding, or sociological pro­ US Joint Committee on Standards for cesses, and (iii) the crucial steps As has been indicated, studies of edu­ the Evaluation of Educational Policies needed to make progress, is hard to cational policy pointed to the conclusion and Programmes. However, it will be ar­ justify. Evaluators who fail to cover the that one of the main reasons why a gued here that, while this view may well great deal of the money spent on sec­ ground because important variables are be appropriate in academic research, it "intangible and hard to measure" com­ ondary schools is wasted is that our is not appropriate in policy and evalu­ mit crimes against mankind - because preoccupation with equality prevents us ation research. this will mean that significant pro­ respecting and fostering the wide var­ iety of value-based competencies which To take an example, there is little point gramme benefits and failures, and real barriers to diffusion and dissemination, exist. To handle the problem we need in demonstrating that an innovatory both to legitimise the provision of variety educational programme, weakly im­ are overlooked in all subsequent discus­ sion of, and decisions about, the in the public sector and to respect indi­ plemented and without other supportive vidual pupils' rights to opt out of activity. changes, does not have dramatic ef­ programmes which they do not find fects. Yet most pilot programmes are of It emerges, therefore, that, while the congenial (Raven, 1988a,b). this sort: the teachers directly involved hallmark of good academic research In a similar way, studies of values, atti­ have typically only a limited grasp of may well be accuracy, the hallmark of what is to be achieved and how it is to good evaluation is comprehensiveness. tudes and institutional structures be achieved. (Indeed, it is frequently the A good policy study is one which yields associated with economic and social case that at the start of the pro­ development pointed to the conciusion no one new understandings and insights and gramme can specify the pedagogic points the way forward. In such a con­ that understandings of how society does and should work - i.e. social and politi­ processes which are to be used to text, it is inappropriate to judge the work reach its goals.) Crucial equipment has of an individual researcher against the cal beliefs and expectations - are of usually not arrived, and facilities are fundamental importance. It emerged criterion of "proof beyond reasonable makeshift. There are no tools to enable doubt". What is needed is a contribution that, in Britain, we need new under­ the teachers concerned - or even the to a public debate which will advance standings of terms like "management", programme evaluators - to find out understanding. It is the process of "participation", "democracy" and whether the new goals have been "wealth". An attempt (Raven & Dolphin, science which leads to accurate and 1978; Raven, 1984c) to develop the reached, still less to give individual tea­ complete understanding, not the work of tools required to measure qualities like chers or pupils tradeable credit for an individual scientist. Instead of asking initiative, leadership and the ability to having achieved them. Teachers in whether a researcher's conclusions are other classrooms, with whom the pupils work with others suggested that, as beyond dispute, we must ask whether psychologists, we need new psychome­ may be spending more than 90 per cent the work yields new insights, informa­ tric models which give pride of place to of their time, may have changed neither tion and understanding. What is needed their teaching practices nor their expec­ is public debate between scientists all values, even political understandings. tations of pupils. The programme goals To assess these qualities we need to hotly pursuing '1he same" issues. It

The Psychologist November 1989 463 find out what the person concerned If what I have said is correct, and if we those needs; values and what he or she believes are to encourage useful evaluation, it • considering, and taking appropriate about how society works and under­ will be necessary for us, as profession, action in the light of, the long term so­ stands by such terms as "democracy", to: "management" and "participation". Yet, cial consequences of the options (1) Change our beliefs about the out­ available; although both the continued tendency to comes which it is appropriate to expect recruit ex-public school pupils for im­ from the research process. • initiating the collection of relevant in­ pcrtant positions and MSC's ban on formation, including information on the political education in its enterprise de­ (2) Change our beliefs about the topics worldwide social consequences of velopment programmes testify to the that it is appropriate for researchers to potential courses of action; validity of the propcsition that com­ study. petence is crucially dependent on these • seeking out, and using, the informa­ beliefs, the notion that the assessment (3) Change our beliefs about the re­ tion which is available and using it to of competence involves the assessment search process - so that it comes to be come to defensible conclusions about of values and political beliefs is, in view seen as appropriate for researchers to the course of action which is in the of the moral dilemmas it rightly raises, follow up, and write up, unexpected ob­ long-term best interest of the public deeply disturbing. An evaluation of a servations made in the course of their and each of the sub-groups of which pilot programme of school-based research and so that further research to it is compcsed; teacher education (Raven, 1987b) sug­ follow up unexpected re-orientations can be funded. • creating organisational, community, gested that one of the chief barriers to and societal climates characterised by effective teacher education is the con­ (4) Do much more to protect re­ innovation, efficiency, and dedication cept of the role of institutions of higher searchers who stumble into new areas to the public interest. education held by the Scottish Office, and find themselves in conflict with the the institutions themselves, and the assumptions of those who control fund­ B: Develop mechanisms which make it public in general. ing. possible to: I want to emphasise that these are (5) Most importantly, emphasise that ef­ • stimulate public debate about issues scientific conclusions, not political posi­ fective applied research almost always varying from those of concern in local tions. More than that, they are involves a considerable amount of fun­ workplaces, classrooms and com­ conclusions drawn from specifically psy­ damental research fundamental munities to those of international con­ chological research. New, specifically research, the impcrtance of which aca­ cern; psychological, understandings and tools demics who do not have contact with • weight the opinions of those con­ are required if progress is to be made. applied problems will be most unlikely cerned to allow for the fact that some While the accusation of going beyond to see. Or, put the other way round, views deserve to carry more weight science to draw political conclusions is academic life is not ideally suited to the than others (the uninformed should now mainly levelled at the social scien­ task of stimulating new lines of fun­ not be allowed to impose their values ces, Galileo's experiences testify to the damental research or paradigm shifts. on others who have quite different fact that this has not always been the priorities and concerns); case. We have seen that we now live in a so­ ciety which is managed by people (and • ensure that both public servants and In saying that these are scientific con­ not by the economic marketplace) and others who have a significant impact clusions, I do not mean to imply that I that management is based on beliefs on what happens in society consider think they are beyond dispute. On the and explicit information. We have seen the available information and come to contrary, the one thing a scientist knows that the main actors on this stage are justifiable decisions about what is to for certain is that s/he is wrong. The public servants. It is they who mainly be done. emphasis placed on the arguability of decide what information will be collected these conclusions is diversionary. The and how it will be presented to pcliti­ These two sets of problems call for the real problem is that they upset our view cians and the public. It has not been establishment of a number of units of the universe. The result of this has shown that prices are mainly deter­ charged with the task of developing the been that, even though, in retrospect, mined by public servants, nor that concepts, tools and institutions which our spcnsors have often been inclined public servants manage trade as a re­ are required to, for example, administer to agree with our conclusions, they sult of their control of tax structures (i.e. choice in education and housing. We have still found themselves unable to that they use money as a management need tools which can be used to give suppcrt the research which would be re­ tool instead of allowing money to man­ public servants credit for engaging in quired to substantiate them or find ways age the economy) but these things are the difficult and demanding business of of tackling the very problems which led also true. And it has been shown that innovation, which can be used for staff them to approach us in the first place. government is grossly overloaded and guidance, placement and development Perhaps even more importantly, conclu­ that the form of representative demo­ (so that our managed economy can sions like these disturb those of our cracy to which we have become make the best use of the human resour­ fellows who referee applications to fund­ accustomed is no longer viable (Raven, ces which are available to it) and which ing bodies like the ESRC. Unless we, 1984b,c). can be used when deciding whom to as a profession, address these issues appoint to senior management posi­ we will continue to behave in the dys­ Our earlier discussion, and these obser­ tions. functional way described by Rothschild. vations, point to the need to: I have to confess to being less clear That is why it is so important for the A. Develop tools which will make it about precisely what research should whole profession - and not just those of pcssible to hold public servants ac­ be initiated to contribute to the evolution us who have been contaminated by the countable for such things as: of the new concepts of democracy, experiences we have had as a result of bureaucracy, wealth, management, par­ dabbling in this area - to consider the • considering the needs of their clients ticipation and citizenship which are issues I have raised in this paper. and inventing better ways of meeting

464 November 1989 The Psychologist required. But this is clearly an area short-term contracts tied to short-term universities to encourage students to which urgently needs to be probed. Two project funding has proved to be a develop more appropriate expectations. specific suggestions are: one, to experi­ recipe for disaster and, in any case, But perhaps the most important mess­ ment with techniques of bears no resemblance to what Roth­ age for the universities to disseminate is television-based debate and feedback. schild had in mind when enunciating the that what society most urgently needs is two. to initiate an international project customer-contractor principle. not a new set of specific policies in which would involve psychologists from As far as the UK is concerned, it is im­ health, housing, incomes. pricing, man­ different countries spending significant portant to underline the scale of funding agement. labour relations, third-world amounts of time in each other's coun­ which should be envisaged because the trade or whatever. but policy develop­ tries. not reviewing research, but using string and sealing-wax of grants pro­ the contrasts between those countries ment units and, especially, units set up vided by the SSRC/ESRC have led to develop new concepts of bureau­ to surface embedded concepts of how psychologists - and especially univer­ cracy and democracy and the tools information should be collected and sity-based psychologists - to have quite which are required to run them more ef­ used and how decisions should be inappropriate expectations. More appro­ fectively. Psychologists have a major taken. It strikes me. for example, that priate standards for funding are to be role to play in these units. We know these assumptions are very different in found in the Government Social Survey. more than anyone e!se about crganisa~ Norway, the UK and japan. where it is not uncommon to find tions. institutions and tools of policy It will be clear by now that useful policy­ £250,000 being devoted to projects with appraisal and performance assessment. relevant research is very different in very limited objectives. The extent of One urgent task is to get the estab­ nature from what has in the past com­ the underfunding of policy research can lishment of such units onto the agenda monly been assumed. The structures also be judged from the fact that two of at least two of the major political par­ required for its effective execution and years' losses of the British Steel Cor­ ties. the framework of expectations within poration would have funded the Scottish which it is carried out are also very dif­ Council for Research in Education These may sound like grandiose claims. but it must again be emphasised that ferent. Classical, but still highly relevant. since Stonehenge was built. Yet far we are living in an economy which is discussions of these issues have been more of our national resources are quite unlike that which most of us take it contributed by Cherns (1970), Donnison devoted to - even misapplied in - edu­ to be. Our claim as psychologists must (1972) and Freeman (1973. 1974). cation than steal. therefore be. not that we can help to in­ At an absolute minimum we need to But I do not wish to give the impression tioduce some Utopia, but we can help press for the establishment of a number that things are better in America. I know society to do better that which it is al­ of units to work in this area. These units of nowhere in America where I could ready doing. should not be university-based, be­ have carried out the research I have in Notwithstanding the strength of this ar­ cause the criteria to be applied to the fact been able to carry out. even though gument, the question of how all this is researchers' work are so very different it has been carried out under extremely to those appropriate in academe. Aca­ unsatisfactory conditions. It is therefore to be paid for will still be raised. The answer is to be found in the previously demic time scales are also important to challenge the US contract­ mentioned fact that some two thirds of inappropriate. Teams of researchers research model. An outsider cannot need to be able to devote their full time help noticing that. although the funds the cost of any article is spent on dis­ to the work and they need to be pro­ sloshing around are astronomical by our tribu~ion and marketing - that is. on making the economic marketplace work. vided with an assured career structure standards. and although hundreds of which does not require them to conform thousands of people are employed, the An. effective managed economy, in either to traditional bureaucratic or aca­ actual contribution to advance in under­ which most of the necessary information demic criteria. While there needs to be standing is often extremely small. This was contributed by psychologists - and not by financiers or "economists" - could sufficient contact with policy makers for is attributable not only to the belief that hardly cost more to administer. And, in the researchers to become thoroughly public service customers are able to familiar with the problems which need to identify research needs but also to pressing this case, use should also be be tackled, researchers need consider­ widely held views about what con­ made of our earlier observation that such activity would constitute genuine able scope to determine the way in stitutes good research. In saying this, I which they will tackle them and to follow have the Joint Committee's Standards wealth-creating work. up new issues which come to light. for the Evaluation of Educational There also needs to be some mechan­ Policies and Projects very much in ism whereby people who are mind. "peripheral" to mainstream decision making can initiate studies and ensure that they are carried out from their own Beliefs, expectations and perspective. These reflections suggest that. instead of being accountable to ad­ understandings to be ministrators. researchers should be fostered in This paper evolved out of addresses accountable to a Director who should presented to the Society's Conference him or hersett be accountable for crea­ undergraduate education on. the Future of the Psychological ting a climate of innovation. dedication. The very different beliefs we need to Sciences at Harrogate in February the development of new understandings develop about what constitutes science, 1987, and subsequently to the XXIV In­ and ideas and the development of new psychology. good research and, espe­ ternational Congress of Psychology, tools which can be used to run the pub­ cially, the role and nature of policy Sydney, Australia in 1988. A brief ver­ lic service more effectively. The research and evaluation have already sion of the laner is to be published in tendency to assume that applied re­ been discussed. It remains to empha­ the Proceedings of the Congress search can be effectively carried out by sise how important it is for the (Volume 8), Elsevier 1989. researchers who are individually on

The Psychologist November 1989 465 References & 247-268. Schon, D. (1971/73). Beyond the Stable Raven, J. (1977). Education, Values and State. London: Penguin. Bellini, J. (1980). Rule Britannia: A progress Society: The objectives of education and the report for domesday 1986. London: Jonathan Schon, D. (1983). The Reflective nature and development of competence. Practitioner. New York: Basic Books. Cape. London: HX Lewis, New York: The Chapman, L. (1979, 1978). Your Psychological Corporation. Stone, P.A. (1961). The impact of urban development on the use of land and other Disobedient Servant. London: Penguin Raven, J. (1980). Parents, Teachers and Books resources. Journal of the Town Planning Children Edinburgh: The Scottish Council for Institute, 47 (5), May. Chems, A.8. (1970). Relations between Research in Education. Stone, P.A. (1961). The conflict between research institutions and users of research. Raven, J. (Ed) (1983). The relationship International Social Science Journal, XXll, capital cost and running costs. Chartered between educational institutions and society Surveyor, June, 673-679. 226-242. paying special attention to the role of Dennison, D. (1972). Research for policy. assessment International Review of Applied Sutherland, E.H. (1949). White Collar Minerva, X, 519-537. Psychology, 32 247-410 Crime. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Elsner, E.W. (1985). The Art of Educational Raven, J. (1984a). The evaluation and Thurow, L.C. (1983). Dangerous Currents: Evaluation Lewes: The Falmer Press. improvement of provision for gene:al The state of economics. New York: Random House. Ekins P. (Ed) (1986). The Uving Economy: education. In M. Skilbeck (Ed), Evaluating A ne~ economics in the making. London: the Curriculum in the Eighties. London: Toffler, A. ( 1980). The Third Wave. New Routledge and Kegan Paul. Hodder & Stoughton. York: Bantam Books. Etzioni, A. (1971). Policy research. Raven, J. (1984b). The role of the Willmott, P. (1963). The Evolution of a American Sociologist, 6, (Supplementary psychologist in formulating. administering Community. London: Routledge and Kegan Issue), 8-12. and evaluating policies associated with Paul. economic and social development 1n Etzloni, A. (1983). Towards a political Willmott, P. & Young, M. (1960). Family Western Society. Journal of Economic and Class in a London Suburb. London: psychology of economics. Poli!ical Psychology, 5, 1-16. Psychology, 4, 77-86. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Raven, J. (1984c). Competence in Modern Etzioni, A. (1984). Capital Corruption: The Willmott, P. & Young, M. (1966). Family Society: Its identification, development and and Kinship in East London. London: new attack on American democracy New release. London: HK Lewis. York: Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovich Penguin Books. Raven, J. (1987a). The crisis in education. I am indebted to Bryan Dockrell, Stanley Ferguson, M. (1980). The Aquarian The New Era, 68, 38-44. Conspiracy: Personal and social Nisbet and my wife for their assistance, over transformation in the 1980s. London: Raven, J. (1987b). Learning to teach in many years, in preparing this article. Paladin. primary schools: som~ reflections. Collected Original Resources m Education, 11, F3, Dr Raven consults on educational evaluation. nr.~ Freeman, C. (1974). The Econa.mics of l.J\,,.11. educational and psychological assessment, Industrial Innovation London: Penguin. staff development. organisational Raven, J. (1987c). Values, diversity and Freeman, F.C. (1973). A study of success cognitive development Teachers College development, and values, attitudes, and and failure in industrial innovation. In B.R Record, 89, 21-38. insritutional structures associated with Williams (Ed), Science and Technology in economic and social development Address Economic Growth London: Macmillan. Raven, J. (1988a). Choice in a modern for correspondence: 30 Great King Street, economy: new concepts of democracy and Edinburgh EH3 60H. George, S. (1988). A Fate Worse Than bureaucracy. In S. Maita! (Ed), Applied Debt. London: Penguin Books. Behavioural Economics. Brighton, England: Graham, M.A., Raven, J. & Smith, P.C. Wheatsheaf (1987). Identification of high level Raven, J. (1988b). Developing the talents competence: cross-cultural analysis between and competencies of all our children. Gifted British American, Asian and Polynes1an International. 5, 8-40. labour~rs. To be published in Organisation Special offer to Forum. Raven, J. ( 1989). Equity in diversity: the problems posed by values - an_d their members Graham, M.A. & Raven, J. (1987). resolution. In F. Macleod (Ed), FamJ/1es and International Shifts in the Workplace - Are Schools: Issues in accountability and parent we becoming an "Old West' in the next power. Brighton, England: Falmer Press. century? Provo: BYU Dept., Organisational Buy now while stocks last! Behaviour. Raven J. & Dolphin, T. (1978). The Consequences of Behaving: The ability of Casebound special issues of journals Hamilton, D. (Ed) (1977). Beyond the Irish organisations to tap_ know-how, now available to members only at the Numbers Game. London: Macmillan initiative, leadership and goodwill. Edinburgh: Education. The Competency Motivation Project bargain price of £3.00 per copy. Hope, K. ( 1985). As _Others See Us: Raven, J., Johnstone, J. & Varley, T. Please send your cheque with order Schooling and social mobility m Scoffand_ and (1985). Opening the Primary Classroom. to the BPS, St Andrew's House, 48 the United States. New York: Cambridge Edinburgh: The Scottish Council for Princess Road East, Leicester LE1 University Press. Research in Education. ?DR. Jaques, E. (1976). A General Theory of Roberts, E.B. & Walner, H.A. (1966). Some Bureaucracy. London: Heinemann. Characteristics of Technical Entrepreneurs. Special Issue Titles Kanter, R.M. (1985). The Change Masters: MIT Research Programme on the Corporate entrepreneurs at work. Herne! Ma~agement of Science and Technology. Sharing Psychological Skills Hempstead: Unwin Paperbacks. Robertson, J. (1985). Future Work: Jobs, Edited by H. Davis & P. Butcher Klein, R. (1980). Costs and benefits of self-employment and leisure after the complexity: The British National Health industrial age. Aldershot: Gower/Maurice Infancy - Edited by G. Butterworth & Service. In R. Rose (Ed), Challenge to Temple Smith. P. Harris Governance. London Sage. Rose, R. ( 1980). Ordinary people in Raven, J. (1967). Sociological evidence on extraordinary economic circumstances. In R. Intergroup Processes - Edited by housing, I: Space in the Home and II: The Rose (Ed), Challenge to Governance. R. Brown Home in its Setting. Architectural ReVJew, London: Sage. Social Psychology and Economics 142, 68f and 143, 236-239. Rothschild, Lord (1971). A Framework for - Edited by W. Stroebe & W. Meyer Raven, J. (1975). Social research in modern Research and Development. London: society: I: The role of social research. II: The HMSO. Behavioural Medicine • Edited by A. Institutional Structures and Management Rothschild, Lord. (1982). An Enquiry into Mathews & A. Steptoe Styles Required to Execute Policy-Relevant the Social Science Research Council. Social Research. Administration, 23, 225-246 London: HMSO.

466 November 1989 The Psychologist Research in Brief

Assistant Editor: Geoff Lowe

Disastrous Effects Joy+ hdtl Business Types

In addition to work with people directly affected by disasters, Are extroverts more successful psychologists are also carrying out important new research Into the in business than Introverts? adverse effects suffered by rescue workers. Geoff Lowe reports. Mark Parkinson reports.

The destruction of communities and the Paton noted interesting differences be­ Rice, G.H. & Lindecamp, D.P. (1989). Per­ magnitude of death and injury is often tween IRC volunteers and professional sonality types and business success of small more substantial in a natural disaster firemen, with the professionals suffering retailers. Journal of Occupational Psycho­ than in those resulting from technolo­ worse effects. "The volunteers", says logy, 62(2), 177-182. gical failure or human error. Douglas Douglas Paton, "receive special training The possibility of predicting business Paton, a Chartered Occupational Psy­ to deal with natural disasters, and can success by using a specific question­ chologist from the University of St An­ normalise their reactions so that they naire or battery of personality tests has drews, has been focussing particularly are no longer afraid to be seen crying intrigued occupational psychologists for on the relief workers who went out from in public. Professional firefighting is a a number of years. In North America Britain to help in the aftermath of the more macho experience, and these particularly. a great deal of effort has Armenian earthquake in December workers are typically reluctant to ex­ been invested in trying to define entre­ 1988. press emotions." An understanding of preneurs in terms of certain sets of Dr Paton is an adviser to the Interna­ such individual differences will be of traits or as particular types. tional Rescue Corps, and is concerned benefit in the selection and trainina of Rice and Lindecamp have recently at­ about whether these volunteers - and, rescue workers. - tempted to correlate the Jungian per­ indeed, full-time emergency service sonality types of the owner-managers of workers - are adequately prepared (Douglas Paton presented a paper at small retail stores with their business in­ either physically or psychologically for the International Health Psychology comes - income, in this case, being the the tasks they have to perform. His Conference at Cardiff in September. only "success" indicator used. The "per­ findings reveal that many of them have His research will also be published in sonality" of 102 owner-managers was symptoms relating to Post-Traumatic Counselling Psychology Quarterly.) determined by using the Myers-Briggs Stress Disorder. Type Indicator and three main hypo­ theses tested. Namely that extroverts would be more successful in business than introverts; and that either thinking­ judging types or thinking-sensing types would also be more successful. In Monkeys Face Brain Tests Jung's terms thinkers are people who base their decisions on logic and objec­ tive analysis; and sensors are those Brain researchers have discovered neurons which respond only to that focus on the present and concrete faces and hairstyles. Vincent Walsh reports. information gained through their senses. The researchers found no convincing Yamane, S., Kaji, S. & Kawano, K. (1988). exclusively to faces. These face link between a particular Jungian per­ What facial features activate face neurons in neurons were presented with 62 faces sonality type and business income. the inferotemporal cortex of the monkey? Ex­ which were controlled for various facial However, there was an indication that perimental Brain Research, 73, 209-214. features (e.g. nose length, jaw width, extroverts were likely to make more Small populations of neurons in the inter-eye distance). Multiple regression money, but were less efficient than in­ temporal lobe cortex of the macaque analysis showed that the neurons re­ troverts in deploying it, i.e. by taking on employees. have been shown to be selectively re­ sponded best to particular combinations sponsive to faces. Some neurons dis­ of features. The most important ones play different firing patterns according to were inter-eye distance, eye to mouth The point is also made that Jungian the orientation of the face stimulus and distance, and hairstyle. criteria constitute continua. This means others to the direction of gaze of the that it is possible for a person to fall face stimulus. However, it is not clear While previous studies have located near the centre of a scale, only slightly which particular features or configura­ face neurons in the banks of the su­ into the extrovert division for example, tions of features are important for face perior temporal sulcus (STS), Yamane and receive the same classification as neurons. et al recorded from the inferotemporal an extreme case. As Rice and Linde­ Yamane et al recorded from 446 gyrus (ITG). They suggest a possible camp suggest, this particular problem neurons in the inferotemporal cortex of processing route from ITG to STS. with the Myers-Briggs could well distort a macaque monkey, with 21 responding the findings.

The Psychologist November 1989 467 Do We Think We Have More Personality It Moved But Than Others? Where To?

Are traits things we see In others but not ourselves - or vice versa? Vincent Walsh repons on an Anthony C. Edwards reports. unusual case of "motion blindness". Sande, G.N., Goethals, G.R. & Radloff, C. Contrary evidence was found in several (1988). Perceiving one's own traits and experiments by Sande et al. Subjects Hess, R.H., Baker, C.L & Zlhl, J. (1989). others: the multifaceted self. Journal of Per­ were required to perform a similar task - The "motion-blind" patient: low-·level spatial sonality and Social Psychology, 54, 13-20. but, in place of a "Depends" option, and temporal filters. Journal of Neuros­ were allowed to answer with "Both" or cience, 9, 1628-1640 It was once believed that we see our­ "Neither". They answered "Both" for Primate studies have suggested that selves as possessing fewer traits than themselves more than for acquaintan­ areas within the extrastriate visual cor­ other people. Evidence supporting this ces, and for liked others more than dis­ tex are specialised for processing par­ view came from research in which sub­ liked others. This suggests we see ticular attributes of visual stimuli (e.g. jects were presented with pairs of trait­ ourselves as possessing more traits colour, movement, or position in space), names, and, for each pair, had to than others. This could reflect a tend­ but there are very few cases of human indicate which was the better descrip­ ency to see more traits in people we re­ patients suffering from deficits which tion of various people. Permitted to say gard highly - assuming, of course, we can be attributed to specific extrastriate "Depends on the Situation", subjects did have considerable self-respect. cortex damage. Over a period of three this most frequently when judging them­ years, using a range of psychophysical selves. tests, Hess et al have studied one such patient who has bilateral damage to a region of cortex roughly corresponding to V5 in the macaque. Neurons in V5 Low Verbal IQ Drinkers are especially responsive to movement. The patient's visual acuity and hue dis­ crimination threshold were normal, Drinkers with low verbal Intelligence could end up with more stereopsis was only mildly impaired, alcohol-related problems. Geoff Lowe reports. and spatial and contrast sensitivity func­ tions were relatively unimpaired. How­ Windle, M. & Blane, H.T. (1989). Cognitive With regard to alcohol consumption, ab­ ever. when tested for the abiiiiy to ability and drinking behavior in a national stainers manifested lower verbal intel­ discriminate the direction or rate of sample of young adults. Alcoholism: Clinical ligence scores than drinkers. However, movement of gratings presented on a and Experimental Research, 13, (1 ), 43-48. among drinkers, lower verbal intel­ screen the patient was severely im­ The impaired neuropsychological perfor­ ligence was associated with more alco­ paired. A severe imapirment was also mance among social drinkers and alco­ hol problems. With influence of observed when the patient was asked holics is well documented. However, socioeconomic status statistically con­ to judge the direction of apparent mo­ some newer research is being directed trolled, lower verbal intelligence still pre­ tion. Thus the patient could detect towards cognitive deficits that may dicted alcohol problems, but not alcohol movement and discriminate normally precede the onset of systematic heavy consumption. The effect was robust between stimuli unless they differed drinking and which may function as risk across gender and age groups. only in the direction or rate of move­ ment. factors for subsequent alcohol abuse These studies suggest that alcohol­ and alcoholism. related neuropsychological research Hess et al discuss the results in terms Michael Windle and Howard Blane, of might benefit from assessment of cogni­ of striate and extrastriate cortical mech­ the Research Institute on Alcoholism, tive behavioural functions associated anisms, and compare their findings with Buffalo, USA, undertook a national with verbal intelligence, such as social studies demonstrating functional spe­ study of adolescents. They looked at judgement and social skills. Such an cialisation in other regions of extrastri­ verbal intelligence in relation to alcohol evaluation may shed light on the dif­ ate cortex. consumption and to three alcohol prob­ ferential risk for drinkers with low verbal lem areas - dependency symptoms, ag­ intelligence. gressive behaviours, and job problems. Oral Intelligence Tests? the past. A comparison of the structured "situ­ ational" interview with the more tradi­ Mark Parkinson reports on the potential validity of structured Interviews. tional shows it to be superior. A number of reasons for the improved validhy are suggested. First, structured interviews Wright, P.M., Llchtenfels, P.A. & Pursell, assessment centres, biodata and refer­ are based on a thorough job analysis E.D. (1989). The structured interview: Addi­ ence checks. tional studies and meta-analysis. Journal of and so unrelated questions can be Occupational Psychology, 62, (3), 191-199. Wright et al have examined recent evi­ avoided. Second, the assumption is dence on structured interviews. These made that individuals' intentions are in­ The interview is the most popular indus­ centre on job-related questions with pre­ fluenced by past behaviour. Finally, the trial selection technique. However, this determined answers that are applied structured interview may work as a sort enthusiasm is not matched by its va­ across all interviews for a particular po­ of "oral intelligence test" and have a sig­ lidity - the degree to which it predicts sition. For instance, it can be deter­ nificant correlation with cognitive ability future performance. A comparison with mined how an applicant would respond tests. Thus there is perhaps no need to other corn man selection techniques to various situations, and also how simi· use both in selection. places it last after cognitive ability tests, lar situations have been dealt with in

468 November 1989 The Psychologist viour in a clear and structural way, and that facet theory has a contribution to make to applied decision-making. The conference also revealed develop­ Conference Reports m ants in methodology and computer programs. Margaret Wilson's paper "The Development of Architectural Con­ cepts" not only showed cumulative re­ search at work, but provided a line example of the application of the multiple sorting task, and the strength of Discovering Cumulative Social Science facet theory and its associated analysis techniques in dealing with qualitative Ian Donald reports on the Second International Facet Theory data. Conference held at the University of Surrey from 4-6 July 1989. An enormous diversity of topic areas were covered by the conference. While Facet theory is an approach to research vation for having dental treatment. the participants came from many areas devised and developed by the late Pro­ There were many interesting papers, of science, they had in common their fessor Louis Guttman. The approach and one which perticularly brought use of facet theory, and their belief in its has mutually exclusive conceptual fa­ home the strength of facet theory was value for advancing science, and this cets, forming a very ciear and precise presented by Ruth Guttman of the He­ overcame the boundaries created by specification of a domain of research. brew University of Jerusalem. Herself a the various disciplines. The conference One of its aims is the development of a geneticist, she presented a paper en­ was originally organised into six sympo­ cumulative social science, and the con­ titled "Pharmocogenetics of Agnostic sia. but these boundaries became ference demonstrated that facet theory Behaviour in Male" which was then dis­ meaningless as the conference pro­ really does provide for cumulative social cussed by an engineer, Shlomo Waks, gressed. science research. with contributions from social psycho­ The hallmarks of a truly developing There was a free exchange of ideas logists, a sociologist, a methodologist science include the development of cu­ amongst the 40 or so scientists present, and, if I recall correctly, a political scien­ mulative research, and the evolution of and it emerged that differing domains of tist. unifying concepts and ideas, which cut research had facets in common, though A paper by D.C. Heritage and David across disciplinary boundaries. If this is often with different names. These facets Canter entitled "A Partial Order of Crimi­ the direction in which we wish the social could also be easily transferred to an­ nal History and Offence Location of Ser­ sciences to progress, facet theory has a other area. For example, a facet con­ ial Rapists" demonstrated some of the major role to play in our future. cerned with the level of interaction a newer developments in analysis meth­ person has with their environment is ods associated with facet theory. It also tapping the same psychological pro­ Dr Donald is an Associate Lecturer and showed that they can be used to in­ Senior Research Fellow in the Department of cesses as a facet concerned with moti- clude temporal developments in beha- Psychology, University of Surrey.

Gender and Knowledge Workshop

This was the first joint venture between the Psychology of Women Section and the History and Philosophy Section - and already people are asking "When's the next one?" The meeting was built around the visit of Professor Rhoda Unger to the UK, thanks to a grant from the SAB. Sue Wilkinson reports.

Rhoda Unger, of Montclair State Col­ tinction between "sex" and "gender", onto changing views of knowledge. She lege, New Jersey, is widely regarded as dismissing the tradrtional biological/so­ demonstrated how male thought is al­ one of the leading psychology of cial divide: her talk demonstrated ways associated with the culturally women scholars in the USA, particularly graphically the ways in which biology is dominant "way of knowing", while fe­ for her work on feminist and personal socially constructed and the apparent male thought is seen as '1he alterna­ epistemologies and the social construc­ arbitrariness of gender attributions. Pro­ tive". The discussion surrounding these tion of gender. We were fortunate that fessor Wittig presented a metatheory for two papers began to explore the possi­ her visit to London coincided with that a psychology of gender, arguing the bility and the nature of an alternative of Michele Wittig of California State need for the reconciliation of "scientific" "feminist science", which would pay due University at Northridge, who is particu­ and "feminist" values. This began an ex­ regard to a range of structural inequal­ larly interested in the area of sex equity. tensive discussion on the nature of ities as well as to the multiple perspec­ Our American guests were com­ science and the extent to which it is in­ tives of its participants. plemented by two British speakers: herently masculine. Wendy Hollway (University of Bradford) Wendy Hollway emphasised the condi­ and Helen Haste (University of Bath). tions of production of psychology, and The programme for the day was rela­ the way in which the scientist-subject tively informal, with the emphasis firmly split reproduces male-female power re­ on discussion. We aimed to generate lations. Once this position is decon­ an atmosphere which would encourage structed, however, rt becomes possible everyone to take part - and seemed to to propose an alternative "emancipa­ succeed: the discussion was both var­ tory" psychology. Helen Haste extended Sue Wilkinson is Principal Lecturer in ied and lively. these arguments in her exploration of Psychology and Head of the Psychology Professor Unger focussed on the dis- the ways in which gender is mapped Section at Coventry Polytechnic.

The Psychologist November 1989 469 One Day (and a bit) at the BA

Stephen White reports on The British Association for the Advancement of Science Annual Conference with its 3,000 delegates, over 200 journalists and a programme running to over 80 pages.

This year's romp through contemporary scientific facts. Nearly everyone got that this explained the low regard held science was in Sheffield from 11-15 right that hot air rises, but when it came for social workers (and clinical psycho­ September, and I went for a day and a to a true or false statement about logists) by the public. bit. whether antibiotics kill viruses as well I finished up my BA visit by sitting in on With such an enormous programme I as bacteria, over two thirds got it wrong a workshop by Geoff Deehan and Peter had to be selective, so on day one I - which probably explains the size of the Evans of the BBC Radio Science unit picked up on part of the Section X (the NHS drug bill. on radio interviewing skills, techniques BA is just as sectionalised as the So­ My next dip into the programme was and tricks of the trade. As expected it ciety) symposium on the Public Under­ the Section J (the Psychology Section) was highly informative, brilliantly standing of Science, which included two symposium on emotion, led by Profes­ presented and as professional as they brilliant performances. First, Professor sor Keith Oatley. Dr Glenys Parry gave could manage without a full studio set­ Colin Blakemore from Oxford romped the final paper on "Emotional Stress: up. through the whole subject - surveys of How can others help us bear it?" and The most memorable moment was a public ignorance, exhortations about gave results of some new research she volunteer interviewer from the audience why science was so central to modern has carried out in Southampton on a trying to get Colin Blakemore to answer life, and various ideas about how the le­ group of women who had suffered the any question thrown at him. Professor vels of ignorance could be improved. sudden death of their husbands. Blakemore had been told to be as diffi­ One of his suggestions was to introduce In her general discussion of stress she cult as possible, and he succeeded - a new compulsory science education for carefully explained the notion of self to one moment being negatively monosyl­ all school children. He said that it must her non-psychology audience and illus­ labic and the next so convolutorily jar­ be: trated it thus: gon ridden that the audience felt A science not based on the present A White Horse goes into a pub and or­ suitably embarrassed for the poor dupe compartments of chemistry, physics ders a pint of bitter. interviewer. and biology, but a science which The barperson is somewhat surprised Finally, an observation which hopefully showed the links between all the and says "I would have thought you bears out Chris Blakemore's assertion compartments. would have had a whisky". that psychology has relevance to every­ He continued that the core of this new The White Horse is somewhat non- day life, especially of students. In the science should be biology and psycho­ plussed and asks why, symposium on "Public Understanding" logy: "Well," says the barperson, "they've the average age of the audience was in named a whisky after you." the region of 50, but in the psychology biology because of reductionist and The White Horse looks very puzzled. symposium on emotion it was more like expansionist principles, and psy­ He says "What do you mean - is there 20. chology because of it relevance to a whisky called Eric?" the student's everyday life. Part of her research showed that suf­ Professor John Durrant - the professor ferers often rejected help that was of­ of the public understanding of science fered and gave as one of the reasons then revealed the latest survey on pub­ that the sufferer believed the person of­ Stephen White is Director of Information with lic ignorance and attitudes to science. fering help felt "obliged". I postulated the Society. His survey included a simple quiz about

AIDS and the Nervous System

Psychologists need to be aware that AIDS as an Illness can directly attack the nervous system. Vincent Egan reports on a conference on "The Neurological and Neuropsychological Complications of HIV Infection" which took place In Quebec City, Canada, from 31 May - 3 June 1989.

The AIDS dementia complex (ADC) less common than once suggested. aduhs (and 11.5 per cent of children) sometimes follows the infection of the Well-controlled studies with conserva­ developed this complication. The in· brain by the human immunodeficiency tive criteria of neuropsychological and cidence of ADC appears bimodal, with virus (HIV). Damage in subcortical re­ neurological impairment are now repla­ peaks for children under five years, and gions of the brain can lead to impair­ cing some of the disturbing reports that adults over 70; presumably this is be­ ments in memory, attention, line motor were initially published. Subclinical im­ cause of the vulnerability of the young control, and the speed of basic func­ pairment may be seen, but the fear of and older brain to progressive insult. tions. This conference, a satellite event dementia raised by the early studies Marilyn Albert reviewed the neuropsy­ prior to the filth International Con­ shows that researchers must be cau­ chological studies of people with HIV ference on AIDS, drew together the tious when reporting such worrying re­ and noted that no studies show vocabu­ psychologists, neurologists and psychi­ sults. lary or mathematical deficits in patients; atrists interested in the nature of the Dementia in the American AIDS cohort this implies that learned knowledge is ADC. It was very necessary given the of 39,332 people was studied by Robert largely unaffected. Tests that discrimi­ chaos of the subsequent conference, Jansen of the Centre for Disease Con­ nate impaired from non-impaired pa­ which had over 11 ,OOO delegates! trol, Atlanta, Georgia. He found that tients, sometimes at quite early stages, The ADC as a common presenting only 3 per cent of individuals with AIDS are those involving memory (the Audi­ symptom of HIV infection, even in early had the ADC as a presenting symptom tory Verbal Learning Test); sustained or stages of the illness, appears rather of their illness, and only 6.5 per cent of divided attention (the Trail-Making test;

470 November 1989 The Psychologist set-switching in the Wisccnsin card-sort­ targets with their eyes, as they get pro­ seem that the effect is not an artefact of ing test; WAIS Digit-Symbol Substitu­ gressively more ill. Asymptomatic pa­ mood. tion); and information-processing speed tients are no different from controls for Ruth McAllister et al, of the Middlesex (PASAT, Sternberg short-term memory pro-saccades, smooth pursuit, and anti­ Hospital, London, conducted a study scanning, Posner tasks, choice reac­ saccadic accuracy. Anti-saccadic laten­ with implications for those screening pa­ tion-time). Agnes Koksis presented in­ cies were significantly longer in 38 per tients neurologically. A total of 192 indi­ formation using a dual-task RT task that cent of stage 2 HIV patients, suggesting viduals, participants of a prospective indicated successively more errors and subtle impairment in frontal lobe ocular neuropsychiatric study, were neurolo­ slowing with illness progression. motor programming. gically assessed from two different hos­ Psychophysiological measures also in­ The P300 auditory event-related poten­ pitals. Except for complaints about dicate that mental processes may be af­ tial (AEP) is a popular technique for as­ memory and concentration, HIV positive fected by HIV illness. David Brody et al sessing the neurophysiology of patients were no more likely to make reported olfactory identification deficits cognitive function. Our own research subjective neurological complaints than (also seen in early Alzheimer's and Par­ has shown that P300 amplitude reduces controls. Neurological abnormalities kinson's disease), indicating dysfunction both across HIV clinical status, and also were seen in 5 per cent of patients, with of the central olfactory pathways, par­ prospectively over time for the same in­ a further 23 per cent possibly affected. ticularly in the limbic system and tempo­ dividuals initially infected by intravenous Comparison of patients from the two ral lobes. The paradigm used by Brody drug use. Christine Ollo and her co-wor­ hospitals showed that significant neuro­ and cc-workers was a standardised 40- kers at the National Institute for Health logical abnormalities were no more item scratch'n'sniff odour identification at Bethsada, Maryland, replicated this common in either group. However, sig­ test (UPSIT). This gives ccmmon reduced P300 amplitude effect in her nificant differences in agreement about smells, which the subject is asked to own, rather smaller, but drug-free soft (clinical) neurological signs were identify from the four choices given. sample of gay men. AEP amplitude re­ observed. This implies that soft criteria Even a group of asymptomatic HIV duction reflects both faulty processing of are much more unreliable, and should positive men were worse on smell ident­ information and, sometimes, psychiatric only be used following formal training in ification than controls. levels of depression. Our own studies psychophysical paradigms specifically Another physiological marker of CNS have shown that our samples do not designed to increase the reliability of damage is impaired eye movement. show increasing levels of depression making such observations. John Currie of Victoria, Australia, (measured using the Beck Depression showed that patients make increasingly Inventory) with illness progression. Nor Vincent Egan is a Research Academic with jerky and slow eye movements when does the BDI correlate negatively with the Department of Psychiatry, Royal given simple tasks of following smooth P300 amplitude. It would therefore Edinburgh Hospital.

primary target group, all of whom were referred for individual appointments. News The hotline also referred to participating psychologists seven of the twelve cal­ lers who were not China "returnees" but were disturbed enough about the Beij­ ing crisis to need counselling. The rela­ "Hotline" in Hong Kong tively low response rate from these two groups might have been due to certain unique features of the Beijing crisis, in­ The military crackdown on the pro-democracy movement In Beijing, cluding its ongoing nature (eg., arrests China, on 4 June 1989, galvanised psychologists in Hong Kong to and executions) and political sensitivity. respond by offering a telephone "hotline" service for people suffering The hotline was rather more successful from post-traumatic stress. David Lam reports. in a wider sense; its publicity generated numerous calls (41 %) of a general na­ The hotline was set up as a counselling The trainees were supervised by a ture (ie., not related specifically to and referral service, and was especially university lecturer. Backing up the hot­ China), involving requests for assist­ targeted to those recently returned from line were more than 20 clinical psycho­ ance or information, whilst enquiries China who witnessed the extensive logists who were prepared to see the from the media accounted for another bloodshed around Tiananmen Square. more seriously disturbed caller/clients in third of all calls. This was a joint project of the Psycho­ individual sessions. The hotline project raised several logy Department at Hong Kong Univer­ During the two-week period of the hot­ broader implications of community men­ sity and the Division of Clinical line a total of 70 calls were received, tal health in Hong Kong (eg. Lam & Ho, Psychology of the Hong Kong Psycho­ broken down as follows: 1989). Space does not permit a discus­ logical Society, and all services and fa­ sion of these issues here, but it is worth cilities were donated free of charge. "Returnees" from 5 (7%) mentioning that the hotline achieved The hotline was publicised by posters, China some success as a community service, press releases, and radio and television Hong Kong residents 12 (17%) enhanced the public perception of psy­ talk shows. A briefing seminar was also distressed over events chology, and provided an action vehicle held for participating psychologists and in China for ccncerned psychologists. A follow-up trainees concerning the symptoms and educational booklet on post-traumatic General requests for­ 29 (41%) treatment of post-traumatic stress reac­ stress reactions will soon be distributed psychological assist­ tions. widely to the Hong Kong community. ance or information The service ran from 8-21 June and Reference Media enquiries 24 (34%) was operational during office hours in­ Lam, D.J. & Ho, D.Y.F. (1989). Community cluding Saturdays. It was staffed by TOTAL(percentages 70 calls psychology in Hong Kong: past, present and nine clinical psychology trainees, work­ were rounded) (99%) future. American Journal of Community Psy­ ing in two-person teams, who con­ chology, 17, 83-97. ducted the initial assessment and Dr Lam is with the Department of provided informal counselling to callers. Only five calls were received from the Psychology, University of Hong Kong.

The Psychologist November 1989 471 body, the Council of the British Psychological Society, was at one time largely ccmposed of nitwits" Burstall says Hearnshaw's conclu­ sions ''were accepted (by Council) without further enquiry". Giv3n that Leslie Hearn­ Media Watch shaw, a notable histor'an of psychology, had spent several years on his research and had started off having been invited by Burt's sis­ ter to write the official biography, this seemed the sensible thing to do. But was it? John Morton reports Burstall quotes Joynson "The errors are so frequent and widespread that they are highly The anatomy of a hooligan University is also reported to be in the run­ likely to be discovered by anyone who sets No, not the result of a backstreet carve-up ning. Charlie Lewis (no relation) got half a out to check wherever they begin their en­ but a headline in the Sunday Mirror on our page and pie in the Reading Evening Post quiry" Pretty heavy stuff, particularly as Bur­ football supporters in a serious article featur­ outlining his research on 15-month-old rec­ stall admits to never having read the ing David Nias and our own backstreet occa­ ognition of same sex walking patterns and Hearnshaw book. (We don't know what sional and QPR supporter George Sik. getting a plug for subjects on the way. Peter Sutherland has read.) Colquhoun, formerly at Teesside Poly, has "Britain's parents are to blame tor soccer What of Joynson? After all this, one would thugs say top psychologists." It makes a bred Major lvor, a four-time winner at Red­ car have expected him to double check ever/­ change from the throw-them-all-in-jail bri­ thing. Let us take something in the public do­ gade. Aggression in the family, lack of love main. Joynson takes on the Clarkes who as well as the older favourite lack of disci­ YUP also played a part in the Burt exposure. They pline all get a look-in. No-one attempted to Full marks to The Independent for getting had claimed that Burt wrote and published provide any answers but at least the Mirror some good quotes from psychologists while thesis summaries in their names making took half a page to try and explore the putting the boot 1n the Mensa scheme for changes from the originals. Joynson wants to causes. identifying Britain's 1,000 brightest children. argue that if Burt were the supervisor for Joan Freeman, who is President of the Euro­ these two theses, then he would have the A Page 3 exposure pean Federation for Gifted Children, called right to change the summaries. He then tries the search "gimmicky and attention-seeking". to suggest that Eysenck had no part in their This time in the Graduate Post, a freebie I had never heard of. A second-hand copy of Lea Pearson said of the test Mensa was supervision by, apparently, quoting from the the page in question was pushed through my using "It's biased, unscientific and anxiety­ acknowledgements in the two theses. He letter box by a furtive figure escaping from provoking" as well as racially and sexually says, "neither thesis acknowledges any as­ the married hordes of Birkbeck (if you don't biased and other psychologists joined in the sistance from Eysenck whatever" (p 247) I read THIS JOURNAL regularly, don't bother fun. Mind you, over 6,000 parents have en­ quote from the preface of Alan Clarke's to try to understand). Well, not many of us tered their children at £8.50 a throw, and if thesis: "This investigation constituted part of have achieved a full page spread with photo­ you pass you get invited to join at £25 a a major research under the direction of Dr graph. !t is a curious profile, not without its year. The article points out that there are H.J. Eysenck" and from that of Ann Clarke charm. On the one hand "David Lewis is also currentiy 25,000 members with an income (then Gravely): "Dr H.j. Eysenck, who a serious scholar" and on the other he is (Mensa members will already have worked it directed the major research of which this quoted as saying "I'm much too silly to be an out) of £625,000. According to the article formed a part .. .". These remarks directly fol­ academic". On the one hand he says "It's they have taken over £350,000 in test fees low the acknowledgements to Burt which publish or perish in the academic world" and since January! Pretty smart. Mensa agreed Joynson quoted. II he had actually looked at on the other hand we learn that he has pub­ that the search was a stunt, but claimed that the prefaces, he could not have failed to see lished books on "stress, bnnging up children they were trying to do something for gifted them. and child development, graphology, the law, children who were not getting on in school Others will observe how such examples may body language, sexual attraction, self as­ The Ob$erver focussed on this side of the be multiplied. I would just like to ask whether sessment and fulfilment" He has done all story and quoted the anxieties of a number the reviewing of books on scientific subjects this without the threat of perishing and he of individuals and groups. Angela Rumbold, in the national press is a scientific or a lit­ only started doing freelance research four the Education Minister, who I heard on erary and emotional matter? years ago! And you must understand that his Question Time giving a spirited, confused and ultimately inccherent plea tor capital Professor Morton is Head of the MRC Cogni­ books are "suggestions based on careful re­ tive Development Unit in London search" Take the much quoted BT advice of punishment (so far as I could gather she ac­ holding the phone to the right ear for facts tually wanted it for sex offenders as well), and the left ear for intuitive listening. This claimed that there was no problem. "Properly Psychology on the Air "caused uproar in the British Psychological delivered, (the new national curriculum) Society and led (sic) to angry letters in New should enable even the brightest pupils to CHARMIAN BOLLINGER appeared on "The Scientisr. Dr Lewis remarks, "We set up an advance at a rate suitable to their ability''. I Health Show", BBC Radio 4 on 10 Septem­ experiment and we found a difference". Well, love that "properly delivered''. ber, discussing the use of hypnosis in rela­ publishing the experiment in the British Jour­ tion to sleep problems nal of Psychology would certainly silence the Research gradings MARGARET CHARLTON. District Psycho­ critics of that one. Mind you, he has agreed According to the New Scientist, overall logist, Macclesfield Health Authority, ap­ to appear in a TV show celebrating the thou­ science and engineering, computer science peared on BBC GMR's Breakfast Show on sandth episode of Neighbours (what's that? got the most top ratings in the University 29 August talking about Starskey and Hutch ed) to discuss the programme's sociological Funding Council exercise this year with nine, star, Paul Michael Glaser's expenence of significance having told the interviewer "that followed by physics with eight and psycho­ HIV and AIDS. he had never previously watched it, and logy with seven. PETRUSKA CLARKSON appeared in would have to swot up by talking to a lriend''. "Prisoners of Childhood", a documentary on That can't be what he means by research. The Burt Rehabilitation Society the work of Alice Miller, on Tuesday 30 May No, it 1s playing the media at their own 1989 on Channel 4 game. "He is one of the band of 'experts' The Guardian and the Observer published (original quotes) to whom the media turn for raving and positive reviews of Joynson's at­ GLENYS PARRY was interviewed on the evidence that a subject is serious. If they're tempt to rehabilitate Sir Cyril Burt. Both re­ Today programme on 12 September about going to fund him to do it, who's he to viewers, Clare Burstall, Director of the her paper to the British Association for the argue?" Who indeed? National Foundation for Educational Re­ Advancement of Science on counselling for search and Stuart Sutherland, formerly host post-traumatic stress Psychologists here and there to serious scholar David Lewis in Sussex, DOUGLAS PATON has been interviewed on seemed to take everything Joynson said as BBC Radio Scotland, BBC Overseas Ser­ One of the 36 scientists short-listed for the tact. Both allude to the Council of the Society vice, Radio 6NR m Perth, Western Australia, British place on the Juno mission in '91 is endorsing Hearnshaw's arguments. Suther­ and Grampian Television on his research on Rupert England, a research psychologist at land writes with a childish glee that "the book the effects of disasters on helpers involved British Aerospace. Stephen Curran, of Leeds ... demonstrates that that august but risible after the Armenian earthquake and the Lockerbie air crash.

472 November 1989 The Psychologist Psychological Since 1979, I have worked with young people in experiential groups on YOPS • and YTS courses, as well as teaching "Communications" and "Interpersonal In Skills" in different parts of Surrey. Al­ most without exception, these students have told of traumatic experiences dur­ ing their school years, often resulting in their being labelled "difficult", "problem" Leaming and other pejorative names. Many stu­ dents have been on the receiving end of put-downs, sarcastic and caustic re­ marks, clouts and beatings, being "scapegoated", largely negative per­ sonal and academic appraisals, and expulsions. Many teachers seem un­ aware of their own potentially destructive power in forms of trans­ ference, counter-transference and

< •. projection in relationships with students. :- . ··c·- Recently, a highly-intelligent 17-year-old . . young man joined one of my groups. He .. '~~ \ .. '°'"t~ ;~ told of his expulsion from school when, iln··-·.-:·-· ·'r.';~t}; ' after being hit round the head twice by the teacher, he had retaliated and hit him back. He related how he had en­ thused about enjoying his work on the YTS course. The YTS teacher had turned le the other students and re­ torted: "I wonder how long he will last at that?" It does not appear easy for some teachers to treat students arriving in a new environment with earlier "labels", in a fresh manner. I have found with all so-called "difficult" students, that they will respond, flourish, and become motivated when treated as individuals worthy of a real, respectful relationship. The mutual expectation of respect may become then a reciprocal matter. It has become increasingly ap­ parent to me that when students truthfully express their thoughts and feelings, many teachers feel threatened and students are perceived as "rude". It is rare, except in a counselling situation, for students to be actively listened to with an understanding of their individual experience.

Teaching or enabling? When I originally started working with Beatrice Heywood-Taylor discusses the art of creating a "safe-enough" students, intuitively I used a democratic, environment for students to learn, with special reference to Rogerlan student-centred approach to learning student-centred learning. The opinions expressed are entirely those which recognises and draws upon the experiential world of each student as an of the author and are designed to provoke discussion. individual in any group. Student-centred learning derives from a humanistic ap­ he Education Section statement on I entirely endorse this view, but I also proach to education arising from the TPsychology and Initial Teacher believe that the approach of any Rousseauian notion that "people are Training (The Psychologist, February teacher is reflexive, in the same way born free". Such a theoretical basis con­ 1989) says: "All teachers have to under­ that psychologists or psychotherapists trasts strongly with the mechanistic, stand how their pupils' minds work." adopt models which complement their behavioural model. Student-centred own personalities. learning is far removed from the tradi­ tional "chalk-and-talk" methods of

The Psychologist November 1989 473 lecturing and imposing ideas upon stu­ and mind-view of the particular student. Psychology is of immense value in en­ dents. In Freedom to Learn, Carl Recently, a sad example was related to hancing the ability of teachers to create Rogers (1969) explains: me regarding a completely deaf student facilitating environments for learning. In The philosophy underlying ... a per­ in one of my groups. The teacher in this spite of problems arising irom high son-centred approach is one that is case had explained the problem the group numbers, it is vital to perceive the consistent with the values, the goals, second time by shouting at the student "real" person in each student. However the ideas that have historically been in a louder voice. restless, troubled or disruptive a student the spirit of our democracy. may be, if approached as a unique human being, s/he will respond to a hu­ Perhaps Bernard Shaw's famous epi­ manistic attitude. Jung (1933) wrote: gram, "Those who can, do: those who The students' viewpoint II I want to understand an individual can't, teach" might summarise the tradi­ Many students come from family and tional, authoritarian teaching methods human being, I must lay aside all academic backgrounds in which nega­ scientific knowledge of the average where the desire to teach is based upon tive messages have created an man and discard all theories in order a wish to impose theories, values and overwhelming lack of self-confidence to adopt a completely new and un­ rules upon students. Rogers clarifies his and self-esteem. Many problems such prejudiced attitude • a free, open position: as over-eating, anorexia, depression, in­ mind necessary for understanding. I know that I cannot teach anyone tense anxiety, and attention-seeking Teachers need to know or to learn how anything. I can only provide an envi­ behaviour appear to be expressions of to create a relaxed, "safe-enough" envi­ ronment in which s/he can learn. unease and insecurity from depowering ronment in which they are approachable environments. The word "education" derives from the and enthusiastic about their studE>nls' Latin word "educare", meaning to draw I asked 50 of my students to write a few learning and to reject authoritarian atti­ out from within. When Rogers extended statements, addressing the question: tudes which put down students and his theory of person-centred psy­ "What do you feel you need in any create fears and tensions which prevent chotherapy into educational concepts of learning environment in order to be able learning. student-centred learning, he proposed to learn most effectively?" that acceptance, clarification and affir­ References mation of human experience were more The following are extracts from some of conducive to personality growth, deve!· their views: Bell, P. & Best, R. (1986). Supportive Education Basil Blackwell opment and learning than the imposition • I like the friendliness of the teacher and interpretation of theories and con­ Jung, C.G. (1933). Modern Man in Search of which makes you learn, enjoying the a Soul. Routledge & Kegan Paul. cepts. lesson. I grew up in a school where Rogers, C. (1969). Freedom to Learn. My experience in teaching has been the teachers shouted and hit the kids Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company. that no one is able to learn anything un­ ... it surprises me here that even if I less s/he feels safe and at ease rather am not in good mood the lesson can Beatrice Heywood-Taylor is a than threatened, is able to enjoy the change me. (Greek student) Psychotherapist and a Part-Time Lecturer at East Surrey College, Redhill. learning process and feels understood • If I cannot interact directly with the rather than being met with a gener­ subject, then I have to interact with alised approach. Rogers stressed the people during the lesson, otherwise I need for a teacher to be genuine and lose interest. empathetic, offering openness and con­ gruence, rather than hiding behind a • As opposed to being continually role of an all-powerful, all-knowing auth­ "spoon fed" information, being encour­ ority. Students only then may feel the aged to gather, collate and later dis­ atmosphere is "safe enough" to take the cuss so as to contribute. Binders for The risks involved in expressing thoughts, Psychologist revealing experiences, experimenting • The enjoyable thing for me is in role with new ideas and creating and seek­ play or group discussion involving the warm, friendly, not boring, not strict, Smart new binders are now ing new understandings. Best (Bell & available for your monthly copies Best, 1986) writes: not moody teacher. Also when I walk into the classroom, the atmosphere of The Psychologist. Designed It is more often the case that it is the has got to be right. to hold up to 15 items (eg. 12 teacher's perception of her/his role issues, plus conference abstracts as a teacher which gets in the way of • Having a teacher that you feel confi­ plus index), they are white, with a clearer understanding of the prob­ dent with so you can express yourself the BPS logo on the spine, and lems and processes of learning. more freely. The Psychologist on the front Unfortunately, little attention or validity • Teaching myself and not being held printed in black. is given in the creation of many courses down by the restrictions imposed on to drawing upon the wealth of individual me in the classroom environment. £5 Including p&p, talent, skill and experience brought by from: each student. Many students are un­ • I like to learn from experience and happy in that, when they have taken the making mistakes. I don't like being The British Psychological Society risk of admitting to not understanding talked at or copying off the board, it is St Andrews House concepts, teachers often proceed to ex­ boring and then I get distracted so I 48 Princess Road East Leicester LE 1 ?DR plain the concept again in exactly the don't learn. I like to take an active same manner as before, without at­ part in lessons and not just sit back tempting to enter into the experience and listen.

474 November 1989 The Psychologist y early ambitions while at Win­ chester and at Cambridge, Mstudying mathematics and then psychology, had been directed towards the Civil Service, and in October 1938 I entered the Service as an Assistant Principal in the Dominions Office. There I dealt mainly with commercial relations, but on the outbreak of war I was given the plum job of Private Secretary to the Duke of Devonshire, then Under-Secre­ tary of State for the Dominions, a most agreeable master. Soon after I obtained an interview with a University Recruit­ ment Board, which recommended that I should be employed in some technical arm, such as RA signals, in view of my first class degree in maths. In early 1940 however, I was called up and posted to the York and Lancaster in­ fantry regiment (stationed at Plymouth, but consisting almost entirely of Londo­ ners!). Selection for specialised work in the Army was simple: for example, drivers were chosen from those recruits whose surnames started with A, B or C. In view of my school qualifications, I ob­ tained rapid promotion to Lance-Corpora!, the biggest promotional step in the Army which enables one to supervise privates peeling potatoes in­ stead of peeling them oneself. After two months I was interviewed for a possible Commission by a visiting Brigadier. He asked only two questions:

Portrait of the Author as a Young Man by Rosalind Eastman "How long does it take to t~avel by ex­ press train from London to Plymouth?" "Four and a quarter hours, Sir!" "Will Italy come into the war?" Reminiscences of 11 No, Sir!" I then gave cogent reasons why Italy would be ill-advised to enter the war, a Wartime .Army expressed in a clear, confident manner. The Brigadier was visibly impressed. Unfortunately, shortly afterwards Italy did enter the war, and I was afraid that Psychologist the Brigadier would say, "Who was that clot who said Italy would not enter the war? I will cancel his Commission". Luckily he had either forgotten, or my papers could not be found. "Why did we win the war?" Edgar Anstey asks rhetorically. "Not because we had better soldiers - we didn't - but because we had In June 1939 I was posted to an officer training unit at Farnborough (then com­ better scientists. Everyone knows about the Inventors of the jet manded by Lt-Colonel Bingham, who aircraft, the spitfire, the tank landing craft, and radar, but the public wrote a famous letter to The Times ar­ seems to know very little about the psychologists. And psychologists guing that public school boys made transformed morale in the British army from zero level in 1942." much the best officers). While at Farn­ borough my first platoon commander was primarily interested in drill, so my Edgar Anstey was one of a small group of psychologists whose work initial grading, on a scale from A to D, on selection during the Second World War helped to establish was only C. The second platoon com­ psychology as an applied science. From his home in Cornwall, with mander was keenly interested in bridge. its panoramic views of the Atlantic rollers sweeping into Polzeath Three of us who confessed to sharing this interest were exempted from guard Bay, he looks back at those challenging years. duties to make up a four with him, and

The Psychologist November 1989 475 my grading advanced to B. Our feelings more of this until to my astonishment a policy (i.e. persuading the rest of the for this particular officer (a Regular) few days later my Battalion commander Army to agree to our proposals); SP2 were of thinly disguised contempt. received a peremptory telegram from under Lt-Colonel Sentence-Tapp was which almost reached breaking point the War Office, instructing him to re­ responsible for "pay and rations", in when one Sunday, instead of our usual lease me for "special duties" in the other words logistical support. We were weekend chore of digging anti-tank tren­ psychology laboratory at Cambridge. headed by Brigadier K. Mclean, who in ches for the defence of Farnborough, This he did, with some reluctance. turn reported direct to the Adjutant­ he ordered us to spend the day shoring General of the Army, General Sir This first year of my Army service had up the banks of an ornamental lake in Ronald Adam. He was an extraordinar­ actually been of great value in two the grounds of a titled friend. The third ily forward looking man, without whose ways. First, it convinced me that the platoon commander came from King's unswerving support we would never Army selection methods were capable College, Cambridge (my own college), have been able to persuade the Army of improvement, and second, my "active and my grading rose to A. to accept the wholesale reforms which service" in the infantry did in fact make were recommended. While at Farnborough, I was told that at me more acceptable later to other Army the neighbouring Royal Artillery Signals officers. The history of personnel selection in officer training unit, more than half of World War II has been covered in Per­ the cadets were "returned to unit" (i.e. sonnel Selection in the British Forces by failed) mainly because of lack of mathe­ The gathering of the Philip Vernon and John Parry, published matical knowledge or skill. This in 1949. I shall confine myself therefore reminded me of the lack of interest dis­ psychologists to personal recollections and comments. played in my own University Board Shortly after my arrival at the Cam­ In 1941 our initial tasks were twofold: certificate. bridge Army selection unit, we were first, job analyses of the main Army, to joined by a fourth psychologist, Jack establish the requirements of each Davies. In view of his distinguished ser­ Corps in terms of numbers of men of "On active service" vice with the National Institute of varying grades of ability. special techni­ Industrial Psychology and his com­ cal skills and personality characteristics; In the autumn of 1940 I obtained my manding personality, he quickly second, to devise a battery of tests Commission as Second Lieutenant and achieved a reputation in Army circles: in which, when combined with interviews was posted to the second battalion of April he was summoned to an interview by trained Personnel Selection Officers the Dorset Regiment, stationed at Horn­ at the War Office, leaving in the morn­ (PSOs) would enable those require­ sea in East Yorkshire, and entrusted ing as a 2nd-Lieutenant, he returned to ments to be met by filling jobs with with the task of defending some 15 Cambridge in the evening as a Lt-Colo­ people well suited for them. miles of the Yorkshire coast against nel. The War Office had set up a new possible German invasion. I was made Directorate for the Selection of Person­ The job analyses were led by Balchin 3-inch Mortar Officer (at that time this nel, with Jack Davies as Inspector and and Ungerson, with speed and effi­ was the most powerful weapon allotted Technical Director. ciency. Some significant improvements to an infantry battalion) in charge of were possible. For example, the crew one and a half mortars (the barrel of Norman Hotopf and I joined the Direc­ for the standard 25-pounder gun had one mortar had been mislaid) and pre­ torate as Captains, while Alec Rodger traditionally been of six men, one of cisely 50 live mortar shells, with no departed as Senior Psychologist to the whom had the main duty of holding the prospect of obtaining any more in the Admiralty. The technical division "SP3" head of the horse. Given mechanisation foreseeable future. My platoon con­ was soon joined by four more psycho­ and replanning of their duties, this crew tained 30 young men of exceptionally logists: Nigel Balchin (later a famous could be reduced to five, only four of fine physique, but neither they nor I had novelist), Bernard Ungerson (later suc­ whom need be operational at any mo­ ever fired a mortar shell and we had cessor to Jack Davies as Chief ment, with the fifth man as a relief. only a manual to guide us. I was thus Psychologist), Denis McMahon and faced with one of the most difficult deci­ Edith Mercer in charge of ATS selec­ sions of my life - whether to preserve tion, and by two expert statisticians, the 50 shells for the German invasion or Philip Vernon and Patrick Slater. All Selecting tests to use half of them in a practice shoot. I these were the most stimulating col­ Choosing a battery of selection tests. chose the latter. and maybe this was leagues and companions one could some existing ones and others newly the right decision, because it was not possibly imagine. Philip Vernon was devised, was mainly my responsibility, until the 21 st attempt that we suc­ also a distinguished psychologist but, with much assistance from all my col­ ceeded in damaging the target, let both in the Directorate and in the Admir­ leagues. Our first test was the alone destroying it. alty, he was employed mainly on "Progressive Matrices Test" invented by statistical analyses. Armed with a slide J.C. Raven, a non-verbal test of intel­ The winter passed peacefully, and in rule, he performed factor analyses with ligence, consisting of groups of patterns February 1941 I spent a few days' leave extraordinary speed and accuracy, often and little affected by educational or so­ in Cambridge. While looking up old in a single evening. Patrick Slater, on cial factors. This was invaluable to friends in the psychology laboratory, I the other hand, was a pioneer of electri­ identifying young men whose high in­ found to my surprise that an experimen­ cal calculating machines, and his nate intelligence had been concealed tal Army Selection Unit had been astonishment on being confronted with by poor upbringing and lack of educa­ established under the direction of Eric a Minister of the Crown who had never tional opportunities. Farmer, with the able assistance of Nor­ seen such a machine is dramatically re­ man Hotopf and Alec Rodger. They had corded in Nigel Balchin's novel The I remember, for example, first testing invented selection tests bearing the in­ Small Back Room. and then interviewing one young man itial letters of their surnames, FH3 and whose only civilian job had been mind­ FHR, and obtained promising results The Directorate contained two other Di­ ing a petrol pump. He obtained an with them. They enquired what I was visions: SP1 under Lt-Colonel D.G.O. outstandingly high score which showed doing, and I told them. I thought no Ayerst was responsible for selection him to be within the top 3 per cent of

476 November 1989 The Psychologist the population for intelligence. On our mended by psychologists. suited for their Pioneer Corps duties. advice, he was singled out for special On the other hand, the Royal Corps of Our first great achievement was the in­ training and promotion. Three years Signals now received a high prop0rtion troduction of the "General Service later he reached the rank of Sergeant­ of men of above average intelligence, Corps". Under this scheme new recruits Major. numerate, and with some relevant ex­ were given a common six weeks basic perience in civilian life. The other four basic tests were a test of training before being allocated to Army Mechanical Aptitude, an Arithmetic test, units. Following the job analyses, all a Verbal test, and an Instructions test. Army jobs had been classified into In addition we devised practical tests of seven groups of Training Recommenda­ Officer selection physical agility, mechanical assembly tions or "TRs". These were TR1 - The second great achievement in 1942 and auditory acuity. There were thor­ Driving, TR2 - Mechanical Mainten­ was the introduction of new style War ough training courses for testers and for ance, TR3 - Signalling, TR4 - Practical Office Selection Boards. The previous PSOs who interviewed recruits and and Constructional, TR5A - Clerical, system of officer selection had been made recommendations for their em­ TR5B - Storemen, TR6 - General Com­ mainly by personal interview of men batant, and TR7 - Labouring. The job ployment. whose previous record (e.g. attendance analyses also recommended a suitable at public schools), was thought to give From the outset the emphasis was on mix of TRs for each Army unit. For strict validation and follow-up. Correla­ promise of "Officer Quality". Command­ example, an Infantry Battalion should tions between test results and end of ing officers could also put forward men contain something like 1O per cent TR1; who had come to their attention, poss­ training course examinations were 5 per cent TR2; 5 per cent TR3; 1O per usually high, but sometimes surprising. ibly through gallantry in action, or cent TR4; 5 per cent TR5; 60 per cent For example, the test of clerical aptitude possibly through exceptional smartness TR6; and 5 per cent TR7. devised by Mary Ormiston achieved on parade. high validities for drivers and other jobs, Early on in their basic training all re­ By the beginning of 1942 this system as well as for clerks. It was accordingly cruits took the battery of five written and had palpably broken down. The per­ remodelled as a general "Instructions" three practical tests and were inter­ centage of cadets "returned to unit" by test and included in the basic battery. viewed by PSOs, who took account of officer training units because of sheer On another occasion, when experiment­ both their previous experience and their lack of ability was alarmingly high. Even ing with 100 clerks under training at a abilities measured by the tests and more serious, thousands of men with of­ Royal Service Corps depot, extraordi­ gave each man three TRs in descend­ ficer potential were not being identified narily high correlation coefficients were ing order of suitability for posting. Using and given any chance to receive officer obtained, some exceeding 0.9. How­ "Hollerith" machinery, the men were al­ training. The expanding Army was thus ever, the explanation was that 40 of the located to units systematically in such a faced with a serious shortfall of officers men, with no previous clerical experi­ way that each unit received approxi­ and in despair turned to the Directorate ence, had been posted there in error. mately the right spread of general to introduce an entirely new system of The variance of scores both in the tests intelligence and special experience and officer selection. and in the course examinations was abilities to become an efficient fighting thus exceptionally high, producing spuri­ unit. This was a spectacular advance on Selection Boards have been described ously high validities. the previous system by which some in many books and articles. Suffice it to units received too many high quality say that their main virtues were; men and others, less popular, received Helping to win the war too high a proportion of poor quality re­ • Absence of bias in their attitude to cruits. candidates For the Directorate, as for the country, One striking tribute was paid by an el­ • Reliance on objective selection tests 1942 was the decisive year. Until No­ for assessments of ability vember 1942 (apart from clearing the derly officer in the Pioneer Corps, who Italians out of Northeast Africa) the Brit­ told me that the introduction of the • Use of leaderless group tests. some scheme had "meant the ruin of a fine ish Army suffered defeat after defeat. practical outdoor tests and some in­ As Churchill put it, "before Alarnein we Corps". Previous entrants to the Corps door discussions designed to assess had contained too many men of quite scarcely won a victory; alter Alamein we four aspects of leadership - participa­ scarcely suffered a defeat". Things went high ability but unsuited to heavy ma­ tion, dominance, acceptability and nual work. Under the new scheme so badly in 1940-42 that the Army be­ content entrants were mainly men of low intel­ came prepared to consider any ligence but strong physique, eminently • Separate personal interviews by three measures for reform, even those recom- assessors - a Senior officer, a Junior officer, and a psychiatrist, and thor­ Extract from Who's Who 7989 ough discussion of each candidate's strengths and weaknesses before ar­ ANSTEY, Edgar, MA, PhD; Deputy Chief Scientific Officer, Civil Service Depart­ riving at a Board conclusion. The in­ ment, and Head of Behavioural Sciences Research Division, 1969-77; Assistant troduction of new style Selection Principal, Dominions Office, 1938; Private Secretary to Duke of Devonshire, Boards in the summer of 1942 re­ 1939. 2nd Lieutenant Dorset Regiment, 1940; Major, War Office (DSP), 1941. sulted in such a dramatic drop in the Founder-Head of Civil Service Commission Research Unit, 1945; Principal Home percentage of candidates "returned to Office, 1951; Senior Principal Psychologist, Ministry of Defence, 1958; Chief Psy­ Unit" that they received general ac­ chologist, Civil Service Commission, 1964-69. Publications: Interviewing for the ceptance throughout the Army. Selection of Staff (with Dr E.O. Mercer), 1956; Staff Reporting and Staff Develop­ ment, 1961; Committees - How they work and how to work them. 1962; On the lighter side, it is amusing to re­ Psychological Tests, 1966; The Techniques of Interviewing, 1968; (with Dr CA call some of the wilder ideas which Fletcher and Dr J. Walker) Staff Appraisal and Development, 1976; An Introduc­ were put forward but never put into ef­ tion to Selection Interviewing, 1978; articles in British Journal of Psychology, fect. One of these was the barbed wire Occupational Psychology, etc. trench test - an offshoot of the success-

The Psychologist November 1989 477 ful practical test in which leaderless overall gradings. But, using multiple to make this maximum contribution to groups of men had to transport ob­ correlation techniques, the best overall the winning of the war, whether as an stacles across a wide ditch, using poles, prediction of Selection Board verdict "other rank" or as an officer. I myself felt ropes and other apparatus placed at could be obtained by giving the Instruc­ by January 1944 that I ought perhaps to their disposal. In this variation, a candi­ tions and Verbal tests high positive return to active service in the forthcom­ date had to leap across a trench filled weights and the Progressive Matrices ing invasion of Europe, and I with barbed wire, tapering in width from and Mechanical Aptitude Tests low ne­ volunteered to do so. But in his reply about 8 feet at one end to 20 feet at the gative weights. The explanation dated 24 March, Brigadier Buchanan other. His instruction was simply to probably lies in the different require­ Smith refused my application on the jump across the ditch at the widest ments for a private soldier and an grounds that the best use of the limited point he could manage. The theory was officer. Intelligence and special skills are psychological expertise available to the that a good candidate would choose the always helpful in any job. But, com­ Army was of overriding importance. point, say, 15 feet wide where he could pared with a private, an officer requires just make it successfully. A cowardly a much higher degree of verbal skill in As the war was nearing its end Sir Per­ cival Waterfield, the first Civil Service candidate would choose a narrow part marshalling his thoughts and issuing Com missioner, invited me to join the of the ditch, and a reckless candidate clear orders, and also more of the par­ Civil Service Commission as Head of a would choose too wide a part, fall back­ ticular skills measured in the new Research Unit and as one of the wards and eliminate himself. I don't Instructions test. Except in some spe­ think this particular test got off the draw­ cialised posts, an officer does not three psychologists serving at Stoke D'Abernon on the new Civil Service Se­ ing board! require any more mechanical aptitude or experience. Be all this as it may, at lection Boards. Many happy years One feature of the officer selection sys­ the initial selection stage one of our followed, culminating, so far as I was tem which has not been publicised is tasks was to pick out men with the concerned, in my article "A 30-year Fol­ the Officer Rating Index, derived from greatest prospect of passing a Selection low-up of the CSSB Procedure, with the basic test battery. With the great Board, and as a measure of relevant in­ lessons for the Future" published in the stress placed by the Directorate on test­ tellectual ability, the officer rating index Journal of Occupational Psychology in ing and validating each part of the was a useful tool in deciding to recom­ September 1977, but that is another selection procedure, it was natural that story. mend a recruit for a Board. in 1942, for the population passing through the Selection Boards we should looking back over the history of the Di­ The opinions expressed in this article are correlate each of the individual tests rectorate, it can be claimed that we entirely those of the author. with the final gradings. The results were made a substantial contribution to the startling. efficiency and morale in the Army when Dr Anstey was twice Chair of the each new recruit became assessed im­ Occupational Psychology Section and as All five tests correlated positively with such served on the BPS Council. partially on his merits, thus helping him

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PSYCHOLOGY AND THE LAW• PSYCHOLOGY AND THE LAW• PSYCHOLOGY AND THE LAW .PSYCHOLOGY AND THE LAW Law in Practice The Polygraph Test: Lies, Police Work SALLY LLOYD-BOSTOCK Truth and Science PETER B. AINSWORTH and KEN PEASE

• Why are eyewitness accounts often Edited by ANTHONY GALE 'a mine of information and ideas' unreliable" Police 'This is an excellent book, and everyone • What makes a witness persuasive in Police Work answers such questions court? who is likely to come into contact with the polygraph should read it' as: How can police officers reduce • Do interrogation techniques work Times Higher Education their own levels of stress? Why don't too well? Supplement people rush to help at an accident? • Should children's evidence in abuse Why do eyewitnesses give different cases be admissable? The Polygraph Test is essential accounts of the same event? Can you reading for psychologists and tell ii someone is lying? Law in Practice brings together all the students of psychology. Also for major areas of psychological research lawyers, the police, personnel officers Peter B. Ainsworth is a former police which arc of practical use and interest and trade unionists. officer and both authors are involved to lawyers, magistrates and students of in police training. law. BPS members£17.95 hb nor:rri.ally £19.95 BPS members £4.75 pb/£11.25 hb BPS members £5.55 pb/£11.95 hb normally L'::J 95 pb/(14.95 hb normally £6.95 pb/£15.95 hb St Andrews House 48 Princess Road East Leicester LE1 7DR UK

478 November 1989 The Psychologist HERMANN, B.P. & SEIDENBERG, M. (Eds) (1989) Childhood Epilepsies: Neuropsychological, Books psychosocial and intervention aspects. Wi!ey. Hardback £26.95. MARKIDES, K.S. & 'COOPER, C.L (Eds) (1989) Aging, Stress and Health Wiley. Hardback Books Received PERSONS, J.B. (1989) £29.95. Cognitive Therapy in Practice: A case formu­ NEUFELD, R.W.J. (Ed) (1989) Listed in order received lation approach. W.W. Norton. Hardback Advances in the Investigation of Psychologi­ 'Denotes a Member of the Society £17.50. cal Stress. Wiley. Hardback £39.30. KRAMER, P.D. (1989) WAGNER, H. & 'MANSTEAD, A. (Eds) Moments of Engagement: Intimate psy­ BOTT SPILLIUS, E. & FELDMAN, M. (Ed) (1989) chotherapy in a technological age. W.W. Handbook of Social Psychophysiology. (1989) Norton. Hardback £14.95. Psychic Equilibrium and Psychic Change: Wiley. Hardback £49.95. Selected papers of Betty Joseph Tavis­ CRUISE JESSE, R. (1989) BROWN, H. & CRAFT, A. (Eds) (1989) tock/Routledge. Hardback. Paperback Children in Recovery: Healing the parent­ Thinking the Unthinkable: Papers on sexual £14.95. ch1Jd relationship in alcohol/addictive families. abuse and people with learning difficulties. W.W. Norton. Hardback £14.95. 'RAVDEN, S.J. & 'JOHNSON, G.\. (1989) FPA Education Unit. Paperback £8.95. Evaluating Usability of Human-Computer In­ MALLON, B. (1989) KRUGLANSKI, A.W. (1989) terfaces: A practical method Ellis Horwood. Children Dreaming: The meaning and signi­ Lay Epistemics and Human Knowledge: Hardback £21. ficance of children's dreams - from toddlers Cognitive and motivational bases. Plenum to adolescence. Penguin. Paperback £3.99. CURTIS, R.C. (Ed) (1989) Press. Hardback $42. Self Defeating Behaviours: Experimental re­ WHITE, A. (1989) WAXMAN, D. (1989) search, clinical impressions, and practical im­ Poles Apart? The Experience of Gender. Hanland's Medical and Dental Hypnosis 3rd plications. Plenum Press. Hardback $45. J.M. Dent. Paperback £6.95. Edn. Bailliere Tindall. Paperback £19.95. WADESON, H., DURKIN, J. & PERACH, D. SINGLETON, W.T. (1989) KAKAR, S. (1989) (Eds) (1989) The Mind at Work: Psychological ergono­ The Inner World: A psycho-analytic study of Advances in An Therapy. Wiley. Hardback mics. Cambridge University Press. Hardback childhood and society in India. 2nd Edn. Ox­ £33.40. £40. ford University Press. Paperback £3.95. CICCHETTI, D. & CARLSON, V. (Eds) •FREEMAN, C. & TYRER, P (Eds) (1989) SARNOFF, I. & SARNOFF, S. (1989) (1989) Research Methods in Psychiatry: A begin­ Love-centred Marriage in a Self-centred Child Maltreatment: Theory and research on ner's guide. The Royal College of Psychia­ World. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation. the causes and consequences of child abuse trists/Gaskell. Paperback £10 Hardback £28. Paperback £14. and neglect. Cambridge University Press. BLACK, D., WOLKIND, S. & HARRIS BIRCHWOOD, M.J., HALLETT, S.E. & Hardback £40. Paperback £15. HENDRIKS, J. (Eds) (1989) 'PRESTON, M.C. 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The Psychologist November 1989 479 ACADEMIC

A Critique of the Evaluation of the "Child Development Programme" (Barker and Anderson 1988)

Jim Stevenson In publishing Stevenson's critique of the "Child Develop­ ment Programme" and the reply by Barker and Anderson who developed it, we are making a new departure in the Too rarely do psychologists get the opportunity to test the Academic Section of The Psychologist. It is unusual for knowledge gained from psychological research in large­ us to publish methodological critiques of evaluation scale social programmes. This makes the work of Barker studies. However, this is an important area in psychologi­ and his colleagues of considerable interest. The Child De­ cal research as more intervention programmes are velopment Programme represents a potential major developed. Rigour in the evaluation of such intervention influence on the development of health visiting practice in is clearly vital. The critique presented and its rebuttal il­ the UK. Many Health Authorities have considered the pro­ lustrate some of the central considerations for any gramme and a number of health districts have adopted longitudinal evaluation programme. We hope in the future various models of service delivery based upon the pro­ to provide in The Psychologist a venue for further de­ gramme. The Early Childhood Development Unit at the bates on the adequacy of the evaluation of intervention University of Bristol has received funds from the Bernard van Leei Foundation to develop, disseminate and evaluate this programme. For the first time the project has made Honorary Editors I available its account of the evaluation of the programme in terms of the impact on processes within the family and the outcome as far as children are concerned. The programme It is crucial that the evaluation evidence be considered care­ represents an important re-orientation in the role of health fully, precisely because the programme does represent a visiting. In their own words: radical departure from established health visiting practice. The present critique is based upon Barker, W. and Ander­ It enables health visitors and other community workers to son, R. (1988) The Child Development Programme: an offer structured support and encouragement to the par­ evaluation of process and outcomes. Early Childhood Devel­ ents of young children, especially first-time parents, or opment Unit, University of Bristol. older parents who face problems in the rearing of their children. Visitors are expected to divest themselves of The general design of the evaluation was based upon the any vestige of "authority" and to approach the parents as random allocation of each of a pair of health visitors to inter· real equals. The programme is very comprehensive, fo­ vention and control conditions and a good case is made for cussing on nutrition, language, social and cognitive this procedure. Children !or the evaluation study were ran­ development, as well as health and maternal self­ domly selected from the case loads of the control and esteem. intervention health visitors. For reasons that are unclear The Child Development Programme consists of semi­ from the report, the number of intervention children in the structured monthly home visits by the health visitor. At each evaluation in some regions was roughly twice that of the visit the parent is asked about changes in the child's abilities control sample. since the last visit. The health visitor is supplied with mater­ Interviewers were recruited to conduct three assessments of ials, often humorous cartoons, with which to prompt the par­ the children and their families. The published results are ent on various aspects of child-rearing that may be of based on year one and year three data only i.e. when the concern to them. The child's diet is reviewed on a syste­ children were on average 10.4 months and 42.9 months of matic basis, as is a check on more formal aspects of health age respectively. There was no attempt to ensure that differ­ care (e.g. immunisation) and developmental checks. The ent interviewers for any one family were used at each central part of the visit is taken up with identifying possible assessment. The interviewers were blind as to whether the developmental tasks for the parent to tackle. This includes a families were intervention or control at the first year assess­ check on progress with the task agreed at the previous visit. ment but not thereafter. Attempts were made to avoid the Such tasks might include stimulating some aspect of lan­ interviewers being familiar with the content of the pro­ guage skills, coping with a behavioural problem or altering gramme. part of the child's diet. There is a section of the report that gives a consumers' view of the value of the programme from the parents, health visi· tor and nurse managers. These are well presented and © 1989 The British Psychological Society highlight advantages and disadvantages of the programme. The Psychologist: Bulletin of the British Psychological Unfortunately no systematic or quantitative data is presented Society (1989), 11, 480-482. in support of this account of consumers' views.

480 November 1989 The Psychologist ACADEMIC The main substantive findings, as stated by the authors, are lysis to determine the impact of intervention on child devel­ as follows: opment outcomes; the choice of multiple regression is 1. Thirty three per cent of 1051 children were lost to the appropriate. The authors have developed their own form of study - an equal loss in the intervention and control sam­ regression based on a v-ridge procedure and provide a ples. good case for its adoption. 2. Significant improvements in the parental home environ­ The child measures were amalgamated into an index based ment measures favoured the intervention group. upon the weighted sum of the socialisation, language devel­ opment, cognitive development and educational awareness 3. Intervention produced a highly significant prediction of the of the child. Rather than obtaining these weights by principal child's global development score in the third year for three component analysis different a priori weights are ascribed at out of four Areas. the Year 1 and 3 time points. 4. Parents, health visitors and managers were widely sup­ A major concern in the analysis is the way the intervention portive of the programme. variable was constructed. Rather than simply treating the in­ 5. Health visitor personality characteristics were a material tervention variable as a binary predictor in the regression, tt factor in the success of the programme. is argued that variation such as the number of health visitor 6. Nutritional and growth changes favouring the intervention visits and the extent of the tasks given to the parents should cases could be detected in some areas. be included in the intervention measure. The result of amal­ 7. The programme could produce a remarkable reduction in gamating the intervention variables in this way is a serious the number of cases on child abuse registers and a very low distortion that undermines the interpretation of the effects of level of child abuse injuries. the programme per se. 8. The programme is influencing an increasing number of The control and intervention groups are both in the analysis. health visitors and health authorities. The control cases presumably all have a value of zero on the intervention variable. The intervention cases then re­ The aim of this critique is to examine the validity of these ceive scores distributed across a wider range that reflects conclusions based on the evidence presented in the report. the extent to which they were in contact with the pro­ It has been an unfortunate feature of the work of the Child gramme. The use of this variable to then predict the child's Development Programme that few accounts of its rationale global development, for example, could mean that the re­ and the evaluation evidence have appeared in peer re­ gression is only picking up the differential effects of within viewed journals. Accordingly there has been little programme variation. It would have been more appropriate commentary on the programme from the wider research to use an intervention index that was a simple binary index community. It is timely to consider the evidence on the pro­ to compare intervention and control. At a second stage the gramme's efficacy given the relative difficulty of variation in programme delivery could have been invest­ demonstrating health visitor effectiveness in other pro­ igated within the intervention sample alone. The net effect of grammes (Stevenson, 1988) and the enthusiasm for the this approach to the treatment of the intervention is that the programme amongst those developing services in certain power cl the original experimental design is lost i.e. the in­ areas. tervention measure is no longer based upon clear random A major problem with the evaluation concerns the testing of allocation to intervention and control treatments. significant differences in changes between the intervention A further difficulty this creates is the danger of circularity. It and control groups. This is shown, for example, in the ana­ may be that those parents who saw the programme as lysis of changes in the home variables such as the "home being helpful to their child were the ones that most readily cognitive environment", which is based on "observations and agreed to more frequent visiting or at least were less likely questions on the creative use of toys and their variety, as to break appointments or to deny the health visitor access to well as the child's freedom to play with kitchen utensils and the family. This would then lead to an inevitable association other domestic objects". These results are given as the t-test between an intervention variable that included frequency of statistics for the comparison of the control and intervention visiting and the child's developmental index. group means for the home environment measures separate­ ly at Year 1 and Year 3. The comparison of the size of the Barker and Anderson (personal communication) have recal­ change in the control and intervention groups is then in­ culated the regression analyses using this a binary dexed by the aggregated t-test statistics at the two time intervention variable. For the eight main analyses, in seven points. There are a number of dificulties with this approach. cases the intervention variable remained significantly related The size of '1" is not a direct measure of the magnitude of to outcome in the expected direction of favouring the inter­ the differences between the mean scores of the groups at vention group. However, the percentage of the variance any one age. It is also influenced by the within sample vari­ attributable to the intervention variable was sharply reduced. ances and the number of subjects. In addition it is not The results of the published analyses using the continuous appropriate to add two values of '1" to gain an index of an intervention measure produced results with 1.11 to 3.96 per aggregated effect; it is not an interval scale measure. cent of the variance attributable to the intervention. This means that after converting the intervention index to a bi­ A recurrent problem in the report is the failure to report nary form to avoid the confounding effects described above simple group means on the environmental and outcome the programme is seen to have very little effect on the child variables. Instead either t values are quoted or percentage outcome. variance explained are given from the regression analysis. Nowhere is there a straightforward statement of the mean A second major confounding factor in these regression ana­ scores for groups before and after either intervention or con­ lyses is the incorporation of health visitor personality as part ventional health visiting. The statistical analysis of change of the intervention measure. It is not clear whether these data is notoriously difficult and many alternative solutions were measured on the control cases. When the intervention have been proposed (Harris, 1963; Wohlwill, 1973; Gold­ variable is then regressed onto the outcome measures the stein, 1979; Plewis, 1981) but the method chosen to analyse resultant significant regression could simply result from non­ control and intervention differences in home measures specific effects of health visitor personality. It is not central makes little sense. to the evaluation to demonstrate that some health visitors are more effective than others in their work with the families A good case is made for the need to use multivariate ana-

The Psychologist November 1989 481 ACADEMIC on their case loads. What is of greater relevance to the knowledge to the care and welfare of young children. Unfor­ evaluation is whether there is differential effectiveness in the tunately the case for the programme is not aided by the health visitors' use of the Child Development Programme. reporting of evaluation data in this muddled and misleading At several points during the report, reference is made to manner. It is to be hoped that the authors will reconsider Abelson (1985) who has argued that variables with small some aspects of the analysis and then present them for effects when they operate over a number of years will have scrutiny in a variety of peer reviewed journals. a cumulatively greater effect. There is no evidence that this References intervention can have such an effect. The impact on the Abelson, R.P. (1985). A variance explanation paradox: when a little families and on the child may wash out in time or may be is a lot. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 129-133. limited to the duration of the programme. The onus is on the Creighton, S. (1988). The incidence of child and neglect. In K. Browne, C. Davies and P. Stratton (Eds) Early Prediction and DCP to demonstrate cumulative effects rather than assum­ Prevention of Child Abuse. Chichester: John Wiley. ing they are present. Testing for cumulative effects should Goldstein, H. (1979). The Design and Analysis of Longitudinal be possible by incorporating the Year 2 data which was ex­ Studies. London: Academic Press. cluded in the present analysis. Harris, C.W. (Ed) (1963). Problems in the Measurement of Change. Madison: University of Winsconsin Press. The major part of the evaluation ooncerns the initial format Plewis, I. (1981 ). A comparison of approaches lo the analysis of of the CDP. The final section presents some preliminary re­ longitudinal categoric data. British Journal of Mathematical and sults from first parent visitors which is the current field tested Statistical Psychology, 34, 118-123. version of the CDP. Some data are also presented on the Stevenson, J. (1988). Some thoughts on the evaluation of levels of child abuse amongst CDP children. A strong claim collaborative services with health visitors for preschool children with is made that the programme has been effective in substan­ behaviour problems. In J. Stevenson, P. Appleton, J. Douglas, T. Fundudis & K. Hewitt Health Visitor Based Services for Preschool tially reducing the rates of child abuse. Unfortunately, these Children with Behaviour Problems. Final report of the ACPP Study claims are based upon spurious comparisons with national Group, January 1989. NSPCC statistics that were gathered in a somewhat different Wohlwill, J.F. (1973). The Study of Behavioural Development. New manner than that in the intervention cases. A seoond oom­ York: Academic Press. parison is made with child abuse register data from other parts of the health authority. It is well-known that the policies over the inclusion of children onto the child abuse registers This critique was produced in conjunction with a Study varies from area to area - so strict oomparability is precluded Group of the Association for Child Psychology and (see Creighton, 1988). There is no clear demarcation of the Psychiatry on "Health visitor based services for preschool children with behaviour problems". I am grateful to the age of the children in the programme and those taken from ACPP for their financial support and to my oolleagues on the the Authority registers. These results are consistent with the Study Group for their comments (Peter Appleton, Jo programme having an impact on child abuse rates but no Douglas, Trian Fundudis and Kevin Hewitt). stronger oonclusions should be drawn. The Child Development Programme is a major feature in the development of health visitor practice in the UK. It is an ap­ Requests for reprints should be addressed to: proach with a strong theoretical justification and one that J. Stevenson, Dept of Psychology, University of Surrey, should stand a good chance of enhancing the impact of Guildford, Surrey GU2 5XH. health visitors on their families. It therefore represents an important test ground for the application of psychological Revised version received May 1989.

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482 November 1989 The Psychologist ACADEMIC

Response to Critique of the CDP's Evaluation Document 9

Walter Barker and Richard Anderson

This response will of necessity concentrate on the key is­ would prompt a high positive feedback, whether or not the sues, rather than attempt to comment on every detail in the programme had been effective. Consumers' views are the Critique. The Study Group has made some interesting points prime area for descriptive reports which often give profound which merit further examination when new analyses are insights into the process underlying a programme. To at­ undertaken on the 4 million items gathered in the Child De­ tempt to put figures on such views would trivialise the velopment Programme's evaluation of the first, experimental insights. phase. In the current field programme there is a great deal Aggregated t-test statistics comparing Intervention and of new information now being gathered by the participating control samples in year 1 and year 3. Considerable con­ Health Authorities and hopefully more results from the on­ cern is expressed in the Critique abcut the fact that we going work will start to appear within the next year. compare I-test differences across intervention and control The nature of Programme visiting. The Crttique's descrip­ samples, for each of ten home environment variables whhin tion of the nature of home visiting in the Programme does each of the four regions. These !-test differences (interven­ not identify the fundamental difference between this visiting tion vs. control} are compared across years 1 and 3. Thus a and customary health visiting. In customary visiting the pro­ reversal of a significant difference favouring controls in year fessional offers advice and guidance; she points the way 1, to a difference or a significant difference favouring inter­ forward to the parents, and concentrates almost entirely on vention in year 3, was described by us as highly meaningful. the well-being of the baby or child. In Programme visiting the Colin Chalmers, Senior Lecturer in Statistics at Birkbeck parent is empowered and helped to develop the skills College, University of London, who has been a statistical needed to find her (or his} own way forward in rearing the consultant to this Programme from the outset, has com­ child, supported with information and encouragement but not mented on the above point: advice from the visitor; the mother's diet, well-being and self­ The main criticism seems to revolve around your method esteem are treated as critical aspects of the dyadic or triadic of carrying out what is essentially a two-way analysis of process. variance as two t-tests. I really see nothing inherently Different sizes of intervention and control samples. wrong in this. What you are looking at is the interaction There is no statistical or other reason, other than that of test slightly modified for an unequal variance structure. having a "tidy" design, why intervention and control samples You have, after all, a two by two design (control and should be equal. The larger intervention samples gave us intervention} X (year one and year three}. You have ig­ more (statistical} scope for exploring detailed aspects of the nored the matching on the years and computed the intervention. linear contrast of (control v intervention} (year 1) versus (control v intervention} (year 3). Personally I would have Changing interviewers between assessments? The carried out the anova and tried to use the matched data Critique says that no attempt was made to ensure that differ­ to improve the precision, but if this result points towards ent interviewers for any one family were used at each significance it is likely that using the matched information assessment. In a large field research study with over 1OOO would increase the significance level. I do however feel families spread across six health authorities in three coun­ that quoting the means and standard devi-ations would tries (England, Wales and the Republic of Ireland}, it would have helped to show the magnitude of the effects. have been unthinkable to ask the regionally selected inter­ I do not accept the ·invalidity of add'1ng I-scores ·1n th.1s viewers (most had children of their own} to move home for particular instance. It is not something I would have done several months, to learn the new geography of areas cover­ but when the sample sizes are the same this is exactly ing up to 30 miles across, and come to understand a new equivalent to adding standardised mean differences sub-culture sufficiently to cope with dialect and other dif­ together or adding the standardised means before inter­ ferences when interviewing. The perfection of switching vention and subtracting those after. A I-statistic is just interviewers belongs to the tightly controlled homogenous la­ like a standardised score and no one quibbles abcut ad­ boratory environment. ding together standardised scores. The problem I No systematic or quantitative data on consumers' views. suspect is that they want this to be done condhional on We have serious doubts about the statistical reliability of age. This is something we have discussed ad nauseam views from consumers who have given time and effort to and, as you remark, trying to take age into account in the scoring of the variables has been very troublesome. participating in a research programme. Cognitive dissonance Again I would have carried out an ancova in the hope of either removing age or showing that it was irrelevant. © 1989 The British Psychological Society The Psychologist: Bulletin of the British Psychological Society (1989), 11, 483-485.

The Psychologist November 1989 483 ACADEMIC We can add that, in view of the complexity of the age factor but a co-operation." and its varying effects across different predictors and out­ In response to the comments in the Critique we re-ran the comes, it seemed simplest to have it entered as a year 3 eight main regressions using intervention/control as a 1/0 predictor in all our main regression models. variable. Although the size of the intervention contribution Evidence from mean scores? We recognise that many was sharply reduced, as could be expected, the variable people do like to see means and standard deviations, enab­ continued to predict sign~icantly in seven of the eight re­ ling them to evaluate changes within the intervention and gressions, in five of these highly significantly. The variance control samples. On their own, unadjusted for all the other predicted ranged from 0.1 per cent (in the one non­ covariates, the means and sds would be meaningless. Had significant regression) up to 1.85 per cent. The deeper re­ we relied on analysis of variance and covariance it would ality is that this 1/0 intervention variable contributes between have been easy to present adjusted means and then debate 2 and 12 per cent of all variance explained, across the eight the importance or otherwise of fractional differences in regressions. That is in itself a quite acceptable proportion standard deviations. We chose instead to use regression given the powerful competing predictions of age (at final analysis. I have always favoured the presentation of vari­ testing) and of 13 other important home variables. When in­ ance explained and an examination of the size of predictions tervention is scored more sensitively, based on numbers of from each of a number of competing variables. It is more visits and other factors, the proportion of all variance ex­ direct and may be a simpler exposition of a model than is plained rises to between 7 and 27 per cent. possible with ANOVA. If the experimental programme had been planned to rely on A priori weights for the weighted Index of child com­ a 1/0 intervention analysis, it would have been necessary to petence? Our use of a priori weights to assemble global ensure approximate uniformity of programme input, com­ child competence measures in years 1 and 3 is questioned, parable controls on control visitor input, and other controls with principal components suggested as an alternative. Past which would have changed a very large field research study experience in other research showed me that canonical into a laboratory one. For example, we found some control correlation type analyses, or iterative path analysis proce­ visitors bringing books into the homes of parents as part of dures such as those advocated by Wold (Noonan & Wold, an intentionally higher frequency of visiting. How do we take 1977), in which weights are refined on each round of regres­ statistical account of that, or of those (relatively few) control sion, often serve to highlight particular variables at the families who boasted that the nature of the home environ­ expense of other variables entered into a composite or clus­ ment questions asked by the interviewers during the ter group. We had strong a priori grounds for arguing that in previous year's interviews had completely changed their per­ years 1 and 3 the composite outcome measures should re­ ceptions of their role (and their behaviours) as parents? How flect fixed percentages of the socialisation, language, could we have accounted for such factors other than by ac­ cognitive and early educational abilities rather than attempt­ cepting the field reality and assessing the intervention input ing to maximise any predictive relationships by using as sensiiiveiy as possible? principal components or statistical rterative methods. For The health visitor variable. It is not unreasonable to com­ year 1 we gave 40 per cent weight to language and 30 per pare the outcomes of this programme with the outcomes of cent to cognitive. For the measurement of older children a study by Stevenson, described briefly in the recent final (two and a half years later) we increased the socialisation report of the same ACPP Study Group on "Health Visitor and educational ability proportions, for obvious reasons. We based services for pre-school children with behavioural did not attempt to tailor these proportions to any predictive problems". Stevenson (referenced in the Critique) describes data set. the failure of one such programme. Whatever the rationale The construction of the Intervention variable. The for the negative outcomes, it is significant that one of the Critique is most unhappy with our construction of a compo­ Group's conclusions is that home based interventions may site intervention variable, weighted to take account of the not be the best way for health visitors to supply this type of number of visits, the nature of parental tasks undertaken, behaviour management advice. "It may be that (by) using and personality characteristics of the intervention health vis­ clinic visits or possibly even more fruitful the use of work itors. It describes this as a "serious distortion" which with groups of mothers, the health visitor may be better able undermines the interpretation of the effects of the pro­ to adopt a more directive approach with families." gramme per se. This is a point of major and perhaps This advocacy of "a more directive approach" is a most im­ unbridgeable difference between ourselves and the authors portant statement of philosophy. There is a chasm between of the Critique. that approach and our own alternative approach of capacita­ In an earlier study I have argued at length that attempts to tion and empowerment of parents, within the sheltered describe a programme statistically by a 1/0 (binary) variable environment of the home where the parent is in charge and is to assume the narrowest of laboratory models. Interven­ the visitor merely a support person, with no "directive" or tion in the Child Development Programme was not a rigid even advisory role. It is within the context of the home that '1reatment". Variations in the number of visits were usually the health visitor's characteristics are all important. In the related to the characteristics of the visitors (level of commit­ current ongoing phase of the programme, visitors are se­ ment, other responsibilities, etc.) rather than to those of the lected and trained to a far higher level of sensitivity and parents. Some "difficult" parents were simply abandoned by non-directiveness than was ever possible in the experimen­ a few of the visitors, although they appeared to be quite tal phase. willing to be interviewed each year. Colin Chalmers, crted earlier, commented that he favoured the dose analogy in the treatment of intervention itself. "We The Abelson study and cumulative effects. The Critique's are dealing with an interactive situation and the response in slighting comments on the small percentages of variance ex­ which one is interested is not 'the effect of intervention', but plained need to be set against the finding of Abelson 'the effect of intervention in a specific case'. You are really (referenced in the Critique) that a strong relationship such as in the same ethical dilemma as doctors who prescribe doses that between individuals' previous batting records and their of a drug which they then increase or decrease according to subsequent performance had a predictive power of only 0.3 the patient's response. Does one count treatment then as per cent, despite the very high significance of the prediction. binary? I suspect not. Intervention is not really an imposition

484 November 1989 The Psychologist ACADEMIC Chalmers shows how it is possible for both omega squared Our abuse register figures are criticised on the grounds that and R2 to be small, while F is substantial, indicating a real strict comparability is precluded by differing policies over the effect. In a general ANOVA: inclusion of children on the register. Our figures showed that 2 2 F = 1 + ( Jw I (1 - w )) in three health authorities only seven out of 2100 pro­ 2 2 gramme children were on the abuse register, compared with and R = ((!-1) (1 + (J w I (1 - w2)))/ 2 2 234 children on the register out of a total of 11,900 for the ((IJ-1) + (J(l-1) w I (1 - w ))) whole of those same three authorities (including our disad­ where I = number of levels, and J = number of replicates per vantaged Programme areas). If those figures do not suggest level a very strong programme effect, it is hard to think what With I= 1oo, J = 1000, w2 = .003, one gets would. F = 4 and R2 = .004 Other comments. We are aware of the fact that shortage of The other criticism voiced in this regard is that we have not funds and time has prevented us from writing more than a shown that small effects would have a cumulatively greater few reports for the scientific literature; we are still largely effect over the years. Headstart studies showed that, despite dependent on funding from an international charitable foun­ the Westinghouse/Ohio attempt to demolish the original dation, despite the fact that we are possibly achieving more positive findings (Cicirelli et al., 1969), it can take up to 1O than any other UK programme in changing the Jives and years to establish long-term effects (Lazar et al., 1977). Our health of children and parents living in social stress areas contention is that any programme which helps parents im­ (and in helping to focus strongly on the much neglected prove their parenting skills is likely to have cumulative area of women's diets, health and self-esteem). While we struggle to remain in existence and to continue expanding, effects because the prime environmental influence has been altered, one assumes for good. By comparison, programmes there is little time for more and wider research studies, much focussed on very young children tend to have only short­ as we would enjoy writing them. The Critique's description of term effects because the children remain in an unchanged our reporting of evaluation data in '1his muddled and mis­ leading manner" is the kind of verbal slanging to which we parenting environment. We would welcome funding support to establish the strength or otherwise of the long-term effects do not intend to reply. We would welcome other views on of our parent support programme. our evaluation report, and look forward to other, more con­ structive comments. The meaningfulness of the child abuse statistics. Figures References cited in our Evaluation Document 9 showed a total of nine injuries among 7,300 first children from O to 3 in the current Clcirelll, V.G. et al. (1969). The Impact of Headstart - An evaluation of the effects of Headstart on children's affective and cognitive phase of the programme, with an approximate average of development Westinghouse Learning Corporation/Ohio two years for each child sampled. This gives a total of 0.62 University/US Department of Commerce. injuries per 1OOO programme children per year, compared Lazar, I., Hubbell, V.R. et al. (1977). The Persistence of Pre-school with the NSPCC total of 1 .42 injuries per 1OOO O-to-4-year­ Effects. Community Service Laboratory, Cornell University. old children of all parties for a national sample from all social Noonan, R. & Wold, H. (1977). Nipals path modelling with latent variables. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 21, 1, classes. Clearly these figures are not strictly comparable. 33-61. But given the fact that the programme children are selected from the most disadvantaged parts of any Health Authority where we work, given the estimate that over 20 per cent of Requests for reprints should be addressed to: Dr W. Barker and R. Anderson all injuries occur to first born children, and given comparable Early Childhood Development Unit figures from disadvantaged health authorities with up to 4.5 School of Applied Social Studies injuries per 1 OOO children per year, we are confident in University of Bristol claiming remarkable success on this front. It is hardly a Bristol spurious comparison, as the Critique claims. Revised version received 1 June 1989

THE BRITISH BPS PSYCHOLOGICAL BOOKS SOCIETY

New Developments in Clinical Psychology, Volume II Edited by FRASERN. WATTS

Continuing the aims of the first volume, New Developments in Cinical Psychology, Volume II links recent scientific research with developments in professional practice. The contributors, all experts in their chosen field, cover topics of central importance and introduce new areas of research as well as new approaches to familiar problems. Readership: postgraduates and practitioners in clinical and abnormal psychology; psychiatrists.

288 pp; 0 471919985 hb BPS members £16.90,normally£22.50 Also available: New Developments in Clinical Psychology, Volume I BPS members £13.15, normally £17.50 St Andrews House 48 Princess Road East Leicester LE1 7DR UK

The Psychologist November 1989 485 THE LONDON CENTRE FOR PSYCHOTHERAPY

Applications are invited for the following course STARTING The British Psychological Society APRIL 1990 INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORY 1990 Annual Conference OF ANALYTICAL PSYCHOTHERAPY ONE-YEAR University College of Swansea COURSE

The aim of the course is to 5-8 April 1990 provide an introduction to the main theories of analytical psychotherapy including those of Freud, Jung, Klain and more recent writers in Europe and America. The course will therefore offer an educational experience for anyone interested in the Call for Submissions processes of analytical psychotherapy. Submissions of papers, symposia, posters and workshops are now invited. Applications are invited from those working in the helping professions and other professional groups who may find an analytical perspective valuable in their The submission deadline is work or personal 15 November 1989 development.

The course takes place on two evenings a week and will begin April 1990. The lectures and experiential groups will take place in central London. Each student will have a personal tutor and be a member of a tutorial group. Guidelines are available from:

Those interested in the above course or any other The Conference Office courses offered by the The British Psychological Society L.C.P. should write to the St Andrews House Administrator, Mr Gabriel 48 Princess Road East Aitman, London Centre for Leicester LE1 ?DR Psychotherapy, 19 Fitxjohn's Avenue, London Conference hotline: 0533 557123 NW3 5JY. Closing date for applications is November 15, 1989

486 November 1989 The Psychologist LETIERS Letters

Petition by British Scientists independent scientific research on local and national terms if they have Abroad which future technological not recognised that the well-being of progress can be based. their discipline depends on it making its We ask all British scientists overseas mark in a competitive political world, in British Scientists Abroad have which there is social conflict, sectional launched a petition to draw attention to who are concerned about the state of British science funding to write to us interest, and a variety of competing the effect of government science moralities". The tenor of the Report is funding policies in driving academics (SAE appreciated) or call us at the number below to request a copy of the that it is not sufficient for the overseas. The petition is to be signed psychological sciences to accumulate only by British scientists working petition for signature and further distribution. Alternatively, signed letters psychological knowledge without overseas, and is designed to illustrate attempting to make that knowledge the "brain drain" in terms of names, UK carrying the text of the petition as above and including the signatory's known to the non-psychological world. degrees and current positions held. To the Working Party, this seemed to Thus we hope to provide a direct and name, highest UK degree and institution where obtained, and current be an essential aspect of the proper comprehensive demonstration of the development of the discipline. loss of talent and national educational pesition and institution, would also be investment resulting from current welcome. Our address is: British Rather than attempting to convey the science policy. Scientists Abroad (BSA), c/o Dr Marie content of the Report in a single letter Rose Schravendijk, Lab of Infectious (a task that was impossible within a full The petit'lon reads: Diseases, DNAX Research Institute, article: The Psychologist, June 1989) Dear Mrs Thatcher 901 California Ave, Palo Alto CA I urge all interested members of the As British scientists working abroad, 94304-1104, USA. BSA Tel. #(415) Society to write to the Leicester office we are very concerned that Brrtish 856 4214. and obtain a free copy of the Reper! so scientific research is being starved of Leslie Murrary that they can draw their own necessary funding, with the consequent Anne O'Garra conclusions upon its approach and emigration of many scientists like Marie Rose Schravendljk content. ourselves. The dearth of funding for DNAX Research Institute Peter Morris state-of-the-art equipment and Simon Hughes Chair, Scientific Affairs Board supplies, coupled with the lack of jobs Dept of Pharmacology Department of Psychology and career prospects for young Stanford University Lancaster University academics, are major obstacles in our Lancaster LA 1 4 YF considering returning to the UK. We urge the Government to reform its Report summary lnnacurate science policy along the lines suggested by Save British Science, The summary of "The Future of the Credit to the Careers Service particularly as follows: Psychological Sciences" Report offered Government support for science, by the Committee of the Psychotherapy Mea culpa! I must apologise for my as a fraction of national wealth Section (The Psychologist, August expressed lack of faith in careers invested in civil research and 1989) was so inconsistent with my officers - it is clear that, in my article development, should be increased memory of the document that I had "The Skills Acquired in Psychology to be in line with other major helped to author that it sent me back to Degrees" (The Psychologist, June European nations. read tt once again. The Psychotherapy 1989) I had failed to give them due Tax incentives for industrial Section interpreted the Report as credit. support of fundamental research in advocating a marketing exercise to sell While fully accepting that my sweeping institutions with open, academic psychology on behalf of and for the generalisation misjudges the careers type research and publication benefits of the socio-political status service, I must peint out that the practices, should be improved. quo. If tt had done so I would certainly criticism did not come from nowhere. have shared their deep concern. The Government should recognise Even in the past academic year, I have However, that had never been my known of a final year joint honours its respensibility to safeguard a impression of the Report, and my broad academic base of student who was explicitly told by a re-reading of it confirmed my memory. pelytechnic careers officer that rt she To me, the Reper! is a very wanted to get a decent job, she had Letters are welcome, and should be wide-ranging challenge to most areas "done the wrong degree", and the best addressed to the Editors at the of the psychological sciences. It is true she could do would be to get some Society Offices in Leicester. Brevity the Report devotes three of its 98 voluntary experience somewhere to is an advantage: the editors reserve pages, in Section 18, to the marketing make up for it. A similar story was told the right to shorten letters, and if of psychology, but nowhere can I find to me by three graduates of my major editing is necessary, this will the implied message that we should be acquaintance who had done their be indicated. marketing an image of psychology degree in another part of the country; Letters "in reply" may be treated as rather than the skills and knowledge of and that, coupled with my knowledge URGENT and every effort will be psychology and psychologists of the experiences of many other made to publish them as quickly themselves. The Report does argue psychology graduates in terms of lack as possible. However, the volume of that "Psychology is unlikely to succeed of career awareness and lack of correspondence has increased so if we fail to demonstrate to the public confidence in their skills, was the basis markedly, we cannot publish every mind that psychology has benefits of a of my remarks. social, economic, cultural and letter received, and delays in the But I really did not write the article to educational value" and that appearance of those accepted will get at careers advisers - honest! And I "psychologists have been naive in both inevitably occur. was really pleased to find out that my

The Psychologist November 1989 487 LETTERS limited sample was atypical. It was and thus cope efficiently on everyone immediate distress takes its own toll. written to inform academic staff, as I else's behalf: the victim's relatives and While you cannot have policemen have encountered some (note the friends have become our "patients". sitting by the roadside weeping at cautious phrasing here) who are rather The control one learns to exercise in traffic accidents, or wringing their pessimistic about, or unaware of, the order to perform this professional truncheons at the scene of a homicide, possibilities open to psychology function is not easy to switch on and might not police forces in this new graduates. I felt this to be important off. It is true, however, that horrifying communicative age be willing to accept since, as M.G. Miller points out, many incidents do leave their mark and must the need for training for a programme students do not avail themselves of the be worked through somehow. As David of support in this area, for its young Careers Service available to them, and Joyce said, "the very telling of a story and/or new recruits. Perhaps, indeed, simply pick up their ideas from those helps the teller to come to terms with it" at all levels, if the shell of higher status possibilities expressed informally by and the conversion from horror to officers has not grown too teaching staff. humour renders the story tellable. impermeable? I am grateful to Frank Slater, M.G. This humorous approach appears to Janet E. Kingswood Miller and R.V. Wilson for putting me me to be almost the only way in which Buckinghamshire County Council straight vis-a-vis the Careers Service, the inevitable effects of working with Education Department, County and much heartened by their tragedy for eight or more hours a day Psychological Service comments. on the average compassionate human Chiltern & South Bucks Area Nicky Hayes being can be expressed, given that the Council Offices 9 Lime Street more "appropriate" response of King George V Road Lockwood immediate emotion renders the Amersham Huddersfield HD1 3SN individual incapable of doing the job. I Bucks HP6 5BY will risk suggesting that this observation is easier for a woman to In defence of "black humour" make since there appears to me to be Role of educational psychologists less of an automatic sheltering "behind bravado and face-saving" in the I was much interested to read David I read Marion Hobbs' letter in the Joyce's article about the "black average female response to life. September issue of The Psychologist humour" prevalent amongst police We do cry, all of us at some time or with some surprise. officers in the face of dealing with other, from the rawest recruit to the It may well be that the educational death (The Psychologist, September most hard, bitter old hand, but we love psychologists with whom she is 1989), and would like to add one or doing our job and crying does not acquainted do in fact spend their time two small insights of my own. seem to help us do it better, whereas helping children rather than teachers. laughing does. I am a graduate psychologist and have However, this has not been my been working for the London Carolyn Steele experience. Having been an educational Ambulance Service for some years Central Ambulance Control psychologist for the last 17 years, I find now, serving as both ambulance driver London Ambulance Service myself and my colleagues spending an and control officer. Headquarters increasing proportion of our time doing 220 Waterloo Road exactly those things she is advocating. The tendency to relate as amusing, often for many years afterwards, the London SE1 Individual counselling and support of more horrifying incidents one has teachers under stress has become a witnessed, appears to be almost regular part of our work as have universal amongst those whose Your recent article on the above in The courses _on time management, stress business is other people's misery. I Psychologist, September 1989, and coping strategies. With the advent have done it myself and I work within reminded me of an experience my son of the 1988 Education Reform Act and an environment where this reaction is had as a probationary constable with the changing role of the Advisor, from the norm. Although there are clearly the Metropolitan police. He was sent to supporter to inspector, it is likely that educational psychologists will be slightly different moves amongst the investigate his first death, reported to virtually the only professional group with various emergency services, I feel I have occurred in a car park late at must contribute an interpretation night on the outskirts of his inner city the skills and opportunity to develop this area of work. So what we need are slightly at variance with the need to patch. save face and "not cock it up" by more educational psychologists rather showing emotion as described by Mr As he bent over the inert shape with than a whole new set of professionals. only a torch to illuminate the possibly Joyce. Lorenz grisly reality, the cadaver leapt to its S. As a raw ambulance trainee (and feet and raced off, laughing fit to kill Senior Educational Psychologist c/o Dorset Primary School incidentally a woman), I was told that I itself. was about to enter a world where I Thorn Walk would see, many times a day, On his return to report in, the Leeds LS8 3LW situations which would be variously prospective constable faced more unpleasant, tragic, horrifying and any unbridled mirth from colleagues and other adjective which came to mind, superiors; the cause now obvious. This and that whilst witnessing these things was an initiation rite, a little similar you Few could fail to sympathise with I would often be the first, if not the only might think to that of a primitive tribe, Marion Hobbs' desire to help teachers professional on scene. At the sight of and/or a British boy's public school. cope with the_ir low morale, the the uniform everyone would turn to me Of course my son has encountered over-demanding curriculum changes to take control and that getting upset many real deaths since that occasion: and the high levels of stress (The would just have to wait. Over the years violent, premeditated, lonely and Psychologist, September 1989). Yet I I have learned this to be true. At the beyond recognition. He has never find myself deeply disturbed by her scene of most emergency situations received or asked for, or recognised suggested "ultimate rescuer" remedy. there are more than enough upset, the need of counselling. But one We do not have to scratch far beneath frightened and emotional people to go wonders, what might be the cost to the surface of the literature on burnout, round. The main service that we can young men and women of the learned helplessness and systems render, especially where a death is undoubtedly traumatic effect of theory to see the flaw in her argument. involved and medical aid is encountering all manner of deaths, as The short-term solution is to prop up inappropriate, is to remain detatched well as informing those affected, whose an inadequate system; the longer term solution is to restructure it. When so

488 November 1989 The Psychologist LETIERS many individuals express such and why the Council for Education and done by suitably chosen clerks, dissatisfaction with a system that they Training in Social Work asked for secretaries, or junior Personnel Officers desperately seek escape from it, it is funding for a three-year basic qualifying as an occasional part of their other surely time for us to call it into course, a request denied by day-to-day duties, after they have been question. Government last year. There may be given appropriate instruction and Where one stands on her proposal will many psychology graduates who faii to practice wth the specific and quite be determined by how one construes get places on qualifying courses limited number of tests that the firm the educational enterprise and its because of the rigorous selection chooses to adopt. relationship to schooling. II we accept procedures and competition for places; However, I find much more disturbing that education is to be defined simply there are many who do and whom I the inclusion in the document and solely in terms of information have taught and tutored. Psychological Testing - Guidance for transmission then I suppose we might As to Ms Ward's final point, abcut the User of the remarkable claim on just be led to accept her proposal. If unmet need, this again is a constant page 14 "Statistical surveys have however, we accept that education is a preoccupation of social workers and produced the following as typical curiosity driven, decision making and, their trainers and one into which much values - (of validity coefficients) - ultimately, a progressive problem creative thought and innovation goes. Personality tests 0.15". shifting system, in which teachers and Perhaps instead of looking at what is To those who know anything about the learners contribute to the evolution of wrong with social work Ms Ward's matter this is clearly nonsense - what the curriculum, then her proposal has energies a a social psychologist would surveys, of what personality tests, in to be totally rejected. be better directed at looking at what is what populations, and against what Peter V. Mathews wrong with a society which puts these criterion measures? North Cheshire College intractable burdens on its citizens and But the bcoklet is addressed to Padgate Campus requires an under-resourced and non-psychologists, and its readers may Fearnhead Lane undervalued profession to deal with be seriously misled into thinking that Warrington them, there really is sound evidence that Cheshire Joyce Tombs personality test measurements are of 19 Cator Road such low validity as to be virtually In defence of social work London SE26 5DT useless. The Steering Committee seems to be rushing at precipitate speed towards a Your correspondent Evelyn Ward (The Dangers of Certificate in nasty pile-up! Indeed, on the evidence Psychologist, September 1989) is from the two documents, the Steering almost but not quite right in declaring Occupational Testing Committee is distinctly "off its trolley"! that '1here are too many basically trained social workers trying to do work While it would be ungenerous to fail to John D. Handyside which really ought to be done by social acknowledge the energy and drive 57 Gloucester Road psychologists". displayed by the Steering Committee London SW? 40N Ms Ward rightly describes social on Test Standards in preparing their workers as having been "given" the lengthy consultative document, I do field (not the entire field I would argue, feel that the members of the Society Psychoanalysis and psychology but at any rate a sizeable part of it) in should be alerted by a warning note "child abuse, domestic violence, about what is being proposed. David Shapiro's response (The recalcitrant delinquency, drug abuse, The Committee's intention to create a Psychologist, September 1989) to my urban problems". A more relevant BPS Certificate in Occupational Testing comments (July) regarding Professor question, however, would be by whom has, in my view, several quite serious Howarth's review of psychotherapy was the field "given'', and whose dangers. Not the least of these is that books (April) requires a brief reply. responsibility is it anyway? the proposal has overtones of turning I did not mean to argue, as Shapiro There are a number of answers not the Society into a "regulatory bcdy" - suggests, that "psychoanalysis is necessarily related to the theory and and moreover to set the regulations in beyond the pale of psychology". This practice of social psychology although I a style that is both authorrtarian and would be an absurd assertion since assume Ms Ward is aware that Social curiously old-fashioned. psychoanalysis is inherently a branch Work qualifying courses do include that One aspect of this "old-fashioned" of psychology. My point is rather that discipline in their curricula. As to the outlook is the insistence on testers psychoanalysis has developed first question, however, the problems being trained · and qualified by independently of academic psychology which social workers face in their certification - to administer, score, and and relatively independently of clinical working lives are indeed "given" by a interpret paper and pencil tests of psychology. Whilst employing a society which prefers to hive off these abilities before allowing them to be different method it is an activity of problems from the lives of the majority trained to administer "personality" tests immense rigour and discipline. I do of the population who manage without and questionnaires. In fact, of course, believe that it is chauvinistic for outside help. As to the question of the administration of respectable psychologists to criticise responsibility, there are numerous modern '1ests" of temperament, psychoanalysts for ignoring clinical answers: for child abuse and neglect, interests, etc. can really be a quite psychologists' research, if the latter do the parents; for domestic violence, the straightfoward business when one is not take the trouble to immerse police; for delinquency, education, dealing with non-clinical measures for themselves in psychoanalytic thinking. parents, unemployment; for drug "normal" subjects. However, given goodwill and curiosity abuse, probably all of the latter; for Nor, in my view, is it either wise or on both sides, it is possible for there to urban problems, planners, politicians. necessary to make out that the skills be an extremely creative intercourse Need I go on? required to administer and score paper between these distinct traditions, as I Social workers do not indeed believe and pencil tests are so specialised and believe David Shapiro is aware. that basic education is adequate to demanding that one virtually creates a Phil Mallon fulfil all the above tasks: that is why so specialist technician grade of job for District Psychologist and Adult many of them undertake post-qualifying the purpose. For the vast majority of Psychotherapist training in, among other things, industrial and commercial organisations North Hertfordshire Health Authority psychotherapy, behaviour therapy, the number of people to be tested is Lister Hospital family work, management, and not large enough to justify such a Coreys Mill Lane research, often at their own expense; specialist job role - the testing can be Stevenage SG1 4AB

The Psychologist November 1989 489 LETTERS Reviewing the reviewer psychologists was greater than other psychologists because of their special training in psychological approaches to I quote: psychological dysfunctions. If this is the ... a refreshing contrast to the rambling case, and the Society also believes and self-seeking misinterpretations of that clinical psychologists have a J.J. Gibson's lucidity and originality by properly prominent place in Applications are now welcome for the "Buddhist" psychologists and others. psychotherapy, then I feel that it must Arbours Association training in surely also have views as to who Psychotherapy. This part of a review by Patrick Rabbitt would be less suited to benefit from This is a three year programme which in The Psychologist, August 1989, courses in psychotherapy: The danger follows a one year introductory course. puzzled me. Why is the epithet The training leads to a Certificate in Buddhist, with or without inverted of such courses is quite apparent in Psychotherapy and to membership of the commas, relevant? Presumably the that rt every ''Tom, Dick and Harry" Association of Arbours. Psychotherapists reviewer has in mind particular goes off to do a course on brief and our referral network. psychologists, wtth whose writings he psychotherapy and then sets up as a The training is an intensive programme of finds himself in disagreement. In that psychotherapist, the overall standard of lectures and seminars which cover the case, should he not be more specific? I psychological services to the major aspects of analytically-orientated do realise that The Psychologist does community may drop. The Society psychotherapy. not necessarily endorse anything ought to have views on this as I The course also offers a unique opportunity written by contributors, but would prefer believe its Charter seeks to protect the for direct clinical experience. that the public organ of our Learned public and to optimise psychological This takes the form of extended placements Society did not seem to cast services available to the public. at our Therapeutic Communities aspersions on the belief system of any I would therefore be grateful if the and Crisis Centre where students, under group. Society could make some response to supervision, can participate in group, individual and family therapy. John Sheppard clarify in my mind whether it feels that Students are required to be in Field View House it is appropriate that such a range of psychotherapy throughout their training. New Hey Road people should have on offer to them The course is designed to accommodate Rast rick "Certificate Courses in Brief persons in full-time employment. Brig house Psychotherapy". I do of course fully Some bursaries are available. West Yorks HD6 3PZ appreciate that what the Society thinks The next academic year starts from should happen, and what actually January, 1990 Certificate Course in Brief happens may be quite different For further details, please contact: Psychotherapy Malcolm Maclachlan The Co-ordinator, Chartered and Clinical Psychologist Department of Psychological Services The Arbours Association, The other dav I received notice of a & Research 6, Church Lane, London, NS "Certificate Course in Brief Crichton Royal Hospital (Tel: 01-340 7646) Psychotherapy" (Cognitive - Analytic Dumfries DG1 4TG Therapy; CAT). The CAT approach to therapy was developed by Anthony Editors' Note: Ryle (a psychologically orientated Readers may wish to note that the psychiatrist) and attempts to synthesise Society's policy on this issue is set out cognitive, dynamic, Kellian and social in two published statements: aspects of psychological therapy. "Statement on the Statutory One of the reasons I like CAT is that it Registration of Psychotherapists", tries to pull together a wide range of Bulletin of the British Psychological ~Psychotherapy Training Institute approaches and funnel them into one Society (1980), 33, 353-6 therapeutic paradigm. I therefore think "An Approach to the Regulation of TRAINING IN GESTALT it is rather ironic that this approach is Psychotherapy", Bulletin of the British PSYCHOTHERAPY then presented "open" to a whole Psychological Society (1982), 35,305-7 range of people who are only likely to create the diversity and inconsistency A standard information sheet is also This self-directed diploma course ~ for which the theory has perhaps available to members of the public from professionals in medicine, counselling. the Leicester office. psychotherapy and others in the ·helping attempted to overcome. The publicity profes'iions'. The training takes place ovHr leaflet received suggests that the several 5-day Experiential Advanced course is for "councillors, occupational A golden opportunity Training Workshops which Include Theory, therapists, GPs, physiotherapists, Group Process, and opportunity for teachers, social workers, nurses, health Personal Psychotherapy as well as visitors, police officers, probation I was interested to read Peter Farrell's Psychotherapy Practice with Supervision. officers, marriage counsellors, article "Educational Psychology The course is recognised by the Gestalt psychologists, samaritans, personnel Services: Crisis or Opportunity" (The Psychotherapy Troinlrg Institute (UK). officers, youth workers, religious Psychologist, June 1989) and find yet ministers and other members of all again, the view being aired that we In addition to the S·day Training workshops need a "local psychological service". Is we will be running an evening series of 10 helping professions". This I think you will agree is a fairly comprehensive list sense dawning at long last on 2-hour Gestalt Psychotherapy Training professional psychologists that they Sessions for professionals. Starting date of people although I did feel personally Tuesday 17 October 1989, 6.30pm. aggrieved that my granny was not have a service to offer through the mentioned! agency of the local authority? Gestalt Fundamentals Courses: Joking apart, I wonder whether the But, as long as they operate from different bases, with mutually exclusive 4/5 Nov, 13/14 Nov 1989 Society has any views on the suitability of different professions/occupations to training systems and funded by government from different purses, their For further detai~ please contact: undertake courses in psychotherapy. I Petruska Clarkson, PhD. (Clin.Psych). was brought up in psychology to total influence will never equate that Director of Clinical Training. metanoia believe that psychologists had a which can be exerted by one large Psychotherapy Training Institute •. 13 North special contribution to psychotherapy co-ordinated service. Common Road, London WS 2QB. I recall, with some relish, in the 1970s Telephone 015792505 because of their special background and that the contribution of clinical the arguments that took place in the

490 November 1989 The Psychologist LETTERS early meetings of the Professional field or specialism, it would be of Psychology, at the address below, Affairs Board when educational and necessary to add the requisite number giving a clear indication of the donor's clinical psychologists hotly, often of options as modules of the course. name and address. The names of acrimoniously, debated the question of Subsequently, by topping up with the contributors will be recorded in a book transferablity, a means whereby one appropriate modules, one could which will eventually be presented to breed of psychologist could quaiiiy io transfer (or qualify) in a different Professor Eysenck. be another without having to complete specialism. An advantage of such a Jeffrey Gray a full postgraduate course. Core scheme would be to create one Irene Martin courses with qualifying modules do not profession, applied psychology, lead Gerald Russell seem to have penetrated very far but the way to one Department of Applied Glenn Wilson maybe the Membership and Psychology, covering the specific area Institute of Psychiatry Qualifications Board could take this up. (geographical) and help to stop some De Crespigny Park At the same time, I had the great of the bickering at the boundaries. An Denmark Hill pleasure of serving on a Working inter-Division initiative is the next step. London SE5 8AF Party, convened by the late Professor Douglas A.F. Conochie Jack Tizard, which was set up to Regional Educational Psychologist consider the training of child Grampian Regional Council psychologists. That report apparently Woodhill House sank without trace because we were Ashgrove Road West recommending a training for Aberdeen AB9 2LU SPIG - Children and Young psychologists focussed on the needs of At one time Council Member, SPECP, People children not as "educational units" in Chair and representative of PAS, still a schools or as "clinical units" in believer in the need for a College of The Committee of the Special Interest hospitals. As part of our considerations, Applied Psychology. Group for Clinical Psychologists I put a paper to the Working Party working with Children and Young suggesting just such a case as has People would welcome as new been made by Peter Farrell - it members any psychologists ·interested foundered on the reef of clinical in this field. psychology. Information Section Membership is open to clinical Should professionals get together? If psychologists who are members of the they do not, I fear they are in for hard Help needed BPS and DCP and subscribership is times. I am sure that in the educational open to trainee clinical psychologists, market, self- governing schools are Social psychology technician requires psychological technicians and likely to be less tempted to buy our any information on the topic of members of other professions. products - we come pretty expensive. discourse processes in later life. The subscription fee currently stands at Dare one forecast less business foi Currently looking to investigate the £7. Conferences and workshops are clinical psychologists as large mental perception of sleep as seen through organised on a regular basis and a handicap hospitals decant their patients the conversations of elderly people. newsletter is published three or lour into the great outdoors where they then Trying to understand the myths and times a year. become the clients of already dangers of homespun philosophies of hard-pressed social workers? Certainly, Please write for application forms and retaining ideological conceptions of further information about SPIG. a local authority psychological service sleep with age. already well acquainted to working with Alison Heard social workers in multidisciplinary Peter Beaman Chartered Clinical Psychologist teams could absorb some of this trade. Social Sciences Department SPIG (Children and Young People) Many Training Agencies have Loughborough University Clinical Psychology Service (Child discovered that psychologists, Leicestershire LE11 3TU Health) occupational or educational, can play Playfield House an important role in developing In honour of Hans Eysenck Cupar assessment procedures and in Fife KY15 5RR presenting potential employers with the Although Professor Hans Eysenck right staff. officially departed from the Chair of I would commend Peter Farrell's Psychology at the Institute of concept of a single applied Psychiatry more than five years ago, psychological service but I do not think he is still so active in research and that it can truly come about until the writing (not to say travel) that his MIND profession begins to see itself initially colleagues find it hard to think of him as trained psychologists who then as having retired. Nonetheless, it is so, MIND is currently updating its national develop specialised skills. At the and we think that the time has come to list of Chartered Psychologists who are moment, the base line is a graduate mark this fact in some appropriate willing to give independent professional degree in psychology which varies manner. We have two possibilities in assessments for solicitors who are enormously from university to mind: commissioning a portrait of him representing clients, eg. at Mental university. Possibly this should remain to hang in the Institute of Psychiatry, or Health Review Tribunals. though I think that some thought by the establishing an annual lecture to be Any Chartered Psychologist interested Society should be given to more named after him. Accordingly, we are in appearing on this list should write, uniformity. Graduation is succeeded by seeking the funds required for either of with details of their experience to the a postgraduate course in the applied these objectives. Legal Department, MIND, at the field or at least it should be a course of May we appeal through your columns address below. This list would then be training recognised by the Society. I to anyone who would like to be made available to solicitors who are am certain that, if all the courses that associated with this venture and is seeking details of available experts. lead to qualification as an applied prepared to give a donation to the fund Ian Bynoe psychologist were scanned, quite a (we suggest a sum of between £5 and proportion of common elements which Legal Director (Acting) £25). Cheques, made payable to "The MIND could form the core of a postgraduate Institute of Psychiatry" and marked qualification could be filtered out. To 22 Harley Street "H.J. Eysenck Fund", should be posted London W1 N 2ED become fully qualified in a particular to Professor Jeffrey Gray, Department

The Psychologist November 1989 491 COMPUTER

Issues in Psychology from Prometheus Books HYPNOSIS The Cognitive-Behavloral Perspective edited by Nicholas P. Spanos and Computer Column .John F. Chaves An authoritative collection of eighteen original essays by noted researches and distinguished scholars. 511 Pages ISBN 0-87975-469-9 £25.95 Assistant Editor: Tony Gillie THE PYCHOLOGY OF WISEONE EXPERT SYSTEM made up of "rules", in the form of a ANOMALOUS EXPERIENCE SHELL Conclusion based upon IF-conditions; Revised Edition nouns in these rules are defined as Swallowsoft, PO Box No 107, Walton­ "elements". The Knowledge Builder then Graham Reed on-Thames, Surrey, KT12 5PQ. With two new chapters this timeless checks these files for errors, and when Minimum requirements: Amstrad PCW satisfied, combines them into a Know­ classic helps readers to see the reality of 8256 with single disk drive. Supplied on anomalous experience as part of their ledge Base file. It is this file which is 3-inch disk, with 84 pp manual: £34.95. processed by the Consultant module to own psychological tapestry. With the arrival of this software, Artificial 207 pages JSBN 0-87975-435-4 draw inferences in response to the Intelligence has moved into the realm of user's answers to questions. £12.95 paper home computing. Hence, for this re­ As regards the expert system when OUT OF OUR MINDS! viewer, after many years of hearing ready for use, the inference mechanism How to cope with Everyday problems about Al, this opportunity became his appears to be relatively simple: a pro­ of the Mentally 111 first direct experience of it. cess of comparing element values with A Guide for patients and their families An expert system shell is a software condition criteria. The Consultant oper­ Sascha Garson package designed to help you create ates over as many rules as necessary The diverse problems of the mental your own expert system on any suitable to arrive at a requested "Primary Goal", patienr.'s family arc examined and topic. The WiseOne shell, together with forming chains of rules in the process: a explained in order to dispel the trauma its seven example systems, 1s con­ procedure described in the manual as: and shame that surround mental illness tained on one side of the distribution backward chaining. disk. The shell consists of two pro­ 282 pages ISBN 0-87975-320-X Elements can be Boolean, numeric or £11.50 (paper) gramme modules: a Knowledge Builder, "option". Elements may be supported by and a Consultant. Each occupies 32K up to 255 characters of associated text, WHY SOME THERAPIES DON'T of memory. WORK p!us a faci!ity to call-up a disk ff!e of text The manual serves both as a tutor and of any length. Hence, help and explana­ The dangers of Transpersonal user guide. Its format is A5, with plastic tory text can be provided at any stage Psychology comb spine permitting it to lay flat. The of a consultation. Albert Ellis, Ph. D and Raymond J. print is small, but quite clear, printed on The "primary goal" is that element se­ Yeager, Ph.D both sides of stiff paper. The manual is This book emphasizes the inherent lected by the user as the objective of divided into nine chapters. One of these the consultation (e.g. tax status). danger of transpcrsonal phenomena and is the tutorial, which involves extensive outlines the benefits of cognitive cross-referencing with the other chap­ Rules may be given priority values (1 to therapy. ters. Thus, the process of learning to 9) which determine the order of applica­ 189 pages ISBN 0-87975-471-0 use the shell necessarily involves ac­ tion. Special rule facilities include Print £13.95 quiring familiarity with the full text. Rules, which activate (by "demon") text Unfortunately, the manual lacks an statements in response to a change in THE MIND OF THE BIBLE index. any element value at any time in the BELIEVER consultation. Similarly Stage Rules can The software runs under CIPM. The New, Paperback Edition be triggered to yield a conclusion or to Edmund D. Cohen manual assumes that the user is not institute a sequence of rules for further Reworking and expanding on the familiar with this operating aspect of the consideration. PCW, and provides instructions on how familiar works of Jung, Freud and others I found that the process of working Cohen has uncovered the psychological best to use the M-drive in conjunction with the WiseOne disk. The C!PM text through the tutorial and the illustrative ploys around which the New Testament examples took some 30 hours. This in­ is built. editor RPED is then used for entering information. Locoscript can be used for cluded building a few simple practice 425 pages ISBN 0-87975-495-8 this purpose also, but less conveniently, systems. £12.95 since the file has to be converted to The user "screens.. leave a lot to be THE ELUSIVE QUARRY ASCII before use. desired in terms of ease of use at first A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical The Knowledge Builder module pro­ contact. A new user could not under· research vides the Knowledge Representation take a consultation without initial Ray Hyman Language which is used to develop two guidance. This difficulty could have The Elusive Quarry is Ray Hyman's files: one of rules, and the other of ele­ been avoided if there had been two fascinating, fair-minded critique of ments. Knowledge is seen as being menu screens: one for the designer, parapsychology; a book designed not to and another for the client user. debunk, but to discern. 447 pages ISBN 0-87975-504-0 Developers or suppliers of software likely to be of interest to psychologists £18.50 are encouraged to send review copies to: The Editor Order from any bookshop or by post The Psychologist from Eddington Hook Ltd. 406 Vale The British Psychological Society Road, Tonbridge, Kent, TN9 lRX St Andrews House 'phone 0732 '367755 Barclaycard and 48 Princess Road East Access orders accepted LEICESTER LE1 ?DR Prometheus Books UK, 10 Crescent View, Loughton, Essex IGlO 4PZ

492 November 1989 The Psychologist COMPUTER

The programming limitations on the tion to expert systems for a professional WlseOne further permits a decision pro­ knowledge base are to 100 elements, person not connected with the Al scene, cess to have multiple interacting factors, 120 rules, and 350 conditions. In addi­ the WlseOne provided me wrth much and allows such a multiply-connected tion, each element is Jim ited to 12 food for thought; and a mental model decision process to be entered at any options, unless, that is, it is coded as which should facilitate further study of point. An example supplied is the selec­ numericaL Then one is restricted to in­ the area. tion of the type of power, cutting teger values in the range Oto 32000. A final point, if after trying the software mechanism, drive and size of a lawn­ The largest example system supplied you feel that you have not received mower. Subtrees to cater for some on the disk is the Tax Advisor. This has value for money, then the suppliers users having more firm information than 43 elements, 37 rules and 64 condi­ offer to refund the purchase price. others can alsc complicate the picture. tions. Whereas the smaller example Geoff Davies For these reasons, drawing out all deci­ systems gave almost instantaneous ad­ sion trees for all possible combinations vice, the performance of this system of user responses for any signijicant degraded to a delay of two to three sec­ knowledge base will consume far more onds before displaying its advice than the "few sheets of A4" envisioned screen. COMMENTS BY SWALLOWSOFT by the reviewer. It is the capability to I have the following specific criticisms: PUBLICATIONS use any piece of its knowledge at any We regret that the reviewer was unable time that is one of the most powerful i) Logical relationships in the domain features of an expert system. (This topic area are not recognised automatically. to make practical use of WlseOne, but without any explanation or examples of is described in Chapter 5 of the User The designer has to establish these, Guide.) perhaps by preparing an algorithm, be­ the difficulties experienced, it is not easy to comment upon the criticisms fore entering the rules and elements Specific criticisms into the files. Otherwise, illogicalities made. Three previous reviews have and circular reasoning can be entered been posilive in tone, and our sianding i) The meaning of this point is not clear. into the knowledge database. offer of an immediate refund to dissatis­ If the reviewer expects any expert sys­ fied purchasers has so far found no tem to have ''world knowledge", he will ii) Rules and elements are not num­ takers from a wide range of users, so remain disappointed for many years to bered in the .rut and .elm files, but the we retain complete confidence in Wise­ come. WiseOne does perform many Knowledge Builder numbers these for One. logical checks relating rules to element its analysis. Checking for errors would definitions, and appropriate inferences. be easier if matching numbering could Size of suitable domain be attached to the user-generated The example knowledge base on the ii) WiseOne provides automatic file source files. selection of appropriate subjects for an numbering on its element and rule out­ put listings, (which is particularly Before using this software I had envi­ Expert System uses explicitly stated criteria for domain size of a maximum of advantageous when additions or dele­ sioned myself preparing a system to tions to a set of rules are made), and replace the aged white-haired super­ 50 different situations to be considered, and a maximum of 40 different answers this printed listing can be used for visor in the back-room, who knew all checking errors. It does not amend user the answers, with a PCW for the young­ or pieces of advice to be given. Many users have practical applications within generated source files, and this is not sters at the front-desk to consult. felt to be a general requirement. However, each instance of a need for these approximate guidelines. The re­ an expert system which I had identified, viewer may need a larger system than Other points when tested on the provided example WiseOne. Many significant features of WiseOne expert system on expert systems, failed User Screens are not mentioned in the review, such on the grounds of my domains being A range of facilities are provided for the as the ability to match element values too large. designer to provide appropriate User irrespective of their specific value, to Concering the Tax Advisor example, the Screens and guidance. There are also carry out arithmetic within rules, and to largest example on the disk, it appeared the standard Help facilities and a con­ volunteer and change user information to me that this topic could have been stant Action Guide to what is going on. or to ask "Why", during a consultation. dealt with adequately by a decision tree Other reviews have commented on the Such facilities go some way to emulat­ approach, using perhaps a few sheets power and flexibility of these facilities. ing a "discussion" with an expert. of A4 paper. Decision tree approach Elements in rules can be descriptive Reflecting on this first experience of ex­ clauses, not just nouns, e.g. '1he likeli­ Ultimately all knowledge can be re­ hood that you prefer lager to beer", with pert systems, I felt disappointed. Maybe duced to decision tree form. Expert my expectations were too high? On the corresponding values of "very likely", system knowledge is usually fairly com­ "unlikely" etc., or alternatively, numeric other hand, perhaps Al has yet to ad­ plex however, and has multiple values. dress adequately the essence of connections between decision nodes, expertise? Be that as it may, the de­ and criteria which can affect several The inference mechanism of backward signer of WiseOne must be levels of a decision tree. WiseOne, like chaining by condition matching is the congratulated on achieving as much most other expert systems, handles this standard basic process for Expert Sys­ flexibility and power as this within the by keeping the various decision rules tem Shells. However WiseOne has confines of the PCW. separate, and assembling a specific significant additional features including While I found it difficult to envisage tree dynamically as a particular consul­ immediate (demon) operation on any re­ many applications for this software in tation progresses. quired conditions, rule grouping and psychological practice, as an introduc- prioritising, and other control facilities.

The Psychologist November 1989 493 SOCIETY

Dates of Meetings 1989 Finance and General Purposes Standing Committee Society Friday 17 November Scientific Affairs Board Saturday 2 December followed by Presi­ dents' Award Committee Professional Affairs Board Saturday 11 November Round the Board Room Tables Membership and Qualifications Board Saturday 25 November Graduate Admissions Committee Thursday 16 November Postgraduate Admissions Committee Thursday 23 November Disciplinary Board (Annual Meeting) Colin Newman reports on a meeting of the Professional Affairs Board on 15 Thursday 2 November September 1989 Anything but the silly season office as soon as possible. An early indica­ During the summer several working parties tion of the level of demand will assist the of­ of the Board finalised their reports and other fice determine the number of copies to print Dates of Meetings 1990 contributors from the Divisions prepared Health Authorities and other external bodies Annual General Meeting comments for submission to Government interested in the Report will also be invited to Saturday 7 Apnl Departments in response to consultation order copies. All these bodies will have al­ Council papers. Comments were submitted on the ready received free copies of the short ver­ Saturday 24 February sion of the Report "Partnership, Participation following topics or had been dispatched by Saturday 19 May and Power". the Chair during the summer. Saturday 13 October Acquired brain Injury • To the Department of Health on the Finance and General Purposes Standing NHS Review White Paper: Working for The Board received and accepted a Report Committee Patients of its Working Party on Services for Young Friday 5 January • To the Home Office on "Punishment, Adult Patients with Acquired Brain Injury. To Friday 23 February Custody and the Community" some extent this Report complements that of Friday 16 March the Working Party on Psychology and Physi­ •To the SHHD on the Kincraig Report on Friday 6 April cal Disabilitv. Some minor additions to the Friday 27 April Parole and Reiated Matters Report are likely to be made and when ready Friday 18 May • To the Department of Health and the for publication copies of the Report will be Friday 15 June SHHD on "Access to Mental Health Rec­ available from the Leicester Office at a price Friday 7 September ords" that has yet to be determined. Friday 12 October • To the I BA on proposed revisions to its Clinical psychologists and AIDS Scientific Affairs Board Television Advertising Code As a member of the Board, Dr Jane Ussher Wednesday 4 April (Followed by Spearman Steps were also taken to respond to an in­ had accepted the challenge of drafting a Medal Committee) vitation from the Department of Health to statement for circulation to Health Service Friday 29 June comment on a Draft Code and Handbook on managers on the role of clinical psycholo­ Friday 28 September Confidentiality of Personal Health Information gists in AIDS. This statement covering the Professional Affairs Board and to the forthcoming consultation paper on contribution that psychology has to offer in Saturday 13 January new legislation on community care. the care and treatment of pecple suffering Friday 2 March Psychology and physical disability from Al OS, their carers and relations was Saturday 21 April welcomed by the Board and is to be sent to Friday 8 June The full Report of the Working Party on Psy­ Health Authorities, to sexually transmitted chology and Physical Disability was received Friday 14 September disease clinics and behavioural medicine and approved by the Board. When the text Membership and Qualifications Board units. has been proof read a final time it is to be Saturday 27 January bound in a book form and sold from the Lei­ Dr Newman is Executive Secretary of the Saturday 24 March cester Office at £5 a copy. Orders for the Society. Friday 11 May Report should be submitted to the Leicester Friday 6 July Friday 21 September Graduate Admissions Committee Thursday 18 January Thursday 8 March Thursday 26 April Fellows Thursday 21 June Thursday 6 September Elected on 6 October 1989 Postgraduate Admissions Committee Dr John BODDY Dr Alan John PARKIN Thursday 25 January Dr Johnson Lockyer BRADSHAW Mr David Francis PECK Thursday 15 March Dr Victoria Geraldine BRUCE Ms Wendy Ann PRITCHARD Thursday 3 May Professor Roy DAVIS Mr Reginald George SELL Thursday 28 June Professor Nicholas Peter EMLER Dr John Anthony SLOBODA Thursday 13 September Dr James Rupert Gawayne FURNELL Dr Mary Murray SMYTH Dr Peter Michael STRATION Fellowships Committee Dr Jean Fraser HARTLEY Friday 9 February Dr John Michael INNES Dr Glyn Vivian THOMAS Dr Michael John TOBIN Thursday 24 May Dr Alan LEWIS Friday 5 October Dr Nadina Berrice LINCOLN Dr Mona Manwah TSOI Miss Ingrid Cecilia LUNT Dr Louise Margaret WALLACE Standing Committee on Communications Dr Donald MARCER Dr Alec WEBSTER Friday 2 February Dr Frank Edmond MERRETI Dr Keith Andrew WESNES Sunday 8 April Dr Joyce Mildred MORRIS Dr Patricia WRIGHT Monday 2 July Tuesday 16 October

494 November 1989 The Psychologist SOCIETY Announcements troubles in services - problems of inadequate PSYCHOTHERAPY SECTION partnership; development of within-team sup­ The AGM will be held at 2 pm on Saturday port processes; joint working to develop ser­ 3 February, 1990 at 1 Daleham Gardens, IVTH EUROPEAN CONFERENCE ON vices for the mentally handicapped; London NW3 ~y DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Pathfinder project; co-working in support of integration. Nominations are invited for election of Chair­ AT THE UNIVERSITY OF STIRLING, elect, Honorary Secretary, Honorary Treas­ SCOTLAND COST urer, and ordinary members of the Section 27-31 August 1990 Full course residential (DECP member) Committee. Any two or more members of the £160; (Non-DECP) £170 Section may nominate candidates, and these (incorporating the Developmental Psychology Full course non-residential (DECP member) nominations, together with the written con­ Section Annual Conference) £110; (Non-DECP) £120 sent of the nominees to accept office if The University of Sf1rling is privileged to host Application forms and further details avail­ elected, should be deposited with the Honor­ the IVth European Conference on Develop­ able from: ary Secretary, by 23 December 1989, at the mental Psychology. Previous European Con­ Valerie Bull/Sue Tewley latest. ferences have been held at Groningen, The British Psychological Society The AGM will be preceded by a Scientific Netherlands; Rome, Italy and Budapest, St Andrews House Meeting in the morning, and following the Hungary. The aims of the Conference on 48 Princess Road East AGM Anthea Keller, Chair-elect, will address Developmental Psychology are to promote Leicester LE1 7DR the Section. Further details will appear at a the discovery, dissemination and application later date. and are available from Cassie of knowledge of human developmental pro­ Cooper, Student Counselling and Welfare cesses at all stages of the lifespan from in­ Service, Harrow C of FE, Harrow HA1 3TP fancy to childhood, adolescence, adulthood DIVISION OF EDUCATIONAL AND CHILD and old age This meeting will be of interest PSYCHOLOGY Richard Marshall, Hon Sec Nottingham Psychological Service to many academics and practitioners NOTICE OF ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING: Community Unit For further details write to: 1990 Memorial House The Conference Organiser Notice is hereby given that the Annual Standard Hill Department of Psychology General Meeting of the Division of Educa­ Nottingham NG 1 6FX University of Stirling tional and Child Psychology will be held dur­ FK9 4LA ing the 1990 DECP course, 2-5 January Scotland 1990 (the exact date and time to be an­ PSYCHOTHERAPY SECTION nounced later) at the Fernlea, Glendower CONFERENCE and Lindum Hotels, St Anne's-on-Sea, near Saturday 18 November 1989 Blackpool. Resolution items for the AGM and DIVISION OF EDUCATIONAL AND CHILD PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGY nominations for vacancies on the committee must be received by 16 November 1989. AGE AND TIME ANNUAL COURSE CALL FOR NOMINATIONS Speakers include: 2-5 January 1990 Phil Cohen - "Young Heads, Old Shoulders, Nominations are invited for; EFFECTIVE APPLICATIONS OF tv1odels of Age in a 'Post Modern' Worldn PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION Honorary Secretary: To be elected for three Cassie Cooper - "On Hearing the First Cuc­ years. (The present Honorary Secretary, Ms koo in Autumn" Fernlea, Glendower and Lindum Hotels, St l.C. Lunt, is due to retire and is not eligible Tom Kitwood "Psychotherapy with Anne's-on-Sea, Near Blackpool for re-election). Demented People" KEYNOTE SPEAKERS will be: Committee Members: To be elected for three Phil Salmon - "On Being in the Run-up to 60" Tony Dessent - Principal Educational Psy­ years. (The retiring Committee Members are Venue: chologist, Nottinghamshire Ms J. Feinmann and Mr M. Gledhill who The Institute of Complementary Medicine Dave Kearney - Psychologist with OPD have both served for three years.) According 21 Portland Place Consultants to Rule 18 they are eligible for re-election. London W1N 3AF Peter Mittler - Professor of Special Educa­ There is a further vacancy on the Commit­ Fee for the day: tion, University of Manchester tee. £15 (includes coffee, tea and lunch) Valerie Walkerdine - Senior Lecturer in Psy­ Nominations for the above vacancies should Details from: chology, Birmingham Polytechnic be sent, to the Honorary Secretary at the So­ Cassie Cooper WORKSHOPS AND SEMINARS will include: ciety's offices to reach her not later than 16 Harrow College of Higher Education November 1989. The nominations require a Psychology and Personal Well-being Northwick Park Proposer and Seconder who must be Full Watford Road Peer supervision for EPs; beyond stress Members of the Division and the consent of Harrow HA 1 3TP management; therapeutic groupwork with the nominee to accept office, if elected, must teenagers; story-telling as a treatment option; Tel 01 864 5422 Ext 223 be obtained in writing. teacher support groups; prescriptive social skills programmes; bullying - is there any­ thing we can do?; the child as self - three DIVISION OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY case studies; from TA to teacher appraisal; PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN RESEARCH INTEREST GROUP Rational Emotive Therapy; relaxation tech­ CALL FOR NOMINATIONS FOR 1990 Research Issues In Health Psychology niques workshops for children; stress in care Nominations are invited for: - boys in O&A centres; stress and women in 1 December 1989 Chair-elect (normally to become Chair in education. Prestwich Hospital, Manchester 1991, and Vice Chair in 1992) Psychology and Effective Learning Chair (a one-year term) 10.30 am - 4.00 pm Identifying special needs and providing IEPs Honorary Secretary Dr Chris Main on back pain through a whole-school approach; a menu of Honorary Treasurer Dr Glynn Owens on breast cancer materials for parents preparing their young Six committee members Dr Derek Johnston on cardiac problems children for school; Was the Gerbil a Marxist Valid nominations require a proposer and a Dr John Green on AIDS mole? some thoughts on ERA and the seconder who are Members of the Section £20 including lunch and coffee possible response from EPs; individual pro­ and the written consent of the nominee to Applications with cheque for £20 made gramme planning and the National Curricu­ accept office, if elected. Nominations must payable to the Research Interest Group of lum; assessing specific learning difficulties; reach the Honorary Secretary, Dr Jane Uss­ the DCP to: primary science - genetic epistemology in the her, School of Cultural and Community Mr David Kirkby classroom· results of the DECP national en­ Studies, Sussex University, Falmer, Brighton Regional Secure Unit quiry into learning difficulties. ~pecific BN1 90N, by 10 November. St Bernard's Wing Psychology and Partnership The election will take place by ballot, if re­ Ealing Hospital Working with parents; partnership with Gov­ quired, and the results announced at the An­ Uxbridge Road ernors; what parents want to know; home­ nual General Meeting at the London Southall based reinforcement in secondary schools; Conference. Middlesex UB1 3EU

The Psychologist November 1989 495 SOCIETY HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY SECTION DIVISION OF OCCUPATIONAL NOTICE OF ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING PSYCHOLOGY Journals of the British Psychological AND CALL FOR NOMINATIONS NOTICE OF ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING Society cont... Notice is hereby given that the Annual AND CALL FOR NOMINATIONS General Meeting of the Health Psychology Notice is hereby given that the Annual British Journal of Mathematical and Section will be held during the Society's Lon· General Meeting of the Division of Occupa· Statistical Psychology don Conference, 19·20 December at the In· tional Psychology will be held during the Oc· stitute of Education, London (the exact date cupational Psychology Conference, 3-5 British Journal of Developmental Psychology and time to be notified later). January 1990, at the Belslield and New Journal of Occupational Psychology Nominations are invited for the offices of England hotels, Bowness·on·Windermere, Cumbria when Annual Reports w:ll be Chair and Honorary Secretary/Treasurer and British Journal of Educational Psychology committee members presented and business transacted. We are therefore asking for resolution items for the Nominations require a proposer and sec· Annual General Meeting and nominations onder who should be members of the Sec· which must be received by 17 November tion and the consent of the nominee to 1989. accept office if elected. Nominations for the election of the Chair· Forms should be completed and returned to: Elect, Honorary Secretary, Honorary Treas· Paul Bennett urer and Committee Members (three Honorary Secretary SPECIAL GROUP IN COUNSELLING vacancies each for three years) should be PSYCHOLOGY Health Psychology Section sent to the Honorary Secretary at the So· clo The British Psychological Society ciety's office to arrive no later than 17 No· NOTICE OF ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING St Andrews House vember 1989. The nominations require a Notice is hereby given that the first Annual 48 Princess Road East Proposer and Seconder, who must be Full General Meeting of the British Psychological Leicester LE1 ?DR Members of the Division and the consent of Society, Special Group in Counselling Psy· By 14 November 1989 the nominee to accept office, if elected, must chology will be held at: Beeches Manage· be obtained in writing. ment Centre, Bournville, Birmingham on Roger Miles has served for one year as Hon· Friday 26 January 1990 from 8 pm . 9 pm. orary Secretary and is eligible for re·election CALL FOR NOMINATIONS John Barker will be retiring as Honorary WELSH BRANCH Nominations for officers and executive oom· Treasurer and is not eligible for re·election mittee members, together with the name of NOTICE OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL Tony Jackson is a retiring oommittee mem· the proposer and one seconder, all of whom MEETING AND CALL FOR NOMINATIONS must be members of the Special Group in Notice is hereby given that the Annual Counselling Psychology, should be sent to General Meeting of the Welsh Branch will be Mr Mumtaz A. Khan, Honorary Secretary, 4 held on Wednesday 29 November 1989 at Street Lane, Leeds, West Yorks LS8 2ET to 8.45 pm in the Polytechnic of Wales, Ponty· arrive by Friday 1 December 1989 pridd, Mid Glamorgan. All Branch members Note: Following the vote by Section and are encouraged to attend. JOURNAL GRANTS TO OVERSEAS Group Members that the Section should Nominations are invited for the election of EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS merge into the Special Group, all members Officers and Committee Members. The cur· of the former Counselling Psychology Sec· rent Honorary SecretaryfTreasurer, Gill FUNDS ARE AVAILABLE FROM THE BRIT· lion are members of the Special Group in Penny, is eligible to stand for re·election. ISH PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY FOR A Counselling Psychology and enbtled to nomi· Committee members eligible for re·election LIMITED NUMBER OF SUBSCRIPTION nate and be nominated. are Chris Barry, Pamela Kenealy, Ian Taylor GRANTS TO BPS JOURNALS. Mr M. Khan and Teresa Winiarski·Jones. These grants are intended for centres that Honorary Secretary Nominations require a Proposer and Sec· are interested in developing local research October 1989 onder who should be members of the Welsh and scholarships but lack the financial re· Branch and the consent of the nominee to sources for such purposes. Each grant will accept office if elected. Nominations should cover the cost of up to five BPS journals and be sent, in writing, to the Secretary of the will run for an initial period of three years. Welsh Branch as soon as possible. Letters of application should be addressed to COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 1990s Address for nominations: The Journals Committee Chair, Dr Gill Penny Journals Office, FIRST ANNUAL CONFERENCE AND AGM Department of Behaviour and Communica· 13A Church Lane, OF THE SPECIAL GROUP IN tion Studies London N2 8DX COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY The Polytechnic of Wales 26-28 January 1990 Pontypridd and should include assurances that journals Mid Glamorgan CF37 1DL will be available to graduate and undergrad· To celebrate the foundation of the new Spe· uate students as well as research staff, that cial Group in Counselling Psychology, the the journals will be oontrolled by a librarian first Annual Conference and AGM will be a at an educational institution in which relevant residential event held in the comfortable set· research is carried out and that the recipient ting of Beeches Management Centre, Bourn· NATIONAL GROUP OF GRADUATE institution has problems that preclude their ville, Birmingham. PSYCHOLOGISTS obtaining the journal(s) through the normal Starting on the afternoon of Friday 26 WITH SPECIAL INTEREST IN CLINICAL channels. January till teatime on Sunday 28, the oon· PSYCHOLOGY ference will include a mixture of symposia There will be a meeting of the National Journals of The British Psychological and workshops on the following themes with· Group of Graduate Psychologists (with Spe· Society in counselling psychology: professional de· cial Interest in Clinical Psychology) velopment issues; education and training; occupational and commercial interests: On: Tuesday 21 November British Journal of Psychology health issues; loss, trauma and disaster; and At: 12.30 pm developing models of counselling psycho· British Journal of Medical Psychology In: The Seminar Room, Clinical Sciences logy. Building, Leicester Royal Infirmary British Journal of Social Psychology Further details and registration forms may be For further details telephone: obtained by sending an SAE before 1 De· Laura Foster British Journal of Clinical Psychology cember to the Conference Organiser: Tel: 0533 863481 Ext 34 7 Mrs Carol Shillito·Clarke 19 Worthy Lane Everyone welcome Winchester S023 7 AB

496 November 1989 The Psychologist SOCIETY

News of Members COMMITTEE SKILLS Standing Press Committee WORKSHOP RICHARD BALL, formerly Principal Clinical MEDIA SKILLS WORKSHOP Psychologist with Sandwell Health Authority, A workshop on Committee Skills will has taken up appointment as Head of Psy­ be held on Tuesday 19 December A media skiils workshop will be held chology Services for People with Learning 1989 at the Institute of Education, on Monday 1B December 1989 at the Difficulties (Top Grade), Coventry Health Bedford Way, London (during the So­ Institute of Education, London (the Authority from August 1989. ciety's London Conference). day prior to the start of the London Conference). MALCOLM BALLANTINE, formerly Lecturer The Workshop will be led by Kathleen in Occupational Psychology at Birkbeck Col­ Cox an Educational Psychologist, and Included will be exercises on news lege, has been appointed Senior Consultant is sponsored by the Society's Stand­ writing, press release preparation and at Walpole Training and Development Ltd, ing Committee on Communications. sessions on how the media operates. Professional journalists will act as tu­ 61-63 St John Street, London EC1M 4AN, There will be no charge for the Work­ tors. Tel: 01 253 2340. shop and numbers will be limited. CHRISTINE BLINCOE, formerly Top Grade For details and a registration form, Clinical Psychologist with Walsall Health which must be returned by Authority, took up post as District Clinical 17 November 1989, For programme and registration Psychologist with Sandwell Health Authority write to: form contact: in September 1989. Her address is: Firs Stephen White Clinic, Firs Lane, Smethwick, Warley, West Director of Information Midlands B67 6AE. Stephen White Director of Information DR ROBERT A. BOAKES has recently The British Psychological Society The British Psychological Society moved to Australia to take up a Professor­ St Andrews House St Andrews House ship at the University of Sydney. His address 48 Princess Road East 48 Princess Road East is: Department of Psychology, University of Leicester LE1 7DR Leicester LE1 ?DR Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia, Fax: (02) 692 4555, email: [email protected]. 0533 549568 DR L.B. HENDRY, Head of Department, University of Aberdeen, has been awarded a Personal Chair in Education from 1 July 1989. DR PAMELA KENEALY, formerly Lecturer Medical School, Adelaide, and now Senior in the School of Psychology, University of Research Fellow, The Sydney Hospital, Al­ PROFESSOR PETER HERRIOT will be Wales College of Cardiff, took up a Lecture­ bion Street Al DS Centre, Sydney, Australia, Director of Research, Sundridge Park Man­ ship in the Department of Psychology, has received the 1989 Newman Award for agement Centre from 1 January 1990. University College al Swansea, Singleton excellence in AIDS research. DR CLIVE HOLLIN, formerly of the Univer­ Park, Swansea SA2 8PP on 1 September MARK SINGLETON, formerly Principal Clini· sity of Leicester, has been appointed Senior 1989. cal Psychologist, Airedale Health Authority, Lecturer in Psychology at the University of DR VIVIEN J. LEWIS, formerly Senior Clini­ Department of Clinical Psychology, has Birmingham, seconded pan-time as Re­ cal Psychologist with Wolverhampton Health taken up a post as District Clinical Psycho­ search Psychologist al Glenthorne Youth Authority, has been appointed Principal Clini­ logist, Bury Health Authority. Treatment Centre, Birmingham. He can be cal Psychologist with Shropshire Health DR GEOFFREY L. THORPE, Associate Pro­ contacted at the School of Psychology, Authority from November 1989. University of Birmingham, PO Box 363, Birm· fessor of Psychology at the University of ingham B15 2TT, Tel: 021 414 4937 and at DR STEPHEN PAYNE has left the Psycho­ Maine, has been awarded a Diploma in Be­ Glenthorne YTC, Kingsbury Road, Erdington, logy and Computing Departments at Lancas­ havior Therapy by the American Board of Birmingham B24 9SA, Tel: 021 382 5909. ter University to take up a research post at Behavioral Psychology. the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Cen­ DR CHARLES JACKSON has left the MARK TRUEMAN, formerly Section Leader ter, Box 704, Yorktown Heights, NY 10598, and Senior Lecturer in the School of Health School of Psychology in Cardiff to join the USA. Institute of Manpower Studies at the Univer­ Sciences, Wolverhampton Polytechnic, has sity of Sussex. DR MICHAEL ROSS, formerly Senior Lec­ returned to the University of Keele as a Lec­ turer in Psychiatry at the Flinders University turer in the Department of Psychology.

Psychology and Physical Disability in the National Health Service Report of the Professional Affairs Board British Psychological Society 1989 The full, 120 page version of this report is now complete and will soon be available £5, including postage. If you require a copy, a quick response would be appreciated. Please send request and cheque for £5 made payable to "The BPS" to: The British Psychological Society St Andrews House 48 Princess Road East Leicester LE 1 ?DR

The Psychologist November 1989 497 ADVERTISEMENTS ADVERTISERS' Fifth International and there will be ample time for South Manchester - Conference on Personal discussion from the floor. Rehabilitation ANNOUNCEMENTS Malcolm Pines - The Universality Relationships of Shame: A Psychoanalytic Ap­ Demonstration Centre The publication of an ad­ 15-20 July at St Catherlne's proach vertisement by the Society College, Oxford Clifford Yorke - The Development TITLE: Effective Explaining and is neither an endorsement (Sponsored by the Psychology and Function of the Sense of Lecture Skills of the advertiser nor of the Department, Lancaster University, Shame DATE: Tuesday 5 and Wednes­ products and services ad­ and the International Society for John Steiner - Discussant day 6 December 1989 vertised. Advertisers may the Study of Personal Relation­ The Chair will be taken by Joseph VENUE: Wythenshawe Hospital ships.) Sandler, Freud Memorial Profes­ not incorporate in a sub­ SUITABLE FOR: Anyone in the The conference will cover all as­ sor of Psychoanalysis. Health Service involved in giving sequent advertisement or pects of the study of personal and The conference fee is £59 for reg­ promotional piece the fact talks and lectures. social relationships over the life istration before 31 December OUTLINE: To ensure highly indi­ that a product or service cycle, including taxonomy, devel­ 1989. The fee for late registration vidual training in presentations has been advertised in The opment and growth, disorders and will be £75. and lecturing skills. Active partici­ Psychologist. The Society disengagement, dissolution and Requests for application forms pation by everyone attending will reserves the right to reject repair. Previous conferences have should be sent to: be an important aspect of the or cancel any advertise­ been distinguished by the presen­ The Conference Secretary course. tation of research from a wide Psychoanalysis Unit (Only 12 places available.) ment without notice. diversity of backgrounds, including UCL For details of rates and clinical, social, and developmental 26 Bedford Way TITLE: Assertiveness Training how to submit advertise­ psychology, communications, so­ London WC1H OAP for Professions in the National ments, please contact our ciology, anthropology and philos­ (10253) Health Service agents: ophy. DATE Thursday 7 and Friday 8 T.G. Scott, Invited participants Include: December 1989 30-32 Southampton Street, Michael Argyle, Oxford; Grazia At- Three-Day Course In VENUE: Wythenshawe Hospital London, WC2. tili. Rome; Hans Bierhoff, Mar- Withdrawal-Oriented Ther­ SUITABLE FOR: All professions burg; Arthur Bochner. Florida; apy for Smokers OUTU NE: The aim of this course 01-240-2032 Jenny de Jong G1erveld, Amster- . . is to provide you with an oppor­ ~======:J dam· Robert Hinde Cambridge· Institute of Psychiatry and tunity to look at your communica­ Ted' Huston, Texas: Hal Kelley: the Maudsley Hospital, tion skills and behaviour patterns Chartered Psychologists UCLA; George Levinger, Amherst; London and demonstrate that it is possible Harry Reis, Rochester. 7-9 February 1990 to effect change through direct Advertisements for services Call for Papers: The course consi_sts of morning and honest expression of your offered by Chartered Psy­ In addition to the invited ad- lectures by leading experts in feelings. Assertiveness is not chologists and those for dresses, the programme will con- smoking research and . therapy about being aggressive, selfish or sist of reviewed symposia, the- (Russell, Jarvis, West, Ha1ek, Sut­ whom they take responsi­ winning at all costs. It is about in­ matic poster sessions or work- ton) and afternoon workshops fo­ bility may be placed in this creasing self-esteem, learning to shops, and individual papers and \cussed on teaching prac~cal skills handle criticism and cope with dif­ section upon request, at no posters. and methods. of treatmen~.. ficult situations without resorting to extra charge. Proposals are invited in the above Course . fee 1s £95. Cert1f1cate on passive, threatening or patronising ~------1 categories. Submissions should completion. . . behaviour. Assertiveness has consist of 500 word summaries for Applications and enqwnes to: been proven to be appropriate to Courses and Workshops individual papers and posters, with Ms W._ Boyle . good communication at work, in Counselling Skills Workshops an additional 500 word overview Addiction Research Unit the home, and in everyday con­ and Course: 7 November, £40. from conveners in the case of 101 Denmark Hill tact with others. 27-28 November, £60. 14-20 De­ symposia and thematic poster London SES 8AF For further information/programme cember (Th F M T W), £200. 14 sessions. Authors' names and ad- Tel: 01 703 54 t 1 Ext 3447 please contact: November (for past participants dresses should be attached on a 1------'l.:.:11c:.15:::1LI The Secretary only), £30. Finchley, N3 separate cover sheet in all cases. Wythenshawe Hospital Stress Management Workshop: Submission of proposals via Bitnet Managing Groups Southmoor Road 20 November, £60. London, WC 1 is especially welcome, though in Manchester M23 9L T Further information, dates and ap­ that event, a backup hardcopy 18th Annual Training Tel: 061 998 7070 Ext 19 plication forms from: should also be sent Alternatively, Laboratory of the Group Dr S. Delroy, C.Psychol., AFBPsS five copies of each submission Relations Training Assocl- TITLE: Children with Hearing 3 Northumberland House should be mailed. ation Impairment 237 Ballards Lane The deadline for submission is 15 2-7 January 1990 DATE: Thursday 25 January 1990 Finchley December 1989. University of Manchester VENUE: Withington Hospital London N3 1LB All proposals and enquiries should An opportunity to learn through SUITABLE FOR Speech Thera­ Tel: 01 346 4010 be sent to the Conference Or- five days' experience of group pro- pists, Hearing Therapists (11023) ganiser: cess about the tasks of managing OUTLINE: The aim of the course Robin Gilmour self and others in groups. It will is to allow non-specialist profes­ ------~ Psychology Department allow members to: sionals to expand or update their Fylde College develop new ways of under- knowledge of the effects of hear­ Integrative Redecision University of Lancaster standing what happens in both ing loss on children. Topics Therapy Lancaster LA 1 4 VF small and large groups covered will include supporting Incorporating Bloener· Bitnet Number: • receive helpful feedback on children with hearing impairment getlcs, TA and Gestalt [email protected] how their behaviours are seen in mainstream schools; par­ f wo residential Workshops led by Tel: 0524 65201 Ext 357 4 and experienced by others enVchild interaction. Silvio Silvestri, from South Lake (direct line for touch tone phones: • exercise leadership in a group For further information/programme Tahoe, California 0524 66545 Ext 3574; mailbox no and monitor the impact on self please contact: These are Dr Silvestri's first work­ 3574) and others The Secretary shops in Europe ______-1~'~08~26=1 The event is fully residential and Withington Hospital will comprise a series of experien­ Nell Lane He will run a therapy workshop on University College 16-19 April 1990 in Edenbridge, ces in small and large groups. Manchester M20 SLR London Psychoanalysis Everyone will be a member of a T Tel: 061 447 3409 Kent followed by a training work­ (11022) shop for counsellors and thera­ Unit group of eight to twelve members pists on 23-26 April 1990. Conference on Shame: each with two trainers to assist the For more details contact: Theoretical and Clinical group in reflecting on its own pro­ Joanna Beazley Richards Aspects cess. Trent Polytechnic "Moonrakers • 2·3 February 1990 Details and application forms from: New name Blackness Road The Conference will take place at David Jaques Trent Polytechnic has changed its Crowborough University College London. The 7 Stanley Road name to Nottingham Polytechnic East Sussex TN6 2LP following papers will be presented Oxford OX4 1QY with effect from Monday 25 Sep­ Tel: 0892 655195 Tel: 0865 724141 tember 1989. (10825) (11176)

498 November 1989 The Psychologist ADVERTISEMENTS Passing - Programme standing of higher education. An Royal Society Lecture Unblocking Assertive Analysis of Service Sys­ Associateship will be awarded for The Ferrier Lecture Actions a demonstrable contribution, es­ Side Glances at Blindslght: Re­ tems' Implementation of pecially from younger workers in A Change Strategies cent approaches to implicit dis­ Workshop: facilitated by Normalisation Goals. the field. criminations In human cortical An introduction to the detailed ap­ Full details from: blindness Rose Evlson Friday 16 February 10.15- plication of normalisation princi­ SRHE By Professor L. Weiskrantz, 1990, 17.15 in Sheffield ples in services, including a prac­ At The University F.R.S., Professor of Psychology in Developing the Whole Person in tice evaluation of a service. Or­ Guildford GU2 5XH the University of Oxford. their Job or Life Context ganised jointly with CMHERA. Tel: 0483 39003 Wednesday 15 November 1989, Participants will work on real situ­ Fee £145, 26-28 January 1990. Fax 0483 300803 5.30 pm. ations where they wish to behave Castle Priory College At University College London, differently in the future, using Thames Street Chemistry Auditorium, The Chris­ First International practical methods which can be Wallingford topher Ingold Building, 20 Gordon continued afterwards. The meth­ Oxon OX10 OHE Conference on Street, London WC 1. ods will be of interest to applied Tel: 0491 37551 Psychology and the All are welcome to attend. (11024) psychologists. Performing Arts Details: The practical work illustrates the Institute of Psychiatry, London Tel: 01 380 7558 (The Vice-Pro­ principle of reinforcing optimum 5-7 July 1990 vost, University College London) Society tor Research Abstracts and enquiries: learning strategies by removing or into Higher Education Dr Glenn Wilson reducing interfering intra-psychic blocks (rigid responses). Awards 1990 Institute of Psychiatry Cost: £80, BPS members £45. The Society for Research into De Crespigny Park Further details from: Higher Education invites members London SES BAF Harley Street Rose Evison, C.Psychol, AFBPsS to apply for Fellowship or Associ­ Tel: 01 703 5411 Ext 3254 Fully serviced sessional consulting 5 Victoria Road ateship of the Society. (10824) rooms available on short licence Broomhall Applications or nominations within totally refurbished period Sheffield S10 2DJ should be accompanied by a building. Tel: 0742 686371 statement of qualifications and Treating the Aggressive Services include full office back­ achievements, and the names of Client up, medical equipment, disabled two persons who may be con­ London: 20-21 November persons' lift, qualified nursing sup­ 22nd International sulted by the Awards Panel they port and booking and reception Congress of Applied should be received by the Honor­ 1989 service. A two-day course on anger control ary Secretary of the Society at For further information call: Psychology Guildford by 1 March 1990. techniques which have been suc­ Fiona Hammond Kyoto, Japan cessfully used to treat violent indi­ The criteria for these awards are Tel: 01 436 5252 22-27 July 1990 set out in "Notes for Applicants", viduals. Carlton Healthcare Ltd For further information contact: Details from: obtainable on request from the 10 Harley Street Professor Yasuhisa Nagayama SRHE office. In general, a Fellow­ Dr Barry McGurk London W1N 1AA Secretary General of the Local Or­ Psychological Services ship of the Society will be Fax: 01 637 5227 ganising Committee Horton awarded where there is evidence \"·Jay (1060iJ 22 ICAP Farn1ngham of a sustained and significant con­ PO Box 38, Suita-Senri tribution to knowledge and under- Osaka 565 Japan

]\dvertisements are expected to conforrn to rules and standards laid l"'\. down by the Advertising Standards Authority Most do. The few that don't we'd like you to vvritc in about. And if you'd like a copy of these rules for press. poster and cinema advertisements, please send for our booklet. It's free. ----·------The Aclvertising Stafi~ds Authori~., We're here to put it right. ------ASA Ltd .. Dept. Y. Brooi< House lornr1gtor1 f>iacc, London WC IE 7HN. The Psychologist November 1989 499 The Right Hemisphere THE TEACHING OF Language Battery Karen L Bryan HYPNOSIS WRITING, SPELLING A comprehensive battery of standardised language tests to discriminate between AND READING right and left hemisphere damaged and COURSE 1990 is International Literacy normal subjects, quantify impairment and Year. On Saturday 6th January provide a qualitative profile. Contains tests (ERICKSONIAN) 1990, at the CHESTER of semantic processing, metaphor and humour appreciation, inferred meaning, TWO WEEKEND INTENSIVE INTERNATIONAL HOTEL, emphatic stress and discourse. Includes Chester, {Cheshire, England) a a 40 page ringbound manual, over 180 at St. Ann's Hospital, London one day course has been stimulus pictures and 50 written stimulus cards, Photocopy master response fonns 18th/19th/25th/26th Nov organised to draw attention to an and profile sheets. Robust and portable. exciting new way of teaching Special ktlrodUCIDly Price of £79.95 only writing, spelling and reading. until January 1sL 1990. Evidence, much of it recorded on The Computerized Boston *PRACTICAL video, indicates that the pack Running in colour on IBM compatibles with a graphics card, 1he Compulerized Boston SKILLS would be extremely useful for allows the recording of scores on The these who work with, or have Boston Diagnostic /.phasia Examination responsibilities for, the under 5's, (Goodglass & Kaplan, 1983); aids accurate *CLINICAL classification through comparison of an school-age children (especially individual graphic Profile of Speech 1 DEMONSTRATIONS those working within the National Characteristics with standard syndrome Curriculum) and adults. The profile ranges; printing of profiles and summaries for individual reports and course also includes substantial records and export of data for research. *CERTIFICATION reference to the teaching of Approved by Goodglass. £29.95. dyslexics and shows how a STAR EX single teacher can use the STAREX is an expert system to aid in the SIMPLE STEPS PACK to teach selection of statistical tests for data For brochure please analysis. It makes extensive use of large classes. hypertext to provide detailed information write or telephone: For further details send an about statistical concepts, and is ideal as S.A.E. to a teaching aid. Contains details of both British Hypnosis Research THE SIMPLE STEPS PACK parametric and nonparametric tests. Runs 8 Paston Place on colour or mono IBM compatibles. Hard COURSE, WRITETRACK, 11A ~ fl~py dis~. f~9.50. Brighton BN2 1 HA Kilmorey Park, Hoo le, . .J _-Offim'_.... icalions, 5 Han::ourt Es!are, Leics. LEB ONE (0533-796166) Tel: (0273) 693622 CHESTER. Cheshire, Engiand., Kil»orth, I I !_LI.K. CH2 3QS . THE 3rd BRITISH BRAIN MAPPING CONFERENCE at the INSTITUTE OF PSYCHIATRY De Cresplgny Park,Denmark Hill, WANTED London SES BAF 29th and 30th NOVEMBER 1989 BSECH A two day conference to present the clinical experience obtained with Psychology INTERMEDIATE LEVEL Topographic Brain Mapping Systems Training 1n Clinical for both spontaneous EEG activity and Instruments Evoked Potential Analysis in hospitals and clinics. HYPNOSIS Day 1 - Speakers: Cambridge 2/3 December. 1989 Dr Horace Townsend - U.K. Dr Bruce MacGillivray - U.K. Tachistoscopes Led by Reg Kenworthy Dr Kurt Lohmann - West Germany Reaction Testers Chrissi loannou Prof. Roy McClelland - U.K. Dr Paul McCullagh -U.K. Dr Michael Memory Drums at tr1e Sedgwick U .K. Pursuit Rotors Prof. Graham Harding - U.K. University of Hull Dr Roger Thornton - U.K. 4/8 Channel Event Prof. Francois Maugierre - France Dr Recorder EV8 David Wadbrook - U.K. • Tre1Hment of Ch1fdran and Adults ·Exploratory Techniques • Pain Control Day 2 - Hands-on Experience Cost of the conference is £40.00 for Day 1 and £25 for Day 2 - space on FEE:£75 Day 2 is limited and therefore early registration is essential. Forth Psychology ~eta1ls from Barry B. Hart, Clinical Registration and enquiries to: Instruments Ltd Psychology Dep. Dr Peter Fenwick, Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, 11 Brewster Square Scunthorpe Gen. Brucefield Industrial Estate, Hosp., Seu nthorpe Denmark Hill, London SES BAF DN157BH Telephone 01-703-S411 Livingston, West Lothian Tel.: 0724-282282 Anyone wishing to present a POSTER Tel: 0506 418500 ext. 2449 should contact Dr Peter Fenwick at the above. 500 November 1989 The Psychologist Brain Maker

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The Psychologist November 1989 501 11·12 Basic Training Course in Hypnosis. West Midlands + FOR YOUR DIARY Society of Hypnotherapy and Psychotherapy. Details: Dr D. Evans (021 327 6401 ). (See Sep 89.) 13-14 Gestalt Fundamentals Course. Details: metanoia (01 579 2505). (See Nov 89.) Diary Notes are compiled each month from the 13-15 Assisted Communication for Children with Severe advertisements received. Publication Is neither an Physical Disability • course. Institute of Child Health. Details: The endorsement of the advertiser nor of the products Wolfson Centre (01 837 7618). (See Oct 89.) and services advertised. 14 Continuation One-Day Workshop. Finchley, London. Details: Dr S. Delroy (01 346 4010). (See Nov 89.) 14 Expressing Ourselves Thro' Images: Body Images - day NOVEMBER 1989 workshop. Details: J. Isaacs (01 876 5223). (See Sep 89.) 15 The Ferrier Lecture. University College London. Details: The 7 Counselling Workshop. Finchley, London. Details: Dr S. Delroy Vice-Provost (01 380 7558). (See Nov 89.) (01 346 4010). (See Nov 89.) 15·16 Ourselves as Carers • workshop. Details: The National 8 Stress Management Training Workshop. Centre for Stress Hospitals College of Speech Sciences (01 837 0112). (See Jun 89.) Management. Deta1ls:S. Palmer (012934114). (See Aug 89.) 15-17 Introduction to Repertory Grids - workshop. Details: 8-9 Research in a Personal Construct Theory Context - Centre for Personal Construct Psychology (01 834 8875). (See Oct workshop. Details: Centre for Personal Construct Psychology (01 89.) 834 8875). (See Oct 89.) 17 Nocturnal Enuresis: Sharing New Research and Practice - 9-10 Type and Team Development - workshop. Details: Oxford conference. London. Details: Enuresis Resource and Information Psychologists Press (0865 510203). (See Apr 89.) Centre Secretariat, 65 West Drive, Sutton SM2 ?NB. (See July 89.) 9-10 Contemporary Literary Theory and Psychotherapy - 18 Psychological Perspectives on Ai;ie and Time. seminar. Dumfries. Details: Dr M. Mair (0387 55301 Ext 2271). Psychotherapy Section Conference, London. Details: C. Cooper (01 (See Sep 89.) 864 5422 Exl 223). (See Nov 89.) 9-10 Benzodlazepine Withdrawal Workshop. Cardiff. Details: 18-19, 25-26 Ericksonlan Hypnosis Course. London. Details: Withdraw Workshops (021 4 71 3626). (See Apr 89.) British Hypnosis Research (0273 693622). (See Nov 89.) 10 Forum on Augmentative/Alternative Systems of 20 Stress Management Workshop. London. Details: Dr S. Delroy Communication. Details: The National Hospitals College of Speech (01 346 4010). (See Nov 89.) Sciences (01 837 0112). (See Jun 89.) 20·24 The Ruth Griffiths Course: Babies-Infants Scales. The 10-13 Annual Winter School. Buxton. Details: Centre for Personal McKeith Centre, Brighton. Details: P. Preston (01 647 7543). Construct Psychology (01 834 8875). (See Oct 89 ) 20·21 Treating the Aggressive Client • course. London. Details: 10·13 Conference on High Ability. The European Council for B. McGurk (0322 865294). (See Nov 89.) High Ability, in Zurich. Details: Dr J. Freeman (061 980 459). (See 21 National Group of Graduate Psychologists (with Special Oct 88.) Interest In Clinical Psychology) • meeting. Leicester. Details: L. 11 Margaret Lowenfeld Day Conference. Cambridge. Details: Foster (0533 863481 Ext 347). (See Nov 89.) Child Care and Development Group, Free School Lane, Cambridge 21-24 Nov, 13-15 Dec, 17·19 Jan 3 Unit Basic General Course. C82 3RF. (See Sep 89.) Details: Centre for Personal Construct Psychology (01 834 8875). (See Oct 89.) 22 Family Therapy with Orthodox Jewish Families • meeting. Jewish Mental Health Group. Details: 01 431 3916 or 01 670 9081 AMSTAT* & STATMODE (eves). (See Sep 89.) MODULAR STATISTICS AND MATHEMATICS PACKAGES 22-23 Head Injury Rehabilitation: Towards 2000 AD - MARKETED BY conference. Southport & Formby District Psychology Service. Details: J. Blackburn (0704 47471 Ext 3470). (See Sep 89.) S. C. COLEMAN LIMITED 23-26 Psychology and Psychologists Toda'X • conference. 2nd AMSTATforPCW&CPC ST ATMODE for PC Compatibles Convention of Portuguese Psychologists ssociation. Lisboa, tMSTA T 1/STATMODE 1 me~m. vaqance, skew, kurtos•s. 1-- Sctrn1:le, 2-- '.>.lmple, and pa11cd I-tests. Portugal. Details: Dr L.S. Almeida (010 351 2 9835963). (See Jun 1 11 tra~~~r-:a?i~n~'i?1es•;,~ ;e aa"n°o ':'eut rreve_ ou'~~~~~\.Jr ~1:~ n~~u~·l.{~~;~ 1;~,~~ ':~q,'.~~i~;a:~'~b~~~~a1(,~~~· :~Tr":::;; 89) of 500 l+I da1a poirm ! !2QQO ST A TMODf I 24 Educational Reform and Legislative Changes - The AMSTAT 2/STATMODE 2 - 27 nonpacol an\1 stotJStical soft11>are Lmear and Polyno<'lral regressior". Trent! anrl Sf'a\Onal 25·26 The Future Career of the Adult Psychoanalytic VariatrQn._ ~ullople_ Regres51.on Analysis. Translormat,ons, Psychotherapist in the NHS: The Ways Ahead - conference. f~ponent1al Smooth1ng. Adaprove F dter,n1 Graph,c di>play, rnnq am1 ?iloca(ion of r L -­ Schizophrenia - conference. London. Details: Research Secretary, '0 scarce resources_ 40 Page manual '8 worlo ed e~arnriles MIND (016370741). (See Sep 89.) AMSTAT 6/STATMODE 6· SFANOVA 27-28 Counselling Skills Workshop. Finchley, London. Details: " 1 Up rn fl- way analysar'an<.f· f'-" tuua1 cell s•.:es. Unequal cell wes on 1- way AOV Ma~'n'ur'. of 2000 Llilta poon(s 1300 on Dr S. Delroy (01 346 4010). (See Nov 89.) urw~parilif'•_l CP M ) :0 4000 wr> PC,. '"PU! from ASCII File' Ootput 10 ;ueen nr \e~' 1·1~ w tr f.J1I AOV table • main and 29 Welsh Branch Scientific Meeting and AGM. Alcohol, Other l . ~ •nterac;1on mearl; ilfl 'on of several '" ,, '~Suits onto a multiple schemilt Also Pareto ;md Lorerii analysis '" • Output to si:reen (,< pr,nt~r l"cludes Oi)Pr~11onat manual with vr.or11 workedexarnr>lh DECEMBER 1989 The programs have applications "' resedrch of all kinds. education. iJle~. prodt,ct•or plannmg, work and 1 Research Issues in Health Psychology. DCP Research method study. financial planning, personnel. sOcJal wor~ e~c Interest Group, Manchester. Details: D. Kirkby, Regional Secure "I will certainly be u:Jing them myndf in the future and no reviewer can offer a warmer recommendation than that." Dr. Peter Morris, Am:Jtrad Profeuional Compuring, May 1987. Unit, St Bernard's Wing, Ealing Hospital, Uxbridge Road, Southall, Price L ..t CPC Pew PC Middx UB1 3EU. (See Nov 89.) AMSTATl £2595 £2795 STATMOOE1 £39.95 1 Psychological Aspects of Disasters conference. BPS and AMSTAT2 £39.9!'i £39 95 STATMODE2 £39.95 AMSTAT3 £25.95 £27.95 STATMOOE3 £39.95 DCP Scottish Branches. Edinburgh. Details: L. Baikie (031 332 AMSTAT4 £25 95 £27.95 STATMOOE4 £39.95 AMSTATS £25 95 £27_95 STATMOOE6 £39.95 2566 Ext 205/270). (See Oct 89.) AMSTAT7 £25.95 £27.95 STATMODE7 l:'.39.95 1 Phonological Dyslexia In Developmental Verbal Dyspraxla •

ANY 2 - 15% DISCOUNT CH~ rJu~S ANLl f' C 1 TO lecture. Details: The National Hospitals College of Speech ~'~"~,,'.~,;?;.: ~:scouNT S. C. COLEMAN L TO. Sciences (01 837 0112). (See Jun 89.) Educational qoantoty d1s.count1 33 LEICESTER ROAD. ASHBY DE-LA·ZOUCH 2-3 BSECH Intermediate Training In Clinical Hypnosis. ALL PRICES 1NCLUOE POST LEICESTERSHIRE, Lrn 5DA University of Hull. Details: B. Hart (0724 282282). (See Nov 89.) !::! M'S4 I ANO PACKAGING IN THE ')"EL: 0530 415919 U.K_ BUT EXCLUDE VAT. /4 Hour An•wl,.phone Techn1cdl ''''<.!" 1roes after 6 ()(pm 3 Counselling Skills Workshop. Finchley, London. Details: Dr S.

• AMS TAT Is o (rade,-.--,ark ()f A\11'.:, T RAO Pl ( .ind 1s o.~<·d '""Jpr I 1!.<'~'-" Delroy (01 346 4010). (See Oct 89.)

502 November 1989 The Psychologist The National Hospitals College of Speech Sciences (01 837 0112). + FOR YOUR DIARY (See Sep 89.) 23-25 Stress Management Workshop. Highbury, London. Details: Dr S. Delroy (01 346 4010). (See Oct 89.) 24 Developing Creative Drama - course. Details: The Secretary, The National Hospitals Colle()e of Speech Sciences. Details: The Secretary, The National Hospitals College of Speech Sciences (01 5·6 Effective Explaining and Leeluring Skills • course. South 837 0112). (See Sep 89.) Manchester - Rehabilitation Centre. Details: The Secretary, 25 Children with Hearing Impairment • course. South Withington Hospital (061 447 3409) (See Nov 89.) Manchester - Rehabilitation Demonstration Centre. Details: The 6 Psychological Aspects of Brain Injury • seminar. Royal Secretary, Withington Hospital (061 447 3409). (See Nov 89.) Hospital and Home, Putney. Details: The Conference Secretary, 25-26 Social Skllls and the Speech Impaired - course. Details: RHHP (01 788 4511 Ext 261). (See Sep 89.) The Secretary, The National Hospitals College of Speech Scienoes 6 Cross-cultural Counselling ·meeting. Special Group/Section of (01 837 0112). (See Sep 89.) Counselling Psychology NE Branch. Details: M. Khan (0274 26 Special Group In Counselling Psychology AGM. 493626). (See Sep 89.) Birmingham. Details: M. Khan, 4 Street Lane, Leeds, West Yorks 6 Stress Management Training Workshop. The Centre for Stress LS8 2ET. (See Nov 89.) Management. Details:S. Palmer (012934114). (See Aug 89.) 26·28 Counselling Psychology in the 1990s. 1st Annual 7-8 Firo·B ·workshop. Details: Oxford Psychologists Press (0865 Conference and AGM of the Special Group in Counselling 510203). (See Apr 89.) Psychology. Details: C. Shillito-Clarke, 19 Worthy Lane, Winchester 7·8 Assertiveness Training for Professions in the National $023 7AB. (See Nov 89.) Health Service • course. South Manchester - Rehabilitation 26-28 Passing - Programme Analysis of Service Systems' Demonstration Centre. Details: The Secretary, Wythenshawe Implementation of Normalisation Goals • course. Details: Castle Hospital (061 447 3409). (See Nov 89.) Priory College (0491 37551). (See Nov 89.) 8 Paediatric Neuropsychology. New Directions In Assessment 29 . Continuation Counselling Workshop. Finchley, London. and Evaluation? DCP Special Interest Group for Clinical Details: Dr S. Delroy (01 346 4010). (See Aug 89.) Psychologists working with Children and Young People. London. 29·30 The "Clumsy" Child • course. Institute of Child Health. Details: J. Middleton (0737 357171). (See Oct 89.) Details: The Wolfson Centre (018377618). (See Oct 89.) 9-10 Introductory Course in Transactional Analysis. Details: metanoia (01 579 2505). (See Oct 89.) FEBRUARY 1990 9·10 Intermediate Training Course In Hypnosis. West Midlands 2·3 Shame: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects - conference. Society of Hypnotherapy and Psychotherapy. Details: Dr D. Evans Details: The Conference Secretary, Psychoanalysis Unit, University (021 327 6401 ). (See Sep 89.) College London, 26 Bedford Way, London WC1H OAP. (See Nov 14-20 Counselling Course. Finchley, London. Details: Dr S. 89.) Delroy (01 346 4010) (See Nov B9.) 3 Psychotherapy Section AGM. London. Details: Richard 18 Media Skills Workshop. Institute of Education, London. Marshall, Nottingham Psychological Service, Community Unit, Details: S. White, BPS Office (0533 549568). (See Nov 89.) Memorial House. Standard Hill, Nottingham NG1 6FX. (See Nov 19 Committee Skills Workshop. Institute of Education, London. 89.) Details: S. White (0533 549568). (See Nov 89.) 5 Stress Management Workshop. London. Details: Dr S. Delroy 19·20 BPS London Conference. Institute of Education. Details: (01 346 4010). (See Oct 89.) Conference Hotline (0533 557123). 7-9 \Vithdrawal-oriented Therapy fur Smokers • course. Institute 19·22 17th Annual Meeting of the Psychophysiology Society. of Psychiatry and the Maudsley Hospital, London. Details: W. Boyle, Bristol. Details: Dr L. James (01 846 3613). (See May 89.) Addiction Research Unit (01 703 5411 Ext 3447). (See Nov 89.) 27·28 Counselling Skills Workshop. Finchley, London. Details: 9 Cognitive Neuropsychologlcal Research with Children • Dr S. Delroy (01 346 4010). (See Oct 89.) lecture series. Details: The Secretary, The National Hospitals College of Speech Sciences (01 837 0112). (See Sep 89.) 16 Unblocking Assertive Actions. Change Strategies workshop. Sheffield. Details: R. Evison (0742 686371) (See Nov 89.) JANUARY 1990 16·27 Child Psychology In the USSR tour. 2·5 DECP Annual Course and AGM. Effective Applications of MoscowNladimir/Leningrad. Details: Interchange (01 681 3612). Psychology in Education. St Anne's-on-Sea. Details: V. Bull/S. (See Sep 89.) Tewley, BPS Office (0533 549568). (See Nov 89.) 22-28 Counselling Skllls Course. Finchley, London. Details: Dr S. 2·7 Managing Groups. 18th Annual Training Laboratory of the Delroy (01 346 401 O). (See Oct 89.) Group Relations Training Association. Manchester. Details: D. Jaques (0865 724141). (See Nov 89.) MARCH 1990 3·5 Occupational Psychology Conference and AGM. 1·2 The Art of Supervision • course. Details: The Secretary, The Bowness-on-Windermere. Occupational Psychology Division and National Hospitals College of Speech Sciences (01 837 0112). (See Section. (See Nov 89) Sep 89.) 6 The Teaching of Writing, Spelling and Reading • course. 5 Stress Management Workshop. London. Details: Dr S. Delmy Chester. Details: The Simple Steps Pack Course, Writetrack, 11a (01 346 4010). (See Oct 89.) Kilmorey Park, Hoole, Chester CH2 30S. (See Nov 89.) 12·16 Developmental Neuropsychology • course Institute of 6·7 Introductory Course In Transacllonal Analysis. Details: Child Health. Details: The Wolfson Centre (01 837 7618). (See Oct metanoia (01 579 2505). (See Oct 89.) 89.) 10,17,24,31 Jan, 7,14,21,28 Feb, 7,14 Mar Psycho-Analysis In 15·17 American Psychology-Law Society Biennial Meeting. Britain Today: Developments • Theoretical and Clinical Williamsburg, Virginia. Details: K. Ozslzly, Law and Psychology Implications • lectures and seminars. British Psycho-Analytical Program, 209 Burnett Hall, University of Nebraska, Uncorn, Society. Details: Institute of Psycho-Analysis, 63 New Cavendish Nebraska 68588. (See Oct 89.) Street, London Wl M ?RD. (See Jun 89.) 16 Communication Disorders Presenting In a Paediatric 12 Reading and Communication Problems Following Acquired Audiology Clinic • lecture series. Details: The Secretary, The Brain Injury • lecture series. Details: The Secretary, National National College of Speech Sciences (018370112). (See Sep 89.) Hospitals College of Speech Sciences (01 837 0112). (See Sep 27·29 Stress Management Workshop. Highbury, London. Details: 89.) Dr S. Delroy (01 346 4010). (See Oct 89.) 15·19 Physical Disabilities - course. Institute of Child Health. Details: The Wolfson Centre (01 837 7618). (See Oct 89.) APRIL 1990 15 Jan - 2 Feb Neurology and Physical Disabilities • course. 1·4 7th Annual Meeting of the Society for Psychotherapy Institute of Child Health. Details: The Wolfson Centre (01 837 Research (UK). Ravenscar. Details: Dr M. Startup, MRC/ESRC 7618). (See Oct 89.) SAPU, Dept of Psychology, The University, Sheffield S10 2TN. (See 20·21 Advanced Training Course In Hypnosis. West Midlands Sep 89.) Society of Hypnotherapy and Psychotherapy. Details: Dr D. Evans 2 Stress Management Workshop. London. Details: Dr S. Delroy (021 327 6401 ). (See Sep 89.) (01 346 4010). (See Aug 89.) 22-26 The Neurological Basis of Childhood Disability • course. 2-3 The Management of Stress at Work - course. Details: The Institute of Child Health. Details: The Wolfson Centre (01 837 7618). (See Oct 89.) Secretary, The National Hospitals College of Speech Scienoes (01 837 0112). (See Sep 89.) 23 Introducing Creative Drama • course. Details: The Secretary,

The Psychologist November 1989 503 LIGHTER SIDE Implement Users are, in fact, highly ex­ troverted individuals with a very low boredom threshold. By thus varying the stimulus, they are able to reduce the time spent on any one individual activity A Balance Sheet on and so remain in the bath for a longer period of time. (Time spent bathing is the subject of one of our current re­ search projects. We hope to be able to Bathing report on it in the near future.) Another decision concerns the crucial question: Hairwashing or Not? Our re­ Nicky Hayes reports on recent Investigations Into a widespread human search produced some remarkable behaviour. examples of set and rigorously defended attitudes here. Non-Hair­ Washers (NHWs) tended to adopt what Many theories have been proposed to Fame and Bubbells (1986) did demon­ can loosely be grouped as "hygiene explain that ubiquitous human activity: strate that most SBW individuals do in reasons". with a small minority who pro­ bathing. Psychoanalysts argue that fact place a certain amount of Fluid in duced justifications in terms of the bathing represents a return to the warm, the bath first, but add the remainder plumbing arrangements of the system. immersing fluids of the mother's womb - after getting in. Bubbells and Skweeque NHWs also showed an intense emo­ satisfying a perpetual craving for that (1977) had earlier showed that the SBW tional rejection of the idea. By contrast, ambience and security lost for ever dur­ technique involves considerable agita­ the Hair-Washers (HWs) justified their ing the birth trauma. Nativists perceive tion of the Limbs. The sociobiologists behaviour almost entirely in terms of in bathing an innate behaviour pattern, Courte and Imprint (1978) argue that convenience; but showed little aversion marginally modifiable by cultural factors this activity represents a primitive yet to the NHW activities. It is interesting (like whether to bath daily or just on demanding attempt to swim (or fly): an that remarkably few individuals appear Saturday nights), but essentially univer­ innate behaviour pattern initiated by to engage in Tooth-Cleaning Behaviour sal. Empiricists hotly dispute this: if close proximity to the Fluid. Many psy­ while bathing, whether they are HWs or bathing is innate. they say, then why chologists, however, express not. the struggle to get certain children to uncertainty about that notion. A physi­ engage in the activity? cist of my acquaintance once suggested A final decision concerns the removal of that the behaviour might represent an Self from the Bath. The majority trend Bathing is a problematic area, involving attempt by the individual to achieve op­ here is to remove the Self first, and the complex cognitive and behavioural pat­ timal temperature levels by means of Bath-Water later, but a significant num­ terns. For example: one of the first fluid agitation, but this hypothesis has ber of individuals appear to utilise this behaviours involved in the process of yet to be empirically supported. procedure in reverse. Interview respon­ Having a Bath is that of causing the ses described laundry-reduction as a necessary Fluid to accumulate in the SBW individuals manage to avoid, al­ positive consequence of drying through Bathtub. Here, we can distinguish two most completely, a dilemma which is evaporation for the latter group, but be­ explicit and mutually exclusive beha­ highly problematic for WBS subjects. havioural observations suggest an vioural strategies. The first, which we Specifically, this dilemma consists of the inertia variable, which did not emerge shall refer to as Water Before Se~ decision as to whether to Leap Into the from the interviews. (WBS), consists of accumulating water Bath from a Great Height, or whether, in the bathtub without the simultaneous instead to Step Sedately over the side Our research is continuing, and we presence of the individual. WBS individ­ and slide into the water. In interview, hope soon to be able to report on some uals show wide variation in their our subjects indicated clearly that the exciting new developments in this field. proximity to the Bathtub. Some remain former strategy is the more enjoyable References very close to the water, occupying their strategy, yet empirical investigations time gazing pensively at the filling bath. imply that it is actually quite rare. A BubbeUs, I. & Skweeque, U. (1977). What agitates the SBWs? International Journal of (The hypothesis has been put forward possible explanation for this puzzling Bathing Behaviour, 69, 321-329. that these individuals are, in fact, highly anomaly may be found in the negative Courie, S. & Imprint, I. (1978). anxious about the potential spon­ valency ascribed to subsequent removal Limb-flapping: a universal behaviour pattern? taneous generation of supernatural of superfluous Fluid from the vicinity of Journal of Peculiar Behaviour, 98, beings in their absence. Having heard the Bathtub, as an inhibiting variable in 1009-1047. of Venus arising from the foam, they the Leaping strategy. Interesting issues Phrothy, S., Fome, N. & Bubbells, I. are taking good care to be around are raised by this observation, in terms (1986). The SBW strategy: a myth of our should it happen again.) Other WBS in­ of the validity of operant conditioning as time. International Journal of Bathing Behaviour, 78, 157-172. dividuals, by contrast, remove a universal behaviour determinant. Splashe, J. & Scrubbltt, P. (1988). themselves totally from the vicinity Superficially, after all, the individual Implement users and the EPI: a validation (often to go and make a cup of coffee should adopt the more rewarding strate­ study. Journal of EPI Research, 103, for in-bath ingestion). It has been pro­ gy. Clearly further research is needed 1013-1039. posed (Tryitt & Dairing, 1982) that these here. Tryitt, N. & Dairing, U. (1982). Everyday are stimulus-seeking individuals, intro­ risk-taking: do absent-minded people ducing an element of risk to an While it appears that the majority of in­ deliberately court trouble? Serious Thinking, otherwise mundane procedure by court­ dividuals do adopt the use of Soap, it 6, 25-47. ing forgetfulness. seems that there is wide variation in the utilisation of Artificial Aids - sponges, Note: This paper is adapted from an article An alternative to the WBS strategy of flannels, etc. Some subjects appear to which first appeared in the Association for bath-filling behaviour is the SBW tech­ use a wide range of Implements such the Teaching of Psychology's Handbook for nique: Self Before Water. This involves as loofahs, nailbrushes, facecloths etc.; Psychology Students, 1982. the initial placement of the Self in the while others appear to use none what­ bathtub, with the subsequent addition of soever, or very few. Splashe and Nicky Hayes is a Chartered Psychologist, the necessary fluid; although Phrothy, Scrubbitt (1988) have suggested that teacher and examiner.

504 November 1989 The Psychologist BOOKS FROM WILEY

Handbook of the Psychophysiology of Helping Older People Human Eating C. TWIKl'lG, Whitchurch Hospital, Cardiff, CK Edited by R. .SHEPHERD, AFRC Institutf' of Food Research, ::\orwich. lK This book covers both normal ageing and the problems which can arise for Eating is an important part of the lives of all humans - it is necessary to older people as individuals and as members of families and other groups. sustain life and is closely hound up \Vith cultural and social function - this It shows in straight-forward language how the application of psychological book looks at the psycholog:y of eating and in so doing brings together work principles can help those working with older people to meet their needs. from many branches of psychology. The distinguished contributors 0471 91111 9 (cl) 206pp Apr 1,988 £20.00/$37.00 represent a broad spectrum of approaches to eating: from the study of 0471 91851 2 (pr) 206pp Apr 1.988 £8.95/$16.60 neural processes affecting food intake, through the experimental nianipulation of taste and other sensory properties of food, developmental Advances in Cognitive Science processes and influences, the influence of nutrients on behaviour and Volume 2 health, psychopathological states, clinical and research studies of weight Theory and Applications control, to socio-cultural influences on food characteristics and nutritional Edited by G. TIHERGIIIEN, Cnivcrsity of Grenolile II, France behaviour. This book presents recent advances in fundamental and applied cognitive Wiley Psychophysiology HaJJdbooks Series 8eries Editor: A. 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Specifically, the book documents what is a key concern in psychology. This book deals primarily with the relationship currently known about the inf1uence of job (i.e. worker) control on worker of personality to the question of consistency of behaviour and the well-being. The contributors address the theoretical bases and mechanisms adaptation of behaviour to situations and environn1en1.. of this influence and examine the implications of modern work practices 0471 92406 7 288pp Sept 1989 £35.95/$66.15 for worker control and worker health. A Wiley Series on Studies in Occupational Stress Panic Disorder Series Editor.<;: C.L. Cooper, and S. V. Kasl 0471 92355 .9 332pp Sept 1989 £39.00/$71.80 Theory, Research and Therapy Edited by R. BAKER. Grampian Health Board. l'K Childhood Illness: The Psychosomatic This book, is about panic disorder and panic attacks. It consists of chapters written by a team of international authors working in this field - Approach psychologists, psychiatrists and a physician - who discuss the major Children Talking with their Bodies advances in the psychological understanding and treatment of panic which B. LASK, Hospital for Sick Children, London, UK and A. FOSSO'l, have been made during the 1980s. Cniversity of Kentucky, USA Wiley Series ill Clinical Psyclwlogy This is a practical guide to the assessment and treatment of children who Series Editor: F.N. Watts have physical symptoms but in whom stress or distress is playing a major 0471923192 364pp Sept 1989 £37.001$68.10 role. The authors, a child psychiatrist and a paediatrician, both with wide clinical and research experience, present a current view on ehildhood Grief illness. The Mourning After Series: Individual a.nd F'a.mily ,t/eJJtal Health Care Dealing with Adult Bereavement Series Editor: ,iV. Frude and ,t.1, Herbert C. SAMJERS, Charlotte, 'lorth Carolina, CSA 0471 91821 0 (cl) 174pp Aug 1989 £28.951$53.30 0471 91822 .9 (p1) 174pp Aug 1989 £11..91i/$22.00 In this groundbreaking, clinically oriented examination of grief and loss) caregivers and health professionals will gain a better understanding of the Stress, Personal Control and Health process of bereavement. The book focuses throughout on practical applications for caregiving to those suffering from grief. Edited by A. STEPTOE, St Georges Hospital Medical School, UK, and 0471 62728 3 272pp M.ar 1989 £24.001$36.45 A. APPELS, University of Limburg, The :\"etherlands This book concerns the role that control plays in modulating the effects of stressful experiences on health. Over the last few years, evidence has The Family Mental Health Encyclopedia F.J. BRUKO been growing in many disciplines indicating that control 1 lack of control and loss of control are central concepts in linking behaviour and emotion This book provides reliable and comprehensive information on all topics with disease. Experimental investigations have shown that control over relating to mental health. It also contains information on the drugs that aversive stimulation has profound effects on autonomic, endocrine and are com1nonly prescribed for mental disorders, and on the various therapies immunological responses, and may influence the pathological processes and interventions that are frequently used by mental health practitioners. involved in a range of diseases. 0471635731 4.12pp Apr 1.989 £20.151$30.70 0471 ,92388 5 334pp Aug 1.98,9 £36.001$66.25 Peer Relationships in Child Wiley books are (1/Va:ilo)>le thnrugh your bookseller. Development Alternati1;ely order direct from. Wiley (pa.yment to Edited by T.J. IJERNDT and G.W. 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Handbook of the Psychophysiology of Helping Older People Human Eating C. T\VIKl'lG, Whitchurch Hospital, Cardiff, UK Edited by R. SHEPHEHD, AFRC Institute of Food Rese-arch, \Jorwich, L:K This book covers both normal ageing and the problems \Vhich can arise for Eating is an important part of the lives of all humans - it is necessary to older people as individuals and as rnemhers of families and other groups. sustain life and is closely bound up with cultural and social function - this It shows in straight-forward language how the application of psychological book looks at. the psychology of eating and in so doing brings together work principles can help those working with older people to meet their needs. from many branches of psychology. The distinguished contributors 0471!il111 .9 (cl) 206pp Apr 1988 £20.00/$37.00 represent a broad spectrum of approaches to eating: fron1 the study of 0471 91851 2 (pr) 20fipp Apr 1988 £8.95/$16.60 neural processes affecting food intake, through the experimental manipulation of taste and other sensory properties of food, developmental Advances in Cognitive Science processes and influences, the influence of nutrients on behaviour and Volume 2 health, psychopathological states, clinical and research studies of weight Theory and Applications control, to socio-cultural influences on food characteristics and nutritional Edited by G. TIBERGHIE:t\ University of Grenoble II, France behaviour. 1 This hook presents recent advances in fundamental and applied cognitive Wiley Psychophysiology Ha11dbooks Series Series Editor: A. Gale, University of Southampton, UK science and gives a summary of original works planned by high-level 0471 91495 9 400pp July 1989 £46.95!S86.40 researchers in this field. Ellis Horwood Series ill Cognitive Science 0 7458 0532 .9 206pp May 1989 £39.95/$78.15 job Controi and Worker Health Published by Ellis Horwood Ltd Edited by S.L. SA!:TF:R and J ..J. HURRELL .Jr., both of 'lational Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, USA, and C.L. COOPER, University of Manchester. UK Personality and Environment Assessment of Human Adaptation This book 1 written by scientists with international reputations for their research in the field of worker control anrsity of Kentucky, USA Wiley Series in Clinical P.