Giovanna Franciosa

(Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi. Sacrifice of Isaac, 1601-2. Galleria Degli Uffizi, Florence.) The Sacrifice of Isaac: Caravaggio’s Merge of the Spiritual and the Physical

The separation between Caravaggio entangles these He struggled in his early the spiritual and physical dialogues through Abraham, years in Rome, where he worlds is a key characteristic who straddles the two worlds painted only secular of the oeuvre of Michelange- and plays an important role images that were seen as lo Merisi da Caravaggio. In in both the violence of the controversial and his painting The Sacrifice of physical and a shared unnecessarily violent, Isaac from 1601-2, however, understanding of the especially when he depicted Caravaggio, as he became spiritual. Through compar- gory beheadings and deaths. known, brings the two worlds ative analysis with several Caravaggio’s works of art together and carefully inter- works by Caravaggio, I argue seem to connect to his life, twines them by capturing for the uniqueness of this im- as he was frequently involved both the emotional complex- age in Caravaggio’s oeuvre, in physical altercations. He ities of life, as well as a deep and the critical importance of was arrested on various reverence for God through the figure of Abraham within occasions for his violent the figure of Abraham it. outbursts, assaults, and the (Fig. 1). Michelangelo Merisi was use of illegal weapons. Close born on September 29, 1571 to the end of his life, Cara- in the small town of vaggio was even involved in Caravaggio, Italy. He studied murder, which forced him to painting for four years under flee Rome in order to the direction of Simone escape execution. He often Peterzano in Milan. After his painted scenes depicting father’s death, Caravaggio violent deaths, which could moved to Rome where he reflect the weight of the began working as a painter. darkness that he felt in his life. (Figure 1: Caravaggio, Michel- angelo Merisi. Sacrifice of Isaac, 1601-2. Galleria Degli Uffizi, Florence.) In his work, he typically Because of this, in 1596-97, though he often went be- “shows a few figures he decided to change the yond these ideas, creating highlighted against the subject matter of his art and images that were considered darkness [which] gives a began accepting more to be controversial. rough profile of a man religious commissions. He Within his works, the rep- (Caravaggio) who tended to began painting biblical resentation of the brutality see human events in black scenes in the Baroque style found in the physical world and white.”1 With the and following the new is very present and understanding of the guidelines put in place by confrontational. Caravaggio difficulty and violence of the Catholic Counter-Refor- seems to recall the violence Caravaggio’s life, it becomes mation, established by the that was found not only in his easier to explain why Council of Trent during its own life but also in the brutality plays such a central 25th session in 1563, which everyday lives of his viewers. role in his oeuvre.2 stressed the importance of Throughout Rome, Caravaggio’s work is painting scenes directly from decapitations and public characterized by his use of the biblical text. The Church executions were seen on a tenebrism, the strong use of wished to place a stronger daily basis, which may have light and dark, which allowed emphasis on prayer and contributed to Caravaggio’s for an increased emphasis meditation. In order to bring realistic representation of on certain aspects of the this tradition back to the tortured and horrified faces.4 scene and heightened the Christian faith, the Through his many drama, pulling the viewer Counter-Reformation depictions of human into the emotional narrative “prescribed that the emotion, it becomes clear and allowing him/her to meditator imagine a that he desired to capture participate in it. Caravaggio religious scene as if it were the “aggressive naturalism” lived in poverty, as he did taking place before him that he was often faced with not receive enough commis- ‘now’…and participate in it during his life.5 sions to support himself as a by means of the senses.”3 This specificity of the secular painter. Caravaggio followed this representation of violence tradition in many of his can be seen in Caravaggio’s religious works, Judith Beheading Holofernes from 1599,

24 where Caravaggio depicts stands with her eyebrows With this piece, it seems that the violent moment when raised, expectantly and Caravaggio wants to shock Judith’s sword has sliced half excitedly waiting for and overpower the viewer way through the neck of Holofernes’ death. with his own fear of Holofernes with blood punishment and death. pouring from his throat While Caravaggio often (Fig. 2). The strong emotions incorporates the horror on the faces of Holofernes, and fear that was present in Judith and the maid are a everyday Roman life, he also, good example of the realistic more importantly, captures and powerful expressions the brutality and aggression that he was able to recall found in his own life. from the violence that he The violence of the physi- was faced with in his every- (Figure 2: Caravaggio, Michel- cal world is not the only day life. These expressions angelo Merisi. Judith Behead- important theme present in confronted the viewer and ing Holofernes, 1599. Galleria Caravaggio’s oeuvre. He also created a strong emotion- Nazionale d’Arte Antica, Rome, depicts the spiritual world, al response to the image. Italy.) as he “brings sacred subjects When looking at the faces down to earth.”7 of these figures, Caravaggio In 1606, Caravaggio depicts a wide range of emo- painted David with the Head tions: Holofernes stares up of Goliath (Fig. 3). In at the ceiling with his mouth this work, the viewer is open in a terrified scream, confronted with the moment while Judith seems to pull after David severs Goliath’s back from her actions as her head from his body. The furrowed brow and tense scene is gory, as the severed posture suggest both hes- head of Goliath, with life still itation and repulsion. The in his eyes, stares into the wizened maid, on the other darkness around him and hand, blood pours from his neck. (Figure 3: Caravaggio, Michel- The head is believed to be angelo Merisi. David with the a self-portrait of Caravaggio head of Goliath, 1606. Galleria and reflects the tragic as- Borghese, Rome.) pects of his life.6 By capturing the spiritual in Within his works, Caravag- the earthly realm, Caravag- gio allows certain figures to gio brings a physical tangibil- be able to see and recog- ity to the spiritual world and nize the presence of God, allows the viewer to feel its while others remain blind to presence in the work. the spiritual aspects of the Caravaggio projects a human scene. This concept, of those element onto the figures who can and cannot see, is of Christ and the saints. He shown through the use of brings them closer to the eye contact and gesture, as viewer and offers a well as through the use of (Figure 4: Caravaggio, Michel- angelo Merisi. Calling of St connection between these light. Light becomes the Matthew, 1600. San Luigi del religious beings and the embodiment of God, as it Francesi, Rome.) poor and common man. By washes over those who are giving these religious figures able to recognize the divine The figures to the left of the human traits, Caravaggio al- presence. scene play an important role, lows the spectator to engage In the Calling of Saint as they represent those who more easily with the subject Matthew from 1600, are unaware of the divine matter by representing the Caravaggio depicts a group presence. They embody the divine beings as relatable of men, most of whom are ignorance of man, as they human figures. totally unaware of the are concerned only with the Caravaggio’s depiction of presence of Christ and his secular world. The scene is the spiritual world, however, apostle, who stands next to set in a contemporary can be found only in cer- him (Fig. 4). Christ points to environment, as Caravaggio tain individual figures in his Matthew, a Roman tax depicts a modern example scenes. He typically creates a collector, calling him to join of Christ’s calling on division between the his mission. The light enters humankind to trust in the characters: those who are the scene from the right, power and strength of God. and are not able to engage above Christ, and washes The ignorant men who sit at with the spiritual world on over Matthew as he points to the end of the table counting earth. himself in response to their money are a perfect Christ’s call.8 example of those who are enthralled only by material possessions.

26 The two men sitting closest Caravaggio’s Conversion vulnerability and humility as to Christ and his apostle are of St Paul from 1601 is a very he is put directly in the both aware of their presence. isolated and intimate scene spotlight of God’s divine The figure with his back to- of religious conversion grace. Paul “receives the wards the viewer leans over (Fig. 5). Paul is sprawled out literal enlightenment of con- to speak with the apostle, on the ground overwhelmed version through the penetrat- and the other figure, who by the power of God, while ing rays of God’s light…an leans on Matthew’s shoul- the horse and servant seem old man who is lighted but der, looks directly at Christ. unaware of Paul’s interaction unenlightened by the divine Although these men are able with the divine. Caravaggio’s efflorescence…is essential to recognize the presence of use of light is very important to provide a foil to Paul.”9 It the figures of Christ and the in the scene, and again, is becomes clear, that only Paul apostle, there is no indica- used to represent the feels the power of God in tion that they are capable of presence of God. The way in the scene, as the servant is recognizing that they are the which Paul is thrown on the totally unaffected and embodiment of divine be- ground shows the intense unaware of the presence of ings. Matthew’s expression is power of God and Paul’s God. The horse is just as noticeably different from the unaware as the servant; it other figures who look to- gazes toward Paul, but is wards Christ, as he not only completely ignorant as to points to himself in recogni- what is going on. In the tion to Christ’s call, but stares biblical passage, the men directly at Christ with raised traveling with Paul were, in eyebrows and wide fact, able to hear the words questioning eyes. His of God as they spoke to expression sets him apart Paul; however, they were from the other figures at the not able to see where the table, as he is the only one words were coming from or who reacts emotionally in re- comprehend the meaning of sponse to Christ’s presence. them.

(Figure 5: Caravaggio, Michel- angelo Merisi. Conversion of St Paul, 1601. Cerasi Chapel, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome.) The Sacrifice of Isaac was which would avoid any Caravaggio’s Sacrifice of commissioned by Cardinal heretical interpretations or Isaac very closely resembles Maffeo Barberini in 1601-2. misunderstanding of the this passage. By depicting The commission of the work subject matter. Religious art an old man with a knife, a was personal as it was to be was to be easily recogniz- scared young boy, an angel added to his private art able and understood so that and a ram, it becomes clear collection.10 Barberini was it could assist in personal to the viewer that this piece born in Florence to an reflection and individual is without a doubt a repre- aristocratic family. Through- meditation. sentation of the biblical story out his life, he held many The Sacrifice of Isaac is a of the sacrifice of Isaac. The church positions and was representation of the Gene- presence of the two shadowy finally elected Pope sis story of Abraham’s sacri- figures on the road in the Urban VIII in 1623. Although fice of his son to God. background also helps to Barberini commissioned the further this determination, God tested Abraham. He said to work for his personal collec- him, ”Abraham…Take your son, your as they represent Abraham’s tion, he still had Caravaggio only son, whom you love, and go to two men who wait for his the land of Moriah, and offer him there follow the new guidelines as a burnt offering.”… So Abraham return. By comparing the that had been setup by the rose early in the morning, saddled his narrative and the painting, Counter-Reformation, as he donkey, and took two of his young men one can see how Caravaggio with him, and his son Isaac…Abraham was strongly against the rise said to the young men, “Stay here with remained true to Genesis, of the Protestants and want- the donkey; the boy and I will go over capturing the moment of ed to promote the teachings there; we will worship, and then we will highest intensity and drama 11 come back to you.” The two of them of the Catholic Church. walked on together, Isaac said to his when the angel stops These guidelines specified father…”The fire and the wood are Abraham from harming his here, but where is the lamb for a burnt that a religious work of art offering?” Abraham said, “God himself son. In the painting, depict the biblical scene so will provide the lamb.”… He bound Caravaggio captures not that the viewer is confronted his son Isaac, and laid him on the altar, only this one moment, but on top of the wood. Then Abraham with a literal representation reached out his hand and took the knife the past and future moments of the text, to kill his son. But the angel of the Lord of the story as well: the pres- called to him from heaven, and said, ence of the two young men “Abraham, Abraham!...Do not lay your hand on the boy.” And Abraham looked in the background, up and saw a ram, caught in a thicket by its horns.12

28 the violence of the sacri- It plays an active role in the would have most likely been fice before the intervention image as a knowing figure familiar. Upon examining of God and the angel, the that understands the signif- the panel, the viewer is able tension as the angel stops icance of the scene and is to see that both Brunelles- Abraham from killing his son able to recognize the pres- chi’s panel and Caravaggio’s at the last moment, and the ence and power of God. painting share similar basic appearance of the ram that The Sacrifice of Isaac was elements: an angel who will later serve as the true a popular subject for artists physically arrests the arm of sacrifice. There are, however, to depict in both painting Abraham before he can sac- two aspects of the story that and sculpture. Filippo rifice his son, which was seen Caravaggio alters. The first Brunelleschi cast a bronze for the first time in Brunelles- is the physical presence of relief of the subject in 1401 chi’s panel, as well as the ram the angel. In Genesis, the in competition with Ghiberti that will become the new angel calls down from heav- for the commission of a new sacrifice, and the presence of en to stop Abraham, but in set of doors for the Floren- the two young men who the painting, the angel is tine baptistery (Fig. 6). accompanied Abraham to brought down not only to Moriah. Caravaggio may the same plane as Abraham, have incorporated these but also grabs his arm in or- similarities upon the request der to restrain him physically of Barberini, who would have from killing his son. Through wanted the piece to recall this embellishment of the Brunelleschi’s famous panel text, Caravaggio is able to as a reminder of his familial heighten the drama and Florentine ties. increase the tension of the The scenes differ, however, scene. The second aspect (Figure 6: Brunelleschi, Filippo. in the manner in which they that he altered is the role of Sacrifice of Isaac, 1401. Museo are composed. Brunelleschi the ram, as it is not stuck in nazionalie del Bargello, Flor- fills his panel with as much a thicket as the text states; ence.) imagery as possible, as the rather, it stands free, looking donkey and the two men up at the angel and Though he lost the who wait further down the Abraham. commission, Brunelleschi’s mountain panel is important, as it is a work of art with which both Caravaggio and Barberini are as large as Abraham and does not play an active Lodovico Cardi, more himself. They occupy the role in the scene. commonly known as Cigoli, lower half of the panel and Brunelleschi’s representation painted the Sacrifice of Isaac take away from the impact of Isaac is equally different, in 1607 (Fig. 7). He, like and violence of the scene. as Isaac tries to struggle and most other painters of the By incorporating the two twist away from his father. time, was very concerned men and their donkey in His face is turned away from with representing religious such a large portion of the the viewer staring up at the art as close to the ideals of panel, the piece becomes sky with his mouth open, the Counter-Reformation as horizontally divided, as the perhaps in a scream. In possible, as artists would upper-most part of the panel contrast, Caravaggio’s often find themselves in depicts the spiritual world, painting creates a strong trouble with the Church and the rest of the lower spiritual presence through when they deviated from section depicts the physical. both the angel and his use these new guidelines, as The sacred presence of God of light, as well as through Veronese did in The Feast in is not felt as strongly in this the active role of the ram. the House of Levi in 1573. image as it is in Caravag- Caravaggio depicts both gio’s. The angel is the only anguish and fear through representation of the spiri- the terrified and naturalis- tual world, as he enters from tic expression of Isaac, as the upper right and remains he stares out at the viewer fairly detached from the and engages him/her in the scene, except for the scene. Brunelleschi’s panel contact between his hand seems to have had an impact and Abraham’s arm. The role on Caravaggio, as there are of the ram is also not as many similarities that can be significant: it stands off to found between the two, but the side scratching its head, Caravaggio was able to carry acting very much like the his piece far beyond the ignorant animal that it is, innovations of Brunelleschi.

(Figure 7: Cigoli. Sacrifice of Isaac, 1607. Galleria Palatina, Palazzo Pitti, Florence.)

30 When examining this work, Cigoli, unlike Caravaggio, The knife that Abraham it becomes clear that Cigoli does not allow for further holds seems to be pulled strictly adhered to the development or exploration away from Isaac by the in- guidelines of the Church and of the scene. Cigoli remains fluence of the angel’s hand, was not interested in fully devoted to the biblical which removes the suspense embellishing or adding to text and remains within the of the sacrifice. In Caravag- the original story. He very guidelines of the Church. He gio’s Sacrifice of Isaac, the literally depicts the biblical emphasizes the importance tension of the scene over- passage and does not stray of the story by depicting the whelms the viewer as the from the text. In Cigoli’s scene without further inter- screaming Isaac struggles piece, there are similarities pretation, as it confronts the under the force of Abraham’s to Brunelleschi’s competition viewer with the teachings of grip and the knife remains panel, as he, too, would have the text and the spirituality steady and close to his face been familiar with it. The of the moment. Cigoli and as if the sacrifice may still few aspects of the piece that Caravaggio’s works do share continue. do not follow exactly from certain elements. They both Caravaggio’s religious the text can be traced to put the focus completely on paintings followed the new Brunelleschi’s interpretation. the sacrifice and the actions guidelines of the Church. He The angel reaches down and of Abraham, the angel and depicts the struggles and vi- grabs Abraham’s arm, as he Isaac, and in doing so, the olence of the physical world does in Brunelleschi’s. The presence of the donkey and with the light of salvation ram also plays a very insig- the two men in the far originating from faith and nificant role, as he stands distance become barely trust in God. Caravaggio completely unengaged at distinguishable figures in the placed a “new emphasis on the edge of the frame. scene. Cigoli’s depiction of an inward process [that] the passage has a very evoked a heightened different emotional presence emphasis on the conversion than that of Caravaggio’s. of self through meditation Cigoli’s creates a very calm on the mysteries of Christ.”13 and peaceful atmosphere within his work as Isaac sits idly, totally submissive to his father. Within his works, he focused Caravaggio is able to It is the climax of the story on the important role of represent the common man and offers more tension and God’s spiritual presence in and relate him to the divine suspense than any other the physical world, but realm. Caravaggio’s moment. He depicts the struggled with keeping representation of the world “inevitable pause between entirely within the guidelines is very dark, and depicts an challenge and response…a set up by the alienation from God. reverberation in time, an Counter-Reformation. However, through the implication of what has In his paintings, he often darkness and brutality of happened before and what depicted the biblical stories his scenes, Caravaggio will happen next.”14 The more closely than expected offers a glimmer of hope, agitation, tension and sus- by placing religious figures specifically through light, as pense of the scene draws and scenes in settings that the light of salvation, to the the viewer in and holds his/ the viewer would be able to poor and defenseless. her attention long enough to relate to. He would increase In Caravaggio’s Sacrifice discover the intricacies of the the drama of these scenes of Isaac, brutality and scene. by creating a sharp contrast violence immediately Examining the presence between light and dark in or- confront the viewer, as the of the spiritual world in this der to emphasize the divine figures are placed in the image allows the viewer to presence. This aspect of foreground and invade the see once again how creating very relatable viewer’s space. The figures Caravaggio contrasts those scenes went beyond the new are placed close together: who do and do not have guidelines of the the intimacy of the scene the ability to recognize the Counter-Reformation and merges the actions of each divine presence. Isaac is brought the teachings of the figure and creates a more totally unaware of the text directly into the world chaotic and agitated presence of the angel or the of the viewer. In setting the depiction. The scene itself is divine light as his father biblical events into an set at the moment of holds him down for the everyday setting, highest drama. It represents sacrifice and he screams the instant that the angel in terror. His wide dark eyes appeared to stop the stare out at the viewer mak- sacrifice of Isaac. ing eye contact with us and pulling us into the scene,

32 allowing us to share in his The ram gazes back at both suffering. Abraham, on the the angel and Abraham other hand, is cognizant completing the triangle of of God’s spiritual presence. enlightened and faithful He turns toward the angel, figures. As it looks up at who grabs his arm, and them, with its dark eye, the seems to understand that the ram seems very thoughtful, violence of the sacrifice is as it pensively takes in the over, that he will not have to scene and understands the Spiritual World (Figure 8) kill his son. The viewer is able importance of its role in to see the dramatic struggle the sacrifice. between infinite brutality and The physical overlaps with infinite devotion, as Abraham the spiritual, though it holds is bathed in the light of God a separate conversation. The and gazes toward the angel, viewer is pulled into the while Isaac stares in terror at physical world through the the viewer, completely intense gaze of Isaac. His unaware of the divine dark black eyes stare in presence.15 terror at the viewer and thus Within the Sacrifice of Physical World (Figure 8) connect the physical world Isaac, Caravaggio creates of the painting to the two different dialogues that one depicts the spiritual viewer’s world outside the occur both simultaneously world, while the other painted scene. From Isaac’s and separately from one represents the physical. eyes, the dialogue moves to another (Fig. 8). Within the Abraham, the angel and the Abraham’s left hand, as it is intimate group of figures, ram, occupy the spiritual, as pressed very forcefully into Caravaggio forms two trian- they engage with one anoth- Isaac’s cheek, up Abraham’s gular compositions; er through understanding left arm, across his shoulders, and trust in God. The down his right arm to the (Center Above) triangular composition right hand of the angel as it (Figure 8: Breakdown of the two grabs Abraham’s wrist. dialogues present in the Sacri- moves from Abraham’s face, fice of Isaac. Diagram by author, who gazes at the angel, Giovanna Franciosa.) to the angel, who gazes towards and points in the direction of the ram. The triangular composition There is a peaceful serenity The eye contact in the continues to Abraham’s right that can be found when spiritual world is just as hand, as he holds the knife looking at the angel, important as Caravaggio’s up to his son’s neck, and Abraham, and the ram in use of hands in the physical. screaming face. Though the spiritual. They gaze at Both the angel and Abraham these two conversations act one another with under- use their hands in strong separately from one another, standing and faith in God. physical action, while Isaac is Abraham takes part in both. There is no violence or anger helpless against them, with He straddles the two realms present in this composition his own hands hidden, and and plays an active role in of pure faith. The physical, most likely bound, behind each. His head, turned on the other hand, is the him. The way in which Car- toward the angel, is engaged complete opposite. The avaggio incorporates both in the spiritual, while his agonized scream of Isaac, eye contact and physical body, most importantly his his pale skin contrasted touch into the composition, arms, act in the physical. The against the dark metal blade not only allows these two work, representing the vio- of the knife, is brutal and worlds to be understood lence,brutality and evil in the terrible, as Isaac is alone and separately, but also rein- world, recalls the humility of helpless against the aggres- forces their presence in the humanity, and also reminds sive force of his father. scene. The spiritual is the viewer of humanity’s Physical touch and eye distinguished through eye desire to elevate the soul contact play a very important contact and not physical and become closer to God. role in this work. Without touch, as the divine realm is These dialogues act as them, these two conversa- not tangible. The physical two different and compet- tions would not be as easily world, on the other hand, is ing compositions within the distinguished. The eye con- defined through aggressive work. Caravaggio contrasts tact among Abraham, the action and touch, as physical the violence of the physical angel, and the ram, estab- contact is a very present world with blind faith in the lishes their connection with aspect in the earthly realm. spiritual. one another. When examining these two dialogues, one can see how Abraham straddles both worlds, while

34 Isaac and the ram remain When examining Abraham’s In many of his works, completely within their own face, his expression is not Caravaggio focuses mainly spheres. The ram is wholly easily read or understood. on either the spiritual involved in the spiritual while His expression reminds the presence or the physical Isaac is entirely a part of the viewer once again of violence within a scene. This physical. The ram watches Abraham’s humanity and is not so in the Sacrifice of Abraham and the angel and faith. As Abraham gazes at Isaac. He creates two is completely unaware of the angel, it becomes clear competing conversations Isaac, even though they are that his trust in the will of within the piece, as the fig- next to one another. Isaac God is absolute. Looking at ure of Isaac struggles alone is also completely unaware his hands, however, there in the brutal violence of the of the presence of both the appears to be a hint of un- physical and the angel and angel and the ram. Instead, certainty. Although the angel the ram are fully present Isaac stares out at the viewer has come down from heaven in the faith of the spiritual. and is overwhelmed by his to stop Abraham from killing Caravaggio further compli- own terror. his son, the viewer does cates the Sacrifice of Isaac The Sacrifice of Isaacis not see any hint of relief in by merging these two realms significant in Caravaggio’s Abraham’s posture. He still through the figure of Abra- oeuvre as Abraham par- bends over his son, tightly ham, as he is present in both ticipates simultaneously in gripping both the knife and of them. Abraham links both both worlds. By depicting Isaac’s face, as if ready to worlds and plays an import- Abraham actively engaged proceed with the sacrifice at ant and active role in each. in both dialogues, Cara- any moment. With these two He is able to listen to and vaggio bridges the spiritual conflicting actions of faith express unwavering faith in and the physical and creates in God and brutal physical both the angel and the will the hope that human be- violence, tension is built up of God, while he holds both ings have the potential to not just in the image itself, the knife and his son in vio- be active in both of them. but also within the figure of lent action, ready to commit Caravaggio is able to repre- Abraham. Two different parts a brutal sacrifice. sent the tangible presence of his internal self compete of the spiritual world in the with one another, as he calm- physical. ly interacts with the angel in the spiritual world, and is in the midst of a violent attack in the physical. Notes

1 Howard Hibbard, Caravaggio (New York: Harper and Row, 1983), 261. 2 Helen Langdon, Caravaggio: A life (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1999), 165-195, 222- 234. 3 Joseph F Chorpenning, “Another Look at Caravaggio and Religion.” Artibus et Historiae, Vol. 8, No. 16 (1987), 150. 4 John Varriano, Caravaggio: The Art of Realism (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 78-79. 5 Helen Langdon, 180. 6 Howard Hibbard, 262. 7 Gloria K Fiero, “The Catholic Reformation and the Baroque Style.” Humanistic Tradition Vol. 4: Faith, Reason and Power in the Early Modern World Ch.20 (1997), 515. 8 Among art historians, there is a controversy as to which figure within the Calling of St Matthew represents Matthew. Many scholars believe that the figure who looks at Christ and gestures with his hand is Matthew, as he is understood to be pointing to himself. Other scholars believe that this figure is pointing towards the man who counts coins with his head down, which would indicate that this figure is Matthew. Through an examination of this work and various texts, such as Hibbard’s Caravaggio, I have concluded that the figure of Matthew is the man who gestures towards himself, as he engages emotionally and through eye contact with the figure of Christ. 9 Howard Hibbard, 126-8. 10 Helen Langdon, 195. 11 Howard Hibbard, 167. 12 New Oxford Annotated Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), Genesis 22.1-22.14. 13 Helen Langdon, 187. 14 Alfred Moir, Caravaggio (New York: H. N. Abrams, 1989), 44. 15 Gilles Lambert, Caravaggio (Cologne: Taschen, 2007), 82.

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