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A Research on Shin Buddhist Ethics

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A Research on Shin Buddhist Ethics A Research on Shin Buddhist Ethics A dissertation by Takashi Miyaji Presented to The Faculty of the Graduate School of Letters Department of Shin Buddhism Ryukoku University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Kyoto, Japan January 2019 Introduction（序論） 1 1. Western Philosophy Ethics（⻄洋哲学における倫理） 2 2. Eastern versus Western Philosophy Ethics（東洋と⻄洋哲学の倫理） 4 3. Problem with normative ethics from a Buddhist perspective （仏教-真宗-からの問題提起） 6 4. Previous research（先⾏研究） 7 5. Purpose of this paper（本論の⽬的） 27 6. Methodology（研究⽅法） 31 7. Definition of terms（⽤語の定義） 34 I Chapter One Historical Development of Shin Ethics as Two Truths Theory in Japan （第１章 ⽇本における真宗倫理の歴史的展開） 36 Introduction（序⽂） 36 1. Background of the legacy of the two truths theory（⼆諦論の遺産） 38 1.1 Mundane truth over the supramundane truth（真諦に優先する俗諦） 40 1.2 Confused teaching of “receiving” as social passivity （社会的無抵抗と混同された「受容」の教え） 41 1.2.1 De-emphasis on proactive response to social issues （社会問題への主導的な応答の消極性） 42 1.2.2 Promoted Shin Buddhism as an “other-worldly” religion （「あの世」的宗教として奨励された真宗） 43 1.3 Defeat of the spiritually authentic individual （本物の信仰を持った個⼈—真宗信者—の排斥） 45 2. Two truths theory as ethical policy（倫理規定としての⼆諦論） 47 2.1 History of the two truths theory up to Shinran（親鸞にいたる⼆諦論） 48 2.2 Shinran and the two truths theory（親鸞と⼆諦論） 50 2.3 Kakunyo and the two truths theory（覚如と⼆諦論） 52 2.4 Zonkaku and the two truths theory（存覚と⼆諦論） 55 2.5 Rennyo and the two truths theory（蓮如と⼆諦論） 57 3. Mid-19th century to the end of WWII and the two truths theory （１９世紀中期から第２次世界⼤戦までにみる⼆諦論） 63 3.1 History leading up to the end of Edo period（江⼾末期までの⼆諦論の歴史） 63 3.2 End of Edo period, beginning of Meiji period and the two truths theory （江⼾末期から明治初期の体制に順ずる⼆諦論の歴史） 67 i 3.2.1 Meiji history（明治初期の体制） 67 3.2.2 Shinto a “non-religion”（⾮宗教としての神道） 69 3.2.3 Influence of western rationalism（⻄洋合理主義の影響の下で） 71 3.2.4 Adjustment of educational policy（教育体制の整合に絡んで） 73 3.2.5 Hongwanji and its public policy（本願寺とその社会対応） 77 3.2.6 Protecting the Dharma through two truths theory（⼆諦論から仏法を守る） 78 3.2.7 Two truths theory in the new era（新しい世紀に⾒る⼆諦論） 81 3.2.8 Larger Sutra as basis for two truths theory （⼆諦論の基礎としての『⼤経』の位置付け） 84 3.2.9 Justification to support State Shinto（国家神道擁護としての理論付け） 86 conclusion（⼩結） 89 II Chapter Two Shin Ethics as Two Truths Theory in the Twentieth Century （第２章 ２０世紀における真宗倫理） 92 Introduction（序⽂） 92 1. Exhibiting two truths theory in Japan（⽇本における⼆諦論） 93 1.1 Historical background（歴史的背景） 93 1.2 Religious “Freedom”（宗教の⾃由） 93 1.3 Censorship（検閲） 95 1.4 Hongwanji during the times of conflict（争いの最中の本願寺） 96 1.5 Protecting the country, repaying benevolence（護国思想） 100 1.6 Promotion of Asian reconfiguration（興亜精神の発揚） 109 1.7 “Passive” and “reactive” Shinshū（受⾝的真宗と対応的真宗） 110 1.8 Distortion of the view of “this life” and “the afterlife”（「現世」と「来世」） 115 1.9 Distortion of the concept of no self（無我の誤解） 117 2. Exhibiting two truths theory in America: historical development of Buddhism in the West （アメリカにおける⼆諦論̶⻄洋—アメリカ—における仏教受容の歴史的背景） 121 2.1.1 East meets West（東洋と⻄洋の邂逅） 121 2.1.2 American history and worldview（アメリカ史と世界観） 122 2.1.3 World’s Parliament of Religions of 1893（１８９３年の万国宗教会議） 127 2.1.4 Buddhism gets pitted against Christianity（仏教とキリスト教の戦い） 128 2.1.5 Buddhism and the way it was studied（仏教とそれが学ばれた⽅法） 130 2.1.6 Japanese immigrants in America（アメリカの⽇系移⺠） 132 2.2 Exhibiting two truths theory in America: Direct evidence of the two truths theory （アメリカにおける⼆諦論の直接的証拠） 135 2.2.1 Early Shin Buddhism（初期真宗） 135 ii 2.2.2 Buddhism and language schools（仏教と語学学校） 136 2.2.3 Overseas Shin temples help in war effort（海外の真宗寺院の戦争運動） 138 2.3 Exhibiting two truths theory in America: Indirect evidence of the two truths theory （アメリカにおける⼆諦論の⾮直接的証拠—「⼆諦論の遺産」の検証̶） 141 2.3.1 Mundane truth over the supramundane truth（俗諦の真諦への優先化） 141 2.3.1.1 Buddhism as the alternative religion to Christianity （キリスト教に取って代わる仏教） 142 2.3.1.2 Buddhism as a religion compatible with science and rationality （科学と理性に順応する宗教としての仏教） 147 2.3.1.3 Buddhism only as a set of moral principles and common sense （⼀連の倫理的原理と常識としての仏教） 150 2.3.1.4 Buddhism as ecumenical and tolerant of other religions and worldviews （普遍的で他の宗教や世界観に寛容な仏教） 152 2.3.1.5 Buddhism as a monolithic tradition（画⼀主義としての仏教） 155 2.3.2 Confused the teaching of “receiving” as social passivity （社会的無抵抗と混同された「受容の教え」） 160 2.3.2.1 De-emphasis on proactive response to social issues （社会問題への率先した答えを出すことへの消極性） 165 2.3.2.2 Promoted Shin Buddhism as an “other-worldly” religion （「あの世」的宗教として奨励された真宗） 168 2.3.3 Defeat of the spiritually authentic individual （本物の信仰を持った個⼈—真宗信者—の排斥） 170 conclusion（⼩結） 174 III Chapter Three Pragmatic Approach as the New Shin Ethics: Its Doctrinal Foundation （第３章 新しい倫理としての「実⽤的アプローチ」—その教義的意義—） 176 Introduction（序⽂） 176 1. Nonduality（⼀元論としての救済倫理） 178 1.1 Wisdom as zero（第⼀義諦—ゼロの智慧—） 178 1.2 Spontaneous and dynamic（第⼀義諦の特質—⾃発性とダイナミズム̶） 179 2. Duality: Amida to sentient being （⼆元論としての救済倫理—阿弥陀如来から衆⽣へ—） 181 3. Dualism: why it is necessary（⼆元論としての救済倫理—なぜ必要なのか—） 184 3.1 Good and evil persons（「善⼈」と「悪⼈」の位置付け） 184 3.2 Human condition（機の普遍的本性） 186 iii 4. Duality: sentient being to Amida （⼆元論としての救済倫理—衆⽣から阿弥陀如来へ̶） 192 4.1 Pragmatic approach as teleological（⽬的論的である実⽤的アプローチ） 192 4.2 Why we need the pragmatic approach（なぜ実⽤的アプローチが必要なのか） 198 5. Foundation of the Pragmatic Approach: zero-shinjin and the three emphatics （実⽤的アプローチの教義的意義—「ゼロ」信⼼と「三種の哉」—） 201 5.1 Concerning shinjin（信⼼の問題） 201 5.1.1 Problem with shinjin as only a concept（信⼼の概念的把握の問題点） 203 5.1.2 Problem with shinjin as only a religious experience （信⼼の体験的把握の問題点） 205 5.2 Zero shinjin（「ゼロ」信⼼） 207 5.3 Three Emphatics（三種の「哉」） 209 5.3.1 Sincerity and “Wholly sincere, indeed”（⾄⼼と誠哉） 213 5.3.2 Entrusting and “How joyous I am”（信楽と慶哉） 217 5.3.3 Entrusting and “How grievous it is”（信楽と悲哉） 218 5.3.4 Aspiration for birth and hope（欲⽣と義別） 223 conclusion（⼩結） 225 IV Chapter Four Pragmatic Approach as the New Shin Ethics: Its Practical Features （「実⽤的アプローチ」の実践的意義—個⼈的および社会的倫理—） 227 Introduction（序⽂） 227 1. Individual ethics（個⼈的倫理の側⾯） 227 1.1 Concerning self（⾃⼰について） 228 1.1.1 Individual as the Problem（⼰⼼を問題とする） 228 1.1.2 Rejection of self-power not self-effort （⾃⼒の否定から「尽⼒」の背景に向かう） 230 1.1.3 Bonbu on the bodhisattva path（凡夫として菩薩道を歩む） 232 1.2 Beyond self（⾃⼰の超越） 234 1.2.1 Awakening to a greater reality （個⼈を超越した「偉⼤な真実在」に⽬覚める） 234 1.2.2 Not hindering the Buddha's compassion（阿弥陀仏の慈悲を妨げない） 237 1.3 Interchange between Amida Buddha and sentient being（阿弥陀仏と衆⽣の接点） 239 1.3.1 Listening to the calling voice of the Buddha Dharma（聞法に向かう） 239 1.3.2 Expression of gratitude for the Buddha’s benevolence（仏恩報謝に向かう） 239 1.4 Metamorphosis（転じられる個⼈） 242 1.4.1 Transformation of the self（「転」に向かう） 242 iv 1.4.2 Evil turning to good（転悪成善に向かう） 244 1.5 Equanimity（⼼の平静の確⽴） 247 1.5.1 Flexibility and letting go（「レティング・ゴー」と柔軟性に向かう） 247 1.5.2 Balancing between extremes（極端から中道に向かう） 250 2. Social ethics（社会的倫理の側⾯の展開） 251 2.1 Limitation of ethics（倫理の限界に⽬覚める） 252 2.2 Social Skepticism（社会に対する問題意識） 255 2.2.1 Questioning secular authority and human law （⼈道主義と政治的権⼒への問題意識に⽬覚める） 255 2.2.2 Rejecting the mundane world（親鸞の「世を厭う」とは） 257 2.3 Social Solidarity（社会との連帯意識） 259 2.3.1 Universal Identity（ユニバーサル・アイデンティティに⽬覚める） 259 2.3.2 Social compassion（ソーシャル・コンパッション—社会的慈悲に⽬覚める—） 262 3. An overall understanding of Shin ethics（真宗倫理の総合的理解） 264 3.1 Self-benefit and benefitting others redefined（「⾃利利他」の再検討価） 264 3.2 Buddha Dharma as the basis for ethical life（仏法を基盤とする真宗倫理） 269 3.3 Possible concerns with the Pragmatic Approach （実⽤的アプローチに対する批判的⽴場への対応） 272 conclusion（⼩結） 275 Conclusion（結論） 278 Appendix（付録） 282 Endnotes（註） 289 Bibliography （参考⽂献） 303 v Abstract Is there such a thing as Shin Buddhist Ethics? What is it that a Shin Buddhist does? Where is the line between Shin ethics and self-power, or jiriki? One can argue that Shin Buddhism is not as well known in America as some of the other schools of Buddhism precisely for its perceived lack of “applicability.” For the most part, if there is any research done on Shin ethics, it is almost always on the descriptive and historical development of various Shin religious organizations. Although this is important, there needs to be an investigation into the doctrinal justification for why Shin Buddhist ethics is not only a vital course of study, but that its essential message has much to contribute to the conversation of ethics in general. Shin ethics in Japan was historically dominated by the concept of the two truths theory (shinzoku nitai 真俗⼆諦), which became a major problem that involved incorporating State Shinto rituals such as emperor worship from the Meiji Period (1868–1912) onward to the close of World War II. As we shall see, the legacy of the two truths theory makes its way into overseas Shin propagation, thus creating a religious identity crisis for Shin Buddhists not just in Japan, but in America as well. It has been about seventy years since the close of the Second World War, but there is yet to be a definitive ethical standard for Shin Buddhists that has since replaced the two truths theory, something that was thought to have ended along with the war itself.
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