History of the Islamic Peoples

6y CARL BROCKELMANN

LONDON ROUTLEDGE & KEGAN PAUL LIMITED BROADWAY HOUSE: 68-74-. CARTER LANE, E.C.4 Translated by Joel Carmichael and Moshe Perlmann from the Gemzan Geschichte der lslamischen 'Volker und Staa.~n. first published it~ Germany, 1939 History of the Islamic Peoples, first published in England, 1949 Reprinted 1950

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY LUND HUMPHRIES LONDON BRADFORD

l · Contents PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION XVll

TRAN$LATOR'S NOTE XlX

I. THE AND THE ARAB EMPIRE 1. Arabia before I

Geography, 1. Race, 2. , 3· Social condi­ tions in North Arabia, 3· , , .5· Syria, Nabateans, 6, Palmyra, , 7, , 8. Arab paganism, 8, Judaism,. . Christianity, 10. Poetry, II.

2 . The Prophet

Mecca, r 2. Youth, 13 ..Marriage, I 4· Mission, I'*' first believers, I 5. Persecutions, emigration of believers to Abyssinia; I 7. 'Umar's conversion, 17. Medina, I 8. Hijrah, 20. Attitude toward the , z r. lJattle of Badr, 23, expulsion of ', Battle at Mt. Uhud, 24; expulsion of , 2 5. Prohibition of wine, 25. Medina besieged, 25. Hudaybiyah, 27. Jews beyond Medina subdued, z8. Pilgrimage to Mecca, zS·. Relations with Byzantines in and Syria, 28. Conquest of Mecca, 31. , 3 1, of Taif, 32· subdued, 32· Muhammad and the poets, 33· March on Tabuk and 'Aqabah, 34· Fare­ well pilgrimage, 35· The Prophet's death, 36. 3· Muhammad and His Teachings .His theology and eschatology, 36. Cult and ritual, 39· Pilgrimage, 41. Poor-tax, holy war, food laws, 'mar­ riage, 43; slavery, criminal law, 44·

4· The First Four Caliphs 45 . ; defection of the Bedouins, 4 5. Battle of Buzakha, 46. Musaylimah and , 46, battle of v VI CONTENTS 'Aqrabah, 47· Conquest of Bahrayn, 'Uman, Hadra­ maut, and , 48. Persia under the Sassanids, 50. Hirah attacked, 5 r. Invasion of , battle of Ajnadayn, capture of _Damascus, sz, battle of Yar­ muk, 53· 'Umar's , 53· Conquest of lower , 54, of Syria and upper Mesopotamia, 55, of Egypt, 56, of Persia, 58. 'Umar's reign, 6o, and his assassination, 63. 'Uthman and the civil war, 63. ' in ', 67, Mu'awiyah in Syria, 68; battle of Siffin, 68. Kharijites; 'Ali assassinated, 70.

5· The· Umayyads Mu'awiyah and his governors in 'Iraq, 71. His rule in Syria, 72, and the struggle with the Byzantines, 73· Conquest of North Africa, 74· Yazid I, 75, and Hu­ sayn's death at Kerbela, 76. The pretender 'Abdallah ibn-az-Zubayr in Mecca, 76. , fights be­ tween KaJb and , 77. 'Abd-al-, Mukhtar's rebellion in 'Iraq 78. Defeat of ibn-az-Zubayr, Hajjaj in 'Iraq, 8o. War against Byzantium, So. Conquests under al-Walid in central Asia and in Spain, 82. The Umayyad in Damascus, 84. Hajjaj against the Kharijites and ibn-al-Ash'ath, 88. Sulayman, 90· 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz and · his reform of taxation, 92. Yazid II, 93, the desert castles of the Umayyads, 94· Hisham, 96. Revolt of Zayd ibn-'Ali, 97; Arab raids in France, battle between Tours· and Poitiers, 97; Berber revolt, 98. Walid II, 98, poets, 99· Marwan II, dissolution of the empire, roo. Rise of the 'Abba­ sids in Khorasan, 102. They conquer 'Iraq, 104. Umayyads destroyed, ros.

II. THE ISLAMIC EMPIRE AND ITS DIS SOL UTI ON

r. The First 'Abbasids 107

Satfah and Mansur, 107. 'Alids put down~ ro8. CONTENT-S vu Founding Baghdad, I09. Administration, I09. Re. volts in Persia, al-Muqanna', I 1I. Mahdi fighting heretics, I 12. Harun ar-Rashid and the Barmakids, 114. in North Africa, 115. Poetry, philol­ ogy, and historiography in 'Iraq, I I6. The struggle between Amin and Ma'mun, I2I. The , Il3· Progress of science under ¥a'mun, I 24. Theological controversies, u6. Mu'tasim and the rise of slave guards, I 29. Foundation of Samarra, 130.

2. The Decay of the Caliphate and the Rise of Minor Dynasties I 3 1 Wathiq and Mutawakkil pawns in hands of Turks; dogmatic reaction, I3 1. Mu'tamid and Muwaffaq; servile war in 'Iraq, 1 34· Tahirids and Saffarids in Persia, 135· in Egypt, I37· Rise of Zaydites in South Arabia, I41. , I43· Struggle for the caliphate, 144. Finances under Muqtadir, •45· Mysticism, 148, Hallaj, 149. Rivalries among wazirs, I 50. Office of ttmir_al-tmUlrtr created, 1 51. under Sayf-ad-Dawlah in the war ~gainst the Byzan­ tines, I p. The Buyids in Persia and 'Iraq, •54· Aghla- bids in Africa and Sicily, I 56. ldrisids of Morocco, I 57· The Fatimids in North Africa and Egypt, I 58. Hakim, 16o, the Druzes, I 61.

3· Persians and Turks 163 Origin of the Turks; the old Turkish kingdoms in central and eastern Asia, ·I 63. The Samanids in Khora- san, 165. Persian poetry; beginnings of geography, 1 66. The Turks in Khorasan, 168. Mahmud of Ghaz- nah, I68; conquests in India, 1&}. Biruni, I69, Fir­ dawsi, 170. The Seljuqs; I 7 1. Malikshah and the wazir Nizam-al-Mulk, 173. Ghazzali, 174, 'Umar al-Khay- yam, 175, Hariri, •·h. The Assassins, 178. Vlll CONTENTS 4· Islam in Spain and in North Africa 181 Umayyad emirate founded by 'Abd-ar-Rahman in Spain, I 81. Struggle with the in northern Spain, t 82. Disturbances caused by Christian manyrs and converts, 183. The flourishing realm of 'Abd-ar­ Rahman III, first Spanish caliph, I 85. Culture, espe­ cially literature, in Islamic Spain, 187. 'Arnirids of Cordova, 193· Petty states, 195. Literary develop­ ment, 196. Jews in Spain, 2oo. The Berbers, 202; rise. of the Almoravids, 203. They conquer Spain, 204. Almohads, 207. Last Muslim principalities in Spain, 209; Nasrids, 211. lbn-'Arabi, the my'stic, 214. The

historians Ibn-al-Khatib, 2 I41 and Ibn-Khaldun, 215. The travelers lbn-Jubayr, 217, andlbn-Battutah, 218. Alhamb.~a, 219. Fall .of the Nasrids and the expulsion of the from Spain, 2~0.

5. T.he Near East in the Age of the Crusades and the Rise of the in Egypt 2 2 I The Crusaders in Syria, 221. Zengids in and Damascus, 222. The Ayyubids, 224. over­ throws the Fatimids in Egypt, 225, fights the Cru­ saders, conquers , 228. Ayyubids in Syria and Egypt, 2JI. Frederick II in Palestine, 232. Louis IX at Damietta, 233. Bahri Marnluks; Baybars victori- ous over Mongols at 'Ayn Jalut (1259), 234. Burji Mamluks, 236. Intellectual life and architecture under the Mamluks, 237.

6. Turks and Mongols: the End of the Caliphate Khwarizm shahs, 240, Ghorids, 241, Ghu~z , 242. The 'Abbasid an-Nasir, 243. Origin of the Mongols; Te­ muchin-Chinghiz Khan, 244.- His conquest of China and Persia; end of the last Khwarizm shah, 246. Chinghiz's successors, 24e. Hulagu destroys the 'Ab­ basids in Baghdad, 2 so. The ilkhans of Persia; Ghazan . CONTENTS lX and his wazir Rashid-ad-Din, 25 z. Beginnings of Turkish literature, 253. The-Persian classics Sa'di and Hafiz, 25'h and Jalal-ad-Din ar-Rumi, 255.

III. THE OTTOMAN TURKS AS THE LEADING .POWER IN ISLAM I . The Origins. of the and its Expan- sion down to the time of Suleyman I 156 Ghazis and akritoi; battle of Manzikert, 260. The Sel- juq Suleyman in Anatolia and his successors as of Rum, 257. principalities of western Ana- eolia, 259· Rise of the Osmanlis, 260. Their adminis­ tration under Orkhan and his wazir Jandarli, 262. Murad's conquests in the Balkans, 268; battle of Kos- . sovo Polye, 269. Bayezid at war with Timor's Mon- gols, 270. The Timurids, 27 2. Struggle among Baye- zid's sons, 273. The rebellion of Badr-ad-Din of S~awna and Btirkliije Mustafa, 274. Murad II, war with the Hungarians, 275. Muhammad TI, conquest of Constantinople ( 1453), 277. His structures, 278. The Turkoman chief Uzun Hasan and the fall of the Com- neni of Trebizond, 281. War with Venice, 282. Turk- ish literature under Muhammad II, 284. Bayezid II ~nd the pretender Jem, 28 5. Selim Yavuz conquers Egypt, 289. Suleyman the Great, war in Hungary, 290, and Persia, 291. Khay'r-ad-Din Barbarossa creates Turkish sea power, 29·1. Hungary . conquered, 293. Suleyrnan's buildings, 293. His death at Szigeth, 294.

2. The Civilization of the Osmanlis at the Zenith of the Empire 195 The Ottoman system. of fiefs; the army, 296. The Janizaries, 299. The fleet, 303. The and the wazirs, 305. The Diwan and the Erkani Devlet, 3o8•. Law and justice, 309· Clergy, 310. Scholarship, litera- X CONTENTS

rure, 312. Raya: Greek, 315; Jews, 316; Armenians, Albanians, and Slavs, 3 I 7. 3· The Rise of the New Persian Empire and the Turkish- Persian Conflict 3 I 7 The monk state of Ardabil and the Sufi Ishaq Safi-ad- Din; his grandson Junayd and the latter's son Hay- dar, leaders of the Kizilbash, p8. Haydar's son Isma'il subjugates Persia, po, and the Uzbegs of Khorasan, 3z 1. Shi'ism as state religion, p 1. Tahmasp, p z. Isma'il II, p 3· Persia's efflorescence under 'Abbas the Great, 324. The decline of the empire under his successors, 326. 4· The Decline of the Ottoman Power down to the End of the Eighteenth Century 327 Selim II, war with Venice, Turks' naval defeat at Lepanto, 327. Wars with Persia and Austria under Murad III, p8. Peace of Sitvatorok under Ahmed; Revolts in Anatolia and Syria, 3 29. The Druze prince Fakhr-ad-Din, 330. War with Venice on Crete; em- pire re-organized by Muhammad Kopriilii, 332. Crete captured; wars with Poland, 334· Turks defeated be- fore Vienna and driven out of Hungary, 3 35. Peace of Karlowitz; Peter the Great and Charles XII, 3J6. War with Venice and Austria; peace of Passarowitz, 337· End of the Safavids, rise of the Afghans in Pe.rsia, 337· The Russians in the Caucasus, 337· Persia under Nadir Shah, 338. Turkey's war with Russia, loss of Crimea, 341 .

IV. ISLAM .IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

1. The Ottoman Empire and Egypt Age of T~nzirnat (Reforms), 344· Serbian uprising, 345· Janizaries destroyed by Mahmud II, 346. Mu­ hammad 'Ali, governor of Egypt, 348. His son lbra- CONTENTS Xl him ·conquers Syria, 3so. Wahhabis in Arabia, 3 5 z; subdued by Ibrahim, 355· Mahmud's attempt to re- gain Syria, 358. His army routed at Nasibin, 359· 'Abd-al-Majid I promulgates the Hatti-sherif of Gi.ilhane, 360. Ibrahim ousted from Syria by the four- power alliance, 362. Reorganization in Syria; Maro- nites and Druzes, 363. Holy Places controversy, 364. Montenegro, 365. Crimean war, 366. Hatti Humayun, 367. Massacre of Christians in Syria, 368. Kingdom of Rumania founded, 369. constructed under Sa'id, 370. Khedive Isma'il, 371. defeated in Abyssinia; state bankruptcy in Egypt, 372, and in Turkey, 373· Uprisings in Herzegovina and Bulgaria, 374· Midhat Pasha raises 'Abd-al-Hamid to the throne, 375; the :first Turkish constitution, 375· Russia's Balkan war, .377; The Berlin Congress, 378. 'Abd-al­ Hamid's despotism, 378. 'Arabi's revolt in Egypt leads to British occupation, 379· Railroads in Anatolia, 3So, and in Hijaz, 381. Armenians and Kurds, 381. War with Greece, 382. Young Turks in Macedonia, 383. March on Istanbul, restitution of the constitution; 384~ The Sultan deposed; Italy seizes Tripolitania; the Balkan war, 385. Policy of the Young Turks, 386. Turkey in World War I, 387.

2. Intellectual Life in the Ottoman Empire and in Egypt in the Nineteenth Century 389 . Shinasi, 389, and Namik Kemal, 390, founders of modern Turkish literature. 'Abd-al-Haqq Hamid, 390, Midhat, Mehmed Tawfiq, Husayn Rahmi, Mahmud Ekrem, Mehmed Emin, 391. Khalid Ziya, 392. Turkish nationalism, 392. literature · in Syria and Egypt, 393· Feminism and Islamic mod­ ernism, 39 5. 3· North Africa Tripolitania, 396. The French conquer Algeria, 397, Xll CONTENTS and occupy Tunisia, 402. The sharifs of Morocco, 403. Their regime, 404- Sultan Hasan and Bu Ham­ arab; Algeciras conference; penetration pacifique, 406. Abd-el-Krim, 407. Intellectual life in North M­ rica and stirrings for liberation, 407.

4. The Sudan Islamization, 408. Mahdi in the Egyptian Sudan, 409. His kha)ifah's wars in Abyssinia, 41 3· His state de­ stroyed by Kitchener, 414. The "Mad Mullah" in ·.somaliland, 415. Zubayr Pasha in Bahr al-Ghazal; Sanusis, 416. Rabih and the expansion of the French colonial empire, 417.

5· Persia and Afghanistan 419 Kajars; Fath 'Ali struggling against Russia and Af­ ghanistan, 4 I 9· Muhammad Shah's clash with Britain in Afghani~tan, 42 3· Shah Nasir-ad-Din, 424. Babism, 424t and Bahaism, 42 7. Russian advance in central Asia; the British in Mghanistan, 428. Nasir-ad-Din's reform plans, .429. Conflict with Jamal-ad-Din al­ Afghani, 430. Assassination of the, Shah; growing financial difficulties under Muzaffar-ad-Din, 43 I. Revolution; parliamentarism, 43 z. Persia divided into spheres of influen,<;e-Russian and British, 433· Bakhti- yari tribesmen depose the Shah, 434· Morgan Shuster, financial adviser; northern Persia in Russian hands, 435· Persia iri World War I, 436.

V. THE ISLAMIC STATES AFTER THE WORLD WAR 1. Turkey Istanbul occupied by the Allies, Smyrna by the Greeks, 438. Mustafa Kemal in Anatolia, 439· The National Pact of Sivas; Kemal becomes president of the at Ankara, 440, Ghazi after his CONTENTS Xlll · victory over the Greeks on R. Sakarya, 441. Treaties with France and Soviet Russia, 441. 'Expulsion of the , Greeks from Smyrna, peace of Lausanne, 442. The republic; abolition of the caliphate; Kurdish uprising, 443· Religious and social reforms, 444· Latin script in­ troduced, 445· Neo-Turkish nationalism and its ex._ cesses, 446. Art and literature, 448. Parties; the Smyrna . , conspiracy, 449· Foreign policy; Mosul, 450, and Alexandretta, 451; treaties with Balkan nations, 45 I. Atatiirk's death, 452. z. Egypt 45Z . Under Cromer, 453· 'Abbas Hilmi's conflict with Kitchener,. 455· The question of 'Aqabah; Mustafa · Kamil and the National party; the events of Din­ shaway, 456. Cromer resigns, 457· Kitchener and the five-faddan law, 458. The first parliament of Egypt; Egypt in World War I; British protectorate; Sultan Husayn Kamil, 458. Sultan Fu'ad, 459· Sa'd Zaghlul and the Wafd, 460. His exile; disorders; Allenby and the Milner Mission, · 461. Negotiations for a treaty with Britain, 462. Zaghlul in the Seychelles; protec­ torate abolished; Fu'ad as king; Zaghlul's return, 463. · Sir Lee Stack assassinated; lsma'il Sidqi Pasha's cabi­ . net, 464. Sarwat's negotiations in London, 465. The King rules without parliament with Mahmud Pasha as premier, 466. Resurgence of the Wafd, 467. Italians in Ethiopia; the Anglo-Egyptian treaty, 468. King F aruq against the W afd, 469.'

3· Arabia Sharif Husayn in Mecca; The Houses of Rashid and Sa~ud in , 470. 'Asir and Yemen, 471. Petty rulers on the coasts of the and the Persian Gulf, 472. Husayn's negotiations with McMahon in Egypt, 472. His son Faysal in Syria, 473· Faysal and Lawrence fighting the Turks, 474· Husayn, defeated XIV CONTENTS by Ibn-Sa'ud, abandoned by Britain, 476. 'Abd-al­ 'Aziz ibn-Sa'ud against the house of Rashid and against Husayn, 477· lbn-Sa'ud king of Najd, 477, and of Hijaz, 478. Muslim congress in Mecca, 478. Clash with the emir of 'Asir arid the imam Yahya of Yemen, 479· Ibn-Sa'ud's home policy, 479· 4· Syria, Palestine, Transjordan, and 'Iraq Secret Arab societies and Arab nationalism in World War I, 481. The Sykes-Picot agreement, 482. The King-Crane Commission; Faysal king of Syria, 483. French mandated area in Syria forms a federal state, 48'l· Uprising in Syria (1925), 485. Republican con­ stitution; efforts towards a treaty with France, 486. The Balfour Declaration: national horne for the Jew­ ish people in Palestine; Palestine's regime under the British mandate, 487. Jewish immigration, 488. Con­ flict between Arabs and Jews; partition schemes, 489. Palestine conference in London ( 1939), 490. Trans­ jordan under 'Abdallah ibn-Husayn, 490. Zionist at­ tempts to get a foothold there, and the Arabs' re­ action, 492. 'Iraq conquered by Anglo-Indian forces; civilian administration on Indian pattern, 493· The Mosul and the region of the Upper Euphrates, 494· Sir Percy Cox as Commissioner of the Manda­ tary, 496. Faysal king of Iraq, 497· Treaty with Brit­ ·ain, 498. Nestorian uprising, 499· Ghazi (September 8, 1933- April 4, 1939), soo. Political and cultural de­ velopment of 'Iraq, )OI.

5· Persia and Afghanistan 501 Russians and British in Persia after World War I, 501 . Riza Khan, minister of war, commander in the fight against gangs, 502. Parliamentary struggles on the po­ litical form of Persia, 503 . Khuzistan subdued; Kajars expelled; Riza Shah Pehlevi, shah of Persia, 504. Rail­ roads, financial policy, agriculture, women's eman_ci- CONTENTS XV pation, education, 505. Foreign policy jointly with Turkey, 'Iraq, Afghanistan, 507. Emir Amanullah of Afghanistan, premature attempt at reform, 507. His successors Nadir Khan and Muhammad Zahir Khan; Afghan nationalism, 508.

CHRONOLOGICAL. TABLE

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADDITIONAL 8 1 BI.IOGRAPHY 534

I NDEX 535