The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session Forum: General Assembly Third Committee
Issue: Measures to reduce the incidence of hate crimes
Student Officer: Julien Levieux
Position: Deputy Chair
Introduction
st On the 21 o f March, 1960, South African police opened fire and killed 69 people at a peaceful demonstration against the apartheid pass laws in Sharpeville, South Africa. In 1966, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the day the International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. This day, which is observed annually, calls on the international community to redouble its efforts to eliminate all forms of racial discrimination. This also includes hate crimes.
Though completely eradicating prejudiced views is an impossible goal, people are still targeted based on their race, religion, beliefs and sexual orientation. This was manifested most notably by the 2017 Charlottesville Riots, in which one white supremacist rammed his car at counter-protestors. President Donald Trump replied ambivalently, citing “hatred, bigotry and violence on many sides”, whilst also commending the “very fine people on both sides”. In Iraq and Syria, religious minorities, established there for centuries, were systematically targeted and massacred during the occupation of their territories by ISIS. In France, a growing number of Jews is deciding to migrate to Israel to escape from growing threats of anti-semitism. Recent terrorist attacks across Europe combined with growing populist movements in countries such as Italy, Hungary, Germany or France, lead to increasing concerns about possible backlash against migrants or Muslim populations.
It is clear that the right to live in security, a fundamental human right, has not been upheld in some parts of the world. It has thus come to the United Nation’s attention to find viable measures to reduce the incidence of hate crimes.
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session
Definition of Key Terms
Hate Crime
The Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) defines hate crimes as “criminal acts motivated by bias or prejudice towards particular groups of people. To be considered a hate crime, the offence must meet two criteria: first, the crime must constitute an offence under criminal law; second, the crime must have been motivated by bias.” Examples of hate crimes include mass lynching of black Americans in the deep South.
In the FBI’s definition of hate crimes, they also note that hate itself is not a crime—and government agencies must be mindful to protect the freedom of speech and other human rights.
Hate Speech
The current United Nations Secretary-General, Antonio Guterres, defined hate speech as “messages in public discourse and the media, including social media, which spread hostility and encourage people to commit violence against specific communities, often based on their identity”. For example, Holocaust Denial is considered a form of hate speech in Belgium and is strictly illegal under national law.
However, there is still considerable debate regarding the implementation of hate speech laws. Critics argue that such laws curtail the freedom of speech and limit productive debate. Nevertheless, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which has been ratified by 171 state parties, states that “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law”.
Discrimination
Discrimination is the unfair treatment of individuals because of their gender, race, or beliefs.
Genocide
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session Genocide is defined in the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide as “any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, such as:
a. Killing members of the group; b. Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; c. Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; d. Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; e. Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
Xenophobia
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) defines xenophobia as “the attitudes, prejudices and behaviour that reject, exclude and often vilify persons, based on the perception that they are outsiders or foreigners to the community, society or national identity.” A clear example of xenophobia is the growing opposition towards immigrants and asylum seekers in many European countries and in the United States today.
Prejudice
According to UNESCO, prejudice is “made up of unfavourable or discriminatory attitudes (not actions) towards persons of different categories”. There are many forms of prejudice, such as xenophobia, homophobia (prejudice against homosexuals), islamophobia (prejudice against Islam or Muslims), anti-Semitism (prejudice against Jews), which may serve to be a strong motivation for an individual to commit a hate crime.
Affirmative Action
Affirmative action consists of policies designed to promote the education and employment of previously discriminated groups.
Background Information
History of Hate Crimes
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session Though the term “hate crime” is relatively new, hate crimes have been perpetrated way before the term came into use. This was usually due to individuals and governments having differing religious views or was a result of colonisation. Some countries are still feeling the adverse effects of past ethnic group discrimination, for example, Australia, whereby discrimination towards the Aboriginal Australians forced then prime minister Kevin Rudd to issue a formal apology in 2008 (Stolen Generations speech).
During the 20th century, two countries came to symbolise the perfect example of legalised racial discrimination: the USA, with its Southern States enforcing “Jim Crow Laws”, and South Africa, with its system of apartheid.
Hate crimes were carried out regularly against black and “coloured” people in both countries, with notable examples including the Duluth lynchings and the lynching of Emmett Till in the USA, or the Sharpeville Massacre in South Africa which prompted the United Nations to proclaim the day the International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.
Hate crimes can also occur at a larger scale, for example, during a genocide. Though genocide itself is more often classified as an Atrocity Crime, it itself is rooted with hate and bias to a particular group of people. The Holocaust, the Rwandan Genocide, and more recently, the Darfur Genocide, all serve as a chilling reminder the tragic consequence of the failure to prevent serious violations of human rights.
Hate crimes have also been perpetrated against people based on their gender, more often than not, against LGBT persons. The 1999 London nail bombings and the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting serve to indicate the importance of tackling discrimination and prejudice which can manifest itself in the form of extreme violence.
Today, the issue of hate crimes bears relevance, despite all the work that international organisations and entities like the United Nations have done in the past to address this form of discrimination. Xenophobia and other forms of prejudice are on the rise, and governments and bodies are condoning such views with populist and demagogic rhetoric. The United Nations has recognised this rising threat and has already acted to prevent the dissemination of hate speech, launching in July 2017 a Plan of Action for Religious Leaders and Actors to prevent incitement to violence that could lead to Atrocity Crimes. Unquestionably, more action is needed still, as addressing a form of discrimination whose inherent hate is so deep-rooted in history presents many challenges. Some of these challenges will be listed below.
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Hate Speech and Hate Crimes
Strictly speaking, hate speech and hate crimes are two different criminal acts. However, there is an unquestionable relationship between the two: hate speech has the ability to lead to hate crimes. Hate speech was disseminated by the leaders that planned the Holocaust and the Rwandan Genocide to spur their followers to act and justify their crimes. Therefore, measures must be found to counteract the dissemination of hate speech. This would ideally involve defining the terms, adopting relevant legislation and agreeing on a suitable direction to tackle the issue. More information can be found in the possible solutions section.
Firstly, “hate speech” and “hate crime” need to have a universal definition to help government agencies more easily prosecute those that it deems guilty of inciting hate, and determine in their concluding reports whether the hate crime was inspired by hate speech. Ideally, the hate speech definition should be written by reviewing Article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, in accordance with the 171 state parties, the United Nations Human Rights Committee and the Secretary-General. As the term ‘hate crime’ has not been specifically defined by the UN yet, delegates are free to make up a definition as they see fit, or adopt past definitions made by recognised international agencies.
Once the terms are strictly defined, member states should adopt legislation expressly prohibiting hate speech, according to UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein. These laws should not attack the freedom of expression—hence censorship or the banning of hate websites are not viable options. They should instead recognise that the right of free speech comes with special duties and responsibilities that citizens have to adhere to.
Member states should agree on a suitable direction to tackle hate speech, and implement this framework within the hate crimes resolution. Ideally, the framework should reaffirm compliance to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Plan of Action for Religious Leaders and Actors to prevent incitement to violence that could lead to Atrocity Crimes, whilst introducing new ideas to combat hate speech, and thus hate crimes.
Addressing radicalism and extremism
Some of the hate crimes committed in the past, such as the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, were not only motivated by prejudice, but also by radical and extremist religious views. Addressing
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session radicalisation and extremism has become a focal point of the United Nations, ever since the emergence of Al Qaeda, ISIS, Boko Haram, and other terrorist groups. To address this issue, former Secretary-General Ban-Ki Moon released a Plan of Action to Prevent Violent Extremism.
Though the issue of terrorism and hate crimes are two separate things (though an act of terrorism may sometimes be a hate crime), delegates may wish to use some ideas from the aforementioned Plan of Action and apply it more relevantly and specifically to the issue of hate crimes.
Stigmatisation
Stigmatisation in society can very well lead to hate crimes. When someone is described as worthy of disgrace, there are those that might seize upon this fact to propel their hate towards violence, because it is deemed acceptable.
Today, the traditional stigmas placed on certain groups have mostly disappeared. But there still remains stigmatisation of certain groups in many countries, for example, women in Saudi Arabia, who have very few civil liberties. There is a plausible threat of this stigmatisation leading to hate crimes.
Hence, stigmatisation must be tackled in relation to hate crimes. More information can be found in the possible solutions section. Delegates may consider measures such as affirmative action, or the training and empowerment of ethnic and racial minorities, though there are conflicting views regarding such measures (especially affirmative action).
Rehabilitation of victims and offenders
Hate Crimes can have devastating impacts on families and communities. This is because it is rooted out of hate, and may not be universally condemned by all groups. The incidence of hate crimes serves to divide and foment discord, and it is for this reason that the FBI places them on the highest priority of their Civil Rights programme. Part of the programme includes Victim Services, which supports victims in navigating the aftermath of a crime.
Measures must thus be put in place to allow victims and discriminated groups to receive psychological rehabilitation and not experience the adverse effects of a hate crime.
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session Additionally, measures must be put in place to rehabilitate offenders, and deter them from being subject to indoctrination and radicalisation. Though offenders may ultimately not change their prejudiced views, they must be taught how to express their views without violating the law.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
United States of America
The home of the Civil Rights movement, the United States of America is one of a few select countries that have “hate crime” defined in legislation. The United States has ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
However, today’s government, headed by President Donald Trump, has struggled to express condemnation of hate crimes perpetrated in Charlottesville. A year later, when the culpability of alt-right and neo-Nazi members is highly evident, Secretary of Homeland Security Kirstjen Nielsen still cites that “what’s important about the conversation is, it’s not that one side is right and one side is wrong.”
Despite the government’s comments, and the fact that the United States of America has withdrawn from the UN Human Rights Council, it remains fully committed to addressing hate crimes, having witnessed how lynchings have stained its history. It is an issue of human and civil rights that the United States will not ignore.
United Kingdom
Home to a multiracial population, the United Kingdom has focused on ensuring that their ethnic groups are fully recognised. The United Kingdom has also ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and has had numerous legislations passed on addressing the hate crimes issue, such as the Crime and Disorder act of 1998, with further amendments in 2001 and 2003. Along with the
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session US, it is a leading voice in the fight against hate crimes, though it considers affirmative action to be strictly illegal.
Despite the fact that it is leaving the EU, the United Kingdom still maintains strong connections with various European intergovernmental bodies, such as OSCE, the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe.
Germany
Germany has passed numerous legislations to move on from its past as the perpetrator of the Holocaust. One of the key concepts in German criminal law is Volksverhetzung (which means “incitement of the people”) that bans incitement to hatred against segments of the population. Additionally, the celebration of Nazism and terrorist groups, along with Holocaust Denial, is strictly illegal under German Federal law.
However, Germany’s intake of refugees has led to a steady rise in xenophobia and a rise in hate crimes. According to the interior ministry, there were about 3,500 attacks on migrants and asylum hostels in 2016.
As a key member of the European Union, Germany strongly condemned these attacks and will support the fight against hate crimes. Chancellor Angela Merkel has been outspoken against xenophobia.
Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe
The Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe is the world’s largest security-oriented intergovernmental organisation, with nearly twice as many member states as NATO. Despite its name, its membership surpasses beyond Europe, with countries such as Russia, Kazakhstan, Canada and the USA participating in it.
The OSCE is split into several factions. Part of it includes the Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), which is concerned with hate crimes. OSCE runs a hate crime reporting website as well as a Hate Monitor, closely cooperating with the EU’s Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) to record hate crimes; support lawmakers; train police, persecutors and educators; and work with civil society.
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session The OSCE is an observer in the United Nations General Assembly. The chairman-in office may sometimes give briefings to the Security Council.
India
India has a long history of religious division amongst Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims. Attacks between these religious groups were manifested most clearly after the partition of India into India and Pakistan, as seen in the 1947 Jammu massacres.
India is also home to one of the most militarised regions in the world: Kashmir. Apart from territorial disputes between India, Pakistan and China, the region has also seen Hindus fleeing from after being targeted by Islamic insurgents.
Most recently, misinformation and hate speech spread on social network platforms such as Whatsapp have led to mob lynchings of purported traffickers, who often were innocent.
India is a state party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and has strict Hate Speech laws. India will gladly cooperate to counteract the effects of hate speech on social media.
The Social Network has come under attack for being used as a platform to disseminate hate speech that prompted violence, especially in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and India whereby rumours spread on Facebook led to attacks on ethnic minorities.
In response, Facebook has begun removing misinformation that could lead to people being physically harmed. Nevertheless, their policy regarding what constitutes hate speech is not consistent, and CEO Mark Zuckerberg’s comments on Holocaust Deniers: “I don’t think that that they’re intentionally getting it wrong” only serves to add more confusion on Facebook’s hate speech rules. Delegates can experience the controversy regarding Facebook’s policies by clicking on a link listed in the bibliography below to a New York Times article “What Does Facebook Consider Hate Speech? Take Our Quiz.”
Turkey
Racism in Turkey is rife and widespread. This is in line with the country’s nationalist rhetoric ever since the Ottoman Empire, which perpetrated a mass genocide against Armenians. Today, the Turkish government still does not recognise the killings as genocide, despite the fact that 29 other countries do.
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session Some Turks still consider superiority over minority ethnic groups. This was most evident in the assassination of Turkish-Armenian journalist Hrant Dink, whereby shortly after the assassin was honoured as a hero in police custody, posing with policemen, holding a Turkish flag.
The scandal prompted a series of investigations and the removal from office of those that were involved. Nonetheless, there have not been any convictions for a hate crime so far. The only law that bears resemblance to traditional hate crime laws is Article 216 of the Turkish Penal Code, which gives a general ban of publicly inciting people to hatred and disgust.
Turkey is a state party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. However, the current government, led by President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, has suppressed the rule of law and civil and individual freedoms. Some of his proposed legislation have an inherent risk of inciting ethnic discrimination. According to the Hürriyet Daily News, the oldest English-language newspaper in Turkey, one such measure is the profiling of ethnic minority groups with “race codes”, whereby citizens with Armenian origin are coded with the number 2, for example.
Turkey will likely justify such actions and state that they are adhering to international standards on civil rights. However, due to the fact that there is no formal hate crime legislation in place, it is unclear what the Turkish government’s stance on hate crimes is.
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)
The role of OHCHR is to promote and protect human rights, and is split into several bodies to investigate different areas of human rights. The two most relevant bodies pertaining to hate crimes is the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) and the Human Rights Committee.
CERD is comprised of independent experts who monitor the implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination by state parties. All state parties are required to submit regular reports to CERD on how the rights are being implemented. CERD examines each report and may give recommendations and address its concerns to the State party involved. CERD usually holds three sessions per year in Geneva.
The Human Rights Committee monitors the implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Like CERD, all state parties are required to submit regular reports regarding how the rights are being upheld, and the Human Rights Committee may give recommendations and address its
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session concerns. However, in the Human Rights Committee state parties are allowed to make inter-state complaints.
Other efforts by the OHCHR include awareness programmes, such as : ‘Together’, ‘Let’s Fight Racism’, ‘International Decade for People of African Descent’ and ‘Stand up for Someone’s Rights Today’. Timeline of Events
Date Description of event 1941-1945 The Holocaust. Sept-Nov 1947 Jammu massacres, Kashmir. More than 20,000 Hindus and Sikhs, along with
about 100,000 Muslims were massacred.
January 12, 1951 The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
enters into force. It most notably includes a universal definition for genocide. March 21, 1960 South African police open fire and kill 69 people at a peaceful demonstration
against the apartheid pass laws in Sharpeville, South Africa. December 19, 1966 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is adopted.
July 23-27, 1967 Detroit Riots. It sees numerous confrontations between the black people and
the police. January 4, 1969 The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination is adopted. September 5-6, 1972 Munich Massacre. Terrorist group Black September kill eleven Israeli Olympic
Team members. 27 November, 1978 UNESCO adopts the Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice. October 3, 1980 Anti-semitic bombing of Paris Synagogue. 29 April, 1994 Nelson Mandela elected President of South Africa, bringing an official end to
apartheid. April-July 1994 Rwandan Genocide. More than a million Tutsis are massacred. July 1995 Srebrenica massacre. More than 8,000 Bosniaks are massacred in a month. 17-30th April, 1999 London Nail Bombings. One was detonated at a gay pub, the Admiral Duncan.
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session August-September, Durban Declaration and Programme for Action. Causes controversy for defining 2001 zionism to be akin to racism.
November 2003 Ethnic cleansing first reported in Darfur. 2015 Rohingya migration crisis. February 2016 Fire destroys the roof of a building intended to house migrants in Bautzen, Germany. June 12, 2016 Orlando Nightclub shooting. August 11-12 , 2017 Charlottesville Riots. 2018 Hate crimes committed against Muslims in Sri Lanka.
Relevant UN Treaties and Events
● Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 9 December 1948 (A/RES/260(III) A) ● International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, December 19, 1966 (A/RES/2200(XXI)A-C) ● UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice, November 27, 1978. ● Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948 (A/RES/217(III) A) ● International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, December 21, 1965 (A/RES/2142 (XXI)) ● Racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, April 18, 1997 (E/CN.4/1997/74 (1997)) ● Third Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination and the convening of a world conference on racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, December 12, 1997 (A/RES/52/111) ● United against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, September 16, 2011 (A/66/L.2) Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
UN treaties and declarations
Landmark UN treaties such as the Declaration of Human Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights laid down strict and unequivocal definitions for people’s rights that allowed
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session crimes that violated such rights to be tried fairly under the rule of law. However, these treaties do not make direct reference to Hate Crimes.
The implementation of these treaties have then been monitored by UN organisations such as the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) and the Human Rights Committee. These organisations review every state parties’ actions, and may make recommendations to the state parties or address its concerns to the Secretary General.
World conferences
Member nations have been convened to many conferences on the subject of racism and discrimination, such as the World Conference against Racism 2001. However, these conferences have been beset by controversies, such as the dispute over Zionism being defined to be akin to racism.
Other measures
To educate the population, the UN has primarily turned to UNESCO to disseminate its messages regarding racism and discrimination. The OHCHR has also launched several awareness-raising initiatives, and mostly recently, the Plan of Action for Religious Leaders and Actors to prevent incitement to violence that could lead to Atrocity Crimes was adopted to counteract religious extremism. This builds upon the Plan of Action to Prevent Violent Extremism released by former Secretary General Ban-Ki Moon. It notes that previous counter-terrorism measures have not been sufficient to prevent the spread of violent extremism, and recommends that each member state develop its own strategy with a focus on seven priority areas:
1.Dialogue and conflict prevention 2.Strengthening good governance, human rights and rule of law 3. Engaging communities 4.Empowering youth 5.Gender equality and empowering women 6.Education, skill development and employment facilitation 7.Strategic communications, including through the Internet and social media
Member nations, along with the UN, have also launched policies and plans of action to counter terrorism. The results of such policies, have been mixed.
Possible Solutions
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session Education and awareness
Education and raising awareness are two very viable ways of preventing the occurrence of hate crimes. The UN has already launched some awareness programmes, such as Together, which aims to counter the rise in xenophobia and discrimination; Let’s Fight Racism!, which aims to fight racism; and the International Decade for People of African Descent, which aims to improve the standard of living for African people.
Delegates may wish to continue implementing new awareness programmes or modify educational curriculums to educate the population that although everyone is entitled to their individual thoughts or beliefs, no one is allowed to express such thoughts or beliefs in the form of violence or discrimination.
Defining key terms
“Hate speech” and “hate crime” need to have a universal definition to help government agencies more easily prosecute those that it deems guilty of inciting hate, and determine in their concluding reports whether the hate crime was inspired by hate speech. Ideally, the hate speech definition should be written by reviewing Article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, in accordance with the 171 state parties, the United Nations Human Rights Committee and the Secretary-General. As the term ‘hate crime’ has not been specifically defined by the UN yet, delegates are free to make up a definition as they see fit, or adopt past definitions made by recognised international agencies.
Once the terms are strictly defined, member states should adopt legislation expressly prohibiting hate speech, according to UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein. These laws should not attack the freedom of expression. They should instead recognise that the right of free speech comes with special duties and responsibilities that citizens have to adhere to.
With these terms being defined, subsequently, delegates may then propose a concrete framework for social media and internet platforms which includes instructions to ban users or take down comments that constitute hate speech. This would reduce incitement to violence.
Lastly, member states should agree on a suitable direction to tackle hate speech, and implement this framework within the hate crimes resolution. Ideally, the framework should reaffirm compliance to
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session aforementioned treaties and documents, whilst introducing new ideas to combat hate speech, and thus hate crimes.
Other methods
Measures must also be put in place to ensure freer elections and uphold fundamental tenets of democracy, in order to reduce the chance of authoritarian and discriminatory governments from being formed.
Increased cooperation between government agencies, and the sharing of information, as seen in the OSCE, may lead to hate crime incidents being predicted and thus prevented. Feasible counter-terrorism methods that have been successful could also be adopted in addressing the issue of hate crimes.
To address stigmatisation, delegates may consider measures such as affirmative action, or the training and empowerment of ethnic and racial minorities, though there are conflicting views regarding such measures (especially affirmative action).
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session Bibliography
Gomez, Melissa. “Charlottesville Car Attack Suspect Pleads Not Guilty to Federal Hate Crimes.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 6 July 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/07/05/us/charlottesville-plea-hate-crimes.html?rref=collection%2Ftimesto pic%2FHate%2BCrimes.
“Hate Crimes.” FBI, FBI, 5 Jan. 2018, www.fbi.gov/investigate/civil-rights/hate-crimes.
“What Is Hate Crime | OSCE - ODIHR.” OSCE - ODIHR, hatecrime.osce.org/what-hate-crime.
“Hate Crime.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 6 July 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate_crime.
“OHCHR | Target Hate Speech and Hate Crimes, Zeid Urges States.” OHCHR | Convention on the Rights of the Child, www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=21407.
“International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 3 July 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_for_the_Elimination_of_Racial_Discrimination.
“Unite the Right Rally.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 6 July 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally.
“United Nations - Hate Crimes - Legislationline.” Gender Equality - Legislationline, www.legislationline.org/topics/organisation/2/topic/4.
“Hate Speech.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 6 July 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate_speech
“Plan of Action for Religious Leaders and Actors to Prevent Incitement to Violence that could lead to Atrocity Crimes.”
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session United Nations , 4 July 2017. “Secretary-General Launches First-Ever Action Plan for Religious Leaders, Actors on Preventing Incitement to Violence | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases.” United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/press/en/2017/hr5365.doc.htm.
“United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect.” United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/genocide.html.
“Xenophobia | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.”
UNESCO, Discovery Channel, Producer., www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/xen ophobia/.
“Discrimination | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.” UNESCO, Discovery Channel, Producer., www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/disc rimination/.
Fantz, Ashley, et al. “49 Killed in Florida Nightclub Terror Attack.” CNN, Cable News Network, 13 June 2016, edition.cnn.com/2016/06/12/us/orlando-nightclub-shooting/index.html.
“Plan of Action to Prevent Violent Extremism | Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force.” United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/counterterrorism/ctitf/en/plan-action-prevent-violent-extremism.
“OHCHR | International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.” OHCHR | Convention on the Rights of the Child, www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CCPR.aspx
“ODIHR's Capacity-Building Efforts | OSCE - ODIHR.” OSCE - ODIHR, hatecrime.osce.org/odihrs-capacity-building-efforts.
“Affirmative Action.”
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The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 24 July 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmative_action.
Frenkel, Sheera. “Facebook to Remove Misinformation That Leads to Violence.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 18 July 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/07/18/technology/facebook-to-remove-misinformation-that-leads-to-viole nce.html?hp.
Zraick, Karen. “Mark Zuckerberg Seeks to Clarify Remarks About Holocaust Deniers After Outcry.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 18 July 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/07/18/technology/mark-zuckerberg-facebook-holocaust-denial.html?hp.
Carlsen, Audrey, and Fahima Haque. “What Does Facebook Consider Hate Speech? Take Our Quiz.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 13 Oct. 2017, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/10/13/technology/facebook-hate-speech-quiz.html.
“Racism in Turkey.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 27 July 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism_in_Turkey.
“Hrant Dink.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 July 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hrant_Dink. hurriyetdailynews.com. “Turkish Interior Ministry Confirms 'Race Codes' for Minorities.” Hürriyet Daily News, Hurriyetdailynews.com, 2 Aug. 2013, www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-interior-ministry-confirms-race-codes-for-minorities-51898.
History.com Staff. “Armenian Genocide.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 2010, www.history.com/topics/armenian-genocide.
“Laws against Holocaust Denial.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 27 July 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_against_Holocaust_denial.
“Germany Hate Crime: Nearly 10 Attacks a Day on Migrants in 2016.” BBC News, BBC, 26 Feb. 2017, www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-39096833. Research Report | Page 18 of 22
The Hague International Model United Nations, Singapore 2018| XIV Annual Session
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