The Association for Roman Archaeology

SeptemberARA 2012 NEWSIssue 28

Relief at Naqsh-i Rustam, Iran, commemorating Sasanian victories over Rome. Sapur I grasps the captured Valerian's wrist, while Philip the Arab kneels in supplication (see page 14). Photo: © Ian Heritage. CONTENTS Page Contents and Contacts 2 Editorial 2 A visit to The Novium, Chichester's new museum 3 to 5 The Jupiter stone – a Romano-British sculptural treasure goes on display at The Novium 5 2012 ARA study tour of Sicily 6 to 11 Halstock Roman villa, Dorset – a lost floor of opus sectile 12 and 13 A Tale of Three Emperors: Images of Roman defeat in Sasanian Iran 14 to 21 Anthony Beeson's Archaeological Round‑up 22, 23, 30, 31 and 35 Jublains – a provincial Gallo-Roman civitas 24 to 29 Epigraphy quiz 29 Three Treasures of Ancient Britain and Sweet Fanny Adams 32 to 35 Epigraphy quiz solution 35 ARA Honorary Life Membership Award – Brian Philp 36 Obituaries 37 to 39 Membership Matters 40 Booking form: ARA 2012 AGM and Symposium 41 Recent ARA grants 42 Donations and Bequests 43 Trustee nominations form 44

Editorial a time when the economy is struggling. much-needed exercise. But local If only we could generate a similar level authorities and museum trusts should While I'm no great watcher of sport, it of passion, pride and political support remember that replacing trained staff was good to see the nation get behind for the national legacy we already have, with volunteers carries risks. Museums the spectacle of the Olympics. However, the legacy of our country's past. do more than display items: they are having heard of the debts and white archives, holding and conserving far elephant sports' facilities of former Among the cuts and closures there is more than is seen by visitors. They hold Olympic cities, the talk of 'legacy' made some good news. Chichester's new artefacts in trust for future generations. me wonder how much benefit our museum, The Novium, has opened Academics using new techniques and country will see in the long run from the (pp3–5). The future of the Curtis with new insights can learn more about enormous investment of time, money Museum and the Allen Gallery in Alton, our past (see the Archaeology Round- and political effort in the Games. And Hampshire (pp32–5), both of which up items on the Capitoline Wolf, p22, also, how much our heritage would nearly closed last year, seems a little and the statue of Mark Antony's and benefit from a fraction of that support. more certain, although sadly Cleopatra's twins, p23). I suspect it will professional staff at the museums lost be many years before the skills, local The organisation of the Olympics was their jobs. The museums survive due to knowledge and experience that left an incredible achievement. National the hard work of enthusiastic volunteers. with the Alton museums' former staff pride and the attention of the media can be regained, if it can be at all. meant that the political cost of failure As the Olympics has shown, volunteers would have been high, so it had the full can make an invaluable contribution. Finally, I'd like to congratulate Brian backing of Government. Billions of It's a rewarding experience; if you've not Philp (see p36), who in July was awarded pounds were spent. Thousands of done so, I suggest you try it. I've just an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Letters volunteers pitched in, and scores of returned from working as a volunteer by the University of Canterbury. celebrities performed in the opening on an excavation in Alderney. I learned a and closing ceremonies. And all of this at great deal, made friends and got some Nich Hogben, Editor. 2 A Visit to The Novium, Chichester's new museum by Grahame Soffe

In June 2004 the ARA visited the building, designed by Keith Williams, Chichester District Museum in Little the architect of the Wexford Opera London, a former eighteenth-century House in Ireland and the Unicorn corn mill, first opened in 1962 (ARA 17, Theatre in London, had to be arched (2006)). Although Chichester has had a across the deep excavation, 1.5m below museum since 1831, by the 1970s, street level. Its modernistic design, when it was required to serve the whole coated with crushed Bath stone, has district, the collections had grown caused some considerable controversy enormously, partly because of the in a city of old brick, medieval stone and continuous excavations taking place flint. The original excavations took place around the city. The ARA also viewed during the 'golden age' of Chichester the Roman sculptured stones and archaeology, when Alec Down over inscriptions stored in the old Guildhall – many years led dedicated teams in fact the huge thirteenth-century exploring a large number of sites chancel of the Greyfriars' Priory church, threatened with redevelopment. The which was occasionally opened to the baths, like so many of these sites, were public. The old museum has been speedily published by Alec Down and closed for several years, so it was with his colleagues in Chichester Excavations, trepidation and excitement that, at the a splendid set of volumes. After Fig. 1. Exterior of The Novium. Photo: © Grahame Soffe. invitation of Tracey Clark, the Museum excavation, the baths lay preserved Manager, I visited The Novium (Fig. 1), under a car park, together with the mosaic from one of the two villas Chichester District's long-awaited new remnants of Saxon pottery production, excavated by Alec Down in the museum, a few days after its official medieval housing, a pub and a school, Chilgrove valley, dating to the fourth opening to the public in July this year. until the new museum could be built. century (Fig. 3). Having been In comparison, the new building offers Now we can step back onto the temporarily displayed at Fishbourne, three floors of objects and history, excavation site and view the remains of moving the mosaic to the museum access for all, and a purpose-built masonry hypocausted rooms, and even was a major task, as one section alone social history collection's store. a labelled section. A huge plate-glass weighs nearly 500kg and there are four window, whereby the baths could be pieces fixed onto the wall opposite the The new museum stands in the middle viewed from Tower Street outside, has baths. In the centre of the ground floor of Noviomagus Reginorum, the Roman had to be covered over whilst problems is the key exhibit, the Jupiter Stone city from which it derives its name, on with algae growth are being tackled. discussed by Anthony Beeson in this the remains of the Roman public baths Staff at Fishbourne Roman Palace, just issue (p5), and on the first floor the excavated in 1974–75. The exposed down the Roman road running west out tombstone of a woman with a Romano- area of a part of the baths occupies a of the city, are giving valuable advice. Celtic sounding name ending … CCA sunken area viewed from the ground AELIA – possibly Boudicca Aelia – who floor of the museum (Fig. 2). The rest of The moment I walked through the glass died aged 36. Another tombstone, of the floor is taken up with other doors, I was amazed by the space Catia Censorina, decorated with a pelta, important Roman exhibits. The wall provided by the building. Up against the has been moved back to the Collections behind the baths has been utilised as baths there is a glass balustrade case Discovery Centre at Fishbourne. The the screen for an audio/visual film containing Roman objects found at the ground floor also houses the Tourist showing a re-creation of how the baths site, and the fine bronze arm from a Information Centre and shop. I hope might have been used, including actors statue, illustrated in ARA 17 (p41, Fig. 2). that over time the shop will provide swimming and playing ball games. The Another feature of the ground floor is products such as books, which will

Fig. 2. Roman public baths – heated room 1, view from north. Photo: © Grahame Soffe. Fig. 3. Chilgrove mosaic on display with shop to left. Photo: © Grahame Soffe. 3 'Hope', with many of the objects shown in open white boxes – a rather effective exhibition device. Indeed, all exhibits in the museum are clearly labelled with provenance and accession details. Amongst them I found yet more Roman pots, an amphora (Fig. 5) and a first- century BC/AD coin hoard from the beach at Selsey, and first-century BC

Fig. 5. Roman amphora from Selsey beach. coin moulds and a crucible from Photo: © Grahame Soffe. Boxgrove. In the 'Bravery' display, the development of weaponry and military equipment is shown from prehistory to the recent World Wars, and here I found a fine Roman soldier's bronze belt-plate, a helmet crest knob, an eagle-head vehicle terminal (Fig. 6) and an iron Fig. 6. Roman bronze eagle-head terminal. Fig. 4. Part of first-floor display. Photo: © Grahame Soffe. Photo: © Grahame Soffe. gladius, all from the Chapel Street excavations nearby; clear evidence for showcase and interpret the exhibits. excellent time-line and maps of the the early military phase of Roman The front-of-house staff include district, an explanation of stratigraphy, Chichester. This gallery also has a fine ARA member Bernie Speigelhalter. and at least a way of establishing where tinned circular mirror from St Pancras, our Roman period lies in the great some very rare hexagonal terracotta My guide on the tour was Anooshka scheme of things! Moving past the roof tiles from the Battens Hanger Rawden, Collections Officer and 'curiosities case', containing a Roman villa at Elsted, and an iron Assistant Museum Manager, also an prehistoric elephant tusk, 'Heron Allen's emasculator found on the Cattlemarket ARA member. She reminded me this is Feet' and other strange items never site in a box of Roman farrier's not a 'Roman' museum as such, but exhibited before, I came to the large equipment – as distinct from an covered all human prehistory and first-floor gallery in the centre of which elaborate human version connected to history from the Palaeolithic to the is a huge cube display case. This gallery the worship of Cybele that was found in present day, as well as geology and concentrates on the concept of 'Place' – London. I had not realised that the lost palaeontology. Indeed, as part of the 'connecting places' (transport, roads, gates of the city had been temporarily building works a bore hole was drilled etc), 'domestic places' (houses, etc) and 're-created' on their original sites over to provide a geological record of 50 'burial places' (Fig. 4). Here, amongst a a century ago: the 'Roman' east gate is million years of the rocks below the site. variety of later objects, such as an early shown on an early postcard photo to Although the ground floor has a Roman twentieth-century gas cooker, can be celebrate Queen Victoria's Diamond theme, the first and second floor found a very fine collection of complete Jubilee. Some of the medieval human displays are definitely 'thematic' in the Roman pots of all types from the remains from excavated burials are usual sense, avoiding an ordering in cemetery excavations at St Pancras and currently part of a project with time and space – an interesting elsewhere, a Roman lead coffin, a stone Bradford University which aims to approach best expounded by the great lararium statue of Fortuna from investigate ancient diseases. The late-nineteenth-century archaeologist Chilgrove, other figurines of goddesses project involves creating 3D images General Pitt Rivers, and still to be in terracotta and jet, and ceramic bricks that will eventually be placed on touch admired in the wonderful museum in and box-flue tiles. The gallery's outer screens in the galleries. Ongoing Oxford which bears his name today. walls are free for temporary exhibitions research has already found one of the Modern thematic displays can also be and there is a research room and small earliest cases of syphilis in a young seen at the National Museum of library to help students and the public Saxon man buried at East Marden. The Scotland in Edinburgh and the newly access the collections further. This floor centre of the gallery has plenty of space opened Waterfront Museum at Bristol, also contains the museum's for larger objects, such as a wooden where at the latter, unfortunately, the environmentally controlled stores. funeral bier, portable stocks and a huge important local Roman archaeology bronze bell. The second floor also seems to have been lost almost entirely. As I reached the second-floor landing houses the Woolstaplers' Room – However, there are dangers with such I stopped to take in the fine view of a meeting room for school learning a thematic approach. My experience the Cathedral and a roof-scape of old sessions, lectures and other activities. of teaching sixth-formers and adult chimney pots. An audio description tells students has shown me that concepts how an earlier spire of the Cathedral On reflection, I was relieved that so of chronology and cultural had collapsed in the 1860s. The second much Roman and other archaeological development in prehistory and history floor focuses on 'People and Emotions', material known from the old museum have reached a low point in the general an interactive gallery where one can was still on display, or at least available knowledge of the public, probably due pull out drawers of finds, try on for study, although one major item, the to inadequate teaching of history and reproduction Roman helmets and even large stone head of the Emperor Trajan geography in the state school 'make' a mosaic. Here the tall display (discussed in ARA 8, 1999, p9, Figs. 3 and curriculum. It was therefore a relief to cases surround one on all sides with 4) has now made its way to Fishbourne. find The Novium providing a small entire wall lengths devoted to themes The great Roman inscription from the 'Time and Place' gallery, with an such as 'Bravery', 'Joy', 'Sorrow' and Temple of Neptune and Minerva, which 4 The Jupiter stone – a Romano-British sculptural treasure goes on display at The Novium by Anthony Beeson

Little architectural stonework from central, primary position in the gallery. installation. The pieces were reattached Roman Chichester survives, no doubt To counter the lack of an audio-visual using epoxy resin and some sections having been recycled for the cathedral or presentation, a basic information sheet required additional dowelling to secure. burned for lime. Some rare pieces, on the stone has been produced for the Filling was carried out using fresh previously stored in the Guildhall, are public to take for free. These are proving mortar, created by using the dowelled on display in the new building. Prime popular and people are taking an stonework as rubble soaked in water amongst these, and indeed one of the interest in the piece. Now that it is which was used to bulk out mortar most important surviving pieces from prominently displayed, hopefully the repairs and strengthen the mortar. Britannia, is the section of the base of a stone will become better known. Surface repairs were toned-in using monument to Jupiter, showing the upper acrylic washes, and the stone now has part of two entwined females (Fig. 1). It is splendid to relate that the stone has a beautiful yellow hue. It looks really This probably came from a Jupiter now been cleaned and conserved. lovely in terms of its current column or statue base that stood either Anooshka Rawden, Collections Officer conservation condition." in a sacred precinct or in the forum. and Assistant Manager, told me "It was A watercolour reconstruction of the conserved prior to display by Richard former interpretation, with the Rogers Conservation Ltd – an excellent monument given a typical team of conservators and some of the polychromed finish, is given here best I have ever worked with. The stone (Fig. 2). It was hoped that the was structurally unstable and was importance of this sculpture would be suffering as a result of ingrained dust recognised in the display, and indeed and dirt. Most of the fills used to the piece has a prominent position in reconstruct the piece were visually the centre of the ground floor gallery. jarring and did not complement the stone. The stone was therefore Fortunately, the stone can be viewed deconstructed before being moved to easily on all four sides, and it is in a the new museum for treatment and

Fig. 2. An interpretative reconstruction of the Jupiter Fig. 1. The Jupiter stone during installation in The Novium. It was still drying out at this stage after conservation but is column from Chichester in a religious precinct. now a paler colour. Photo: Richard Rogers Conservation Ltd, © Chichester District Council. © From a painting by Anthony Beeson. refers to the client king Tiberius Claudius Lantern (c.AD 1600), Robbie Williams's develops into the future. The museum's Togidubnus, remains gloomily and postcard collection, and – my favourite staff is to be congratulated for all it has annoyingly behind dirty reflecting glass – antique gramophones. done over the past months and in North Street. Is it not about time it I recommend this new museum to found an appropriate home in the In these days of recession and museum ARA members. museum? After all, it is one of the most closures, the resurrection of Chichester's important Roman inscriptions in Britain, museum as The Novium must be The Novium, Tower Street, and it seems ignored by the passing celebrated and supported. Of course Chichester, West Sussex PO19 1QH public in its present location. On a there will be small details to criticise, (01243 775888, www.thenovium.org) lighter note, if you were to get tired of but these are only to be expected in the is open seven days a week in the the archaeological material, enormous efforts made to meet the summer and five days a week entertainment can be obtained from opening deadlines, and can always be between November and March. Entry the discovery of the Municipal Moon ironed out as the museum grows and is £7 for adults, £6 for concessions. 5 The 2012 ARA study tour of Sicily by John Partridge

The 2012 ARA study tour of Sicily began largely of brick. The walls at the back of with our evening arrival at the island's the scena and cavea are well preserved. best known tourist spot, and a It is the second-largest theatre in Sicily, destination of travellers on the Grand with an orchestra measuring 35m and Tour of past centuries – Taormina. the cavea having a diameter of 109m. A glance at our study notes, compiled In another part of town the Naumachia, by Anthony Beeson, indicated that in misnamed in a mistaken belief that it order to understand the sites we were was used for staged sea battles, and about to visit we should read them referred to in one guide book as a thoroughly in the days to come. Sicily gymnasium, was in fact a 122m by 18m is rich in ancient and classical history, for reservoir, part of a sophisticated water Fig. 1. Odeon , Taormina, from the temple podium. Photo: © John Partridge. it has been occupied or influenced by supply system. The external façade is numerous cultures over the centuries: well preserved, with 18 arches between Greek, Carthaginian, Roman, Vandal, which rectangular recesses may have Byzantine, Islamic, Norman and many housed statues (Fig. 3). The morning others. The itinerary had been ended at part of the baths – three large specifically designed to encompass heated rooms which originally had both well-known and rarely visited sites. marble and mosaic decoration – and a We were also armed with a letter of brief stop at the Baroque Church of introduction kindly supplied by St Pancras, patron saint of Taormina, Christopher Smith, the Director of the built over a Roman temple dedicated British School in Rome, that literally to Jupiter Serapis. The afternoon began opened doors to the group. with a visit to Naxos Archaeological Fig. 2. Greco-Roman theatre, Taormina. Park. Founded in 735 BC, the walled city Photo: © John Partridge. Day two started with a visit to of Naxos is said to be the earliest Greek Taormina, guided by Wendy Mazza. settlement in Sicily. It was destroyed by Tauromenion was founded by Greeks in the tyrant Dionysius in 403 BC and robbed 358 BC and expanded by the Romans. out in antiquity. The easy-to-walk site is Octavian/Augustus expelled its clearly marked out with information inhabitants for helping Pompey in the boards. Among the remains are two Civil War. It was revived in Byzantine well-preserved kilns (Fig. 4), gate 4 and times, destroyed by the Arabs in 902 part of the city walls, also well preserved and 962 and grew again under the considering their early date. The site Normans. Similar misfortune and museum has, in addition to artefacts sometimes revival was the fate of many from this and other sites, a fine collection places on the tour. We started with a of anchors and amphorae dredged from Fig. 3. So-called Naumachia, Taormina. brief visit to a tower and the courtyard the nearby bay (Fig. 5). The Alcàntara Photo: © John Partridge. of the Palazzo Corvaja, a tenth-century Gorge doubtless enchanted the ancient Arabic palace named after the family inhabitants, as it did us, as we ended who owned it from the sixteenth to the day two. Its waters flow through a 70m twentieth century. A short walk took us deep fissure in lava laid down about to the small second-century odeon, 2400 BC. built beside the foundations of a Greek temple and discovered in 1892 (Fig. 1). We headed north on the third day to A short distance away was the Patti Marina through the many tunnels magnificent Greco-Roman theatre with in the mountainous countryside. There, its stunning views of Mount Etna and during construction of the Palermo– the Ionian Sea (Fig. 2). Although Greek Messina motorway in 1973, a fourth- in plan, it was rebuilt in Roman times, century AD Roman villa was discovered Fig. 4. Naxos, kilns. Photo: © John Partridge. (Fig. 6). Built over an earlier villa of the second century AD, it measures at least 200m by 100m. It was destroyed by an earthquake in the fifth century. A raised walkway around the excavations gave a good view of a collapsed peristyle comprising an arcade of piers and shallow arches with a low balustrade. A corridor mosaic of geometric designs and representations of animals, including a tiger with a mirror, was Fig. 5. Naxos, anchors. Photo: © John Partridge. Fig. 6. Patti Marina, villa. Photo: © John Partridge. probably created by Sicilian craftsmen. 6 Fig. 8. Tyndaris, so-called basilica. Photo: © John Partridge.

Fig. 7. Villa San Biagio baths, mosaic. Photo: © John Partridge. Further along the north coast we visited preserved, while in some areas damage the site of a late second or early first by earthquake is vividly shown in the century BC Roman villa at Castroreale undulating surface. Roman baths in San Biagio. A series of rooms Insula IV revealed closely grouped surrounded a 17-metre-square peristyle cylindrical hot air flues and a mosaic with columns of plastered brick and a floor, while re-erected brick columns low balustrade. A triclinium had a adorn the peristyle of a first-century BC mosaic border, opus sectile panels and two-storey house. Nearby are six a rear wall with a niche for a statue. The tabernae (shops). The cathedral and frigidarium of the baths contained a fine monastery complex on the top of the monochrome mosaic of fishermen in a ancient acropolis contains the Black boat and giant fish (Fig. 7). The villa fell Madonna of Tyndaris: a Byzantine out of use around the end of the third painted wooden statue of the Virgin century AD. Our day was completed by a and Child on a throne, one of the great visit to Tyndaris, a city originally relics and shrines of Sicily. The site founded by the Greeks in about 395 BC. museum houses many artefacts among Fig. 9. Tyndaris, marble head of young Augustus, first It apparently took the right side in the which are oil lamps with the Chi‑Rho century AD. Photo: © John Partridge. 35 BC war between Octavian and symbol and a marble head of Augustus Pompey, for an inscription attests to (Fig. 9). We were indebted to the "Colonia Augusta Tyndaritanorum". The guardian of the site, who kindly acted as city continued in existence until at least an unofficial guide and ensured that the the early fourth century AD when it museum was opened for us (Fig. 10). suffered destruction in one of a series of earthquakes. Our interest was aroused Halfway along the north coast was the by a large, enigmatic Roman building first destination of our fourth day – which is described variously as a Cefalu. Like many Greek towns in Sicily basilica, a gymnasium and a propylaeum it was at one time allied to Carthage and (monumental entrance) (Fig. 8). The later came under Roman, Byzantine, last is the favoured description. The Arab and Norman domination. Remains Fig. 10. Tyndaris, site guardian showing the origin of problem as to its function lies in its of the ancient city may still be seen on acanthus decorations. Photo: © Anthony Beeson. unusual plan. The three aisles leading the summit of the rock. Some members from high arches are separated by walls, visited the Mandalisca museum, which and are thus inaccessible one from has a fine collection of Greek and another as in a basilica. In truth the Roman coins, intaglios, some nice building may have had many uses, sculpture and a mosaic. The prominent including accommodation for shops. feature of the town is the Norman Even the date of its construction is cathedral, construction of which began contested. The Hellenistic theatre, in 1131. The façade has two square probably from the fourth century BC, Norman towers with a fifteenth-century could seat 3,000 spectators. It was three-arched portico between them. remodelled in Roman times into an The eight columns separating each aisle amphitheatre. Long stretches of the from the nave are partly of second decumanus (east–west street) are well century AD origin. The apse and part of Fig. 11. Solunto, cistern. Photo: © John Partridge. 7 the choir have some fine late-Byzantine feature of one house was a mosaic mosaics: that of the Christ Pantokrator depiction of an armillary sphere – with the Virgin Mary and archangels an ancient invention which modelled beneath is considered one of the best the position of celestial objects. The examples of the work of mosaicists from museum at the site displays wall Constantinople. paintings, lamps, urns and small altars.

During coach trips on the tour, Anthony Our tour continued on day five at Beeson and Mike Stone gave talks on Palermo, modern capital of Sicily, such topics as the history of Sicily and a place settled since 8000 BC and differences between Greek and Roman occupied in turn by Phoenicians, Fig. 12. Solunto, polka-dot inlaid stone mosaic. architecture. On the way to Solunto, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Photo: © John Partridge. Anthony read from Professor R Ross Ostrogoths, Byzantines, Arabs and Holloway's account of the theft of Normans. Some members visited the statues and other works of art by Gaius Punic necropolis. We all visited the site Verres, a Governor of Sicily; he was of Villa Bonnano, the site of several prosecuted by Cicero. Although only a grand Roman houses, one of which has quarter of the town has been excavated fine mosaics. 'The Alexander Hunt' is a it presents many interesting features. copy of a lost Hellenistic painting. The Originally a Phoenician colony, the Orpheus and Seasons mosaics have town became Carthaginian and then been removed to the museum. The Roman; it was the remains of the Roman highlight of the day was our visit to the town that we were to see. A steep walk magnificent Cathedral of Monreale – along the ancient stone block road took one of the finest examples of Norman Fig. 13. Solunto, rammed earth wall. us up over 180m to where the town architecture to be seen anywhere. Our Photo: © John Partridge. overlooks a wide bay on the Tyrrhenian local guide, Giusi Nicoletti, instructed us Sea. We were impressed by a system of through headsets in the cathedral. The domestic and public water cisterns, the mosaic on the half-dome of the eastern largest of which adjoined the agora apse has a colossal image of Christ and (Fig. 11). Near the agora, which had nine below it the Virgin and Child. The interior rooms, was the bouleuterion (council surfaces are covered with 6,500m2 of chamber). The theatre, which is poorly glass mosaics in bright colours on a preserved, had fallen out of use by the gold ground depicting saints and scenes first century AD. Beyond the theatre from the Old and New Testaments. Late were houses with opus signinum floors Byzantine in design and execution, and polka-dot inlaid stones (Fig. 12). these outstanding mosaics present a A wall of at least one house was of pise wondrous sight. The Cosmati pavement Fig. 14. Solunto, window. Photo: © John Partridge. construction (rammed earth which was in the choir, of marble and porphyry, plastered over) (Fig. 13). The House of shows signs of Arabic influence. Our Masks still retains signs of painting in capacity to absorb such a wealth of the second Pompeian style. A third visual richness was tested by our next house aroused great interest with its edifice: the Palatine Chapel of the window opening (Fig. 14), painted wall Royal Palace. Commissioned by Roger II and part of a stucco frieze. A notable of Sicily and consecrated in 1140, it too

Fig. 15. Palermo, Palatine Chapel, mosaic with Saints Paul and Peter, and Emperor Nero. Photo: © John Partridge.

Fig. 16. Segesta, temple, unfinished blocks. Photo: © John Partridge. Fig. 17. Segesta, temple. Photo: © John Partridge. 8 was richly decorated with mosaics and It has eight steps and 6 x 14 columns. paintings (Fig. 15). On each side of the The Temple of Herakles has also been nave Arab arches rested on classical partly reconstructed in modern times. columns, and Arab influence was A notable feature of the site is the apparent in some of the artwork. We also extensive damage caused by visited Palermo Cathedral to see the earthquakes, with huge pieces of fallen magnificent collection of Roman marble masonry and column drums strewn sarcophagi with sculptured reliefs. across it (Fig. 18). Among the items that attracted our interest were a tomb, a En route to our first destination on day Tanit mosaic (Tanit was a Punic moon six – Segesta – Mike and Anthony goddess) and – an entertaining novelty described the history of the building of – a bath tub in the Carthaginian style Fig. 18. Selinunte, earthquake damage. Greek temples, their use, decor and (Figs. 19 and 20). Photo: © John Partridge. architectural features and the activities that took place in and around them. Our seventh day was devoted to one A minibus took us to the site, at the top site: Agrigento, Valley of the Temples, of Monte Bàrbaro (305m). Originally of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Founded mixed Elymian (natives indigenous to around 580 BC by Greek colonists, Sicily) and Greek population, the town Agrigento became one of the most soon became Hellenised. It was at one prominent cities of Magna Graecia. time allied to Carthage, surrendered to The seven temples of the valley the Romans in 260 BC and was finally (which is actually a ridge but appears destroyed by the Vandals. Parts of the to be a valley from the town) were built agora and bouleuterion can still be seen, in the sixth and fifth centuries BC. The as can the well-preserved cavea of the modern, wide paths between the Fig. 20. Selinunte, Carthaginian bathtub. third century BC theatre. The agora was temples made walking the site easy, Photo: © John Partridge. under excavation and among the finds and we were pleased to have the was an inscription naming one of the services of local guide Michele Gallo. witnesses cited by Cicero in his The Temple of Juno/Hera from 460 BC speeches against Verres. A very was built of local sandstone. Nearby are impressive sight was the Hellenic fifth century AD Christian burial temple with 6 x 14 Doric columns. chambers, in which the find of a pot It showed signs of being unfinished; showed their erstwhile occupants to for example, still present on the blocks be from North Africa. The Temple of at the base are the tabs used to lift Concordia was built around 430 BC them into place, which were normally (Fig. 21). Its columns were erected removed, and the columns had not leaning slightly inwards to give the been fluted (Figs. 16 and 17). The correct perspective from a distance. Fig. 21. Agrigento, Temple of Concordia. second visit of the day was to Selinunte Inside can be seen the remains of a Photo: © John Partridge. on the south-west coast. Founded in Christian church into which the temple the first half of the seventh century BC, was converted in AD 597 and which the town was destroyed by the continued in use until 1788. The Temple Carthaginians about 250 BC. It is known of Herakles, built around 510 BC, is the for its seven temples, named for oldest among the group. The Temple of convenience 'A' to 'G'. Temple 'E', also Zeus, like others here a victim of known as the Temple of Hera, was earthquake and quarrying, is possibly reconstructed in the twentieth century. the largest Doric temple ever built. Even in the collapsed form in which we saw it, it was an imposing sight. Telamones (colossal male figures equivalent to Fig. 22. Agrigento, Temple of Zeus, telamon replica. Roman atlantes) stood on rectangular Photo: © John Partridge. pillars between the columns supporting the roof of the temple. A horizontal replica telamon could be seen inside the temple ruins (Fig. 22). The large modern museum has a real telamon, a gallery of huge architectural elements from the Temple of Zeus and a comprehensive collection of artefacts from prehistoric to Roman Imperial times (Fig. 23).

On our way to Syracuse on day eight we stopped at Tellaro to view the Fig. 23. Agrigento Museum, terracotta antefix of Greek Fig. 19. Selinunte, Tanit mosaic. mosaics in the Villa Caddeddi. This is a river god Achelous, fifth century BC. Photo: © John Partridge. recently opened site, another not Photo: © John Partridge. 9 Fig. 24. Ransom of Hector. Photo: © Anthony Beeson.

Fig. 26. Piazza Armerina, mosaic with erotic scene, young women and Saturnalia masks. Photo: © John Partridge.

Fig. 25. Syracuse, amphitheatre. Photo: © John Partridge.

visited by conventional tour groups. Although this luxurious fourth-century AD establishment burned down at the end of that century, there remain some very fine mosaics. Most notable is that of a hunt scene depicting episodes seen in the Great and Little Hunt mosaics at Piazza Armerina. Also of note, and very unusual, is a mosaic of a scene from the Trojan War that is unknown in other sources. The central panel shows the body of Hector being weighed against Fig. 27. Piazza Armerina, Hercules mosaic, giants struck dead. Photo: © John Partridge. a pan of golden vessels for ransom largest known, had 67 rows of seats in The penultimate and last full day of the (Fig. 24). We continued to Syracuse, nine sections and accommodated tour took us first to another UNESCO founded by Greek settlers around 15,000 spectators. It was later adapted World Heritage Site – the famous Villa 734 BC. We began with a visit to the by the Romans. The Roman Romana del Casale at Piazza Paolo Orsi Regional Archaeological amphitheatre, partly carved from the Armerina, where we were met by our Museum, which houses a large rock, had been the victim of stone local guide Diana Mazza. The original collection of antiquities from the city robbing, despite which it still presents ownership and purpose of this early and the surrounding area covering the an impressive sight with parts of the fourth-century AD villa is disputed but time from prehistory to the end of the entrances visible as well as the it was an extensive and luxurious classical era. Next to the museum are rectangular cellar for stage machinery establishment at the centre of a great an odeon and a Roman temple with a in the centre of the arena (Fig. 25). The estate. Its collection of late-Roman spectacularly well-preserved cella. seventh or sixth century Temple of mosaics, mostly by North African After lunch we set off with our local Apollo was, in later centuries, adapted mosaicists, is considered to be the guide Eva Greco to see several to a Byzantine church and a mosque. largest and richest anywhere in the interesting sites. Pausing briefly at the We had seen a fine model of it in the world. Centred on a peristyle were Altar of Hieron (third century BC) we Paolo Orsi Regional Museum. Our day more than 50 public and private rooms, entered the archaeological park. An ended with a visit to the cathedral, including a large basilica or aula for ancient quarry was notable for the fact adapted in the seventh century AD from receptions, most with magnificent that the Greeks extricated the rocks the fifth-century BC Temple of Athena, mosaics, marbles and frescoes. Parts of from below, leaving great pillars to whose Doric columns can be seen it at least were in use up to the twelfth support what became a roof above incorporated into its outer walls and century, when it was covered by a them. The Greek theatre, one of the between the nave and aisles. landslide. Excavated in the early and 10 mid-twentieth century, the villa is now things, tiles, conduits and storage jars. covered by a protective building. The House of Ganymede, named We were granted special access to after a mosaic within it, dates from parts of the villa under the old cover the third century BC, and is now under buildings. From the extensive raised a protective building which makes it walkways we were able to admire the difficult to see and photograph. famous Great and Little Hunt mosaic, The House of the Greeting is named mosaics of mythical scenes, circus after the inlaid white polka-dot stones scenes, scenes of daily life and that form the Greek word EYEXEI – geometric patterns (Fig. 26). Perhaps 'Welcome'. A wall of another house the most outstanding mosaics were used in its construction what must be those of Bacchus and the labours of volume measures – large, medium Fig. 28. Morgantina, east stoa. Photo: © John Partridge. Hercules in the three-apsed triclinium, and small – from the macellum (Fig. 31). magnificent in their grandeur and We departed along a well-preserved artistry (Fig. 27). Such was the street with stone block paving. splendour that ended the first half of the day. Our final visits took place on the morning of day ten, in the evening of We then travelled to Morgantina. which we were to end our tour. Catania With a history going back to at least was a Greek colony founded about 459 BC, this town underwent various 730 BC by settlers from nearby Naxos. allegiances but was distinctly Hellenic Much of the city was buried under lava from the fifth century BC. It was from an eruption of Mount Etna in 1669 destroyed around 27 BC for siding with but the theatre and adjacent odeon Pompey in the Civil War. The fourth- survive. The theatre, constructed largely Fig. 29. Morgantina, ekklesiasterion. century BC theatre remained unaltered of volcanic rubble and concrete, though Photo: © John Partridge. in its plan throughout the town's with limestone seating, was probably history and could accommodate built about the beginning of the second 5,000 spectators. Three stoai (arcades) century AD and refurbished a century enclosed a probably two-storeyed later. Some of the vomitoria, steps and agora measuring 200m by 150m passages are well preserved (Fig. 32). (Fig. 28). Along the south side of the Part of the Cathedral of Catania, northern stoa was a gymnasium, and at dedicated to St Agatha, was rebuilt in its western end a bouleuterion, of which Baroque style after the earthquake of parts can still be seen. A second-century 1693, but the Norman eastern end has BC macellum (market) within the agora re-used Roman columns and capitals. was built around a peristyle with To one side of the cathedral and partly 13 shops on two sides, with a tholos – underneath it are the fifth to fourth Fig. 30. Morgantina, large kiln. Photo: © John Partridge. a small, round structure – inside it. century BC Terme Achilliane (Achillean A large trapezoidal staircase with about Baths). The part we visited comprised a 13 steps formed the ekklesiasterion – vault supported by four pillars with an assembly place for free citizens remains of paintings and stucco work over 20 years of age (Fig. 29). A raised surviving. A walk or bus ride took group tribunal enabled speakers to address members to the spectacular remains of the crowd. A Chthonic sanctuary the lava-built amphitheatre and our last dedicated to Demeter and Persephone site: the Terme della Rotunda, Roman was built around the fourth century BC. baths of the first to second century AD. Of particular interest was a large kiln Much of the structure of the baths was built against the old defensive walls, used when the church of St Mary was which had fallen out of use (Fig. 30). built, probably in the early Byzantine One of the largest known in the ancient era (Fig. 33). Fig. 31. Morgantina, reused volume measures. Photo: © John Partridge. world, it had furnaces at each end and was used for the firing of, among other So ended a tour that contributed enormously to a more thorough understanding of Sicily's place in the ancient and classical world.

Our thanks go to Anthony Beeson and Mike Stone for their work in preparing this tour and so ably conducting it, and to our good-humoured courier, Michele Lomas. She will be remembered for a remark she made during a conversation

with one of the local site guides: Fig. 33. Catania, Roman baths under St Mary's church. Fig. 32. Catania, theatre. Photo: © John Partridge. "They're not a normal group". Photo: © John Partridge. 11 Halstock Roman villa, Dorset – a lost floor of opus sectile by Bryn Walters

A large courtyard villa near Halstock, 16 miles north-west of Dorchester, was first excavated under the direction of Edward Large (1967–70); Ron Lucas excavated it from then on to its completion in 1985. The report was published as Dorset Monograph 13 (Lucas, RN, 1993). The villa was of considerable interest as it contained two almost identical wing-fronted residential buildings side by side, with a very large suite of baths attached to one of them. The baths' large frigidarium had been laid with a very elaborate geometric mosaic, originally identified around 1901, along with a second mosaic depicting an image of Medusa. Unfortunately, no trace of the Fig. 1. Mosaic border, Cherhill, Wiltshire. Showing alignment of dissolved tesserae. Medusa mosaic was discovered during the excavations; Photo: © Bryn Walters. apparently it was completely destroyed in the intervening years (Neal, D and Cosh, S, 2006).

In 1979, during the early stages of the excavations and consolidation of the Roman villa at Littlecote Park in the parish of Ramsbury, Wiltshire, I contacted Ron Lucas. I asked him whether there were any discarded limestone mosaic tesserae on his site, superfluous to archive requirements and which might be useful in the proposed restoration of the triconch Orpheus mosaic at Littlecote. He had a tesserae

dump at the side of the field where the excavations were Fig. 2. Opus sectile floor, Salamis, Cyprus. Photo: © Nich Hogben. taking place; consequently, I visited the site. exceptional, and I separated them for comparison against When I arrived, I was shown a stack of assorted tesserae lying the regular cut tesserae in the collection. What specifically in a heap of decaying plastic sacks. These were gathered up interested me was that many of the pieces were too thin in and placed into storage tubs for transfer to Littlecote. cross section when compared to the surface area, appearing After they had been cleaned, the stones were found to contain more like small tiles than regular tesserae, including some large and unusual shapes. They were unsuitable for the exceptionally large examples. In the late 1960s I participated restoration, and the stones were put into storage as a future in the excavations at the complex of Roman buildings at Great source of material. The eventual restoration of the Orpheus Witcombe in Gloucestershire, and when working in the mosaic was completed using modern terracotta to distinguish central courtyard I recovered a great many of the small between the original antique areas and the restored sections. opus sectile tiles which had once formed the flooring of the The Halstock material was virtually forgotten. elaborate octagonal room and forward porticus at the centre of the complex. It was the memory of the Witcombe pieces In 2009, while I was dismantling the Littlecote archive stores that stimulated me to make a more detailed examination of for rehousing, the Halstock tesserae reached the light of the Halstock material. day once more. I spread out the material and could see it contained a substantial quantity of specifically cut stones, Floors of opus sectile are extremely rare in the buildings of inappropriate for normal tessellated flooring; these Roman Britain, and the central octagon at Great Witcombe is warranted closer examination. It is quite common to find a singular exception. A fragment of it was still in situ when misshaped tesserae in mosaic and tessellated floors, ones Samuel Lysons uncovered the room in 1819 and he which have not been cut to a regular cube-like form. However, fortunately made a pencil drawing of it which is preserved the unusual quantity and diversity of shapes and sizes present in the archives of the Society of Antiquaries in London. This in what was a relatively modest assemblage appeared drawing has been the source of the design for the computer graphic restoration of the Witcombe floors by David Rider, as part of the architectural re-assessment of the site he has recently undertaken with the writer (Rider and Walters, forthcoming). Two of the houses at Silchester (House 1 in insula xxiii and House 2 in insula xxiv) had entrance vestibules floored with similar simple tile designs (Neal and Cosh, 2009). Similar pieces to those at Halstock were also recovered in minor examinations carried out on the Banwell villa in Somerset by Dr David Tomalin. First-century examples of such material were discovered at the Neronian proto-palace at Fishbourne, though not found in situ, being recovered as residual and discarded red, blue, white, grey and yellow tiles, very similar to material in floors widespread in Italy and Fig. 3. Left: Possible composition of tiles based on a design from Amathus Cyprus. Right: Flooring in a Christian basilica in Amathus, Cyprus. southern Gaul. This showed that opus sectile had been laid Photos: left, © Bryn Walters; right, © Ken Holt. at Fishbourne in the first century (Cunliffe 1971; 1998). 12 Consequently, the evidence suggests there was an area of Cunliffe, BW, 1998, Fishbourne Roman Palace (second edition), opus sectile present in one of the two adjacent houses at Stroud. Halstock. The stones consist in the main of blue/grey Somerset limestone, which over time has become patinated Lucas, RN, 1993, The Romano-British villa at Halstock, Dorset. with a calcareous surface. There is a lesser quantity of Excavations 1967–1985, Dorset Natural History and reworked terracotta which displays a distinctive diamond Archaeological Society Monograph 13, Dorchester. shape, which could of course be simply ill-cut tesserae. There was also a small number of triangular pieces in hard chalk, Neal, DS and Cosh, SR, 2009, Roman Mosaics of Britain, Vol III: which again could have originated from a standard mosaic. South-East Britain, Part I, Society of Antiquaries of London. It has frequently been observed that softer grades of chalk, used as tesserae, can dissolve through time; this has been Rider, D and Walters, B, forthcoming, The Roman building identified by hollow alignments in surviving mosaic borders at Great Witcombe, Gloucestershire. An architectural and and tessellated floors during excavations. I identified such functional review, in Roman villas in Britain, a retrospective, alignments in the borders of the Durnovarian mosaic ed. M Henig and G Soffe. Oxbow Books. I excavated in 1984 at Cherhill near Calne, Wiltshire (Fig. 1). I suspect there may have been a larger amount of inferior Walters, B, 2011, A Probable Opus Sectile Pavement from chalk pieces in the original floor at Halstock, which over time the Halstock Villa in Dorset. Britannia Vol 42, pp315–18. disintegrated. If this occurred during the lifetime of the floor, The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. it may have been the reason for its removal and replacement. There might originally have been a geometric tiled floor at Halstock made principally of blue/grey limestone, highlighted with pieces in red terracotta and white chalk. A truly fine example of this type of floor is depicted in the baths of the Kampanopetra basilica at Salamis in Cyprus (Fig. 2) (see ARA News 22, 2009, p17).

During this research I have put together a small selection of the Halstock pieces, as examples of what could have been created: one modelled on an opus sectile floor in the Christian basilica at Amathus in Cyprus (Fig. 3) (see ARA News 22, 2009, p5), and another of random pieces conjoined as a speculative border pattern (Fig. 4). Such a border may have surrounded Fig. 4. Suggested border pattern. Photo: © Bryn Walters. Halstock's lost Medusa mosaic; a chequered black and red tile border surrounds the Medusa mosaic in the baths at the Roman villa in Bignor, West Sussex.

The larger pieces have a variety of forms and sizes (Fig. 5). These include regular triangles, elongated triangles, truncated right-angled triangles, wedge-shaped lozenge forms and a large number of probable diamond shapes. A large selection of 'border' sticks was also present, and a few larger square and rectangular tiles not dissimilar to those recovered from Great Witcombe.

The Halstock assemblage raises questions. How many other examples of opus sectile floors have been lost during refurbishment of buildings in the Roman period? Also, have tiles found as residual detritus in archaeological excavations Fig. 5. Principal limestone forms. Photo: © Bryn Walters. of Roman sites in Britain been misidentified and discarded as unusual loose tesserae and not recorded for what they originally were? The latter appears to have been the case at the Halstock villa. The collection (Fig. 6) has been deposited with the Halstock archive at the Dorchester County Museum.

This paper is an extended version of a 'note' published in Britannia (Walters, 2011).

Bibliography Cosh, S and Neal, D, 2006, Roman Mosaics of Britain, Vol II: South-West Britain, Society of the Antiquaries of London.

Cunliffe, BW, 1971, Excavations at Fishbourne 1961–1969, Vol 2: The Finds, Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London 27, London. Fig. 6. Complete collection. Photo: © Bryn Walters. 13 A Tale of Three Emperors: Images of Roman defeat in Sasanian Iran by Ian Heritage

This essay was inspired by a tour of Iran chronology for when each which I undertook in April/May 2010. of these reliefs was created, This was a fascinating and unique so those that contain all the opportunity for me to visit a country elements of the formulaic often considered inaccessible by scene will be discussed first, western travellers and archaeologists, followed by those that their perceptions influenced by Iran's contain only partial place in international politics. It is an elements. Lastly will be impressive and varied country. The discussed some later reliefs Iranian people are warm, friendly, that show Roman defeats hospitable and genuinely interested by Sapur's successors. in western travellers. In terms of archaeology I was captivated and Historical background fascinated by the beautiful Islamic The Sasanians emerged mosques and gardens of Shiraz and during the early third Isfahan, the ancient Achaemenid sites century AD as the local Fig. 1. Map showing the sites. © Ian Heritage. at Persepolis, Pasargadae, Susa and leaders in what is now the Bisotun, as well as the cosmopolitan Iranian province of Fars. Their influence Sapur I (AD 240–272, son of Ardashir I) bustle of modern-day Tehran. grew and in AD 224 the last Parthian Beginning in AD 244, when he defeated king was defeated by the first Sasanian the young Roman emperor Gordian III Within the territories of the former ruler Ardashir I. At its greatest extent, at Misik in modern Iraq, Sapur I won a Roman Empire one sees images of the Sasanian Empire extended from number of prestigious military and Rome commemorating the defeats of eastern Syria to the Indus and from diplomatic victories over Rome. The its enemies and the subjugation of Georgia to the Persian Gulf and fourth-century Roman source, the conquered kingdoms. Only in countries eventually even to the Yemen. It Historia Augusta, states that Gordian never occupied by the Romans do we collapsed in the mid-seventh century was murdered shortly after his defeat, discover their enemies' perceptions of when the Arabs overran Mesopotamia. as a result of intrigue by his Praetorian them. In Fars Province in south-west Iran The Sasanians considered themselves prefect and successor Philip the Arab I was particularly intrigued by a series of to be the rightful spiritual successors (Historia Augusta (a) 29–30). Sasanian monumental stone reliefs and of the great Achaemenid dynasty of Immediately following his accession, inscriptions. These were commissioned the sixth to fourth centuries BC. The Philip was forced to approach Sapur on by Sasanian rulers to commemorate Sasanian period saw a renaissance in Persian territory to sue for peace, to their victories over Rome and assert Persian art, culture, architecture and arrange tributary payment and to their right to rule. Several of the reliefs mathematics; it was during this time negotiate the return of prisoners by relate to the third-century Sasanian ruler that the dome and the vault, the paying a ransom of 500,000 denarii. Sapur I and use a formulaic composition archetypal features of later Islamic Philip's capitulation was considered to to express his differing relationships architecture, were first developed by be dishonourable by the Romans and with the three Roman emperors whom them. Contrastingly, Rome was at a the victory at Misik was a huge he defeated: Gordian III, Philip the Arab low point in its history following the propaganda coup for Sapur. In and Valerian. Elsewhere in the Fars murder of Alexander Severus in AD 235. celebration, he renamed Misik, Peroz- Province, major building works, A succession of ill-chosen and short- Sapur ('Victorious is Sapur') (Dignas & including the city of Bisapur and an lived emperors caused instability within Winter, 2007, p119). Sapur pressed home extensive series of bridges and dams at and hostile incursions along its borders: his advantage and went on to conquer Shushtar, were undertaken by Sapur not only from a newly resurgent Persia Armenia in AD 252 and then advance with Roman prisoners of war but these but also from Alamanni and Goths on into Mesopotamia, Syria and Antioch. are not discussed here. the Rhine and Danube. The Romans suffered further Scope Ardashir I (AD 224–240) humiliation in AD 260 when the After providing their historical context Soon after his succession, Ardashir I Sasanians were besieging the towns this article describes and discusses the invaded Mesopotamia and Syria, of Carrhae and Edessa. The Roman carved stone inscription at Naqsh-i demanding that Rome return the emperor Valerian advanced with what Rustam and monumental reliefs at Achaemenid territories lost during was reported to be an army of 70,000 Bisapur, Naqsh-i Rustam and Darabgird Parthian rule. The period which men but was defeated at Edessa and (Fig. 1).1 These celebrate Sasanian followed, until the Roman defeat at captured along with his senior officials victories over Roman armies and reveal Samarra in AD 363, was one of and 60,000 men. This was the largest much about the attitudes of the heightened aggression and acquisitive number of prisoners ever absorbed by Sasanians to their arch-rivals and to our hostilities between Persia and Rome, Persia. Valerian was deported to the Fars understanding of this ill-fated period in with both disputing possession of Asia region, most probably to Bisapur, where Roman history. There is no definitive Minor, Armenia, Mesopotamia and Syria. it is assumed that he died in captivity. 14 Fig. 3. Naqsh-i Rustam. Photo: © Ian Heritage.

Fig. 2. The Chogan Gorge near Bisapur. Photo: © Ian Heritage. The remains of Valerian's army were are eight over-sized Sasanian rock reliefs. resettled in cities throughout Assyria, Carved much later than the tombs, these Susiana, Persia and elsewhere (Dignas reliefs commemorate the investitures & Winter, 2007, pp80–81). and victories of Ardashir I, Sapur I, Bahram II, Narseh I (293–302), Hormuzd II The reliefs which Sapur commissioned (302–309) and Sapur II. By associating to celebrate and commemorate these these reliefs with Achaemenid victories were located at two sites of monuments, the Sasanians identified great significance for the Sasanians. themselves with and proclaimed The first, the Chogan Gorge, formed the themselves to be the rightful dynastic approach to Sapur's triumphal city of successors of the ancient dynasty. One Bisapur, built by Roman prisoners of war of the reliefs relates to Sapur I's Roman to commemorate his victory at Edessa. victories and two others may depict The second was Naqsh-i Rustam, the victories over Rome by his successors. royal necropolis of the Achaemenid kings. Not only were these two sites The inscription: Res gestae divi of great historical significance for the Saporis

Sasanians but they also lay on major In addition to the reliefs there is an Fig. 4. The Kab'a-i Zardasi tower, Naqsh-i Rustam. routes, where proclamations of important Sasanian trilingual Photo: © Ian Heritage. Sasanian supremacy were seen by all, inscription at Naqsh-i Rustam, inscribed from the local populace to visiting on the lower outer walls of a small this is the only contemporary source envoys and traders from beyond the Achaemenid stone tower located for Sapur I's campaigns against Rome. borders of Iran. directly in front of the cliff face (the Its importance is such that it has Kab'a-i Zardasi – "Cube of Zarathustra") become known as the Res gestae divi The Chogan Gorge cuts a dramatic cleft (Fig. 4). The text was probably Saporis2 (the RGDS) (ibid, p56). in the Zagros mountains, an austere but composed by Sapur I himself and impressive outcrop of rock extending inscribed after his death by his son The presentation of events in the RGDS 1,500km diagonally from the Turkish Hormuzd I (272–273) (Dignas & Winter, differs from Roman sources in ways that border in the north-west, to the Persian 2007, pp56–57). The inscription is in are unsurprising. It states that Gordian III Gulf in the south-east (Fig. 2). The Gorge Middle Persian, the language of the began an offensive immediately after itself lies south of modern Faliyan, on Sasanians, with separate translations Sapur I's succession, while Roman the ancient road which originally linked in Parthian and Greek. This inscription sources state that Sasanian incursions the Sasanian capital of Istakhr, near was not revealed until the 1930s and into Roman territory provoked a Roman Persepolis, to Ctesiphon, in modern Iraq. describes Sapur I's perception of counter-attack (Historia Augusta (a) Here, Sapur I and his successors Bahram I himself, his political goals and the 26:3–6). The RGDS fails to mention (273–276), Bahram II (276–293) and composition and religion of the Gordian's earlier victories over Sapur I. Sapur II (309–379) carved a total of six Sasanian state. Most importantly, For the battle at Misik it states: rock reliefs, three of which relate to a third of it provides detailed accounts "… and a great frontal attack took Sapur I's victories over the Romans. of his campaigns and conflicts with place along the borders of Asurestan Rome, although in common with its – in Misik. And the emperor Gordian Naqsh-i Rustam is an impressive rock counterparts in the Historia Augusta, was killed and we destroyed the escarpment near Persepolis (Fig. 3). it omits references to Sasanian defeats. Roman army: and the Romans It is notable for the four large cruciform The inclusion of Parthian and Greek proclaimed Philip emperor." tombs cut into its face, which are translations, the languages of Sapur I's (quoted in Dignas & Winter, 2007, p77). believed to be those of the Achaemenid most significant conquered regimes, kings: Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I and is therefore significant: language here The inscription links Gordian's death Xerxes I. Also present here and typically is a symbol of Sasanian dominance in with the battle without explicitly stating placed beneath or alongside the tombs addition to communication. Crucially, that he died on the battlefield or of 15 Fig. 5. Bisapur 2, central vignette. Photo: © Ian Heritage. Fig. 6. Bisapur 2. Photo: © Ian Heritage.

wounds afterwards. Contrastingly, territories of Iran and confirming his "with our own hands" is itself a the Roman account fails to mention title, explicitly stated in the RGDS, as formulaic phrase that originated with their defeat and asserts that Philip "King of Kings of Iran and Non Iran" the Assyrians, meaning to take personal treacherously intrigued for Gordian's (Canepa, 2009, p54). credit for a deed (Ball, 2000, p120). It is murder. Possibly the ambiguity of the reasonable, therefore, to presume that RGDS allowed Sapur to claim credit for Bisapur 2 the depiction in the reliefs is a literal Gordian's death without actually This well-preserved relief3 is located on representation of this and that the falsifying what really happened. The the south-western side of the Chogan standing figure is Valerian. inscription was composed within thirty Gorge, away from the main sequence years of the events of AD 244 and it of Sasanian reliefs on the south-eastern The prostrate figure is unlikely to be would have harmed Sapur's credibility side (Figs. 5 and 6). In front of Sapur an anonymous Roman. Sasanian to have published a blatantly false hovers a small winged figure, a cherub iconography elsewhere typically only account. The RGDS goes on to describe or putto, carrying the ring of power portrays rulers and gods trampling Valerian's defeat at Edessa. It (cydaris) and the diadem of rule. The somebody of equivalent but opposite emphasises the large size of Valerian's three submissive figures have been rank (Ball, 2000, pp118–119) and like army and the capture of Valerian, his allowed to retain their weapons and the other two Romans this figure praetorian prefect, senators and insignia of office. Surrounding this appears to be wearing a head wreath. officials, presumably to further glorify central panel are two panels on the left The youthful and beardless features the extent of Sapur's victory (quoted in showing the Sasanian retinue and five resemble coin portraits of Gordian III, Dignas & Winter, 2007, p80). panels on the right showing at least who was only 19 when he was killed four subject peoples, none of them (see MacDermot, 1954, p79). Reliefs showing three emperors apparently Roman (and a blank panel The stone reliefs described here almost on the upper right may have been The suppliant figure is posed in a certainly depict the events described intended for more). manner consistent with the humiliated in the RGDS. In this sense they provide status of Philip the Arab, who was a visual accompaniment to the The standing Roman just behind Sapur compelled to make terms with Sapur I. inscription. Most of them show a has his grasped wrist covered by his The short-cropped hair and beard is formulaic scene involving Sapur I sleeve in order not to pollute the King similar to his numismatic portrayals and and three Roman imperial figures, of Kings. Since the beginning of the also to a marble bust now in the Vatican identified by their attire. nineteenth century it had been (see MacDermot, 1954, plate V). thought that the standing figure was Sapur is on horseback and is clearly either Philip the Arab or Cyriades (an The close resemblance between the identified by his crown (distinct in Antiochene who led Sapur to Antioch figures postulated to be Gordian and design from those of other Sasanian and was rewarded by being proclaimed Philip and their numismatic portraits rulers). Each of the Roman figures the new Roman emperor). MacDermot is not unlikely. The artists and stone- adopts a distinctive pose: has argued convincingly against the masons involved might never have seen i) a prostrate figure lies beneath the standing figure being Cyriades.4 In each the real emperors and would likely have hooves of the victor's horse; relief Sapur is shown very deliberately copied coin portraits. The resemblance ii) a supplicant figure kneels before placing a hand on the standing figure between the standing figure and the victor; and except in the Darabgird relief he is Valerian coin portraits is less convincing. iii) a standing Roman has his hand or always grasping the hand or wrist. The face of the figure is quite crudely wrist securely clasped by Sapur. This may be a literal representation of executed, although it appears to be Sapur's own reference in the RGDS. beardless as on the Valerian coins and This central vignette lies within a wider "And on the other side of Carrhae also reproduces his thick neck. scene, with Sapur's retinue and subjects and Edessa we fought a great battle on the left and with captured armies with Valerian, and we captured the Bisapur 3 and subjects of client kingdoms on the emperor Valerian with our own This is the first of a series of four right. Here Sapur is at the centre of an hands…" Sasanian reliefs along the north-eastern ordered world, extending beyond the (quoted in Dignas & Winter, 2007, p80) side of the Chogan Gorge (Figs. 7 and 8). 16 Fig. 8. Bisapur 3, central vignette. Photo: © Ian Heritage.

unchained and have been allowed to retain their weapons and chariots. The dignified depiction of the Romans suggests that it may even have been carved by captured Roman craftsmen (Ball, 2000, p121). Herrmann, however, has dismissed any similarity to the Column of Trajan. While agreeing that the fluid and naturalistic style of the

Fig. 7. Bisapur 3. Photo: © Ian Heritage. figures suggests Roman craftsmanship, she points out that the Column of Trajan It is extremely weathered and was of a type that may be recognised as has a single spiralling register telling a further damaged when a stone imperial by comparison with those on continuous narrative, which is plainly aqueduct was constructed along the the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki and not the case at Bisapur 3. Rather, the gorge. Although the aqueduct was the Arch of Constantine in Rome repeating registers, the grouping of removed during the 1970s a deep (Canepa, 2000, pp72–73). different figures, the concept of groove remains, with associated water harmonious order and the design, damage, along the bottom of the relief. Bisapur 3 is reminiscent of Roman reliefs number and size of the figures, may that depict full Roman triumphs, and have more in common with the much The crown of the mounted figure Ball remarks on its similarity to the earlier Achaemenid 'tribute bearer' identifies it as Sapur I. The winged figure Column of Trajan in Rome. He also reliefs at nearby Persepolis (Herrmann, carrying the ring and diadem is also remarks on the absence of violence and 1969, p82). However, this style of present as in Bisapur 2. The Roman seemingly implicit magnanimity in the presentation was undoubtedly used on figures are too badly damaged to reveal scene. In contrast to those depicted in Roman triumphal arches, for example details but the striking similarities with Roman triumphs, the prisoners here are the panels on the Arch of Galerius. those of Bisapur 2 allow reliable identification. The standing and suppliant figures appear to have been allowed to retain their swords. The composition is not typical of Sasanian reliefs in that it is divided into five narrow horizontal registers. Beyond the central scene are long repeating rows of figures, showing the Sasanian retinue on the left and the subject peoples on the right. In contrast to the prominence of the Roman emperors in the central panel, the Roman retinue only occupies a limited space in the two lower right panels. The upper right registers are occupied by figures in leggings, probably Kusans, who bring extravagant tributes including an Indian elephant, wild cats on leashes and a riderless but richly harnessed horse. Contrastingly, the Roman tributes are more modest and less elaborately detailed (Fig. 9). In addition to a figure carrying a vexillum, the Romans are leading a riderless carriage, Fig. 9. Bisapur 3, detail showing the Roman retinue. Photo: © Ian Heritage. 17 Fig. 11. Darabgird relief, detail showing Roman heads. Photo reproduced by kind permission of Dr Touraj Daryaee, The Sasanika Project, University of California, Irvine.

defeated enemy. He is wearing a diadem, a sword and appears to have leggings. The standing figure, an old man, is in the background. He is raising his arm in an unidentified gesture, while the king's hand is resting on his head rather than his hand or wrist. The standing figure is wearing a diadem Fig. 10. Darabgird relief. Photo reproduced by kind permission of Dr Touraj Daryaee, The Sasanika Project, University of California, Irvine. and his downturned mouth suggests dejection. Herrmann is of the opinion Darabgird The relief shows a Sasanian ruler on that its face is quite different from the Near Darabgird, there is another relief horseback, with his retainers in coin portraits of Valerian and is more showing a similar scene to those at Phrygian hats behind him on the left eastern than western in physiognomy Bisapur 2 and 3 (Figs. 10 and 11). Until and a crowd of heads, presumably (Herrmann, 1969, p86). The prostrate recently a large pool lay immediately in Roman, on the right. Other details figure is lying behind the horse's hooves front of the cliff face on which the relief though differ from Bisapur 2 and 3. and is wearing a wreath. He may have is carved, so previously it could only be The mounted figure is not wearing a bare legs in the Roman fashion but this observed either from a distance or personal crown but a skullcap is uncertain. There also seems to be an obliquely from the side.5 Antiquarians surmounted by a korymbos (a large ball additional figure intruding from the right, in the early nineteenth century or bun of hair favoured by the Sasanian who is leading a donkey or small horse unhesitatingly identified the figures kings), in a style more suggestive of and does not appear in the other reliefs. in the relief as being Sapur I, Gordian, Ardashir I. The figure assumed to be the Philip and Valerian. Oblique suppliant is not kneeling but stepping The symmetry in the composition of photographs were published in 1936 forwards, perhaps to take an object the scene is consistent with the style but it was not until 1969 that Herrmann from the king's right hand. In doing this, favoured by Ardashir I but abandoned undertook a detailed analysis of the he is actually standing upon the arm of by Sapur I at an early stage. This relief relief and questioned its subject matter the prostrate figure, suggesting that he therefore is likely to be of the period (Herrmann, 1969). is one of the victors rather than a AD 230–246 (Herrmann, 1969, pp83–84). Herrmann comprehensively argues further that there are many other points of style that are consistent with other reliefs known to be by Ardashir I. These include depictions of clothing, details of the horse's bit and bridle and the position of the prostrate figure behind the horse's hooves and not beneath them. There is actually nothing about the two standing figures which

Fig. 13. Bisapur 1, detail showing the suppliant figure and the head of the prostrate figure. Fig. 12. Bisapur 1. Photo: © Ian Heritage. Photo: © Ian Heritage. 18 conclusively identifies them as Roman, although Herrmann is of the opinion that the dejected faces on the right are 'unmistakable caricatures of Roman soldiery' (ibid, p86). Ardashir had several victories over the Romans but it is not clear which particular event is portrayed here. Matheson suggests, without much conviction, that the relief may depict defeats of Severus Alexander and/or Maximus Thrace (Matheson, 2001, p142).

Reliefs showing two emperors Two more reliefs depict similar scenes to those discussed above but only show two rather than three defeated Roman emperors, with neither relief showing the same two individuals.

Bisapur 1 This relief is located on the south-west side of the Chogan Gorge, at a distance from the main sequences of reliefs (Figs. 12 and 13). It is very badly damaged along its upper half but enough details are discernible to allow Fig. 14. Naqsh-i Rustam: double register equestrian relief. Photo: © Ian Heritage. its original composition to be deduced and imagery, if not the style, of a relief death and the event may have lost its for comparison with other reliefs. Here, which Ardashir his father had carved at significance after Sapur's own demise two horsemen face each other: on the Naqsh-i Rustam, in which a mounted (MacDermot, 1954, p80). The postulated left, the supreme god Ahuramazda Ardashir tramples the last Arsacid king late date of this relief becomes even hands over the symbol of power, the Artabanus IV, while facing him the more plausible when considering its cydaris ring, to Sapur I on the right. mounted god Ahuramazda tramples position in relation to the tomb of Ahuramazda's horse tramples upon the Ahriman. None of the other reliefs Darius I. It is placed below and to the embodiment of evil, the god Ahriman, discussed above shows this supernatural left of the tomb, while another relief, while Sapur's horse tramples upon a element (Canepa, 2009, pp58–64). probably relating to the later ruler prostrate figure, presumably Gordian. Bahram II, is positioned centrally and In the centre a suppliant figure, Naqsh-i Rustam directly below the tomb. Surely the presumably Philip, kneels before Sapur. This well-preserved relief (see cover relief showing Sapur I would have image) is located directly below and occupied this central position if it had Here the suppliant figure is kneeling to the left of what is conjectured to be been the first to be carved. with his right leg forwards, his shin fully Darius I's tomb. Sapur appears on on the ground and with his left leg horseback, while behind him are the Other reliefs splayed out behind him. He appears to head and shoulders of Kartir, his High Sapur's monumental commemorations be grasping the legs of Sapur's horse. Priest. Sapur's outstretched right hand of his victories over the Romans were This very naturalistic pose is in contrast grasps the raised hand of a figure in considerable, not only in his prominent to the more formal composition of the Roman dress standing in the stone reliefs but also in his cities and other reliefs. Although no features can background. In the foreground, a public works created by the labour of be made out on the damaged face, the half‑kneeling Roman stretches out his Roman prisoners. After Sapur's reign, figure is clad in Roman imperial hand in supplication. The short-cropped explicit portrayals of triumph over costume, with traces of a laurel crown, hair and beard of the suppliant figure is Rome did not feature as prominently in a cloak with a fibula (brooch) and a consistent with the numismatic likeness the art of his successors, even though baldric with a pommel-headed sword. of Philip and the relief at Bisapur 2. the Sasanians continued to win notable victories. Possibly this was an indication This is likely to be the earliest of the This relief differs from the others because of changing concerns and reliefs discussed here because it alone the prostrate figure of Gordian III is circumstances within the Sasanian lacks the standing figure of Valerian, absent, even though his death was the dynasty (Canepa, 2009, p78). Two reliefs adding weight to the assertion that the earliest event in the series. No conclusive at Naqsh-i Rustam appear to depict suppliant figure is indeed Philip and not reason for this has been established, conflicts with Rome although these are Valerian. The primary focus of the relief is although MacDermot notes that the less prominent and less explicit about Sapur's investiture, only two years before location and style of this relief are also the incidents portrayed. the events at Misik. Sapur is unlikely to very different from the others. The relief have still been commemorating this may even have been produced at a A relief located immediately below the event sixteen years later and just after much later date than the others, after tomb of Darius I is divided into two his victory at Edessa. The relief also Sapur's death. Sapur himself never registers, both showing equestrian employs the symmetrical composition claimed direct credit for Gordian's scenes (Fig. 14). In the upper segment, 19 a king accompanied by a standard bearer (no longer well-defined) is using a lance to force his opponent, possibly a Roman, from his horse. In the lower register, the king is again battling a mounted, possibly Roman figure. Both registers depict a dead enemy under the hooves of the king's horse. Matheson suggests that the upper register shows either Bahram II or Sapur II whilst the lower register shows Hormuzd II (Matheson, 2001, p122). Information at the site suggests that both registers depict Bahram II.

A second relief immediately below what Fig. 15. Naqsh-i Rustam: single equestrian relief. Photo: © Ian Heritage. is conjectured to be the tomb of Darius II (Fig. 15) shows an equestrian scene with not a literal representation of actual relief retain their weapons and appear a mounted Sasanian king accompanied events. In Bisapur 2 and 3 and perhaps to be treated with dignity. by a standard bearer. The king is at Darabgird, the vignette showing fighting a figure which appears to be Sapur with these symbolic appendages The notion that Sapur I granted dignity wearing a Roman cavalry helmet. The is made all the more powerful by it to his Roman captives is suggested by Roman is plainly about to be defeated being placed at the centre of an ordered the leeway he appears to have allowed because his horse is rearing and his world, surrounded by subject peoples them in the construction of the nearby pilum is broken. The king's crown is no extending beyond the territories of Iran. city of Bisapur. The layout, design and longer sufficiently distinct enough for It confirms Sapur's role as the King of decoration are strongly suggestive of clear identification but Matheson Kings of Iran and Non Iran. The reliefs Roman cities. This liberal approach suggests it to be either Hormuzd II or that show only two emperors do not seems to have ensured a peaceful Bahram IV (388–399) (Matheson, 2001, include this wider group. It is likely that captivity; Dignas and Winter (2007, pp121–122). Information at the site this is because Bisapur 1 was created p256) note that there are no accounts states that it could be Sapur II. early in Sapur's reign, when he had not of any subsequent confrontations at yet secured sufficient conquests to Bisapur between the new Roman A further relief at Taq-i Bustan, a separate warrant this. The relief at Naqsh-i settlers and the local indigenous site displaying reliefs commemorating Rustam was probably created after inhabitants. If that was the case then it much later Sasanian rulers, has been Sapur's death, when he was still appears to argue against some Roman considered by some to depict the remembered and honoured but with a sources, which suggest that Valerian at defeat of the Roman emperor Julian successor now occupying this central best died in humiliating slavery and at the Apostate (see, for example, Dignas position in the world. worst was tortured and used by Sapur & Winter, 2007, pp92–93 and Canepa, as his footstool when mounting his 2009, pp108–109). The present author, The Sasanian representation of events in horse, after death his body being however, thinks that this relief, despite the reliefs and in the RGDS differs in key flayed and put on public display.6 its late date, is more likely to be a link ways from those described in Roman with and a reminder of the early origins sources. The Sasanian version suggests The interpretation of the reliefs, in terms of the Sasanian dynasty and actually that Gordian was not ignominiously of what they can say about the depicts the Sasanian victory over the murdered by his successor but died Sasanians' attitude to these Roman last Parthian king Artabanus IV. on the battlefield – a more noble death emperors, is highly subjective. Although Therefore, for reasons of space and with which Sapur, as the protector of Valerian is standing in the reliefs in which relevance it is not discussed here. his kingdom, would wish to be directly he appears, suggesting that he has a linked. The relief at Naqsh-i Rustam, higher status than the kneeling Philip, Discussion which does not show Gordian's corpse, his figure is actually the less conspicuous In the Sapur I reliefs, the three Roman suggests that Sapur's claim had lost its of the two. He is always shown standing emperors each appear to play a significance for later generations. behind Sapur or in the background symbolic role which confirms Sapur's Valerian's depiction as the standing behind Philip, although this may simply right to rule. The death of Gordian III figure may suggest that although Sapur be because of the compositional was a monumental victory for Sapur, held him as a captive trophy he was still problems of trying to make all four as a worthy successor to his father's seen as equal in terms of kingship, unlike figures visible in one compact scene. victories. The suppliant Philip the Arab the suppliant Philip who capitulated in Philip also fares better in terms of shows submission of Iran's enemies to defeat. In reality Philip had no alternative depictions of his facial likeness. In the the King of Kings. The standing Valerian, but to agree terms quickly and so obtain reliefs which are sufficiently undamaged with his wrist firmly held by the victor, closure on his predecessor's defeat, to discern faces, the sculptors have taken shows Sapur's prowess on the in order to return quickly to Rome to pains to show Philip's beard and short battlefield and his magnanimity in establish and consolidate his succession hair, contrasting markedly with Valerian's allowing the captured emperor to live. as emperor. The Sasanian reliefs, however, undistinguished features. Again, this These three events spanned sixteen portray this as craven submission could be simply because Philip's years and their inclusion in one scene is although the Roman prisoners in the bearded features lend themselves more 20 to the Sasanian style of portraiture. Acknowledgements The Sasanika Project, based at the Valerian's numismatic portraits show With grateful thanks to Professor University of California, Irvine, is him to be beardless and thus more Eberhard Sauer of the University of devoted to promoting studies into the difficult to distinguish in carvings (see Edinburgh for his valuable suggestions history and culture of the Sasanians. MacDermot, 1954, p79). Maybe our and comments; to Professor Touraj Its website exists as a comprehensive assumption that he must be the more Daryaee of the Sasanika Project, based database of academic papers, important figure is only a Roman at the University of California, Irvine, for photographs and news of recent perspective. The Romans would have allowing me to use the photograph of research: http://www.humanities.uci. seen the capture of a Roman emperor the Darabgird relief; and to my parents edu/sasanika/ in battle as more acceptable than the Jean and John Heritage for their help humiliating submission of a discredited in turning my efforts into a readable Notes one. Contrastingly, the Sasanians may and literate piece of work. 1 Darabgird was not visited by the author have seen Valerian's capture as simply but is discussed here. due to the fortunes of war, whereas 2 An analogy to the Res gestae divi Augusti, Philip's voluntary submission was a References the autobiographical inscription of the much more telling recognition of Ball, W, 2000. Rome in the East: The emperor Augustus. Sasanian superiority (ibid, pp79–80). Transformation of an Empire. London, 3 The reliefs from Bisapur discussed here Routledge, ISBN 978-0415113762. are numbered according to a generally There seems to be general agreement accepted numbering of all the Sasanian that the creation of these reliefs received Canepa, M, 2009. The Two Eyes of the reliefs at the site. The numbers here are therefore not consecutive. some level of influence from Roman Earth: Art and Ritual between Rome and 4 artisans, accidentally, formally and Sasanian Iran. University of California, Cyriades, sometimes referred to as Mareades, was an obscure citizen of technically, as seen especially in Bisapur ISBN 978-0520257276. Antioch who, according to the Historia 3. Herrmann states that the presence of Augusta, was raised to the status of the small winged cherubs in Bisapur 2 Curtis, J, 2011. Ancient Persia. London, the Roman emperor by Sapur after and 3 is an entirely western classical British Museum Press, ISBN 978- the defeat of Valerian and after he led feature that had not been seen before 0714121802. the Sasanian ruler to Antioch. With (Herrmann, 1969, p80). This is debatable this interpretation, the reliefs under as this feature may have derived from Dignas, B and Winter, E, 2007. Rome & discussion would show Sapur replacing Hellenistic stylistic influences present in Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and the western Roman emperor by a Persia since Alexander the Great. Large- Rivals. Cambridge University, nominee of his own choosing. However, there is no mention of Cyriades in the scale detention of captured Romans ISBN 978-0521614078. RGDS and no numismatic evidence created the means for the transfer of of a reign of Cyriades. Other sources both labour and ideas. Canepa suggests Gibbon, E, 1776. Decline and Fall of the suggest that Cyriades was soon put to that this may not have been entirely Roman Empire, vol 1, 1910. London, death by Sapur, probably at the time accidental or arbitrary. The importation Everyman's Library edition. of the first Sasanian capture of Antioch of Roman styles may be seen as war c.AD 253. It is therefore improbable that booty and a clear challenge to Rome. Herrmann, G, 1969. 'The Darabgird he would be prominently depicted on a He notes that while the convention of Relief – Ardashir or Shahpur?', Iran, relief some 16 years after his execution showing slain enemies under the vol 77, pp63–88. (MacDermot, 1954, p77). 5 hooves of the victor's horse is well In 2004 the pool was observed to have established in Persian sculpture, MacDermot, B, 1954. 'Roman Emperors dried up (Sauer, 2012). 6 The version of events describing Valerian's the physical act of submission as in the Sassanian reliefs', Journal of captivity as being one of torture and represented by suppliant or kneeling Roman Studies, vol 44, pp76–80. humiliation was first described by figures is unknown in earlier Lactantius (AD c.240–c.320) in his work Achaemenid, Parthian or early Sasanian Matheson, S, 2001. Persia: An De Mortibus Persecutorum (Chapter 5). visual culture. In contrast, it is relatively Archaeological Guide, third edition. A Christian writer and advisor to frequent and well established in Roman Tehran, Yassavoli Publications. Constantine I, his work collects short imagery, especially as performed by biographies of Roman emperors who Arsacid (Parthian and Armenian) subject Sauer, E, 2012. Email, personal had persecuted Christians and presents kings who were made to prostrate communication, 2 June 2012. the often gruesome ends they met as evidence of divine retribution. His lurid themselves in front of their Roman descriptions are very likely inflamed overlords. It is likely therefore that Sapur Primary sources Christian propaganda. Of the other early appropriated this imagery from Rome Historia Augusta writers who describe Valerian's capture, and employed it against them (Canepa, a) Magie, D, 1924. 'The Three Gordians', only Aurelius Victor (AD c.320–c.390) 2009, p64). This interplay of cultures in Historia Augusta, Volume II. mentions Valerian's use as a footstool emphasised Sapur's role as King of Kings Massachusetts: Loeb, pp381–447. (Epitome de Caesaribus, 32:5–6). The of Iran and Non Iran. By employing the b) Magie, D, 1932. 'The Two Valerians', Historia Augusta ((b) 1–4), Zosimus best of styles and visual culture as used in Historia Augusta, Volume III. (c.490–c.510) (Historia Nova, 1) and throughout his world, in particular in Massachusetts: Loeb, pp3–15. Eutropius (latter part of fourth century AD) (Historiae Romanae Breviarium, 9:7), the design of the city of Bisapur, Sapur describe Valerian's capture as slavery placed himself at the centre of all things. Lactantius but do not mention any such tortures. Creed, JL, (ed.), 1984. Lactantius: Modern historians since the time of Readers are welcome to contact the De Mortibus Persecutorum. Oxford: Gibbon have questioned the veracity of author on [email protected] Clarendon Press. this story (Gibbon, 1776, pp265–266). 21 the sculpture, refuting the belief that TYNE AND WEAR ARCHIVES Anthony Beeson's the sculpture was used as a symbol of AND MUSEUMS AWARDED the city by the earliest Romans. £400,000 FOR A COMMUNITY Archaeological ARCHAEOLOGY PROJECT ON Round‑up In legend the wolf suckled the HADRIAN'S WALL abandoned babies Romulus and Remus in a cave on the Palatine. The sculpture The Heritage Lottery Fund has awarded NOT WHAT SHE SEEMS? was given to the city in 1471 by Pope a community archaeology project THE SHOCKING NEWS ABOUT Sixtus IV and the infants added to the £400,000 to uncover the history of THE SHE-WOLF group soon after by Antonio Pollaiulo. Hadrian's Wall and its legacy on Certainly the image of the children Tyneside. The three-year project is to be For centuries the Lupa Capitolina, suckled by the she wolf appears much organised by Tyne and Wear Archives the she-wolf of Rome, has been the in Roman art and on coinage and so had and Museums and will involve more symbol of the city and an ever-popular a symbolism for the later Roman viewer. than 500 people from the North East. souvenir. Recent research into the An altar to Venus and Mars from the iconic bronze sculpture (Fig. 1) has reign of Trajan, found in the portico of From autumn 2012 work will suggested that it is a casting dating the Piazzale dei Corporazioni in Ostia commence on the study of Hadrian's between 1021 and 1153, rather than Antica and now in the Palazzo Massimo Wall, including large sections that now an original Etruscan work of the sixth alle Terme, shows a typical are under roads and buildings, and to or fifth centuries BC. This follows representation (Fig. 2). A mosaic from raise awareness of the Roman radiocarbon tests carried out by Lucio Aldborough in Britain shows the same fortification amongst local Calcagnile, at the University of Salento's scene, although even this has been communities. It is planned that Centre for Dating Diagnostics. An questioned for authenticity by some, members of the public who participate announcement has now been made at on account of its singularity (Fig. 3). in the project will work alongside the Capitoline Museum, the home of professional archaeologists and The Etruscan origins of the figure were historians and also have the not questioned until the 1997 restoration opportunity to get involved in of the statue. At that time, restorer Anna excavations, surveying and desk-based Maria Carruba noticed that the she-wolf research. Ged Bell, chairman of Tyne was cast as a single unit, a technique and Wear Archives and Museums joint typically used in the Middle Ages. committee, said: "This is a very exciting Ancient bronzes were cast in separate project which will reveal more about parts and then brazed together. This one of our region's most important technique was used by the Greeks and landmarks, from its starting point in then adopted by Etruscan and Roman Wallsend and heading as far west as sculptors. The technique basically Hexham and Corbridge." consisted of brazing the separate joints Fig. 1. The Lupa Capitolina, the Capitoline Museum. together using bronze as welding The new research and excavations will Photo: © Nich Hogben. material. Rome's officials decided to centre on the remains of the Roman fort carry out more detailed examinations of Condercum in Benwell; sections of the into the Lupa to clear any doubts. The Wall in Wallsend, central Newcastle and researchers used accelerator mass Roman finds from Gateshead; Arbeia spectrometry, and extracted, analysed Roman fort at South Shields; and the and radiocarbon dated organic samples 'lost Roman road' between Chesters from the casting process. The results and Corbridge, the route of which is revealed with an accuracy of 95.4% that unknown. Additional excavation will the sculpture was crafted between the take place at Segedunum Roman fort in eleventh and twelfth century AD. The Wallsend where it is hoped that more new theory concerning the wolf is that finds and information will be gleaned. she is a medieval copy of an original This project hopes not only to raise Fig. 2. Detail of an altar to Venus and Mars from Ostia. Etruscan work. awareness of the Wall within the Photo: © Anthony Beeson. community but to also discover The Etruscan attribution was first additional facts about a relatively made in the eighteenth century by art unknown stretch of it. "It will provide historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann fantastic volunteering opportunities on the basis of how the wolf's fur was and teach people taking part a diverse represented. The dating and origin of range of practical archaeological skills" the sculpture has been a matter of said former BBC weather presenter discussion ever since. It is possible that Trai Anfield, who has been appointed we shall never have a definite answer as a new member of the HLF North East but the latest study has brought Committee. elucidation to the discussion. http://www.museumsassociation.org/museums-journal/ news/11072012-community-archaeology-project- Fig. 3. Detail of the Aldborough Romulus and Remus http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2008-07-11-she- awarded-400000 mosaic. Photo: © Anthony Beeson. wolf-statue_N.htm http://www.hlf.org.uk/news/Pages/HadriansWall.aspx 22 A HOUSE BELIEVED TO BE THE Panella says "Augustus could have even moon. Both discs are decorated with BIRTHPLACE OF AUGUSTUS made up his birth in the Curiae Veteres. the udjat-eye, also called the eye of DISCOVERED IN ROME He might have badly wanted to be born Horus, a common symbol in Egyptian in that place, as it was strongly symbolic. art. Unfortunately the faces are not well Archaeologists excavating on the It represented Romulus' founding and preserved, but we can see that the boy north-eastern side of the Palatine Hill in Augustus' re-founding of Rome." has curly hair and a braid on the right Rome, close to the Arch of Titus, have side of the head, typical of Egyptian uncovered the remains of a substantial As a child, Augustus lived at the house children. The girl's hair is arranged house that they believe may have been near the Curiae Veteres for the first three in a way similar to the so-called the birthplace of the future emperor years of his life until his family moved to melonenfrisur (melon coiffure), an Augustus. The building was partially the Carinae, on a spur of the Esquiline. elaborate hairstyle often associated excavated in 2006 by a team led by When 18 he bought a house near the with the Ptolemaic dynasty, and Clementina Panella who discovered a Forum, moving only when he was 36 to Cleopatra particularly." corridor and other parts of what was live on the Palatine, when he purchased described as "a very ancient aristocratic the house belonging to the orator Capriotti compared the children's house". Further excavations since that Hortensius. The purchase was probably sculpture with another from the date have uncovered ten rooms with again symbolic as this lay above the Ptolemaic era, the statue of Pakhom, beautiful mosaics and frescoed walls, grotto believed to be where Romulus governor of Dendera, now on display at and have strengthened the belief that and Remus were suckled and Romans the Detroit Institute of Arts. "Stylistically, this was the house owned by Gaius worshipped them. the statues have several features in Octavius, the father of Augustus. Built common. For example, the figures have around an atrium, the two-storeyed Much of the house near the Curiae round faces, little chins and big eyes." house climbed the hill and must have Veteres has still to be uncovered. As the Pakhom statue has been dated to had fine views across the Roman Forum However, it is clear that it was a victim of 50–30 BC she believes that the children's below and across to the Esquiline Hill. the Neronian fire of AD 64 and was totally sculpture was also by an Egyptian destroyed in the conflagration. In the sculptor of the same era, following Mark Beyond a tufa wall the archaeologists rebuilding that followed the remains Antony's official recognition of the twins found the remains of an ancient were covered and sealed beneath a road. in 37 BC. In 36 BC Cleopatra bore Antony sanctuary identified by them as the another son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. http://www.dnaindia.com/scitech/report_augustus-s- Curiae Veteres, the earliest shrine of the birthplace-still-uncertain-with-more-excavations- She had previously given Julius Caesar curiae of Rome. According to tradition, uncovered_1611432 a son in 47 BC, named Caesarion. Romulus, one of the city's twin founders, divided the Romans into 30 parts or "At the time of their birth in 40 BC, the curiae. These in turn were grouped into A STATUE OF CLEOPATRA VII'S twins were simply named Cleopatra three sets of ten called tribes. Mentioned AND MARK ANTONY'S TWINS and Alexander. When they were by the Roman historian Tacitus as one REDISCOVERED officially recognized by their father, point in the Palatine pomerium, the three years later, as Antony returned original line ploughed by Romulus to Giuseppina Capriotti, an Italian to Antioch, in present Turkey, and mark Rome's boundaries, the Curiae Egyptologist, claims that she has Cleopatra joined him, they were named Veteres was an important gathering rediscovered a lost sculpture of Mark Alexander Helios (Sun) and Cleopatra place. On certain days of the year, Antony and Cleopatra's twin babies. Selene (Moon). Antony's recognition of representatives of the 30 curiae carried The sandstone sculpture, discovered in the children was marked by an eclipse. out ritual obligations in the communal 1918 near the temple of Dendera, is Probably for this reason, and to building to reaffirm their membership. held by the Egyptian Museum in Cairo mythologise their twin birth, the The many thousands of votive offerings but previously it had not been closely children were added those celestial and cult objects excavated here indicate studied. The back of the piece is engraved names. Although in Egypt the moon that the Curiae Veteres sanctuary was with stars, suggesting that the stone was a male deity, in the sculpture the active for about 11 centuries – from the was part of a ceiling before being reused genders were reversed according to seventh century BC to the fourth century and carved to represent the children. the Greek tradition," Capriotti said. AD. Later there were two curiae: the Curiae Veteres, where priests attended According to Capriotti, "It shows two While Caesarion was killed under to religious matters, and the Curia naked children, one male and one Octavian's orders as a threat to his Hostilia, built by King Tullus Hostilius, female, of identical size standing within dynasty, the three younger children where senators cared for human affairs. the massive coils of two serpents. were spared and sent to Rome to be Varro attributes the name curia to the Each figure has an arm over the other's brought up in the house of Octavia, Latin for 'care for' (curarent). shoulder, while the other hand grasps a the wife of Mark Antony and sister to serpent." She identified the children as Octavian. The boys vanish from history Suetonius states that Augustus was Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene, and presumably died young, but born on 23 September 63 BC, "in the Antony and Cleopatra's twins. The boy Cleopatra Selene married King Juba II region of the Palatine called Ad Capita has a sun-disc on his head, in reference of Mauretania, by whom she had a least Bubula (Ox Heads)". Several scholars to Helios, while the girl boasts a one child, a son named after her little believe that the toponym probably crescent and a lunar disc as an allusion brother, Ptolemy Philadelphus. indicated a place in the Curiae Veteres. to Selene. Capriotti also believes that http://news.discovery.com/history/cleopatras-twin- There are however doubts concerning "the serpents, perhaps two cobras, babies-120420.html the veracity of this statement and would also be different forms of sun and http://news.egypt.com/english/permalink/106641.html 23 Jublains – a provincial Gallo-Roman civitas by Marigold Norbye

Driving from Normandy towards the evidence that suggests an indigenous temple in the Roman style. Thanks to Loire Valley, past a small town called Gaulish sanctuary, without any three coins found in the foundations, Mayenne, roughly half way between surrounding town, existed there since it is estimated that the construction Bayeux and Angers, one encounters the fourth century BC. It was used by started c.AD 66–68 and that building signs to 'Jublains ville gallo-romaine'. the local tribe, the Diablintes, whose works probably lasted about half a Intrigued, we paid Jublains an name is attested in Caesar's Gallic Wars century. The new town around it was impromptu visit and found it well (III.9). The modern name 'Jublains' is designed following the classic Roman worth the detour for anyone interested derived from 'Diablintes'. After the grid pattern and covered about 25 in Roman history or archaeology. Roman conquest, around this ancient hectares (c.62 acres) in all. A main Now a small village, Jublains was once sanctuary a town was built to fulfil north–south street linked the temple a thriving provincial urban centre, the the role of tribal capital of the territory at the northern end of the town to the capital town of the local Gaulish tribe, of the Diablintes, with the rather theatre at the south, going past the and boasted a temple, a forum, baths unoriginal name of Noviodunum forum and the baths on the way (Fig. 1). and even a theatre. Built around what ('New Town'). As a capital, it became a This pattern of alignment is relatively might be an indigenous religious crossroads. Noviodunum was on a road unusual, but is found in other small sanctuary, it was also conveniently from Avranches (ancient Legedia) in towns founded around a sanctuary. placed at a crossroads, and it became Normandy to Le Mans that is attested The temple was built first, then the the subject of a Roman urbanisation by four surviving milestones including theatre, and finally the baths, whilst programme in the first century AD one near Jublains. From Le Mans the the construction of the town was before suffering difficulties in the third main road network led to Lyon, the taking place. From the archaeological and declining in the fourth, but not provincial capital of this part of Gaul, evidence it appears that the full before leaving us a fortified building as well as to other parts of central ambitious urbanisation plan was not whose purpose perplexes France. Noviodunum also had roads carried out: some parts of the grid are archaeologists to this day. leading to Brittany in the west and incomplete, and others, where one Angers to the south (and thence to would expect to find residential Reasons for building Roman towns Aquitanian Gaul), as well as secondary dwellings, instead contain traces left by were varied, from redevelopments of routes to local destinations. workshops, suggesting that artisans existing villages to new settlements installed themselves in spaces that were around Roman staging posts on main In the first century AD, the wooden never finished. The rectangles formed roads. In the case of Jublains, there is Celtic structure was replaced by a stone by the grid are roughly 70m long.

Fig. 2. Scale model of the temple seen from the west, Jublains Museum. Photo: © Marigold Norbye.

Fig. 1. Plan of ancient Noviodunum in grey and black, with modern Jublains in blue. © Conseil Général de la Mayenne. Fig. 3. Temple seen from the west. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. 24 For the modern visitor, an ingenious way of suggesting the ancient street layout has been devised: 15 hectares (37 acres) of fields between the temple and the edge of the modern village (roughly at the level of the ancient forum) have been purchased by the local authority for future preservation and excavation, and grassed over with gravel paths drawn over the exact location of the Roman streets. Thus one can stand at the temple, looking across the visible street layout, and get a feel for the size of the ancient town. In the Fig. 4. Wall painting from the eastern entrance of the temple complex, second half of first century AD, Jublains distance, a house built in 1878 in a Museum. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. Roman-inspired style in the unfulfilled hope of turning it into an archaeological museum ('La Maison de la Tonnelle') marks the site of the forum; even further away, the spire of the nineteenth- century church indicates the location of the baths. Further archaeological digs are planned in the grid area, with the intention that each excavation will be visible to the public. In the modern village itself, coloured paving stones on roads and pavements indicate the outlines of the Roman streets. Information panels with useful diagrams and maps are placed at regular intervals throughout the archaeological area and the village, Exhibits in Jublains Museum , from left to right: to give the visitor a feel for the various Fig. 5. Head of the cult statue of the goddess in coarse shelly limestone, second century AD. elements of the ancient town. Fig. 6. Ex votos, including (top) fibulae, (middle) rings and (bottom left) a pair of eyes. Fig. 7. White terracotta Mother Goddess statuette, second century AD. Photos: © Marigold Norbye. The main monuments were uncovered with three door openings. There was there a link to the site of the previous in the nineteenth century. Since 1996, also a portico with colonnade along the sanctuary, or was a choice made to have systematic excavations of the outside of the wall on the east side only, a larger clear area for ceremonies? residential area have been taking place. framing the porch forming the main Thus it appears that the area to the entrance. The lower part of the Water appears to have played an south-east of the forum was occupied ambulatory wall still survives, as do important role: rainwater falling from by artisans from the first to the third some of the columns (Fig. 3). The the roof of the temple was gathered centuries. A potter's kiln has been columns were made of local sandstone, into an underground channel leading found, as well as traces indicating with Corinthian capitals carved of to a well. The liquid could then be activities by blacksmiths, glass-makers, 'tuffeau' (a soft white limestone from the drawn from the well and poured into bronze and leather workers, and even Loire Valley 70km away). The temenos two special basins: a semi-circular one the making of meat products. The ambulatory walls were painted, and in the east colonnade, and another in results of these excavations are visible enough fragments have survived to a small room built for the purpose in the Jublains Museum, which is built reveal their design, including attractive (probably in the third century) against on top of the ancient cemetery in the birds that surrounded the main eastern the outside wall, heated by a hypocaust, south-western corner of the site, next doorway (Fig. 4). which may have been used by the to a mysterious third-century 'fortress', priests before performing sacrifices. of which more later. The temple itself follows the classic It would seem that the water was pattern of a rectangular cella (sacred considered to have beneficial The oldest Roman monument is the room) surrounded by a colonnade, with properties, and was used for temple, built over the original Gaulish a set of steps leading up to it. The base purification and possibly healing. sanctuary (Fig. 2 – see www.bude- of the temple remains, and is currently orleans.org/lespages/42gallo_romains/ protected by some modern roofing. The It is not known to which divinity the jublains.html for some excellent internal walls and floors of the temple temple was dedicated, but fragments reconstructions). The sacred area were lined with various types of marble, of a cult statue of a larger-than-life-size (temenos) was enclosed by an most of which came from the Pyrenees. female figure have been found (Fig. 5). ambulatory with a blank wall on the The temple itself was not placed in the She is clothed and seated, representing outside and a low wall supporting a centre of the walled area; this left a a Mother-Goddess type very prevalent colonnade on the inside, forming a larger empty space in the northern part. under various names in Gaul. She may square with sides of about 78m long, The reasons for this are unclear: was be the tutelary deity of this sanctuary. 25 Fig. 8. White terracotta 'Venus' statuettes, second century AD, Jublains Museum. Fig. 9. Baths in the church undercroft, with pool in foreground. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. Photo: © Marigold Norbye.

Various ex voto offerings have been erected on top of the ancient baths the building and that supported the found in the temple area, such as (built around AD 100). They were used weight of the wooden seats and the fibulae (brooches), rings or even until the fourth or fifth century, at which earthworks that were needed to representations of eyes (from someone stage they were transformed into a enhance the natural slope. There was suffering from eye problems perhaps) Christian church, with the separate no tall stage wall behind the orchestra (Fig. 6). In a small building south of the rooms being knocked together to form (as found for example in southern Gaul temple, about sixty white terracotta the nave and the various basins filled in. at modern Orange); like other small statuettes of female deities of two types The original church was replaced by the theatres in northern Gaul, the theatre – the seated Mother Goddess suckling current building in 1877. Nowadays, in Noviodunum simply had a small and a naked Venus – have been found visitors can view the frigidarium and the building along the back of the stage (Figs. 7 and 8). Was this a store of votive tepidarium from behind a glass panel in for the actors' entrances and exits. offerings or was it the stock of a the crypt of the church (Fig. 9). shopkeeper selling such objects? The original theatre was built in the The baths complex contained the usual first century (c.AD 80) and had a closed The temple formed the starting point for suite of bathing halls from cold to hot, quasi-circular shape (Fig. 11). Within it, the main street of the town which, along and numerous small annexe rooms abutting the edge, was an orchestra with one parallel to it, has been dated which were probably shops, libraries, shaped like a truncated circle. There to the mid- or late-first century AD doctors' dispensaries or sports training were four vomitoria (the corridors and thanks to traces of terra nigra pottery. rooms, as well as a palaestra (public stairways used to let spectators in and The next major monument was the place for athletics) and porticos with out) in the seating area (cavea). It was forum, whose remains are not visible colonnaded galleries. An inscription rebuilt in the second century, with the today, but whose location is marked by survives informing us that a lady with a theatre's circular shape being cropped the 'Maison de la Tonnelle' mentioned name ending in '–nia' paid for the baths by a new edging wall across the original above. Further along, a church has been and their annexes (Fig. 10). orchestra so that the theatre now formed a truncated circle, the orchestra At the end of the main street one finds itself being enlarged inwards into the the theatre, the culmination of the road original cavea to make a larger that started at the temple. It may be performance area (forming a virtually that this was a deliberate choice, elliptical shape), and more earthworks enabling religious processions to start added to increase the seating area, with at the sanctuary and terminate at the two concentric supporting walls (linked theatre. The site of the theatre was carefully chosen to exploit a particularity of the local terrain at this point: a semi-circular slope suitable for seating spectators with a flat area at the bottom that could serve as a stage (orchestra). The theatre seats were Fig. 10. Dedicatory inscription of the baths. probably built of Photo: © Marigold Norbye. wood, with stone only [B]alneu[m c]um aed(ibus) [s(uis) ...]nia inp(endio) [s(uo)]: "With her money, [...]nia (paid for) the baths used for the walls that Fig. 11. Plan of the two phases of the theatre. Phase 1 is shown in red and pink. and their annexes." outlined the shape of Phase 2 is shown in black and grey. © Conseil Général de la Mayenne. 26 Fig. 12. Scale model of the theatre during phase 2, but with phase 1 stage layout. Fig. 13. Theatre: looking down from the north towards the stage. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. Photo: © Marigold Norbye.

Fig. 14. Theatre: looking up from the stage towards the church (former baths), with the edging wall of the phase 2 stage in the foreground. Photo: © Marigold Norbye.

Fig. 15. Orgetorix dedicatory inscription of the theatre, Jublains Museum. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. The inscription reads "In [honorem] | dom[us divinae] | Orgeto[ri]x A[…] |sri f(ilius) theatru[m u-] | sibus civitati[s] | d(e) s(uo)": "In honour of the divine house Orgetorix son of A[...]rus (gave) the theatre for the use of the city with his own (money)" (interpretation as displayed in the museum). Note that the fragment in Fig. 15 does not have the 'x' and 'A' of the names, but others do. Those interested in epigraphy can note the use of ligatures in theatrum (two sets of ligatures) and usibus as well as the elegant interlocking letters in dom[us]. An alternative interpretation of the first two lines is "Im[peratore Flavio] | Dom[itiano Augusto]": to the emperor Domitian (AD 81–96); this is supported by Naveau (1991), who also expands the end section Fig. 16. Scale model of the 'fortress', with the southern corner in the bottom left, to "civitat[i Diablintum] d(e) s(ua) [pecunia]" ("the city of the Diablintes with his own Jublains Museum. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. money"). This interpretation would enable a closer dating of the first theatre. at regular intervals by perpendicular In its current state of preservation, the they inform us that Orgetorix son of partition walls) to support the weight. theatre retains some elements of the A[...]rus gave the theatre for the use of The new shape of the orchestra made stone supporting walls and vomitoria. the city with his money (Fig. 15). It is of it similar to the arenas found in The slopes of the cavea are grassed interest to note that although he was amphitheatres (e.g. the Colosseum), over, and the area of the first stage is obviously part of the Romanised elite, and it probably reflected a change of covered with sand, with the edging who saw fit to expend large sums of spectator tastes from more intimate wall of the stage of second phase money on municipal monuments in plays to larger spectacles such as cutting across it (Figs. 13 and 14). the typical Roman fashion, he had a entertainments with acrobats and Gaulish name and did not adopt the dancers or gladiator fights. (See the Like the baths, the theatre was the Roman naming system of three names. scale model in Fig. 12, which represents result of the generosity of a local Nowadays, Orgetorix is commemorated the second theatre, though it benefactor, in this case a certain in the name of the local restaurant. confusingly appears to put rows of Orgetorix. Three fragmentary copies seating in the new arena in order to of inscriptions commemorating his The final monument currently visible show the shape of the original orchestra.) munificence have survived. Together in Jublains is the so-called 'fortress', 27 whose purpose and use remain subject the bedrock is of debate (Fig. 16). It is not situated in mainly granite, so the main town, but on the edge, other water sources beyond the ancient cemetery. The had to be found. original core was built around AD 200: An approximately a rectangular building with towers in 8km-long aqueduct all four corners. There was an inner ran from a spring to open-air courtyard. The ground floor a point near the was built of granite blocks fixed by temple; fragments of metal brackets, whereas the first floor it are displayed in the was constructed of smaller rubble museum. Other means stones. Internal posts supporting the of water supply are flooring of the first floor were placed on evidenced by the well stone cubes on the ground. The towers in the 'fortress' and each had a brick-arched doorway giving the cisterns built Fig. 17. Fortress: doorway from inner courtyard into west tower. onto the interior (Fig. 17); two of them there later. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. also had posterns turned towards the outside, which were closed with three The complex formed by the central were built to protect communications wooden beams. Within the building building and the baths was surrounded in a period of increasing brigandage. there was a well, 13m deep. by an embankment and a ditch. This in She cites the castellum of Jublains turn was girdled by a roughly square- among such road stations, "a stoutly In the second half of the third century, shaped defensive wall, punctuated by built structure within a fortified external additions were made to the circular corner towers and small enclosure". King (1990, p181) refers to building: three rectangular basins or rectangular buildings along the sides. "the activities of rural brigands, or cisterns, possibly to collect rainwater, bagaudae" in this part of Gaul in the and two annexes in the corners of two of The original purpose of the building later third century, and gives examples the towers, whose role is unclear (Fig. 18). continues to be the subject of of fortifications, including "at Jublains There is some speculation that it may speculation. Despite some defensive (defending some sort of official have been to reinforce the building's features, it does not resemble any installation)… constructed to take defensive capacity: the original towers known Roman fort, nor does it have account of this internal unrest". Johnson were placed in such a way that they did enough room to accommodate a large (1983, p94) states "The diminutive scale not look out in all directions, which garrison. The plan is more suggestive of of the defences of Jublains suggests suggests that they were not built solely fortified granaries, with a central that it can hardly have ever been for defence, whereas the adjunctions courtyard in which to winnow the considered as anything other than a do enable one to face all four ways. wheat. Hence it has been surmised that fort. The question of the purpose of it could be a food depot, used for such small defended sites such as this is In diametrically opposed corners of the stocking provisions destined for the city one of considerable difficulty." Further site are two small baths: one is a complete of Rome or the army. Other hypotheses archaeological investigations are suite, with changing room, frigidarium, of the materials stored here include needed to provide more clues. tepidarium, caldarium and sweating- gold (extracted in this region during room (Fig. 19); the other merely had a antiquity) or tin (which is found locally; It was probably in the late third century, changing room and a caldarium, and moreover, Noviodunum lay on one of a period full of unrest in Gaul in may have been for more lowly members the roads along which tin from Brittany particular, that an earth embankment of staff. The smaller one has good or Great Britain was imported). Brogan with a palisade, surrounded by a ditch examples of surviving flues in the walls. (1953, pp34–5) discusses relay stations 10m wide and 2–3m deep, was made, on main roads, where in the late Empire which has now disappeared. Later on, There was no large underground aquifer small fortified castella (containing the the enclosing wall was constructed. in Jublains, which lies in an area where state granaries storing taxation in kind) Evidence is lacking as to whether this

Fig. 18. Fortress: south tower and its external annexe in the foreground; cistern in the background to the left. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. Fig. 19. Fortress: the south baths. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. 28 was merely to protect the central English. This trilingualism also applies Naveau, J, 1986. 'Le plan antique de building, or to turn the whole site into a to the various notice boards near the Jublains (Mayenne)', Revue fort; it was at this time that the additions monuments. Thus English-speaking archéologique de l'Ouest, 3, pp107– to the towers of the building were visitors to this area of western France 117. Online at http://www.persee.fr/ made. However, the construction work can come to Jublains and enjoy the web/revues/home/prescript/article/ may never have been completed, and Roman ruins, their understanding rao_0767-709x_1986_num_3_1_892 the 'fortress' was not occupied in the enhanced by the informative fourth century. educational panels. Jublains is a Woolf, G, 1998, Becoming Roman: relatively modest site, but it is The Origins of Provincial Civilization in This would appear to reflect a decline sufficiently well preserved and well Gaul. Cambridge University Press, of the role of Noviodunum during that presented to make it worth exploring ISBN 0 521 41445 8. century. Another clue is the fact that as an example of the small provincial the Christianisation of Gaul was taking civitates that collectively formed the Note: Apart from my own observations place then, with bishoprics being set essential fabric of the Roman Empire. as a visitor and the photographs I took up in main cities. Yet Noviodunum never at the site (including the numerous had its own bishop; from the start, it Further reading information panels), this article is was part of the diocese of Le Mans. Bocquet, A, Chuniaud, K and Naveau, J, heavily indebted to two excellent Thus Noviodunum seems to have lost its 2004. 'Le quartier antique de la Grande- French websites from which I gathered role as city by the end of the Western Boissière à Jublains (Mayenne)', Revue most of the specific historical and Roman Empire. Its position was further archéologique de l'Ouest, 21, pp131–174. archaeological data: detailed briefings eroded in the early Middle Ages when for teachers produced by the Jublains the castle in the nearby town of Brogan, O, 1953. Roman Gaul. G Bell & Museum (www.museedejublains.fr, Mayenne became the centre of local Sons. section 'Scolaires-groupes', then power in the ninth century. By the 'dossiers pédagogiques') and a page following century, Jublains was reduced Guillier, G, Delage, R and Besombes, produced by the Orléans branch of a to a small village huddled around the P-A, 2008. 'Une fouille en bordure des historical association, the Association church and the cemetery, and its thermes de Jublains (Mayenne) : Guillaume-Budé (www.bude-orleans. Roman past became obliterated, before enfin un dodécaèdre en contexte org/lespages/42gallo_romains/ being rediscovered in the eighteenth archéologique!', Revue Archéologique de jublains.html). Some sections of this century and systematically excavated l'Ouest, 25. Online at: http://rao.revues. article are quasi-paraphrases of the in various campaigns since 1834. org/680 original French texts; I trust their anonymous authors will appreciate Many of the finds of the archaeological Johnson, S, 1983. Late Roman the fact that the aim of this article is to excavations are now on display in a fortifications. Batsford. disseminate knowledge of Jublains room in the excellent small museum more fully to a non-French-speaking next to the 'fortress', which also boasts King, A, 1990. Roman Gaul and Germany audience. a scale model of the reconstituted (Exploring the Roman World). British Roman city (examples in some of the Museum Press, ISBN 978-0714120447. illustrations of this article) as well as a large aerial photograph of the village, MacKendrick, P, 1971. Roman France. EPIGRAPHY QUIZ enabling one to get a feel for the G Bell & Sons, ISBN 978-0713516920. by Marigold Norbye articulation between the various parts of the Roman city. There is an eclectic Naveau, J, (ed) 1997. Recherches sur Can you decipher the following collection of objects, including a copper Jublains (Mayenne) et sur la cité des Roman inscription? You may want to alloy dodecahedron (Fig. 20), one of Diablintes. Documents Archéologiques refer to Marigold's two-part article many found in western Europe; their de l’Ouest. Revue archéologique de on Latin epigraphy (ARA News 26 function is debated. Captions are not l'Ouest. pp24–29 and ARA News 27 pp36–43). only in French, but in German and The inscription is on a tombstone with Naveau, J, 1992, pp42–79. Carte a relief of a trooper overcoming an archéologique de la Gaule, La Mayenne, enemy, was found in Wotton near 53. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles- Gloucester, and is now in Gloucester Lettres. City Museum. It has the Roman Inscriptions of Britain number RIB 121. Naveau, J, 1991. 'L'épigraphie du site de Jublains (Mayenne)', Revue . . . archéologique de l'Ouest, 8. Written by RVFVS SITA EQVES CHO VI one of the official local archaeologists TRACVM.ANN.XL.STIP.XXII about the epigraphic finds in Jublains, with drawings and interpretations of all HEREDES.EXS.TEST.F.CVRAVE the inscriptions found there, and some H S E general archaeological and chronological observations. Online at http://www. Hints on how to translate the persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/ inscription, and Marigold's article/rao_0767-709x_1991_ Fig. 20. Jublains Museum: the dodecahedron translation, may be found on page 35. (height 59mm). Photo: © Tim Arnold. num_8_1_1139 29 sorted into denominations, perhaps with probably three ranges, although Anthony Beeson's this was an official deposit. Given the one is still buried beneath allotments to proximity of the Temple of Sulis the south. It was of at least two storeys Archaeological Minerva's precinct, and the theory that in height, having substantial walls more Round‑up the walled area at Bath encompassed than a metre thick. Much of the stone only the sacred area of the town, is this walling was robbed from the building therefore to be interpreted as a sacred after its demise in the fourth century THE BEAU STREET HOARD burial of donations to the main cult or and can only be traced in soil by robber BEGINS TO REVEAL ITS to another shrine within the walls? trenches. Although it has been SECRETS Offerings made to deities were often surmised that this robbing happened buried after a while. No doubt more soon after the abandonment of the The huge collection of coins discovered interesting discoveries will be made villa, that scenario seems unlikely as at and lifted en masse in November 2007 from the hoard as the work progresses. the time few masonry buildings were during a routine archaeological being constructed and there would not excavation in advance of building work The Roman Baths Museum in Bath is have been a need for the stone. A far in Beau Street, Bath is beginning to currently attempting to raise £150,000 to later date into the Middle Ages or even reveal some of its secrets following work acquire, conserve and display the hoard. more recent times seems more likely. done by British Museum conservator However, the presence of an unusual Julia Tubman. It has been discovered http://blog.britishmuseum.org/category/conservation-2/ number of yet undated burials, some beau-street-hoard/ that the hoard is not just one jumbled http://www.romanbaths.co.uk/whats_on/beau_street_ of them cut into robber trenches, may collection of coins but is composed of at hoard.aspx indeed prove that at least part of the least six separate bags. Julia's intention villa was robbed at an early date. is to remove the coins bag by bag in A NEW VILLA DISCOVERED A Saxon woman was buried on site order to preserve the groupings, which AT WALTON, NEAR and dated by her jewellery to the fifth are very significant. This approach will PETERBOROUGH century; this suggests that not only was also give a clear indication of the shape something left standing there but that and size of each bag. Estimates of the A combined team from Oxford the place was still of significance locally. number of coins in the hoard has varied Archaeology East and archaeologists One wonders if it might have housed a from 22,000 to 30,000. Fears that the from Peterborough City Council have villa church. coins might be concreted together have discovered and excavated a substantial so far proved groundless. The two and wealthy second-century villa and The western range seems to have been smallest bags have already been farm on the site of former allotments at the residential one with a front corridor, retrieved from the grouping. One Walton to the east of the city. This is an living rooms, kitchen and heated contained almost exclusively denarii, area that has previously been silent chambers interpreted as baths. An which suggests that the coins were about its Roman past. The huge Roman apsidal room was attached to the latter, bagged by denomination. The c.3,000 complex at Castor is some 8km away but they retain no traces of use in coins in this bag so far seem to date to and the town of Durobrivae (now Water Roman times. The later villa was lavishly no later than the third century, with a Newton) is some 6km distant, but the decorated with painted wall plaster, few worn earlier examples dating back discovery of this building, made in much in expensive Egyptian Blue. as far as the end of the Roman republic. August 2011, was quite unexpected. A great amount has survived in good So far it appears that the other small The decision was taken to excavate the condition and will be studied. bag only contains radiates. villa fully and an area of 100m by 50m Geometric panels seem to predominate was examined. It is the first villa in the but some areas also held natural Photographs show that the shapes of area to have been excavated using designs of leaves and flowers. Mosaics the actual bags in which the coins were modern techniques and thus is important had been laid but unfortunately did not once held were fossilised by the coins' for the information that it will afford. survive the demolition and subsequent orientation. Traces of the bags land usage. In many cases they would themselves indirectly survive in the At least three roundhouses within a have been smashed in order to rob the form of the bright blue corrosion they ditched enclosure once occupied the site. pilae, below the heated floors, of their engendered on the metal. These bags The largest house was 10m in diameter, tiles. Only one small area of tessellation were probably made of leather. Julia suggesting an inhabitant of importance, remained intact in a corridor, but suspects that more small bags of coins perhaps a local tribal leader. dumps of colourful mortared tesserae may survive beneath the weight of the from a smashed pavement were other, larger bags. The bottom of the At the end of the first or beginning of discovered on site in an early context cist was obviously uneven, and the pit the second century AD the first villa and may be from the first villa. had been roughly dug before being was built within the enclosure, although lined with tile. There is no indication the western edge of the enclosure then The site has now been built over and a that the coins were in a wooden box. disappeared and a small tile kiln was housing estate called 'Mosaic' has been built, no doubt to aid with the erected on the site. The finds from this It is rare to discover coin hoards in construction. The new villa was built excavation are to be deposited in Roman town centres. This leads to of stone and timber framing and had Peterborough Museum. speculation as to why they were painted plaster. It appears to have

deposited. Some of the coins were burned down and was replaced by a http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england- centuries old at the time of deposition. new building in masonry that grew and cambridgeshire-16512512 Given that the coins seem to have been altered over time. It was a courtyard villa Current Archaeology 269 – August 2012 30 A NEW STUDY FINDS Unocad of Vincenza, Italy, for the two 3D digital recreations for the Arch TRACES OF PIGMENT ON THE 3D capture, using the Breuckmann of Titus Digital Restoration Project. ARCH OF TITUS IN ROME SmartScan for its precise optical "In the first, or 'state model,' we will measurements, and Dr Heinrich add just the colour that is attested by A team from Virginia's College of Arts Piening, a conservator with the Dr Piening's studies," he said. "In the and Sciences led by Bernard Frischer State of Bavaria Department for the second, or 'restoration model,' we will has conducted research into the Conservation of Castles, Gardens and go beyond the spotty evidence that polychrome decoration once applied Lakes in Germany and a pioneer in survives to restore colour all over the to the famous bas-reliefs on the Arch ultra‑violet visual spectrometry, for arch, inspired both by the actual traces of Titus in the Roman Forum. The Arch analysis. "UV-VIS spectrometry is still and by analogous examples of painted of Titus Digital Restoration Project used a relatively new technique in Roman Roman imperial monuments. What has twenty-first century technology to look archaeology," Frischer said. been learned thus far can encourage for any remaining traces of pigment on even 'minimalists' like myself to dare to the panels that show the spoils of the After centuries of exposure to the restore colour even to monuments that temple of Jerusalem being carried in his weather the pigments on the arch had have not yet been studied. After all, the triumphal procession. Titus sacked the probably faded long before the 1820s, ancient colour palette was limited, and Second Temple in AD 70 during the when it was scraped clean and restored we are starting to see conventions campaign to quash the Jewish revolt. to the condition in which we view it emerge in the use of colour. And one The subsequent Triumph held in Rome today. The project concentrated on the thing we do know is that white marble – is commemorated by the arch. As has bas-reliefs of the triumphal procession whether on a public building or on a long been suspected, such monuments that flank the inside walls of the arch. statue – was rarely, if ever, left unpainted." were once brightly painted and not just The one showing the Menorah, the the white marble that we see nowadays. golden seven-branched candlestick, Two lithographs by M and N Hanhart has received the greatest attention (Fig. 1), from the Revd. Alfred J Church's Describing the project Frischer said because of its importance to Judaism. Story of the Last Days of Jerusalem from "It entailed the use of two different It was found that there were traces of Josephus (London, 1883), illustrate technologies with which I am very yellow ochre pigment on the marble in pale manner the effect that the familiar from earlier projects." The candlestick so in antiquity, when bas‑reliefs would have had when researchers used non-invasive, 3D painted, the Menorah would indeed painted. In addition to the colour optical data capture and ultra-violet have appeared to be golden. provided on this early and careful visual spectrometry to determine the attempt at polychrome restoration, one chemistry of the pigment deposits. Once investigation is completed on the must add colourful tunics with painted Frischer called on the expertise of arch, Frischer will use the data to create decoration, head garlands and other minor items. The fact that on the Menorah relief the rear portion of sculpted arch fades into nothing suggests that the remaining part of this structure was completed in paint rather than sculpted, and that the background of the whole relief was finished not with a single colour, such as blue or red as often occurred, but as a true city or landscape painting. The procession would appear thus to be a three- dimensional painting. Painters of the highest calibre were used for prestigious sculpture polychromy, and encaustic pigments were often employed. A further dimension had long been added to bas-reliefs in the ancient world in the form of attached metal weapons, bridles and helmets.

Bernard Frischer has also created 3D digital models for the polychromatic restoration of Roman sculpture, such as Virginia Museum of Art's statue of Caligula, on behalf of the Virtual World Heritage Laboratory, which he founded in July 2009.

http://www.virginia.edu/uvatoday/newsRelease. php?id=18963 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/25/arts/design/ Fig. 1. Reconstruction of bas-reliefs from the Arch of Titus, Roman Forum. menorah-on-arch-of-titus-in-roman-forum-was-rich- M and N Hanhart, from the Revd. Alfred J Church's Story of the Last Days of Jerusalem from Josephus. yellow.html 31 Three Treasures of Ancient Britain and Sweet Fanny Adams by Anthony Beeson

The pleasant country town of Alton in importance: the Curtis Museum (Fig. 1, The gallery occupies two floors and Hampshire is perhaps now best known www3.hants.gov.uk/curtis-museum) each room is devoted to a particular to the outside world for its proximity to and the Allen Gallery (Fig. 2, www3. ceramic theme. The tin-glaze or Jane Austen's house at Chawton, or for hants.gov.uk/allen-gallery). Both are Delftware section (Fig. 3) is particularly being the northern terminus of the situated close to the church, respectively notable with display cases overflowing reborn Mid-Hants Railway, the famous on Crown Hill (High Street) and in Church with wonderful things, whilst below 'Watercress Line'. Street. The purpose of this paper is to them are layers of drawers each holding both publicise the museums themselves contemporary tiles. Similar drawers in However, for the informed visitor, it and to bring to a wider notice three another room hold more tiles and offers great attractions in itself. For, exceptional treasures that they hold. collections of shoe buckles. apart from the splendid historic church of St Lawrence, with its Saxon font, The Allen Gallery is housed in adjoining From a Romanist's viewpoint it is quite Romanesque carvings and later mural buildings dating from the sixteenth to fitting that Alton should be the home of paintings, it is the home to two little- the eighteenth century and is backed by such an important ceramics collection known museum collections of national a lovely garden. They were bequeathed as the Allen, for the famous Alice Holt to the Curtis Museum by William Hugh pottery was made in the vicinity in Curtis, a descendant of the founder, Roman times (Fig. 4). This grey sandy William Curtis, in 1957. Following this coarse ware was produced at several the building was extensively altered sites in the area of Alice Holt Forest and and enhanced through the estate of nearby Farnham from the first to the William Henry Allen, who had been the fourth centuries AD, and was widely principal of the Farnham College of Art. distributed across southern England. In 1942 Allen signed a deed of gift The forest and surrounding areas was assigning his collection of watercolours, one of the most important centres for notebooks, applied art and English industrial-scale production of domestic ceramics to the care of the Curtis ceramics in Britannia and supplied up to Museum. Further to this, in 1943 Major 60% of all pottery found in excavations Ross Bignell gave 330 pieces of old at London. It was transported across English pottery to the museum from south-east Britannia throughout the his collection. The Allen Gallery opened entire Roman period from AD 60 to the in Church Street in 1963 and displayed early fifth century, when industrial the combined collection of classic and pottery production apparently ceased. medieval pottery. This stunning It would be a fitting connection with Fig. 1. The Curtis Museum in High Street, Alton. assemblage covers English ceramics local history if examples of Alice Holt Photo: © Anthony Beeson. from 1250 until the present day. Other ware were on display at the Allen private collections were added to the gallery as well as in the Curtis Museum. Allen including the famous Berthoud collection of 1,743 examples of tea and Dr William Curtis was a member of coffee wares that was purchased in a well-known local Quaker family. 1994. The Allen Gallery is a collection In 1850 he suggested that Alton of paramount importance for the study should add a "well arranged museum" of ceramics in this country, and is an to the Mechanics Institute that had astonishing gem for a country museum been established in the town in 1837. to possess and has few rivals anywhere In 1855 the Institute bought 18 Market in Britain. It is truly something that Street for a library and reading room Fig. 2. The Allen Gallery in Church Street, Alton. Home to Hampshire County the impressive collection of English ceramics. Council should be Photo: © Anthony Beeson. proud of and promote widely, as it deserves to be better known. The Allen Gallery was revamped and opened as the Ceramic Collection in 1979, and further enhanced at a later date with new signage and labelling – a professional job on which ARA News'

Fig. 3. Part of the early tin-glaze section of the Allen former editor David Fig. 4. Model of a kiln from the Alice Holt potteries and examples of the typical Gallery. Photo: © Anthony Beeson. Gollins was employed. greyware, Curtis Museum. Photo: © Dave Allen. 32 Fig. 5. The graffito tile from Vindomis, Neatham. This is probably the most artistic graffito so far discovered in Britain. Above, an interpretative drawing outlining the earlier graffito of a flagon. Left, the handle was later smoothed out and the body of the vessel adapted to form the woman's face. Photos: © Anthony Beeson. and established a museum on the first picture and a white infilling to the speculated on whether it might have floor; it opened the following year with incisions that appears to have been been made specially to perhaps 4,000 exhibits. The Mechanics Institute added for the first museum display advertise an inn, showing that both gradually outgrew its premises and in in 1985. The mortar line may date from wine and girls were available on the 1880 finally moved to a donated site on its reuse in antiquity. premises. It is a jolly idea but the author Crown Hill and into premises designed felt it is probably unlikely. However, on by Charles E Barry, the grandson of the The subject is the greater part of the reflection, what is noticeable about the architect of the Houses of Parliament. face of a woman with large expressive tile are the number of nail fixing holes Curtis died in 1881 and the new eyes and nose. What is fascinating is pushed through whilst it was still first‑floor museum was then named that evidently the artist first decided to unfired. Three and possibly the remains after him. The Curtis family continued draw a flagon with a narrow neck and a of a fourth can be traced on the to have links with the collections but large curving handle into the wet clay. remaining piece alone. As ordinary roof the 1944 Education Act caused the He then changed the subject and, tiles do not generally have more than museum to be transferred to Hampshire presumably, smoothed out the incised two to fix them, it does look as though County Council with its first professional handle with his finger leaving a curving this was made specially to be nailed curator engaged in 1951. Recent cuts indentation in the clay. Then, using the vertically to a structural post or beam have seen the on-site curatorial staff outline of the flagon as her face, he rather than to go on a roof. If so, then replaced by enthusiastic friends of the proceeded to frame it by adding waves this adds credence to the theory that Curtis Museum and Allen Gallery. of hair around it and slimming it near rather than just a doodle we may be the eyes with vertical lines. The neck looking at a commissioned piece. Apart from a small but charming of the flagon may either represent a Perhaps this is the earliest inn sign in collection of infantalia, most of the continuation of these waves starting Britain! It was certainly found at the building is given over to the story of from a centre parting or denote a roadside. Whether it really represented Alton. There is a small archaeological central plait pulled back from the the establishment's dual attractions to gallery but this succinct collection forehead as occurs on the fine marble patrons or just the name of the inn contains three quite wonderful objects. head of a woman of probable Severan (perhaps called 'The Venus'), we shall Two are from the Roman era and the date at York. The large and heavily unfortunately never know. In any event third from the sixth or seventh centuries lashed eyes have a naïve and yet artistic it is a wonderful survival. AD. The first (Fig. 5) is perhaps the most fluidity in their execution. They, and the unusual and is a Romano-British broad nose and brows, dominate the Neatham is believed to be the town of pictorial graffito found near Alton at face in the same stylised manner that Vindomis of the Antonine Itinerary. Neatham in 1972 during excavations one sometimes finds in faces in less- An important minor town, it spread conducted by Farnham and District accomplished mural painting. around the crossing of the Silchester to Museum Society (Wilson, 1973, pp317–8, Obviously the tile-maker who was Chichester (north–south) road and the pl. xxxv b; Henig in Millett & Graham, responsible for the drawing was used main London to Winchester (east–west) 1986, pp124–5, fig. 85). The drawing is to such doodling. Two curving lines on road, just north of the crossing over the inscribed into a tile that had seen the bottom right hand corner are part River Wey. Excavations in the 1980s, to secondary use in a row of tiles flanking of the composition and possibly all that the west of the Silchester to Chichester a street, possibly for use as a sill-beam is left of an attribute at her shoulder highway, revealed a number of support. The tile is unfortunately identifying the sitter. If a she is goddess, rectangular, timber-built dwellings broken but what survives must be one perhaps they are the wings of Cupid, abutting onto the road, one measuring of the best examples of a Romano- leaves or a peacock feather, and she is 3.5m x 20m. Behind these buildings, British 'doodle' or People's Art yet Venus. some of which revealed evidence of discovered in Britain and its importance bronze-working, lay a 40m-wide area lies in this. It seems to be the art of the In discussing the tile with David Allen, delineated by a suspected boundary ordinary man at leisure. There are traces Senior Keeper of Archaeology, ditch, which was dotted by various pits of mortar bordering the top edge of the Hampshire Museums Service, he and wells. A previous dig undertaken in 33 condition. The cells are curvilinear in design and ape the stylised lotus and ivy leaves that one finds on mosaics and on some enamelled skillet handles. Some are half leaves and they are roughly arranged around diamonds and arrow-head shapes. Five colours of enamel were used in the decoration: red, yellow, dark blue, light green and turquoise. It seems very likely that the Selborne Cup was Romano-British in origin, given the popularity of enamelling in the province (see Beeson, 2012, p13; Henig, 2011). Around fourteen enamelled cups survive from Roman Britain but most are smaller and none resembles the Selborne Cup. An incomplete and unprovenanced vessel in the French National Museum's collection at Saint-Germain-en-Laye bears some resemblance to the Fig. 7. The Alton Buckle. This rich and splendid example of a sixth- or Selborne Cup's decoration but it is seventh-century man's belt buckle, too damaged to compare the shape. Fig. 6. The Selborne Cup. A unique and high quality drinking vessel with found in a warrior's grave in Alton, CN Moore (Moore, 1978) provides a exceptionally fine enamelling that probably dates from the second is one of the finest discovered in good survey of examples known up to century AD. Photo: © Anthony Beeson. Britain. Photo: © Anthony Beeson. that date, but does not include this cup. the 1970s had revealed a flint-built The second of the treasures of the Curtis It is likely that British enamellers who bath-house, in use between the late- Museum (Fig. 6) is a unique enamelled had previously decorated horse harness third and late-fourth centuries, whose mug, 106mm in height, found in 1867 and weapons changed their products back wall was later found to conform to during the rebuilding of Blackmoor with the Roman conquest, especially in this suspected 40m western boundary. House at Woolmer Forest. It was the years following the Boudiccan Occupation of this civilian settlement enclosed in a grey pottery Alice Holt revolt. lasted from Flavian times until the late- urn that contained a Romano-British fourth or early-fifth centuries. It is cremation burial; the urn was of a type The third and rather spectacular exhibit estimated to have covered an area of at that became rare from the mid-second in the Curtis Museum's archaeological least 20 hectares. A mansio or posting century. Also included in the urn was a gallery is a sixth or seventh century station is suspected here, similar to bronze patera and a worn coin of Lucius Anglo-Saxon buckle found during those found at Iping, Hardham and Verus (AD 161–169). The mug became excavations in Alton in 1959–61 (Fig. 7). Alfoldean: a ditched enclosure known as the Selborne Cup and it It was discovered in grave 16 of the measuring some 212m x 178m, with the remained with the Selborne family Mount Pleasant Anglo-Saxon cemetery. Silchester to Chichester road cutting until it was sold at Christie's in 1975. The burial was that of an Anglo-Saxon through its long axis. The ditches Fortunately in 1983 it was purchased by warrior and contained a sword, shield appear to have been cut in the late- Hampshire County Council Museums boss, and spear heads, as well as second century and back-filled by the Service with the aid of the Victoria and numerous other small items (Evison, mid-third century. On the western side Albert Museum's Purchase Grant Fund, 1988). The buckle is made of silver-gilt of the road within the enclosure limited and it is thus now displayed at the Curtis and has a debased triangular shape, excavations have uncovered a large, Museum. The vessel's copper alloy body with three large studs. It is decorated aisled, timber building with a packed was made in two matching and with filigree wirework and niello and clay floor measuring at least 9.5m x tapering parts that, when joined mounted with cloisonné garnets and 18m. Vindomis is likely to have been the together at the middle, aped a barrel glass. The main triangular repoussé distribution centre for Alice Holt pottery in overall shape. A separate copper panel is a ropework semi-zoomorphic and was also the agricultural centre for baseplate was then attached to the design in gold filigree and set within a the villas in this fertile area. There is bottom where a rather clumsy repair repoussé field. The base sheet was evidence of a boom time connected was also made at some time. The rim of worked from the front and the wires with the pottery industry in the third copper may not be original as it covers soldered on to it. Different colours of and fourth centuries, and a presence some of the decoration. The existing gold were used in the ropework and the well into the fifth is suggested by coins handle also seems to be a replacement surrounding plait‑effect border. The of Arcadius and Honorius and rather and may not mirror what was the colour was determined by the alloy crude handmade pottery that post- original design, as there seems to have content of the wires. The buckle loop dates that from Alice Holt. The name been another on the opposite side at was engraved and decorated with Neatham (meaning 'cattle market') some time. Possibly, the original vessel niello, pressed into the prepared hints that the settlement was still in was without handles and was a beaker. channels, and uniquely also adorned existence in Saxon times. The site is fully However, the wonder of the piece is in with wire filigree. Below this a pair of published by Martin Millett and David the enamelled decoration. This is of birds' heads are joined to bodies of Graham (Millett & Graham, 1986). very high quality and survives in good shaped and spliced garnets. The white 34 inlay is believe to be shell. The object ROMAN ALTAR FOUND had seen considerable use by the time DURING EXCAVATIONS AT EPIGRAPHY QUIZ it was buried, with damage having MARYPORT, CUMBRIA Hints occurred to the decoration of the triangular sunken ropework panel. An intact, well-preserved altar Refresh your memory by looking at It was repaired in antiquity with two dedicated to Jupiter Optimus Maximus the commentary on Figs. 1 and 2 in fluted silver-gilt straps placed across was discovered in August 2012 during Latin epigraphy Part II, ARA News 27, the triangular panel. Such buckles were excavations at Maryport. It was lying pp36–37. attached to belts and worn around the face down, acting as packing in one of hips or waist by men at this era. several large post pits that formed the First of all, transcribe the text into lower foundations of a very large timber case, remembering that V and U are The Alton Buckle is the finest example building. Last year's excavation interchangeable. Note that some letter of early Anglo-Saxon craftsmanship to identified one or more such buildings combinations could be numbers, not have been found in Hampshire and on the highest point of the ridge that words. Once you have done this, try to must rank amongst the best for the overlooks the Solway Firth and Alauna, make sense of the words, with these whole country. It is another astonishing Maryport's Roman fort. clues: exhibit to find in a country museum. It is 1. What is the person's name? one of the most beautiful examples of The altar has been dated to the second 2. He is an army man, of a particular the goldsmiths' art of this era to have or third century AD. The inscription type. The word 'equestrian' might been discovered outside of the Sutton names Titus Attius Tutor, commander give you an idea. Hoo burial. The recent discovery of the of the First Cohort of Baetasians. At the 3. He served in a unit: think of a Roman Staffordshire Hoard shows just how time of writing the altar is on display at military unit containing the letters C, accomplished craftsmen were in this the Senhouse Museum in Maryport, H and O (it's a word in English as so-called Dark Age. Surely the skills of which also holds the 17 stone altars well). Romano-British goldsmiths must have that were discovered by Humphrey 4. In which particular unit did he survived and been passed down in the Senhouse. Professor Ian Haynes of serve? The unit came from a years after AD 410 and the so-called fall Newcastle University, who with Tony particular area in the Empire in what of Roman Britain. Wilmott is leading the excavation, said is now southern Bulgaria/European "The results of last summer's research Turkey/north-eastern Greece. As for Sweet Fanny Adams… she was were exceptionally important. Until last We usually spell that place with a local Alton infant whose gruesome year's excavation it was accepted by an extra letter H in the word. murder and dismemberment in 1867 Roman scholars worldwide that the 17 5. What does 'ann.' stand for? Think of was immortalised by British sailors Maryport altar stones excavated in 1870 'annual'. who referred to their newly introduced at the site – Britain's largest cache of 6. How old was he when he died? butchered and tinned mutton as Roman altars – had been buried as part 7. As an army man, how many years 'Sweet Fanny Adams'. The Curtis of a religious ceremony. It turns out they did he serve and receive his stipend? Museum covers the whole story of were re-used in the foundations of a large 8. What are 'heredes' (as in 'heredity')? the town's unfortunate daughter. Roman timber building or buildings." 9. 'EXS': this is a variant spelling of 'ex', meaning 'from, by, of'. References It is possible that the timber building 10. 'test': another word for a Will (see the was constructed in the early post- list of abbreviations for 'ex test'). Beeson, A, 2012, Anthony Beeson's Roman period. Several graves have 11. F: look up the list of abbreviations, Archaeological Round-up. ARA News 27, been found at the site during this year's and think of the context. pp12–13. excavation. One is a long-cist grave, 12. 'curave': 'took care of' (think of a containing a white quartz stone. Tony 'curator'). Evison, VI, 1988, An Anglo-Saxon Wilmott said "Such graves, found 13. H S E: see the list of abbreviations, or Cemetery at Alton, Hampshire. Hants. occasionally in the British west, and in the explanations for Figs. 1 and 2 in Field Club Archaeol. Soc. Monograph 4. southern Scotland, are the earliest field Latin epigraphy Part II. monuments that mark the late Roman Henig, M, 2011, Souvenir or Votive? The and early post-Roman Christian The translation Ilam Pan. ARA 20, pp13–15. settlements of the area." In one very small, deep grave was found a necklace Rufus Sita eques c(o)ho(rtis) VI | Tracum Millett, M, Graham, D, 1986, Excavations of glass beads, deposited in a corner ann(orum) XL stip(endiorum) XXII | on the Romano-British Small Town at rather than worn by the occupant; a heredes exs test(amento) f(aciendum) Neatham Hampshire, 1969–1979. Hants. small fragment of textile was recovered curave(runt) | h(ic) s(itus) e(st) Field Club Archaeol. Soc. Monograph 3. by wet-sieving the contents of the grave. 'Rufus Sita, trooper/cavalry man of the Moore, CN, 1978, An enamelled skillet- The excavation is run by the Senhouse sixth Cohort of Thracians, aged 40 with handle from Brough-on-Fosse and the Museum Trust and Newcastle 22 years' service. (His) heirs took care of distribution of similar vessels. Britannia University. The team includes making (this tombstone) under his Will. 9, pp319–27. archaeologists and students from the He lies here.' University and 42 local volunteers. Wilson, DR, 1973, Roman Britain in You can see a picture of the tombstone 1972, I. Sites Explored. Britannia 4. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-19224154 at www.roman-britain.org/places/ pp271–323. http://www.senhousemuseum.co.uk/blogg2012-tw5.html glevum.htm. 35 ARA Honorary Life Membership Award – Brian Philp

In 2012 the Board of Trustees awarded the villa being excavated and recorded an Honorary Life Membership to Brian before its destruction. Brian found that Philp, in recognition of his contribution the villa was more extensive and that to Romano-British archaeology. more of it remained than was originally thought. He sought and obtained Brian has been an archaeologist for support for the preservation of the site, sixty years, excavating many hundreds organised an open day attended by of sites of all periods. A visit in 1952 to over 2,000 people, and for a week gave the Roman fort at Reculver inspired tours of the site to local schoolchildren. Brian to take up archaeology; Consequently, there was substantial subsequently he set up a group to local support for the villa's preservation: excavate the site. A founder member of many visitors, including children, wrote RESCUE (see ARA News 27, pp10–11), to the Council asking for it to be saved. Brian was a pioneer of large‑scale Bromley Council agreed to reposition rescue archaeology. He was a founder the car park. Brian offered to arrange for member of the Council for Kentish the construction of a cover building for Archaeology, and has been its chairman the villa. He and his team of volunteers since 1991. In 1971 Brian created the carried out the work; it was another Kent Archaeological Rescue Unit; he has substantial construction scheme, with been its director since its inception. Brian Philp in West Wickham, Kent, which he identified 50 tons of concrete for the foundations. as the site of the lost Roman town of Noviomagus. During his career Brian has excavated The visitor centre opened in 1992 and dozens of Roman sites; these include cover building to protect and display it. has since received two national awards the villa at Keston in Kent, the type-site Brian re-excavated the Roman Painted and over 90,000 visitors. (standard archaeological model) House, which had been reburied for its Roman villa for south-east England. protection, and held open days for four The Painted House and Crofton Roman weeks to raise public support and funds villa are ARA partnership venues and may Brian has long been a supporter and for the project. Over 800 visitors be visited without charge by members. member of ARA. He manages the Roman contributed £5 or more. Government Painted House at Dover and the Crofton and other bodies made donations; Nich Hogben. Roman villa at Orpington. The sites are a total of £74,000 was raised. When the Further reading staffed by volunteers and regularly host cost of commercial tenders for the work Philp, B, 1981. The excavation of the school visits, providing workshops and exceeded estimates, Brian decided to Roman forts of the Classis Britannica at activities for the children. Neither site carry out the work himself. Dover 1970–77. Kent Archaeological would exist had it not been for Brian Rescue Unit, ISBN 0950212989. and his teams of volunteers. Brian led a team of volunteers in the construction of a two-storey cover Philp, B, 1989. The Roman house with Brian's rescue excavations at Dover building for the Painted House, working Bacchic murals at Dover. KARU, started in 1970, in advance of the seven days a week even during the ISBN 0947831061. construction of a bypass; he's been extreme heat of the summer of 1976. excavating there ever since. Among his They excavated deep foundation Philp, B, 1991. The Roman villa site at discoveries were the headquarters of trenches, using wheelbarrows to fill Keston, Kent. First report (excavations the British Roman fleet the Classis them with 100 tons of concrete, and 1968–1978). KARU, ISBN 094783107X. Britannica, a later Roman fort of the built the walls using steel supporting 'Saxon Shore', and the Painted House, rods and 11,000 concrete blocks, again Philp, B, 1996. The Roman villa site at a Roman building with the best moving all the materials manually. Brian Orpington, Kent. KARU, ISBN 0947831134. preserved in situ painted wall plaster and his team completed the building in in Britain. All of these were due to be 14 months; it includes a shop, offices, Philp, B, et al, 1999. The Roman villa site destroyed. Brian campaigned toilets, extensive displays and viewing at Keston, Kent. Second report vigorously for the preservation of these galleries that overlook the Roman (excavations 1967 and 1979–90). sites, raising public awareness and Painted House. The visitor centre was KARU, ISBN 0947831088. lobbying local authorities, the formally opened in 1977, has won four Department of the Environment and national awards and has had hundreds Philp, B, 2002. Archaeology in the front the MP for Dover. After a long struggle, of thousands of visitors, including line: 50 years of Kent rescue 1952–2002. the authorities agreed to raise the level members during the 2009 ARA tour KARU, ISBN 0947831207. of the bypass, allowing the forts to be of Roman forts of the 'Saxon Shore' reburied rather than destroyed, and to (ARA 20, pp73–5). Philp, B, 2005. The Excavation of the conserve and display the Painted House. Roman fort at Reculver, Kent. KARU, In 1988 Brian excavated Crofton Roman ISBN 094783124X. The Roman Painted House was villa. English Heritage believed that excavated by Brian in 1971, but by 1975 little of the villa remained, and had Philp, B, 2012. The discovery and no progress had been made by the local given permission to Bromley Council to Excavation of the Roman shore fort at authority towards the construction of a build a car park on the site subject to Dover. KARU, ISBN 0947831266. 36 Recent ARA Grants

St Algar's Roman villa, Somerset Clarkly Hill excavation, Burghead in Moray October 2011, grant of £500 March 2012, grant of £1,000 This scheduled Roman villa site is currently the focus of a Geophysical survey and small-scale excavation at Clarkly Hill in five‑year investigation into the pre-Roman to post-Roman 2008 and 2011 identified an extensive and long-lived Iron Age occupation at St Algar's Farm, West Woodlands near Selwood, settlement. Of key interest is the evidence for contacts with the Somerset, which was originally discovered in the 1960s. Roman world revealed by a scatter of Roman brooches and two An investigative clearance of topsoil in 1971, over 400m2, disturbed coin hoards of later second century date. Too often identified a large villa, a considerable quantity of third–fourth discoveries such as these have been treated as 'stray finds', century pottery, lead objects and tesserae. An evaluation in but here excavation can provide a highly significant context. 2010 found evidence of late-Roman glass working, a unique discovery for a rural site in Roman Britain as other known The applicant has recently completed a long-term excavation glass works are on military or urban sites. The 2010 evaluation on a strikingly similar site at Birnie only 12km away which has recovered over 400 fragments of glass and glass-working been interpreted as a local power centre having extensive waste along with 22 crucible sherds. contacts with Rome (ARA 21, forthcoming). Finds include two Severan silver coin hoards, best interpreted as diplomatic gifts In 2011 work concentrated on a possible temple or or subsidies as part of Roman foreign policy on this difficult mausoleum adjacent to the villa, along with parts of the linear frontier. Clarkly Hill appears very similar, lending support to enclosure which surrounds the winged corridor house and a the latter model. The work at Clarkly Hill can thus cast possible gate house. Work in 2012 was planned to investigate important fresh light on the impact of the Roman world in the villa and glass working site within the scheduled area. north-eastern Scotland and the long-term development of ARA members visited the site on 25 August 2012 as part of settlement and society along the Moray littoral. the day excursion to Somerset. Bosworth Roman temple, Leicestershire May 2012, grant of £1,000 At Bosworth in Leicestershire geophysical survey and recovered plough-soil finds indicate the presence of a nationally important Roman temple and an associated settlement. The finds, including the largest assemblage of horse-and-rider brooches known in Britain and over 700 coins spanning the whole of the Roman period, were clustered around a circular feature approximately 12m in diameter, near cropmark enclosures which may represent a contemporary settlement. Fragment of a crucible used for melting glass. Left, the interior surface; right, profile of the same piece (enlarged), with the glass deposit on the upper surface. Photo: © Ceri Lambdin, St Algar's Project Group. Circular structures associated with Roman temples predominantly cluster in the south-east of England, or in military contexts further north. The development of religious Newstead centenary publication sites in the transitional East Midlands is of great interest with the evidence from Bosworth being unique; it may represent March 2012, grant of £1,000 a distinct regional tradition. In 1905–10 excavations by James Curle at the Roman fort of Newstead (Trimontium; see ARA News 24, pp4–5) in the Bourne Park Roman villa survey, Kent Scottish Borders revolutionised views of Roman frontier forts. The excavations produced a remarkable range of well- May 2012, grant of £500 preserved material, published in such a way that it illuminated A previously unknown large Roman villa, off the main road lives on the Roman frontier. This highly influential volume is between Canterbury and Dover, is being revealed at Bourne much quoted and widely respected in Britain and on the Park. The project, which is sponsored by both Cambridge Continent as a foundation of Roman military studies. To mark and Southampton Universities, intends to determine the the centenary of the excavations and their publication, the relationship of this villa with the large number of Trimontium Trust and the National Museums Scotland have archaeological features and other finds from the surrounding commissioned a series of essays from leading authorities to area located by antiquarian excavations, modern road review the impact of the excavator, the site and the finds. construction, metal detecting and aerial photography. These cover a wide range of topics and offer an up-to-date perspective on this fort of international renown. Topographical and geophysical surveys last year produced promising results, the magnetometry revealing two wings of It is hoped that this will provide a volume of broad appeal, a large structure, including a probable range of baths. During and act as a springboard for the next century of work. the 2012 season the survey area will be extended and will also The commercial publishing arm of the National Museums include a training session in surveying methods for three Scotland has agreed to produce the volume, but the undergraduate students from Cambridge. In future seasons present cuts in public sector funding has necessitated the project hopes to extend the resistivity surveys with appeals to the various archaeological charities. ground-penetrating radar on specific features. 42