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The following handle holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation: http://hdl.handle.net/1887/59501

Author: Sharfman, J. Title: Troubled Waters : developing a new approach to maritime and underwater cultural heritage in sub-Saharan Africa Issue Date: 2017-12-19

Appendix I Review of Legislation

REVIEW OF LEGAL OBLIGATIONS IN THE result of this was that the shipwreck permitting system NATIONAL HERITAGE RESOURCES ACT, that had been in place since 1986 was re-opened and 25 OF 1999, RELATING TO COMMERCIAL permit applications for commercial salvage of historic EXPLOITATION OF HISTORIC shipwrecks had to be considered. The decision also SHIPWRECKS. meant that guidelines and principles that were contained in the Shipwreck Policy were no longer In 2008, the South African Heritage Resources applicable. This in turn meant that consideration of Agency (SAHRA) received queries regarding its permit applications must be concluded in light of both refusal to issue permits for the commercial salvage of existing and previous legislation. historic shipwrecks. These queries prompted SAHRA to re-examine the criteria for adjudicating permit At the same meeting, it was agreed that the applications in order to adhere to various legislative Department of Arts and Culture and SAHRA would directives governing permitting decisions and in co-operate to develop a comprehensive policy on order to ensure that it did not open itself to possible underwater cultural heritage management in general legal challenges resulting from misapplication of and historical shipwrecks in particular. It was agreed legislation. Specifically, SAHRA needed to adhere to that this new policy would come into force in 2010 the requirements of National Heritage Resources Act, and would be advised by the UNESCO Convention 25 of 1999 (NHRA) and its associated Regulations on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. (Regulation No 6820). Also of relevance in this Although South Africa has not ratified the UNESCO regard was the Promotion of Administrative Justice Convention, the Department of Arts and Culture Act, 2000 (PAJA). has recommended ratification and implementation by South Africa. The recommendation has been BACKGROUND submitted for the Parliamentary agenda. A draft Underwater Cultural Heritage Policy has also been On 25 January 2007, a meeting to discuss objections completed. Both the Convention and the Policy work to SAHRA’s Shipwreck Policy was held between towards halting commercial exploitation of historic The South African Heritage Resources Agency, the wrecks in South African waters. At the time of writing Department of Arts and Culture and interested public neither has been implemented. parties. The primary objection to the Policy was that it did not allow for the consideration of permit LEGISLATIVE SHORTCOMINGS applications by the SAHRA Permit Committee if those applications proposed a commercial component 1. Commercial Exploitation of Underwater Cultural to projects. Because the Policy could be legally Heritage interpreted to be in conflict with the National Heritage Resources Act, 1999 (NHRA), the SAHRA CEO Although it is recognised that archaeology and agreed that, subject to Council approval, it would be commercial exploitation of wrecks are fundamentally repealed. The matter was subsequently discussed by incompatible, the NHRA does not specifically ban SAHRA’s Council and the Policy was repealed. The commercial exploitation of the shipwreck resource

187 TROUBLED WATERS

and, in some instances, implies that sale of maritime be disposed of except to the collaborating and underwater cultural heritage resources is institution without the prior agreement of condoned. Section 35 (4) states that: SAHRA.

(4) No person may, without a permit issued 30 (5) Objects recovered from wrecks older by the responsible heritage resources than 1850 or deemed to be significant by authority – SAHRA will be regarded as a study collection and may not be dispersed, sold or otherwise (c) trade in, sell for private gain, disposed of without special permission of export or attempt to export from SAHRA. the Republic any category of archaeological or palaeontological 30 (6) In the event that an agreement material or object, or any meteorite; regarding the division of wreck material between the collaborating institution and the Section 32 of the NHRA states that: permit holder is approved by SAHRA …

(1) An object or collection of objects, or Chapter VII of the Regulations referred to above a type of object or list of object, whether applies to applications to: specific or generic, that is part of the national estate and the export of which SAHRA deems 1 (c) trade in, sell for private gain or export it necessary to control may be declared a from the Republic heritage object, including – (i) any category of wreck material (a) objects recovered from the soil or object; or waters of South Africa, including archaeological and palaeontological Although the Act does not deal specifically with objects … the details of sale of wreck material or objects, the implication is that it is permissible under current It continues to describe actions that may be applied to legislation. For this reason, an application for a such objects, including: shipwreck permit cannot, at this time, be refused on the grounds that it is for a commercial project. Because (12) The owner of a heritage object… must new policy and the UNESCO Convention for the notify SAHRA of the name and address of Protection of Underwater Heritage have not yet been the new owner when such an object is sold or accepted into South African legal framework, these otherwise alienated … cannot be used as reference tools for decision-making on permit applications. Chapter VIII of the NHRA’s Regulations applies to permit applications for shipwrecks. It contains the 2. Minimum Archaeological Qualifications following stipulations: The South African Heritage Resources Agency 25 (2) these regulations do not apply to any may prescribe standards of practice and minimum person applying for a permit to trade in, qualifications for working on heritage resources. sell for private gain, export or attempt to Section 25 of the Act stipulates that: export from the Republic any category of wreck material or objects. Such applications (2) A heritage resources authority may – must be made in terms of the regulations in Chapter VII. [Application for Permit to (h) subject to the provisions of section Export a Heritage Object (Section 32(21))] 59, make and from time to time amend 30 (4) No object recovered from a wreck may regulations relating to any matter which the

188 APPENDIX I REVIEW OF LEGISLATION

heritage authority concerned considers to be of, and commitment to, the use of underwater necessary or expedient to prescribe to fulfil archaeological recording and excavation procedures its functions and implement its powers and and methods” as required by Chapter VIII 28(2) of duties under this Act, including — the Regulations. The development of an excavation (i) the standards of practice strategy may be the most suitable way for the and qualifications required of archaeologist to demonstrate his/her competence and individuals, institutions or other a suitable document on which the Permit Committee bodies for the performance of work can adjudicate applications. The development of on heritage resources protected in guidelines, standards and qualifications that can be terms of, and in the various fields included in the Regulations has been suspended until covered by, this Act; the Department of Arts and Culture gives a directive for maritime and underwater cultural heritage Regulations, however, refer only vaguely to required resources management through the implementation of qualifications in Chapter VIII (28): its national Policy.

(3) If a wreck is older than 1850 or deemed to 3. Minimum Standards and Suitability of Collaborating be significant by SAHRA, a suitably qualified Institutions maritime archaeologist, approved by SAHRA and preferably employed at a recognised Permit applications for activities aimed at underwater institution, must be included as a full member cultural heritage require that the applicant have a written of the team: Provided that if a maritime agreement from a collaborating institution which archaeologist is not available, a suitably “supervises and advises on the recovery of objects, qualified approved archaeologist may be accepts objects as part of its collection and undertakes included in the team, on condition that he/ their curation and conservation”, and performs other she remain in regular contact with SAHRA agreed upon functions. Again, legislation does not during the work. If there is no archaeologist elaborate on the standards. Chapter I of the Regulations available at the collaborating institution, defines a collaborating institute simply as: arrangements for the inclusion of a suitable archaeologist on the team must be made in “collaborating institution” means a museum or consultation with SAHRA. university or other institution approved by SAHRA, which has a written collections policy, a proven Section 29 of the Regulations adds that: capacity to conserve and curate objects and the will to do so; (5) The team archaeologist referred to in regulation 28 (3) is not obliged to dive with Further functions of the institution, or other parties to the team, but may do so at his/her discretion. the application, may be further defined in a Heritage Agreement as elaborated in Section 30 of Chapter VIII Although SAHRA may approve or disapprove of an of the regulations. archaeologist, the criteria by which qualifications can be judged, are lacking. Following the SAHRA As was discussed above in reference to minimum Council’s repeal of the Shipwreck Policy, SAHRA has qualifications of archaeologists, no guidelines for no guidelines in place that would determine minimum recognition of institutions exists at present. Again, the qualifications, professional affiliations or experience request for a detailed conservation plan may be the of archaeologists working on a shipwreck site. Legal most suitable manner in which to judge the suitability opinion has, therefore, deemed that any decision of an institution. Conservation and curation require regarding qualifications cannot be unreasonably specific facilities and are perhaps more easily assessed prejudicial to the applicant should an archaeologist be prior to commencement of excavation or issuing of an able “to demonstrate a knowledge and understanding excavation permit.

189 TROUBLED WATERS

CURRENT REGULATORY CRITERIA FOR directions as may be specified in the permit, THE ASSESSMENT OF APPLICATIONS including a condition — FOR PERMITS TO EXCAVATE HISTORIC (a) that the applicant give security SHIPWRECKS in such form and such amount determined by the heritage Current criteria for the assessment of applications resources authority concerned, for excavation permits for shipwrecks are largely having regard to the nature and contained in the Regulations. In the absence of extent of the work referred to in the Guidelines, these criteria relate principally to permit, to ensure the satisfactory administrative procedure and refer only to standards completion of such work or the and qualifications as described above. There are, curation of objects and material however, certain sections of the Regulations (with recovered during the course of the reference to sections of the NHRA) that allow work; or SAHRA to establish conditions, standards and (b) providing for the recycling requirements of an excavation should a permit or deposit in a materials bank of be issued. Chapter VIII allows SAHRA to assess historical building materials; or whether or not requirements are being met on an (c) stipulating that design proposals annual basis through reports and, during excavation be revised; or through monitoring and site visitation. Specifically: (d) regarding the qualifications and expertise required to perform 32. (1) Every permit holder must, by 31 the actions for which the permit is December of any given year, submit to issued. SAHRA- (a) an annual progress report, in The authority of SAHRA to conduct on site accordance with Guidelines, which monitoring is given in Chapter II of the Regulations: must include a description of the work done during the year, an 6. A heritage inspector or other authorised accurate site plan with the positions representative of SAHRA may at any of all objects excavated or collected reasonable time inspect any site or object for clearly marked, and a list of all which a permit has been issued or for which objects removed from the site and a permit is being applied. their current whereabouts; Conditions for granting of a permit and requirements (2) A final report, conforming to the for that permit to remain valid can be detailed in standards set out in the Guidelines, must be a Heritage Agreement as set out by Section 42 of submitted to SAHRA within six months of the Act. Non-adherence to conditions stipulated in the date of expiry of the permit. such an agreement would allow SAHRA to cancel a permit. Should a permit be issued, the requirements can be determined by SAHRA in terms of Section 48 of the Act:

(2) On application by any person in the manner prescribed under subsection (1), a heritage resources authority may in its discretion issue to such person a permit to perform such actions at such time and subject to such terms, conditions and restrictions or

190 Appendix II Element Decision Tables

191 TROUBLED WATERS

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202 APPENDIX II ELEMENT DECISION TABLES

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Appendix III Lake Fundudzi Questionaire

205 TROUBLED WATERS

Hello, our names are Lusanda and Edward. We conduct interviews for the African Center for Heritage Activities, an independent research organisation. We carry out research on heritage places and activities across South Africa and are conducting a survey on the heritage in your area, including the economic effects of heritage activity. [Define/explain heritage – to be added separately]. We wonder if you would be so kind as to participate in our study. All the information that you give me will remain strictly confidential. You will not be asked to give your name, or any information that might be used to identify you. We will only be studying the responses of the community as a whole. The interview will take about 40 minutes. Are you willing to participate? If no or in doubt, close interview.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHICS AND GENERAL ATTITUDES

1 Gender Male Female 2 Age in years Specify either in years or in terms of event/chief at time:

3 Place where born (village/town) Specify place:

4 How many people live permanently in this household? Specify a number Under 18 years 18-65 years 65 years and over for each of the age categories given.

5 Are you currently being paid a wage or salary to work on a regular Yes No basis, whether full time or part time? Regular means you would get this wage or salary in most months (more often than not) 6 What kind of work do you usually do in this job? In other words, what is your occupation or job title?

7 How much do you earn in an average month? Less than R1000– R3000– R6000– More than R1000 R3000 R6000 R10000 R10000

8 How many people in your household earn a regular income? Regular Specify number: means a wage or salary you would get in most months (more often than not) 9 Do you or anyone else in your household receive a government grant? Yes No Please remember that all your responses are confidential and will not be shared with anyone else. 10 What type(s) of government grant do you or anyone else in your State (South African Government) old age household receive? Again, please remember that all your responses are pension confidential and will not be shared with anyone else. Tick as many as Unemployment insurance (UIF) apply. Workmen’s compensation Disability grant Child support grant Foster care grant Care dependency grant Other (specify)

11 Have you ever earned money from work relating to your heritage? For Ever Yes No example, showing people around your village, or selling traditional earned clothing or ornaments. If so, what work was it? How Selling art work/curios Tour guiding ((having tourists or visitors pay you to show them around?) Home stays (having tourists or visitors pay to stay in your home?) Language courses (teaching people to speak your language?) Living heritage performances (performing traditional music, dance or poetry?) Cooking classes (teaching people to cook traditional food?)

206 APPENDIX III LAKE FUNDUDZI QUESTIONAIRE

Other (specify)

12 What is the total monthly income in your household, from all sources Less than R1000 – R3000 – R6000 – More than (salaries, wages, grants)? R1000 R3000 R6000 R10000 R10000

1 3 What cultural activities and beliefs are important for you? Open-ended response.

14 I’m now going to read out a list of nearby places. Please tell me which Dzivha Fundudzi (Lake Fundudzi) of these places in your area are important for your traditions and Bako la Raluvhimba culture, including your religion? Tick as many as apply. Phiphidi waterfall system Mapangubwe Nevhutalu Forest Thathe Forest Vhutanda Forest Musanzhe Forest Dzata ruins Raluvhimba Cave Other (specify)

15 What would you consider as the one biggest problem of your area (village)? Specify just one problem.

SECTION B: ATTITUDES TOWARDS LAKE FUNDUDZI

16 Is Lake Fundudzi of cultural importance to you? Yes Not any more No 17 What kind of religion do you practice? 18 What access does your community have to Lake Fundudzi? Free access Some access, but No access limited in some way (needs permission, payment, etc) 19 I’m now going to read out a list of activities. Please tell me which of I don’t do any activities around the lake these activities you or anyone else in your household do around Lake Activities about my beliefs (e.g. religious or other) Fundudzi? Tick as many as apply. Activities for my health and well-being (e.g. cleaning, cleansing, washing) Activities for food or income (e.g. fishing, grazing livestock)

207 TROUBLED WATERS

Activities about my historical linkages (e.g. visiting family sites, ancestry) Tourism activities Other (please specify)

20 Do people agree what should be done with Lake Fundudzi? Yes Do not know No 21 What are the debates or tensions or issues around the future of the lake? Open-ended response.

22 What do you think are the reasons why some people are not happy for Disrespect of cultural practices that make the lake Lake Fundudzi to be declared a heritage site? sacred Commercialising the area through making it into a tourist site Don’t want outsiders interfering with the site Loss of control of activities associated with the lake Unwanted free access to outsiders Other (specify)

23 Do you think the lake and the valley need protection? Yes Do not know No

24 Do you think Lake Fundudzi should be declared a heritage site? Yes No NOTE: If answered YES here, ask questions 25Y-32Y and end survey. If answered NO here, ask questions 33N-36N and end survey

208 APPENDIX III LAKE FUNDUDZI QUESTIONAIRE

For those answering YES to Q23, ask questions 25Y – 32Y and end survey 25Y I’m now going to read out a list of possible consequences of building a The area will be protected from industrial heritage site at Lake Fundudzi. Please tell me which of these you think development will happen if Lake Fundudzi is declared a heritage site? Tick as many as The environment will be protected from overfishing, apply. mining, and cultivation of crops The environment will be harmed because more people will come and have access It will bring tourists to the area It will take control away from traditional leaders It will create jobs It will bring infrastructure development to the area It will anger the ancestors because of a lack of respect for the sacred status of the lake It will not be managed properly (due to lack of skills of government officials, or corruption) Other (specify)

26Y I’m now going to read out a list of groups involved in the area. Who do Everyone will benefit equally you think will benefit the most if Lake Fundudzi is declared a heritage People from the Vhatavhatsindi clan site? If you think that only some people within a village will benefit (for People from Tshifume village example, if men and women would benefit differently), please give People from Tshiavaha village details. Tick at most 3 responses. People from Thononda village People from Tshiheni village People from Tshitangani village People from Tsharotha village People from Makuleni village People from other villages (specify) Fudzi Development Committee Local interest groups (for example, Ndima community services, Vhuga ha Vhangana, LEDET) Limpopo government National government SAHRA (South Afircan Heritage Resources Agency) Outsiders (please specify)

Other (please specify)

209 TROUBLED WATERS

27Y I’m now going to read out a list of groups involved in the area (this list is Everyone will benefit equally the same as the previous question). Who do you think will benefit the People from the Vhatavhatsindi clan least if Lake Fundudzi is declared a heritage site? If you think that only People from Tshifume village some people within a village will benefit (for example, if men and People from Tshiavaha village women would benefit differently), please give details. Tick at most 3 People from Thononda village responses. People from Tshiheni village People from Tshitangani village People from Tsharotha village People from Makuleni village People from other villages (specify) Fudzi Development Committee Local interest groups (for example, Ndima community services, Vhuga ha Vhangana, LEDET) Limpopo government National government SAHRA (South Afircan Heritage Resources Agency) Outsiders (please specify)

Other (please specify)

28Y I’m now going to read out a list of groups involved in the area. Who of Everybody should be able to visit the these should have access to the heritage site? By “access” we mean that site people would be allowed to visit the area. If you think that only some People from the Vhatavhatsindi clan people within a village should get access (for example, if men and People from Tshifume village women should be treated differently), please give details. Tick as many People from Tshiavaha village as apply People from Thononda village People from Tshiheni village People from Tshitangani village People from Tsharotha village People from Makuleni village People from other villages (specify) Outsiders Others (please specify)

29Y I’m now going to read out a list of groups involved in the area. Who of People from the Vhatavhatsindi clan these should have ownership of the activities at the heritage site? By People from Tshifume village “ownership” we mean playing a role in managing the site and making People from Tshiavaha village

210 APPENDIX III LAKE FUNDUDZI QUESTIONAIRE

decisions about how the site is run and how income generated by the site People from Thononda village is spent. If you think that only some people within a village should have People from Tshiheni village ownership (for example, if men and women should be treated People from Tshitangani village differently), please give details. Tick as many as apply People from Tsharotha village People from Makuleni village People from other villages (specify) Fudzi Development Committee Local interest groups (for example, Ndima community services, Vhuga ha Vhangana, LEDET) Government SAHRA (South Afircan Heritage Resources Agency) Outsiders with experience of running a heritage site Others (please specify)

30Y How would you like your community (that is, the people from your village) to be involved? Open-ended response.

31Y I’m now going to read out a list of possible features that a heritage site A visitors center might contain. Which of these features would you like to see at a Lake Signs, trails and exhibits explaining the history of the Fundudzi heritage site? Please also provide us with any other features area you would like to be included. Overnight accommodation Restaurant Parking for cars and buses Toilets and washrooms Education programs: materials and activities for telling people stories about the area Participation of schools and universities (visits from these groups to learn about the Lake) A museum Training of qualified professionals to manage the site Training of qualified tour guides Volunteer programs (for outsiders to come and work

211 TROUBLED WATERS

at the site during certain times of the year) Other (please specify):

32Y Should tourists be allowed to visit the heritage site? If you feel that some Yes No restrictions or conditions should apply (for example, if only some areas Restrictions/conditions: Open-ended response. should be open, or if the site should only open for some times of the year), please give these.

For those answering NO to Q23, ask questions 33N – 36N and end survey 33N I’m now going to read out a list of possible consequences of building a The area would be protected from industrial heritage site at Lake Fundudzi. Please tell me which of these you think development will happen if Lake Fundudzi was declared a heritage site? Tick as many The environment would be protected from as apply. overfishing, mining, and cultivation of crops The environment would be harmed because more people will come and have access It would bring tourists to the area It would take control away from traditional leaders It would create jobs It would bring infrastructure development to the area It would anger the ancestors because of a lack of respect for the sacred status of the lake It would not be managed properly (due to lack of skills of government officials, or corruption) Other (specify)

34N I’m now going to read out a list of groups involved in the area. Who do Everyone will benefit equally you think will benefit the most if Lake Fundudzi was declared a heritage People from the Vhatavhatsindi clan site? If you think that only some people within a village will benefit (for People from Tshifume village example, if men and women would benefit differently), please give People from Tshiavaha village details. Tick at most 3 responses. People from Thononda village People from Tshiheni village People from Tshitangani village

212 APPENDIX III LAKE FUNDUDZI QUESTIONAIRE

People from Tsharotha village People from Makuleni village People from other villages (specify) Fudzi Development Committee Local interest groups (for example, Ndima community services, Vhuga ha Vhangana, LEDET) Limpopo government National government SAHRA (South Afircan Heritage Resources Agency) Outsiders (please specify)

Other (please specify)

35N I’m now going to read out a list of groups involved in the area (this list is Everyone will benefit equally the same as the previous question). Who do you think will benefit the People from the Vhatavhatsindi clan least if Lake Fundudzi was declared a heritage site? If you think that only People from Tshifume village some people within a village will benefit (for example, if men and People from Tshiavaha village women would benefit differently), please give details. Tick at most 3 People from Thononda village responses. People from Tshiheni village People from Tshitangani village People from Tsharotha village People from Makuleni village People from other villages (specify) Fudzi Development Committee Local interest groups (for example, Ndima community services, Vhuga ha Vhangana, LEDET) Limpopo government National government SAHRA (South Afircan Heritage Resources Agency) Outsiders (please specify)

Other (please specify)

213 TROUBLED WATERS

36N What do you think should be done to manage the heritage of Lake Fundudzi? Open-ended response.

37N Under what conditions would you support the declaration of Lake Fundudzi as a heritage site? In order words, what conditions would need to change for you to change your mind? Open-ended response.

214 Appendix IV MADP Assesment

ANALYSIS OF COURSE ASSESSMENT Answers suggested that while participants identified RESPONSES value in the programme, both as a training venture and as an awareness raising initiative, and that it had Questionnaires were circulated to 39 of the shifted public perceptions of the field, it fell short 133 participants, including tutors, institutional of showcasing maritime and underwater cultural managers and trainees and one-on-one interviews heritage as a generally relevant and mainstream were conducted, where possible. Responses sub-discipline within heritage. The Programme were received from 32 individuals (24% of total had gained success by moving the shipwreck- participants) . Although programme evaluators focused definition of underwater cultural heritage recorded responders’ names, they were withheld as specified by relevant legislative frameworks from the evaluation report in all but one instance. into an inclusive environment. By doing this it was When asked for general comments about the possible to promote the importance of maritime appropriateness and effectiveness of the Programme, and underwater cultural heritage in a more diverse 96.9% of respondents agreed that it had been manner and therefore garner acceptance of the successful. Gribble and Jeffery state that “there were field at public and political levels. The Programme a number of comments to the effect that practical also allowed heritage practitioners to draw local skill development conducted during the courses was stakeholders into management roles. By showing good and the value of the [Maritime Archaeology that maritime and underwater cultural heritage Development Programme] to people had been provided a link between submerged and terrestrial revealed”42, and “all respondents considered that sites, that both submerged and terrestrial sites MUCH was an important heritage asset, requiring formed part of the maritime cultural landscape, protection and management”43. and that the events that played out at one site set the context for what happened at another site, When pressed for more detail, however, they allowed heritage managers could show although sites may for some perceived shortcomings and commented not be a directly recognisable part of an individual’s that: history and heritage, their influence-consequence relationship with sites that were directly relevant “… it made people aware and is a very good made them worthy of protection. But these gains start.” (author’s italics) were generally limited for Programme participants and connections often felt forced. Neither experts “Training is relevant … but it was difficult nor trainers nor beneficiaries could, however, to judge if training is effective [without long suggest a practical way forward for developing term monitoring and assessment].”44 the field to achieve natural, widespread buy-in. Respondents to the questionnaire suggested the inclusion of non-traditional sites or moving training 42 Gribble, J. and Jeffery, W. (2012). South African Maritime Archaeology Development Programme. 2010-2012. activities to better suit diverse narratives. External Evaluation Report. Unpublished Report. South African Heritage Resources Agency. p 12 43 Ibid. p 14 44 Ibid. p 11

215 TROUBLED WATERS

“[Maritime and underwater cultural heritage to attract new practitioners, and the lack of expertise should include] maritime history, including meant that nothing was being done to indicate that examples of non-colonial wrecks.”45 protection, archaeology and scientific endeavour were preferable alternatives to treasure hunting and would “Move [training] onto traditional, lead to lifting public indifference. To overcome these indigenous sites.”46 obstacles, it was necessary to grow capacity from a base level and create an environment for engagement The challenges that had existed during the development across a wide socio-cultural cross-section. Any phases of the Programme proposal, including those intervention of this nature would, therefore, need to related to an awareness of Governmental indifference be accessible and require no financial outlay from its towards underwater cultural heritage had continued potentially low-income target audience. The scale of into the implementation phases of the project. Although the programme, together with its intent to provide the South African Heritage Resources Agency’s capacity and skills across the board therefore relied Chief Executive Officer was a vocal proponent of heavily on institutional investment and political will, the Programme, Executive and middle management as described above. Despite the best efforts of the offered little support and while the Department of Arts Programme designers and implementers and despite and Culture had invested extensively in the Youth verbal support from Government, the early phases of Development Programme portion of the project in the Programme continually failed to gain commitment its launch year, they had adopted a “wait and see” in real terms. The frustration felt by those who sought position in the second year. At the time of compiling to establish long-term sustainability stemmed from the programme evaluation report, the Department had a perception that extended Government patronage not announced its intention to hold a second Youth would rely on making the maritime theme more Development event and none of the participating accessible to a new public. How this could be done institutions would commit funding to either continuing eluded the implementing team and advocates of the the Maritime Archaeology Development Programme project. When asked how the Programme could be in its existing form or with an adapted and updated improved to be more inclusive, respondents to the approach. As Gribble and Jeffery pointed out, 75% of course evaluation questionnaire continued to espouse respondents or interviewees indicated that while the similar sentiments for enhancing the Programme’s social and political environment that existed at the time reach and applicability. The establishment of a was “conducive to the implementation of an effective management system in which maritime and underwater and sustainable Maritime and Underwater Cultural cultural heritage was shown to be universally relevant Heritage programme in South Africa”47, a lack of and a development programme that would benefit political awareness, an unwillingness for government communities who engaged with heritage both socially to devote funds to maritime and underwater cultural and economically, was crucial. heritage and a lack of political will hampered the implementation of an effective Programme and a “In order to reach a broader audience, viable management structure. Institutional inputs of candidates from the different provinces could this nature were key contributors if the Programme be trained up to a certain level so that they were to be sustainable. At the outset, maritime can ‘spread the word’ in their communities. It heritage practitioners had faced two primary obstacles doesn’t have to be NAS training; it could be a as previously discussed. Firstly, there was negligible variation that is relevant to the communities capacity in the field and secondly, there was relatively who live in a particular area – for example, little public interest in underwater cultural heritage as a Lake Fundudzi. Using relevant information result of historical baggage related to treasure hunting and the local language, people will be and perception. These difficulties formed a negative empowered to protect sites that are important feedback loop: public apathy meant that the field failed to them [author’s emphasis].”48

45 Ibid. p 10 46 Ibid. p 11 47 Ibid. p 14 48 Ibid. p 13

216 APPENDIX IV MADP ASSESMENT

The final phrase of this astute answer would unlock cultural heritage = shipwrecks” was strong. This was an evolution in approaching maritime and underwater evident in the examples used for training and the cultural heritage and its management. composition of the participant body. The majority of trainees were divers from institutions interested The response as a whole offers important insights into in expanding their recreational diving offerings, or the degree of success achieved by the Programme. individuals interested in gaining new qualifications Specifically, it addresses core issues of relevance and or in developing skills to work more effectively the reach of awareness raising efforts. If underwater on underwater sites. It was envisioned that these cultural heritage is to be brought into the mainstream, individuals could be recruited as volunteers to is specialised skills training aimed predominantly at assist professional heritage practitioners in their shipwreck sites and shipping infrastructure the most management activities. In the closing phases of effective approach to accomplishing this? While such the Programme, and following the introduction of skills undoubtedly benefit heritage managers and Legacy Sites to introduce a more diverse audience practitioners and even individuals or groups with a to the discipline, 58% of those who responded to casual interest in conducting activities on submerged Gribble and Jefferey’s evaluation questionnaire felt sites, the practical nature of these competences means that the Programme had improved understanding that they do not capture the attention of stakeholders of maritime and underwater cultural heritage and with an intellectual interest in the maritime past or the reasons for its management50. This meant that those who do not identify a personal cultural link a larger group of managers would be able to apply with submerged maritime historical sites. Again, course content to their own sites by extrapolating designers of a relevant approach to maritime and management principles applied to Legacy Sites to underwater cultural heritage management needed to similar sites in their environment. This did not, of rethink methodologies that would connect a much course, mean that managers felt connected to sites. larger population to their maritime past in developing Rather, they understood the need for protection more new strategies and apply them to management deeply. models. The response provided the designers of management Management and development strategies needed approaches further opportunities to reflect on to be practicably applicable. While the Maritime potential strategies that could both fill capacity gaps Archaeology Development Programme provided and broaden the appeal of maritime and underwater participants with a definite skill set, the challenge cultural heritage. Although not implemented, of applying skills acquired during the Programme it was thought that management planning and within participants’ day-to-day activities was a performance could be aided by the establishment theme that ran throughout Gribble and Jeffery’s of a network of capacitated agencies, professionals evaluation report. Participants stated that while and volunteers established in the course of the the acquired skills had value, they struggled to Programme. Connected networks could share skills convert them into applicable strategies or practical and expertise, easing the burden on individual actions that would assist with management of the agencies to employ many teams all capacitated with sites that they interacted with49. The introduction the same competencies. The teams did not need to of the Legacy Sites concept late in the Programme have the expertise to engage with all site types, nor somewhat offset this obstacle, but was limited in did they need to identify with all site types. Instead, scope. Sites that were included as Legacy Sites were individuals from other agencies and teams within the still sites that heritage managers and archaeologists network could be called upon to advise on policy believed were important. They did not necessarily decisions and management approaches as required. resonate across the spectrum of course participants. It would even be possible to call on capacitated This did not wholly detract from their value. At the individuals from within the private sector who had start of the Programme, the view that “underwater been upskilled through the training programme. The

49 Ibid. p 13 50 Ibid. p 15

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network proposed by the Maritime Archaeology of individuals associated directly with the South Development programme was an advance on the African Heritage Resources Agency and identified as Tanzanian management model in that managers potential employees of the Agency were specifically could not only make inter-institutional cooperational invited to attend all three years. This did not exclude agreements, but could also call on a pool of public participation across the programme by others who to assist and advise at heritage sites. Basic capacity wished to do so, but this was only by request. The result dilemmas that posed challenges to individuals was that lasting networking opportunities did not working in heritage management or interested in present themselves to participants, and questionnaire protecting and promoting maritime and underwater respondents indicated that they were disappointed cultural heritage sites could be significantly alleviated that they could not deem this Programme objective should the network be established. a success51 as it would have assisted their own management objectives and mandates. In terms of Unfortunately, the Programme failed to achieve this developing an overall strategic management model goal. The Programme’s short-term goals hindered the applicable to sub-Saharan Africa where capacity and establishment of the coastal heritage management governmental funding are limited, the creation of a network. Because a decision had been reached that supportive network for heritage managers is crucial. each field season would target different stakeholder Links between managers and experts will also play groups, individuals who would ideally have been a critical role in decision-making processes and able to come together to discuss and develop strategic planning and in lightening the load placed management strategies, capacity needs and training on practitioners who, in the absence of assistance, requirements did not return to the field schools every are often expected to be Jacks-of-all-trades. year. Although a small number of people participated in the training programme for the full three years, Gribble and Jefferey agreed that the capacitated many who could make up the potential network coastal network would greatly enhance management did not meet and could, therefore, not continue to potential and capacity. In light of the expansion of the develop a shared capacity network. In hindsight, the scope of maritime and underwater cultural heritage decision to train larger numbers of people instead to include the Legacy Sites and other non-traditional of providing longer term engagement was poor. aspects of the maritime past, they suggested that Those participants that took part throughout the the coastal network would provide an opportunity programme formed a close professional group who to identify further unknown site types or provide continue to practise in the heritage field and continue further examples for comparison. By offering more to call on one another for advice and assistance. specific training that centred on the competencies Individuals who participated in single field schools of members of the network, Gribble and Jeffery have not remained connected and, in the absence ventured that experts in a variety of capacities could of support, many have drifted away from maritime be created. For example, instruction focused on and underwater cultural heritage and abandoned the heritage management, legislation and policy aimed skills acquired during the Programme. at law enforcement agencies would give officials the armoury to apply their expertise in combatting illegal Having taken the decision to make the Programme treasure hunting. By the same token, conservation broadly inclusive and accessible and to make every training at museums would allow staff to better handle effort to publicise maritime and underwater cultural waterlogged archaeological finds. A separation of heritage across a wide cross-section of industries and duties would empower individual specialists within communities, the Programme attempted to attract their area of expertise and, when included into a individuals from the various identified stakeholder coastal network, proffer a cost-effective means to groups. The first year focused on individuals from better manage a more extensive set of endeavours the diving community and general public, year two required for administrating maritime and underwater on governmental organisations and year three on cultural heritage. By creating a network of specialists, students from academic institutions. Only a handful 51 Ibid. p 15

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the management structures required for maritime over a relatively large geographical area and over and underwater cultural heritage would be more a variety of institutions limits the opportunities for efficiently safeguarded. The status quo of maritime the group to coordinate work. Without an ongoing, and underwater cultural heritage at the time of the sustainable central management core with the ability Maritime Archaeology Development Programme to fund and commandeer experts when necessary, exposed the challenges faced by heritage managers. It programmes become diluted by availability of being unlikely that institutions would assign already individual members and bureaucratic processes. stretched budgets to the creation of maritime and underwater cultural heritage management positions, Public participation in a coastal network proved let alone capacitated teams, this management model more successful. The difficulties of assigning proposed that individuals already in positions that institutional funding to the maintenance of official involved daily marine activity could use entry level coastal networks and the implementation of out- skills to make basic assessments of sites and propose of-mandate management strategies is alleviated best-practice management strategies. Where further by encouraging the diving community and other intervention was required, practitioners could call interested stakeholders to establish small community on practical assistance from the coastal network projects. By assisting in the formation of amateur and expertise from professional archaeologists, archaeological groups, heritage managers could conservators and policy makers. Because the coastal promote sustainability through awareness. As management network could not be effectively and vocational groups begin to implement projects, an sustainably established, limited capacity meant that awareness of their activities should grow amongst there was a need for managers who were actively the diving community. As a direct result of the practising to carry a wide range of skills. In turn, Maritime Archaeology Development Programme the this meant that the success of the management model University of Stellenbosch Underwater Club (MUC) relied on individuals rather than job positions within and the Old Mutual Sub-Aqua Club (OMSAC) organisations. If any of the managers left, a significant involved themselves in internally organised amount of organisational memory was lost. With this projects. OMSAC joined the Institute for Maritime in mind, the proposal to diffuse expertise amongst Technology, a parastatal based at the Simons Town a network of individuals also offered a solution to Naval Base in Cape Town in mapping the the Clan critical capacity losses. It was clear that a network Stuart, wrecked in Simons Bay in 1914, while MUC of expertise and support was an essential ingredient was enthusiastic to assist the South African Heritage to the development of effective management systems Resources Agency in mapping the Brunswick, an in the developing world. Again, the contention was English East Indiaman wrecked in Simons Bay in that it would be more effective to train a series of 1805. The former is ongoing and is producing a specialists at a variety of institutions than a generalist variety of outcomes including geophysical surveys at a single institution. and historical research. Because the South African Heritage Resources Agency did not assign funding to An added advantage of this approach would be that its Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit, it offered further opportunities to identify a variety the latter partnership failed to materialise, although of different, locally relevant maritime cultural sites, Harding (2013), supported by divers from the Unit thus expanding the research potential of maritime produced detailed geophysical and analogue site and underwater cultural heritage and allow tailored maps as part of an archaeology Honours dissertation training to suit these specific sites. at the University of Cape Town.

While the notion of specialisation networks In the absence of official coastal networks, the ability appears to offer a silver bullet solution to maritime to establish enduring and effective management and underwater cultural heritage management in capacity dispersed over a wide geographic or southern Africa, it exhibits some weaknesses as institutional area could be stimulated by continued experienced in Tanzania. The dispersal of expertise public interest in management or project outcomes,

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such as those described above. Demands for good through social media but were unable to add this duty management practice at public level may stimulate to their already heavy workloads. Assistance from network activities. Public attention, however, requires the Department of Arts and Culture and the Public an awareness of both maritime and underwater cultural Relations division within the South African Heritage heritage or maritime archaeology as disciplines, and Resources Agency was not forthcoming. of their output. It was, therefore, to this sphere that the Maritime Archaeology Development Programme Media surrounding the Maritime Archaeology devoted significant attention. Public access to peer Development programme and its associated activities reviewed journals remains low. The joke amongst was poor. Despite the presence of international academics that published articles are read twice expert trainers, students from around the world, on average – once by the author and once by (one an enthusiastic youth group and exciting research of) three referees – is, unfortunately, supported by outputs, media were given little access to information a lack of knowledge surrounding maritime heritage about the project and publicity was kept to a practices and theory, at least in the public arena. minimum. An opportunity for promoting maritime An extensive public programme hosted by South and underwater cultural heritage was missed52. It Africa’s Department of Arts and Culture and Robben seemed inevitable that in the face of meagre public island Museum was attached to the Programme. engagement, the programme’s sustainability was School children from coastal and interior provinces compromised. By the close of the Programme in were invited to participate in a short maritime 2012, assessors, participants and implementation and underwater cultural heritage workshop. The personnel had begun to examine this shortcoming in Department hoped that by introducing school an effort to understand how their approach to such learners to the concepts of underwater heritage projects and heritage management generally could through Legacy Sites and maritime landscapes, be adjusted to coopt public support. they would be able to create enthusiasm for both the heritage and maritime archaeological and historical Respondents to the assessment of the Maritime disciplines. Furthermore, by instilling the values, Archaeology Development Programme questionnaire principles and ethics of heritage management suggested that public awareness and interest could (both submerged and terrestrial), the Department be better stimulated through an inclusive approach to anticipated outcomes, on the micro-level, in which the establishment of the coastal network envisaged by heritage began to become embedded in the thinking the Programme. Programme participants suggested and therefore decision-making of young adults. As conducting training initiatives more widely. Instead with the larger training programme, the Department of focusing only on annual field schools at a central invited different individuals each year, hampering the location like Robben Island, it was suggested that possibility of groups forming lasting relationships at least one activity be undertaken elsewhere on and communication systems. While the South the South African coast. Gribble and Jeffery also African Heritage Resources Agency made efforts recommended that the programme should diversify to establish social media platforms through which its offerings to include a wider range of sites and learners could communicate, lack of opportunities histories so as to include a more comprehensive range to either discuss heritage or practise learned skills of stakeholders and publics53. Although specialised led to an eventual decline in online activity. By the training remained an imperative, awareness raising end of 2014, the SAHRA Maritime Youth Facebook initiatives and public engagement pitched at non- page had been taken down. The failure of the youth professionals could be attached to capacity building programme to gain traction could also be attributed programmes to encourage broader appeal. to a lack of institutional support. Individuals within the South African Heritage Resources Agency’s In this vein, a capacity building and training Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit programme could be implemented at a variety of (formerly Maritime Archaeology Unit) were expected to bear the burden of public engagement 52 Ibid p 26 53 Ibid p 22

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sites and pitched at a variety of levels to showcase by the Robben Island Museum. As observers and data examples of the diversity of maritime and underwater collectors whose task it was to assemble data offered cultural heritage. By strategically selecting sites by the target communities, students would, for the for training purposes, the programme could bring most part, not attempt to solicit information that was together heritage professionals and other stakeholders not freely offered. Conversely, interviewees may have from communities around heritage sites allowing felt that the expectation was to provide examples of discussion to facilitate the development of interactive tangible, visible and objective aspects of the Islands’ management strategies in which stakeholders past that could be shown to tourists rather than were equally involved. Gribble and Jefferey’s personal interpretations of it. The project designers recommendations for an inclusive approach had been felt that while this places new historical layers tested in a confined environment during the Maritime into the consciousness of tour guides and heritage Archaeology Development Programme. Under the managers as both sources for tourism diversification supervision of Robert Parthesius, students from and deeper research, a missing component of the Leiden University in the Netherlands had joined the Island’s heritage, the personal interpretation of the Programme to gain practical maritime archaeological past, needed to be included if people were to fully experience and to conduct research aimed at Robben connect to the maritime cultural landscape in which Island’s maritime cultural landscape. In addition, the they lived, worked and visited and, therefore, lobby students were asked to contribute to a review of the for better management and protection, in which they Island’s tourism offerings, make suggestions for new played a role. To ensure that this would happen, it offerings and to establish pathways for growing the would be necessary to establish and validate the economy of the Robben Island Museum which has empathetic heritage experience and to look more been experiencing a drop in visitor numbers over deeply at the layers that defined why people wanted the past five years54. Indirectly, the implementation to visit the sites or share them with visitors. In other of a multi-vocal approach to site development and words, it was necessary to authorise individuals’ management was tested during the Programme. The perceptions of the heritage of the island, not just its outcomes of the students’ efforts highlighted some of history. How this could be done was explored and the necessities for further adaptation of the approach tested at Ilha de Mozambique and refined during to heritage management that the Programme aspired Programmes in south Africa’s Eastern Cape and at to implement. Although they consulted widely lake Fundudzi, as will be described below. amongst the Robben Island communities, including residents, employees and visitors, sites that were Programme designers had recognised the identified for being potentially included in a historical shortcomings contained in the outcomes of the student route tended to be those that were tangible and well data – namely that interviewees only identified known. They included military installations, pre- “classic” historical sites they believed would be prison infrastructure, and archaeological remains of interest to tourists and researchers. Personal or related to the history of the Island. Intangible aspects community associations with a maritime past or the of the Island’s past and the interpretation of the maritime cultural landscape, it seemed, were either experience of individuals and groups that were part not recognised as being relevant to the research or of the Island’s history were largely absent (with the were not seen as having heritage value. It appeared exception of the experience of the political prisoners that interview respondents were telling researchers of the apartheid era). It is possible that this data was what they believed the researchers wanted to know. missing because the students had been set a specific Because the students were completely neutral in their task – identifying sites and proposing strategies for interview approach, respondents were not prompted incorporating them into the tourism options offered to expose potentially personal narratives related to water. This again pointed explicitly to the need to 54 Visitor numbers have been affected by a variety of elements including employee strike action, unreliable ferry re-evaluate the Programme approach. Researchers services, etc. Whether this is compounded by an increase in and project personnel knew that there were deep apathy towards the political history of the Robben Island on which the tourism offering is based and a desire for variety heritage connections to the maritime landscape. amongst tourists is unclear.

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Individual conversations had, for example, revealed heritage in South Africa56, an apparently encouraging a belief system in which ancestors lived in the sea. endorsement of the approach taken by the programme But these traditional heritages remained hidden. designers. Respondents’ enthusiasm and positivity While it is possible that local maritime perspectives for the Programme aside, there was a continual were withheld from researchers because the Island underlying sense that the programme lacked some communities did not want this heritage known it component. This became clear in the wide array of seems more likely that the residents, staff and visitors answers that were provided when asked how the to Robben Island were simply unaware that these programme could be improved and what could be histories formed part of the greater maritime cultural added. Unfortunately, since programme participants’ landscape. The Maritime Archaeology Development goals were focused on skills development, they Programme had failed at its core audience level did not identify flaws in the design elements of in its efforts to raise awareness of the scope of the approach to maritime and underwater cultural the discipline. Because interviewees continued to heritage. It appeared that as individuals grappled associate maritime and underwater cultural heritage to put their fingers on what was missing from the with the colonial assemblages and infrastructure course, they tended towards adding further practical that was visible on the Island, they did not consider training features to the course curriculum. personal engagements and associations with the maritime landscape as being relevant important. Questionnaire respondents identified the following practical components for inclusion in an expanded The heritage trails that were created were not, programme, as reported by Gribble and Jeffery57: therefore, vastly different from what was already known. Although the identified sites were of some 1. Detailed analysis of the 2001 UNESCO interest to tourists, their narrative was skewed Convention on the Protection of Underwater towards South Africa’s “historical” period. The sites Heritage and other pertinent legislation and and histories were not unique and did not reflect the policy. full antiquity of the landscape. In order to ensure • Participants felt that a deeper knowledge long-term, sustainable protection and management of the Convention and the mechanisms of maritime and underwater cultural heritage in for international cooperation contained the developing world context, it is critical, as will therein would provide managers with be presented below, that local perspectives are a basic set of policy tools to initiate, recognised and incorporated. establish and sustain collaboration at national, regional and international In spite of the identified need for an evolution level. in approach, Robben Island Museum managers • Participants believed that a better expressed their satisfaction with the outcomes understanding of the laws, policy of the Programme. They felt that the project had and legislative best practice would successfully raised the profile of maritime and contribute towards assisting in policing underwater cultural heritage, that it had enhanced of activities on submerged heritage understanding of the differences between cultural sites. and natural heritage management and that the • Respondents from the Robben Island heritage trails would contribute towards expanding Museum indicated that their obligations the tourism offering of the Island55. and management plans were at times contradictory in that they needed to A total of 77% of stakeholder reported that they fulfil the directives of both national considered the Maritime Archaeology Development legislation and the instructions of the programme to be a sustainable platform for managing various World Heritage committees and and developing maritime and underwater cultural 56 Ibid. p 16 55 Ibid. p 13 57 Ibid pp 15 -16

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assessors. It was deemed valuable to be could be used to monitor changes at provided with support and guidance in sites, especially in areas where diving navigating the requirements of various was prevalent. policies and legislation and harmonising 5. Site management – practical implementation management documentation and including management plans strategy. Maritime and underwater • Participants deemed this a vital cultural heritage management would management skill. Individuals working be slotted into cohesive policies and in areas such as environmental would inform, and be informed by, the conservation, recreational diving and legislative obligations of the museum. law enforcement thought that they 2. Remote sensing technology and practical would be better prepared to convince use. their own managers to supply capacity • Still focused on shipwrecks, many and funding to site protection if they participants determined that locating could develop strong management plans and identifying sites would be of value to based on accepted site management improving management. Because so few policy and practice. sites are known to heritage managers, 6. Artefact conservation it is difficult to develop policy, focus • Individuals from institutions such protection and conservation efforts and as parks, conservation areas and strategically apply significance criteria museums indicated that they were to sites. This is, perhaps, an unrealistic often approached by members of the training goal. Equipment is expensive public who had recovered objects and highly specialised. Should heritage from shipwrecks, and sometimes management agencies have access other cultural sites. In most instances to these tools, as the South African objects were donated to the institutions. Heritage Resources Agency does, Managers felt that they were not specialised, focused, individual training adequately equipped to deal with is warranted to ensure that operational archaeological artefacts and, as a result, capacity exists. However, broad training did nothing with them. By providing in this field is unnecessarily expensive training and establishing protocols for and, without access to equipment, will receiving and stabilising objects, it not benefit the vast majority of trainees. would be possible to better protect and 3. In situ conservation manage such items. • Non-professional heritage managers indicated that they did not have It was thought that refresher training every two years, the requisite skill sets to deal with for example, would be a valuable addition. submerged sites, should these be identified. Should sites be located Questionnaire respondents were not convinced, within their management environments, however, that practical training was the only pathway they did not have the support capacity to for developing an appropriate and implementable work on sites and, therefore, preferred management structure. But, as described above, to be able to manage sites without they struggled to identify a potential approach to the disturbance. maritime and underwater cultural heritage disciplines 4. Site recording, mapping and assessment as a whole, that would fit with the constraints and • Managers believed they could make context of the developing world. It was clear to them better management decisions if they though, that the current models were not effective possessed basic maritime archaeological and respondents deemed this to be largely because mapping and assessment skills. These of the exclusionary nature of a discipline focused on

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colonial shipwrecks in a predominantly inaccessible museums, law enforcement agencies and environment. Suggestions for developing an approach management authorities recommended and training structure that would be locally relevant the development of memoranda of clustered around the need to broaden the scope of understanding between government the field. Propositions for doing this indicated an institutions. These would, in effect, inclusive approach58, including: formalise a management network at the official level. It was envisaged that 1. More public programmes and general through this network, institutions could awareness raising of the scope of and call on a wide variety of expertise value of maritime and underwater without having to employ their own cultural heritage. heritage management teams. 2. Involvement of “other”59 groups. 9. Positioning maritime and underwater 3. A broadening of the participant base cultural heritage within a broader context (continuing to recruit new, entry level including global heritage perspectives trainees while developing higher level and general historical development. The skills). process of contextualising the discipline 4. More community participation. could also highlight connections 5. Train the trainer programmes that between environmental and cultural provided course participants with a set of legacies in terms of management, skills to train downstream communities scientific endeavour and socio- without having to rely exclusively on anthropological influences. course experts. These trainers would 10. The development of a training structure be able to introduce maritime and aimed at community groups instead underwater cultural heritage to their of individuals, including developing a communities following the course. set of processes that could be used by 6. Opportunities for academic communities to develop management qualifications at primary, secondary and plans. tertiary levels. Respondents indicated that future versions of the Maritime and The insights contained in points 8 to 10 above were of Archaeology Development Programme particular significance in drafting of the new heritage could be used to provide foundation development and management approaches. training that prepared individuals for further tertiary level studies. This Respondents unanimously agreed that the Maritime included suggestions to develop multi- Archaeology Development Programme’s approach level programmes that could up-skill of improving management through institutional target audiences appropriately. and individual capacity development faced serious 7. Awareness raising at a political level sustainability challenges60. Because expertise followed by training for specific was being created on an individual basis within bureaucratic skill sets such as policy institutions and because this meant that it was making, assessment of impact reporting necessary for individuals to be available for one and legislation. another across and between these institutions, the 8. A collaborative management approach viability of the approach relied almost exclusively at institutional level. Trainees from on a strong professional and institutional network. institutions including various parks, For the approach to succeed, institutions needed to form coherent and committed groupings and make 58 Ibid pp 15-16 provision for their employees to be seconded to 59 It was unclear from the response whether “other” others if necessary. groups referred to different communities, institutions or racial groups (in light of maritime archaeology and underwater cultural heritage being predominantly white disciplines) 60 Gribble and Jeffery (2012, 16)

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Programme designers had not thought deeply about example, has a team of well trained, experienced the structure of the required institutional relationship. diving archaeologists who could support field They had, however, recognised the need for a coastal activities throughout the region). network and had included it in the Programme’s implementation documentation. The absence of Regional stakeholders believed that a regional an actual framework for establishing a network in network could help fill knowledge gaps that the pre-activity planning phases resulted from two hampered management decision-making processes, root unknowns. Firstly, because the goals of the with 69% agreement that the Maritime Archaeology Maritime Archaeology Development Programme Development Programme had been a significant included the development of improved management kick-start to designing and establishing a maritime infrastructure, it could not predict in advance what and underwater cultural heritage collaboration that infrastructure would look like in reality. It was network at a national and regional level61. All but only possible to begin conceptualising the network one of the respondents indicated their belief that once stakeholders had been identified and consulted. a regional network would enhance abilities to Secondly, the network needed buy-in at institutional manage maritime and underwater cultural heritage management level and the programme designers at regional, national and local levels62. Sub-Saharan could not be sure that decision makers could be Africa has enjoyed little underwater archaeological convinced of the value of the approach. Should attention. Although some shipwreck sites have been the Programme fail to bring institutions together in located, identified and assessed, few have been the network, it would be necessary to re-evaluate excavated or scientifically examined. Nowhere potential network structures. have other submerged site types been investigated archaeologically. This has resulted in an assumption Several propositions for actions that would assist that every site that is discovered is the only example in establishing and sustaining a coastal network of its kind in the region and, therefore, significant, were offered. Most ideas included regular central prompting management decisions that stipulate that workshops and training. For example, annual or bi- all sites must be the subject of physical management annual field schools could be rotated amongst sites intervention including active in situ conservation and under the management of the network institutions. continual monitoring. While there are undoubtedly Submerged sites that lay within the environments arguments for attempting to conserve everything as managed by an institution such as South African well as debate about who determines significance, National Parks and that faced specific management and how, the realities of the developing world context challenges could be used as field sites. This would mean that, currently, best management practices not only support the institution itself, but also provide would necessitate choosing to direct funding and a platform for continuing skills development related capacity at sites deemed most appropriate. These to current management issues. might include sites of archaeological, scientific or heritage significance, or sites that are under direct After setting up a South African coastal network, the threat. By sharing knowledge and expertise amongst evolution of a regional network seemed natural to heritage managers at a regional level, such decisions field school participants. Regional stakeholders faced would be more informed and more appropriate. many of the same management problems, including the threat of treasure hunting, lack of capacity, As described above, the goal of establishing lack of infrastructure and finance and low levels of a coastal management network could not be government support. Many of the challenges for achieved. Although the South African Heritage research activities aimed at maritime and underwater Resources Agency was a natural choice for acting cultural heritage were also universal. Logistical as lead institution, and middle management from all difficulties related to accessing sites in remote and potential partner organisations were enthusiastic to difficult environments could be alleviated through sharing resources and capacity (South Africa, for 61 Ibid. p 16 62 Ibid. p 16

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establish an official institutional relationship, upper have limited impact if basic support structures are not management at the South African Heritage Resources in place. These limitations had already been illustrated Agency failed to provide bureaucratic support in in the development of the Tanzanian maritime and the form of upper lever approaches to counterparts underwater cultural heritage team. While expertise in other agencies. The result was that individual was established on multiple levels within institutions participants in the field schools could agree to keep and government departments, they were not supported in contact and provide advice, but could not commit through funding that was a necessary requirement their institutions to any official collaboration. to deploy the team from their various locations and equipment was not readily available or accessible. Respondents felt that institutions may be hesitant The equipment that had been provided to the team to commit to a network of professionals due to the was held in a central repository in Dar es Salaam, potential funding burden that might be incurred. While which meant that individuals at other centres could many looked to the South African Heritage Resources not easily use it in their daily operations. Because the Agency and, by extension, South Africa as the regional managers of the Maritime Archaeology Development leader in maritime and underwater cultural heritage, Programme had not been able to implement the there was little indication of how this leadership role proposed network of expertise and capacity even could be realised. It became clear that a concerted at a national level through a coastal network, the effort should be made to design a network structure practicalities of overcoming these constraints were that accounted for the restrictions faced by regional not adequately addressed. Possible resolutions were and national stakeholders. Funding and infrastructure informally discussed and will be explored below, but constraints could be listed as primary challenges, but none were formalised, costed or scrutinised. administrative and operational difficulties also needed to be examined. The individuals in the developing Participants and stakeholders in the Maritime network were already fulfilling operational needs Archaeology Development Programme suggested within their organisations. Would it be reasonable and that by structuring interactions through the formation possible to ask them to place additional items related of committees and task teams at national, regional to underwater cultural heritage management onto and international levels, a network may be “forced” their workload? If the network required assistance, to cooperate64. By placing expectations and deadlines would institutions have the capacity to meet their own on individuals and activities, peer pressure may milestones and goals if individuals were seconded encourage ongoing dialogue and interaction. Again, elsewhere? It seemed unlikely. Participants and this system relied on the establishment of a platform stakeholders consistently indicated that momentum through which members could communicate and was key to collaboration and retaining capacity. There seek advice. Once more, this relied on securing were several suggestions as to how momentum could funding to maintain the network and the enthusiasm be maintained. Communication was a core element of participants to involve themselves in a structure in this. Participants thought that the development that increased workload. As an interim measure, it of a platform through which stakeholders and was suggested that contact be maintained through practitioners could exchange information on projects, meetings and workshops perhaps biannually where developments, challenges, potential solutions and experiences and challenges could be exchanged and progress reports would intensify interactions between policies and solutions to problems could be developed. countries and would benefit regional capacity These meetings would be attended by individuals growth. The platform could be further developed as at the practitioner level. It was recommended that a tool through which resources and expertise could regular regional conferences be organised where high be requested and shared63. As mentioned, lack of ranking government officials could be informed of resources and infrastructure, including financing, developing projects and lobbied for support65. equipment and people has been a leading concern in the region. Ad hoc capacity building programmes 64 Ibid. p 16 63 Ibid. p 16 65 Ibid. p 16

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ASSESSMENT SUMMARY their perspectives of what constituted the heritage resource and how it should be interpreted, it was Gribble and Jeffery’s appraisal of the final generally agreed that the new approach enhanced, outcomes of the three-year Maritime Archaeology rather than detracted from the programme and its Development Programme was, on the whole, outputs68. In its current format, the approach of the positive. They concluded that the development of programme could serve as a foundation model to a well considered “Draft National Maritime and regional partners involved in the development of Underwater Cultural Heritage Strategy” together their own national programmes69. Unfortunately, the with a supporting “Vision and Mission Statement programme is heavily funding dependent. Although for the National Maritime and Underwater Cultural costs are relatively low when compared with field Heritage Strategy” that provided the rationale for the schools offered internationally, the model may Programme’s implementation approach contributed still be out of financial reach in countries in which towards the evolution of a “clear direction [and maritime heritage is a relatively low priority area, framework] for a sustainable, future [Maritime often perceived to be in juxtaposition or conflict with and Underwater Cultural Heritage] programme66. official heritage narratives. This poses a significant hurdle in implementing the approach more broadly. In Despite the lack of widespread publicity and the the South African example, the programme benefited failures to garner media support, the positive from discussions surrounding the scope of the field feedback received from the participants of the Youth and eventual production of strategic documents that Programme as well as the individuals involved in informed the programme approach. Since these the capacity building and training portions of the included the identification of Legacy Sites that programme appeared to indicate that the Maritime helped make maritime archaeology and maritime Archaeology Development Programme had underwater cultural heritage more accessible, it achieved public and community support67. This was was possible to immediately form connections with a critical outcome for the project designers, for the communities who felt little connection to shipwrecks. South African Heritage Resources Agency and the It is questionable, however, whether this is enough. Department of Arts and Culture. It showed that the In the three years following the conclusion of the approach to developing the field had advanced in Maritime Archaeology development programme, the right direction. The introduction of Legacy Sites continued participation in maritime and underwater had captured new, previously marginalised maritime cultural heritage management and research has been heritage audiences and had involved them in strategic low. While it is true that at an institutional level jobs thinking about management of maritime sites. This have been created, these jobs have focused almost was an important step in reintroducing maritime exclusively on the management of shipwreck sites. heritage into the heritage management mainstream. Robben Island Museum has also remained committed As Gribble and Jeffery (2012, 25) pointed out, “[a] to the field both in terms of developing their tourism lmost from the outset, and through [its lifespan], offering to include a broader interpretation of the the programme has shifted elements of its focus heritage landscape and in terms of continuing to to broaden perspectives of what Maritime and develop capacity within the institution for the Underwater Cultural Heritage is, to engage with how management of the submerged cultural resources that Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage sites and surround the Island itself. Awareness in the public histories are viewed and valued by South Africans, domain has also increased, but this has been largely and to make the programme as relevant as possible limited to individuals in the diving community who to as wide an audience as possible.” Although an now take a more conservation minded approach approach that evolved as the programme progressed to diving on shipwreck sites, as evidenced in an brought with it some challenges surrounding increase in reporting of inappropriate behavior convincing divers and heritage managers to alter to heritage management authorities. Awareness

66 Ibid. p 25 68 Ibid. p 26 67 Ibid. p 25 69 Ibid. p 26

227 TROUBLED WATERS

raising efforts for maritime heritage at Government evident as the project drew to a conclusion in 2012. Ministerial level have also found traction. While An examination of the sustainability and future of action has been slow, MUCH has remained on the Programme led Gribble and Jeffery (2012) to the Government agenda in the form of policy conclude that future iterations needed to continue to development and project implementation. Maritime innovate and expand on identifying new approaches and underwater Cultural Heritage was identified as a to management and research that would make key area for development, a large-scale “underwater maritime and underwater cultural heritage more museum” was proposed and South Africa ratified relevant and accessible to a broader public71. It was the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of suggested that this could be achieved through the Underwater Cultural Heritage. creation of more bespoke training and engagement offerings. Future iterations of the Programme should: Despite gains, there has been little opportunity for continued engagement and participation. • “Consider carefully the targeting of Archaeological projects and field schools do not participants in the programme and/ cater for public involvement or contribution and or how the training is packaged and there have been few avenues for Government to delivered for different audiences. develop their strategies and planning based on ongoing activities. Political and bureaucratic support • Consider packaging the Programme to that had been developed was neither consolidated, suit specific contexts and stakeholders72. nor pursued70. [For example, non-diving individuals should be given appropriate terrestrial Perhaps the greatest failing of the Programme site assessment skills, while divers was its inability to sustainably engage with black would require other proficiencies.] South Africans in the communities in which it had operated. Having generated enthusiasm amongst • Explore, develop and grow options for school learners and created a national network of cooperative management of [maritime interested individuals, the South African Heritage and underwater cultural heritage] Resources Agency neglected to establish a forum between … agencies.”73 through which students could communicate, remain informed and participate in heritage. No strategy Gribble and Jeffery had suggested that inter-agency for management of the SAHRA Maritime Youth cooperation be done at government level between, Facebook page was put into place resulting in its for example, the South African Heritage Resources stagnating and eventually becoming defunct. As with Agency and Marine Parks. However, as will be other aspects of the Programme, communication shown below, this concept needed to be expanded and maintenance of the network was reliant on more fully to include stakeholders outside of the personal commitment of individuals who traditional, legislative management agency. To re- were unsupported by their institutional structures. iterate Gribble and Jeffery’s point74, the Programme Despite the investment of personnel and resources approach needed to be more inventive and locally of institutions such as the South African Heritage relevant in its approach. Training, if it was to be the Resources Agency, there seemed to be both focus of future programmes, needed to be reimagined unwillingness and lack of interest in maintaining the to incorporate needs beyond site identification and advances made during implementation. At the time mapping. of writing, there is no portal through which civilians can connect with government institutions. While “innovation” was a key word that recurred frequently in the Programme assessment report it This shortcoming of the Maritime Archaeology Development Programme was already becoming 71 Ibid. p 26 72 Ibid. p 29 73 Ibid. p 31 70 Ibid. p 27 74 Ibid. p 27

228 APPENDIX IV MADP ASSESMENT

was unclear what this meant in reality. Gribble and the activities established during the project life cycle, Jeffery provided general direction for areas where especially field schools, had a negative impact on heritage practitioners might find better community the participants. Despite the efforts of Programme acceptance in the execution of their work, but were leaders to elicit support from government, it became limited in their vision to activities aimed at already clear that a different approach would be necessary identified Legacy Sites. Prudently, they suggested if the management and protection of maritime and that management and research projects “address the underwater cultural heritage was to be brought into wide scope of South Africa’s tangible and intangible prominence. maritime and underwater cultural heritage75” but still such projects were devised by practitioners, In spite of shortfalls, the Maritime Archaeology academics and managers. No space was offered for Development programme was not without merit. Its an approach in which stakeholders who were the capacity building aspirations resulted in an extensive focus of studies and the intellectual custodians of the pool of potential supporters and practitioners. heritage in question to provide their own direction Indeed, Gribble and Jefferey suggested that the basic or perspective. Instead, projects would highlight the Programme components could be used as a template need for heritage management and site protection, for the development of maritime and underwater offer awareness raising surrounding sites identified cultural heritage at a regional level. Sub-Saharan by “specialists”, and engage stakeholders on a level states facing similar challenges could model their that satisfied management requirements. Projects own programmes on the South African example77. would allow experts to produce data that they felt In addition, the use of a general regional template was relevant and measurable and disseminate it for developing capacity in the field could stimulate publicly76. In effect, maritime and underwater cultural regional cooperation and collaboration78. heritage research would be carried out in a manner which satisfied funders and taxpayers but which had Gribble and Jeffery recognised the challenges they little local meaning beyond potential income from faced in proposing a new direction and approach for tourism. A sanitised version of the past that was maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Within relevant because managers believed it to be so would the terms of reference for their assessment of the be presented through awareness raising initiatives Maritime Archaeology Development Programme, and engagement. While an approach that highlighted they could not deeply explore detailed, specific managers’ perceptions of heritage values and the solutions for the inherent shortcomings of the resultant need for management might achieve some Programme. Instead, they could highlight concepts measure of protection for sites, management would for building a new approach and advocate for regular unlikely be sustainable. Awareness raising may (three-yearly) approach reviews of the aims, policies generate initial excitement for heritage resources, and strategies of such a programme in order to “tune but the implementation of proscribed management the programme [activities] to changing circumstances activities would diminish as initial interest wore off. and issues to ensure that it remains forward looking Again, the endurance of the Programme goals over and relevant”79. the three years since its completion illustrates the failure of a top down approach and the need for an This was true for all involved in the Programme. inclusive perspective of the past. Broad conceptualisations for improvements did not automatically translate into actions. For example, As the Programme reached its conclusion, a general to further ensure that the field, and training in the perception that engagement and participation would field specifically, became relevant to South Africans shrink in the absence of continued funding permeated and to allow course participants to identify with the the group. The realities of what was possible in the concepts and theory presented in the NAS training, it future in light of the expense of continuing to offer was widely agreed that the NAS framework required

77 Ibid. p 26 75 Ibid. p 31 78 Ibid. p 31 76 Ibid. p 31 79 Ibid. p 32

229 TROUBLED WATERS

a degree of development and ‘Africanisation’ to failed to complete the production of a “Manual” ensure that it became understandable to those working for maritime and underwater cultural heritage in in the South Africa context. The Programme opened South Africa (and in the region); the development discussions on ways to make the improvements of a framework for academia and research in the and changes practical, but did not go further than field, and; the implementation of new management including local sites as examples for case studies strategies, policy and legislative initiatives, there and changing some of the presentation illustrations were no documents or structures that outlined how to local pictures. Even in these instances, case stakeholders could become involved, how students studies and photographs were focused solely on could continue research or how managers could shipwrecks. Despite the introduction of the Legacy implement better management models. Sites in defining the field, training only made cursory reference to them. Why this occurred, and why As described above, poor media coverage may have trainers and managers found it difficult to implement contributed to the lack of widespread, sustained wholesale changes is easily explained in the context interest in the Programme following its completion in which the Programme was introduced. Firstly, in 2012. Perhaps more relevant, however, was the prior to 2009 and the realisation of the first field deficiency of accessible projects and publications. school, maritime archaeological research had not Although the Programme had envisaged the ventured beyond shipwreck sites with the exception production of a Maritime and Underwater Cultural of a post-graduate dissertation on maritime graffiti at Heritage Manual that would outline the enlarged prison sites in the Castle of Good Hope and Simon’s scope of the field, provide information about current Town, Cape Town (Horwitz 1999) and Deacon’s research trends and projects and offer a new vision short article on fish traps. Other archaeological, for management, research and engagement, a historical and anthropological research that had been detailed document was never generated. Instead, a conducted on societies that used the sea had not been booklet entitled Towards Best Practice in Maritime undertaken from a maritime perspective. Heritage and Underwater Cultural Heritage in South Africa managers had not, therefore, thought deeply enough (SAHRA 2011) was drafted for internal use at the about examples of human relationships with the sea. South African Heritage Resources Agency and limited This meant that the use of examples such as stone age circulation. Its main function was as a template from exploitation of marine foods, maritime oral histories which a Manual could be developed. The booklet or maritime influences on terrestrial sites were not was further utilised as a “vision document” and was considered. Secondly, most recognised maritime intended to guide heritage practitioners at statutory archaeological projects had been conducted in level in their approach to dealing with maritime and association with treasure hunters. It must be pointed underwater cultural heritage. It again made use of the out, these were legal, sanctioned and in line with Legacy Sites concept as a foundation from which to South Africa’s existing shipwreck management engage stakeholders, and sketched a future approach principles and policies. But by 2009, when heritage to maritime and underwater cultural heritage in managers were making efforts to discourage which multiple voices could contribute towards commercial exploitation of shipwreck sites, redefining the field and identifying South Africa’s examples of archaeologists collaborating on treasure maritime links. This approach would have formed hunting projects were deemed undesirable for use as the backbone of the more detailed Manual. case studies. This severely hampered training efforts where local examples of sites and interpretations of As an internal document, the booklet enjoyed little sites would have been useful illustrative tools for circulation and while the South African Department presentation during courses. of Arts and Culture briefly distributed it via their website, it is likely that neither participants in the A further contribution towards the programme’s Maritime Archaeology Development Programme limited success was its inability to achieve all of nor members of the general public paid it much its goals. Specifically, because the Programme attention. It was, however, a valuable document for

230 APPENDIX IV MADP ASSESMENT

the development of the next iteration of the approach to drafting a maritime and underwater cultural heritage management model, as described below.

The successes of producing a new group of capacitated individuals whose expertise could be employed in monitoring, assessment and management of submerged and terrestrial maritime sites was tempered by a lack of academic infrastructure. Programme participants were trained in the basic skills needed to assist archaeologists and heritage professionals in their management efforts, but the Programme did not establish the framework for more advanced research and study and could not, therefore, create avenues for professional progression. This limited opportunity for creating high level expertise and for expanding necessary heritage thinking in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Without a tertiary level programme being put into place, the field continues to fall behind its terrestrial counterparts on a theoretical level.

231

Appendix V Assessment of Salvage Activities (Arqueonautas)

Between 21 July and 1 August 2015, a team was • Archaeological project planning standards assembled to examine facilities, conservation as relating to community benefits and standards, archaeological excavation strategies, site development. management strategies, museum displays, academic contributions and social investment contributions An analysis of community interviews and made by Arqueonautas. The team brought together workshops, wreck site inspections and assessment experts from the academe (George Washington of documentation reveals several relevant factors University, Eduardo Mondlane University), that support the MUCH approach applied during museums (Smithsonian Institute, Iziko Museums of the Underwater Cultural Heritage – Mozambique South Africa, Naval History and Heritage Command) programme. It should be noted that these are not and NGOs (African Centre for Heritage Activities final findings and are by no means a comprehensive and Centre for International Heritage Activities). analysis or list of findings of the assessment. Work continues at Ilha de Mozambique under the The assessment of Arqueonautas’s work resulted supervision of Ricardo Duarte and a team made up in the government finally cancelling their permits of community stakeholders and Eduardo Mondlane and halting commercial salvage operations in University students. Mozambique. While this is a key development and the significance of the assessment cannot be overstated, 1. It was interesting to note that while only the role of the Ilha de Mozambique community the Ilha de Mozambique community in heritage management activities will be discussed was, as expected, strongly opposed to here. For detailed discussion of the assessment Arqueonautas’s activities, these objections outcomes and the activities of Arqueonautas and for are rooted partly in the fact that local heritage a history of long-term lobbying efforts see Duarte was deemed unimportant while Portuguese (2010, 2012). heritage was highlighted. In addition, the community had no access to recovered Based on the role that the community had played objects and little has remained on the in training, capacity building and awareness Island. Community anger and resentment, raising, together with the positive outcomes of in this regard, would have been equally the Underwater Cultural Heritage – Mozambique strong had excavation been done to high programme, they were asked to assist with this academic standards and objects removed assessment. A team made up of community leaders to museums elsewhere in Mozambique or and those responsible for the implementation of the the world. There was little differentiation 2014 training programme was asked to focus on between objects removed and sold and three key areas, namely: objects removed and stored off site. While no one had objections to academic research • Community attitudes to Arqueonautas (it was, in fact, welcomed), it was widely • Arqueonautas’s compliance with the Rules felt that research outcomes should benefit of the 2001 UNESCO Convention local museums and local opportunities for

233 TROUBLED WATERS

economic development through tourism. sites at Ilha de Mozambique as well as the need for From a community perspective, the primary the inclusion of the local perspective on maritime failure of the salvage company was to ignore and underwater cultural heritage was made clear community needs and to exclude community to facilitators and assessors. The Island inhabitants in decision-making processes. This seems to understand the complexity of multiple heritage indicate that opposition to salvage is rooted in layers and multiple historical narratives and have perceptions of exclusion and marginalisation. a strong grasp of the value of heritage for tourism It also implies that expropriation of heritage and community identity. There is a robust aspiration objects by any means would have brought amongst groups and individuals to tell the story of Ilha Ilha de Mozambique stakeholders to the de Mozambique from a local perspective. The trained same point of frustration as experienced at MUCH team have continued to explore the maritime the start of the Underwater Cultural Heritage cultural landscape and have begun to identify research – Mozambique programme. questions that might be taken up by academics. These 2. By excluding community groups and by include questions surrounding the contribution of withholding information from residents, local knowledge to maritime activities. This may the salvage company invited speculation be as diverse as contributions to shipbuilding, local and rumour. It would appear from the navigation knowledge or the intangible rituals and initial examination of documents and sites practices associated with maritime life. Questions undertaken during then assessment that surrounding the evolution of the distinctive stone excavation activities were focused on those town and village sectors of the island or the local wrecks that might result in higher commercial architectural features of maritime structures may also yield. This may indicate that a good be constructed. Finally, the investigation of the role of proportion of less commercially valuable the Island in Indian Ocean trade, including European- sites have been left relatively undisturbed. Eastern trade, African or Arabian coastal trade or the Because of the abundance of wrecks coupled slave trade, as well as the impact of trade on the Island with the expense of excavation, sites of little and the African mainland, will contribute significantly commercial value were disturbed only as far to academic and community goals. It is encouraging as necessary for identification, if possible, or that research agendas are, in part, being set based on to conclude an assessment of the accessibility local needs and interests rather than by the interests and value of cargo. This reality appears to of outside researchers. Again, while research is be in stark juxtaposition to the expectations encouraged, it is important that it is locally relevant of Ilha de Mozambique residents who and contributes to the Island. fear that all the wreck sites around the Island have been plundered. While this is a It was reassuring to note that that there was tremendous preliminary observation and further analysis support at Ilha de Mozambique for the training and is required, it may indicate that there is still engagement approach described above. Facilitators substantial potential for academic research. were warmly welcomed back to the Island and This may also mean that opportunities for specifically requested to continue with the programme local participation, tourism development, initiated by the original capacity building and training heritage narrative development and heritage project. presentation associated with shipwrecks still exist.

These attitudes towards the activities of the salvage company suggested a deep community connection with maritime heritage and a strong desire for a community driven approach to identifying, recording and promoting the heritage of the Island. The desire to retain the objects recovered from submerged

234 Appendix VI Much Capacity in Sub-Saharan Africa

CAPACITY AND PRACTICE: Africa. Despite this discovery, archaeologists remained WHO IS LOOKING AFTER UNDERWATER on the back foot. Legislation remained favourable CULTURAL HERITAGE? to treasure hunters and, because shipwrecks were the singular target for salvage, management remained Seen as a leader in the field of underwater cultural pursuant therewith. heritage and maritime archaeology, South Africa has set the standard for maritime heritage practice Five individuals trained in terrestrial archaeology or throughout the southern Africa. Since 1990, six history are currently active in maritime heritage practice individuals in South Africa have received formal in South Africa. Three have full time employment at maritime archaeological training at post-graduate level. governmental institutions, one is on a short-term contact Of these, just two remain in the field. Of the two who at a governmental institution and one is self-employed. have specialist maritime archaeological training, one has a DLit from Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, the other Elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa others are slowly a Masters Degree from the University of Cape Town, developing underwater cultural heritage and maritime the latter supervised in his thesis by the former). Both archaeological capability, but this process is slow. Little have established non-governmental organisations maritime archaeological research has been carried out. and are self-employed. Maritime archaeology is no Kenya is growing its maritime archaeological capacity longer offered as a specialisation and no maritime through collaborations with UNESCO and the Chinese archaeological programmes exist at any of the South government. Currently, one maritime archaeologist African universities. A further three individuals have practises at the National Museum of Kenya and is based completed post-graduate studies focused on maritime at Fort Jesus World Heritage Site in Mombasa. Namibia archaeological themes, but outside of formal maritime has employed one recent Masters graduate at the archaeological programmes. The qualifications and Bom Jesus conservation facility in Swakopmund. He university offerings suggest a European bias both in achieved his degree at the University of Bournemouth subject matter and in theoretical and methodological in 2011. Portuguese educated Ricardo Duarte practises approach. maritime archaeology in Mozambique and teaches an introductory course at the Eduardo Mondlane In 1988 Bruno Werz, the first specialised maritime University in Maputo. Several of Duarte’s graduate archaeologist in South Africa, was coopted on a students have recently received diving training and are contract to assess and develop the field. Werz’s interest entering the maritime archaeological field. Six post- lay in VOC shipwrecks and his early work emphasised graduate archaeology students in Senegal received this aspect. Between 1990 and 1999 he supervised introductory training in underwater survey and mapping five post-graduate students at the University of Cape in May 2016. Town, all of whom produced work related to shipwreck sites. It was not until 1994, when Werz recovered UNESCO has convened three capacity building an acheulean hand-axe from amongst the artefact programmes for potential underwater cultural heritage assemblage of artefacts uncovered on a shipwreck managers from Africa at Selcuk University in Turkey site, that the presence of other site types occurring in and in Mombasa, Kenya. the underwater environment was considered in South

235

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IMAGES

All photographs courtesy of CIE – Centre for International Heritage Activities and ACHA – African Centre for Heritage Activities.

251 Abbreviations

ACHA African Centre for Heritage Activities CIE Centre for International Heritage Activities ICMP Integrated Conservation Management Plan ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites ICUCH International Committee on Underwater Cultural Heritage MADP Maritime Archaeology Development Programme MUCH Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage NARA National Aquatic Resources Agency NAS Nautical Archaeology Society SAHRA South African Heritage Resources Agency STAB Scientific and Technical Advisory Body UCH-M Underwater Cultural Heritage – Mozambique UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNESCO United Nations Scientific, Educational and Cultural Organisation

252 List of Figures and Tables

Figure 1 C ritical Realist Theoretical Framework for Maritime Archaeology Management and Practice 21 Figure 2 Spectrum of MUCH management elements 29 Figure 3 Conventional vs Alternative heritage values 34 Figure 4 Legacy Sites (clockwise from top left: Lake Fundudzi, Robben Island, Barrel Wreck, Fish Traps) 81 Figure 5 The impact of the Avondster Project on the management and promotion of underwater cultural 91 heritage in Sri La nka Figure 6 The impact of the MUCH Programme on the management and promotion of underwater cultural 92 heritage in Tanzania: 2008 - 2012 Figure 7 The impact of an ideal outcome for the MADP, South Africa 93 Figure 8 Locating South Africa (source: Nouah’s Ark) 95 Figure 9 South African MUCH Status Quo 2011 95 Figure 10 Locating Ilha de Mozambique in Nampula Province (sources: Nouah’s Ark, Wikimedia 97 Common s) Figure 11 19th Century Ilha de Mozambique (source: The Delagoa Bay World) 98 Figure 12 MUCH status quo at Ilha de Mozambique 2013 102 Figure 13 Locating Wild Coast study site (sources: d-maps.com and The Local Government Handbook) 103 Figure 14 Eastern Cape MUCH status quo 2014 105 Figure 15 Locating Lake Fundudzi in the Limpopo Province (sources: d-maps.com and Google Earth) 106 Figure 16 Lake Fundudzi MUCH status quo 2013 109 Figure 17 South Africa MUCH status quo post-MADP 2015 120 Figure 18 Diving and youth activities during the MADP 127 Figure 19 Reclaiming the Sea at Ilha de Mozambique 132 Figure 20 Entrance to the Capitania 135 Figure 21 Ilha de Mozambique MUCH status quo 2016 137 Figure 22 Whispers of the Sea Exhibition. Castle of Good Hope, Cape Town 139 Figure 23 Collecting hidden narratives in the Eastern Cape 141 Figure 24 Eastern Cape MUCH status quo 2015 142

Table 1 Matrix of characteristics applied to positioning heritage management in the spectrum 31 of elements. Table 2 Defining characteristics of the indicator matrix 32

253 Summary

Maritime archaeologists, historians and heritage managers have struggled to position maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) in the sub-Saharan African heritage context. Management of MUCH resources, based on Western values and legislation, has focused almost exclusively on shipwreck sites. Management strategies have been implemented either to stop treasure hunting or to limit the damage caused by salvage activities. The application of internationally accepted MUCH management practices has, however, failed to engage the public of many African nations. This, exacerbated by an absence of the capacity and infrastructure frameworks enjoyed by the global north, has meant that the application of regulatory strategies has been a challenging task which has ultimately failed to successfully manage MUCH resources or engage sub-Saharan communities in maritime history and resource preservation.

This research proposes, applies and assesses alternative management and engagement models applicable to case study sites at Robben Island, Lake Fundudzi and the Wild Coast in South Africa and at Ilha da Mozambique in Mozambique, and contributes towards establishing a new approach to MUCH.

The approach examines the context in which the heritage resource exists, including the socio-political and economic environments, as well as the available mechanisms in place, and available, for research and management. It considers the scope of MUCH in a regional context and seeks to establish some preliminary guidelines for management strategies that are built on local relevance and local buy-in.

254 Nederlandse Samenvatting

Maritieme archeologen, historici en erfgoedmanagers worstelen de laatste jaren met het beheer van het maritiem en onderwater cultureel erfgoed (MUCH) in sub-Sahara-Afrika. Het beheer van MUCH, gebaseerd op westerse culturele waarden en wetgeving, heeft bijna uitsluitend betrekking op scheepswrakken. Hierop zijn protocollen ontwikkeld die dit erfgoed tegen “treasure hunting” en commerciële berging moeten beschermen. De toepassing van dit internationaal geaccepteerde, Eurocentrisch MUCH-management heeft echter geen aansluiting gevonden bij de Afrikaanse context. Het heeft gefaald “communities” en het algemene publiek bij dit erfgoedbeheer te betrekken.

In deze studie worden alternatieve modellen van “management & community engagement” onderzocht voor zuidelijk Afrika. Aan de hand van verschillende casestudies op Robbeneiland, Lake Fundudzi en de Wild Coast in Zuid-Afrika en op Ilha da Moçambique in Mozambique, is een meer specifieke methode ontwikkeld die mogelijk ook voor de bredere regio toepasbaar kan zijn.

Deze methode bouwt op de lokaal aanwezige kennis en capaciteit en houdt rekening met de beperkte infrastructurele en materiële middelen om de Westerse protocollen te volgen. Uitgangspunt zijn de sociaal- politieke en economische omstandigheden van de gemeenschappen die nauw bij het beheer van het maritiem erfgoed moeten worden betrokken.

255 Curriculum Vitae

Date of Birth: 28 February 1971 Place of Birth: Cape Town, South Africa

Jonathan Sharfman was born in Cape Town, South Jonathan is currently working as a Post-Doctoral Africa. After completing his schooling, he embarked Associate at New York University Abu Dhabi and on an undergraduate degree majoring in Archaeology is Council member of the South African Heritage and Ancient History. In 1999, he completed an MA Resources Agency. specializing in Maritime Archaeology. He has been a PhD Candidate from 2012 to 2017. Jonathan is a qualified skipper and commercial diver.

In 2003, Jonathan joined the South African Heritage Resources Agency, the organization that manages heritage in South Africa, as was promoted to manager of the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage division in 2005. In 2013 he founded the African Centre for Heritage Activities, an NGO working in heritage throughout Africa. In his role as director, he has worked extensively with CIE-Centre for International Heritage Activities on projects in Mozambique, South Africa and Tanzania. Since 2013, Jonathan has been working with Iziko Museums of South Africa, the George Washington University, the Smithsonian Museum of African American History and Culture and the National Parks Service on the Slave Wrecks Project, a multinational project researching the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. This work has taken him to the United States, Mozambique, and Senegal.

Jonathan has worked on several maritime archaeological projects to date. His shipwreck projects include the wrecks of the Oosterland (1695) and Waddingxveen (1695) in Table Bay, Cape Town as assistant archaeologist, and the Grosvenor (1782), on the Eastern Cape coast, South Africa as chief archaeologist. Most recently he has been assisting the Slave Wrecks Project to excavate the wreck of the Sao Jose, a Portuguese slave ship wrecked off of Cape Town in 1794.

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