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Ege Üniversitesi Yayınları Fen Fakültesi Yayın No. 194 HERPETOLOJİ (Ders Kitabı) Abidin BUDAK Bayram GÖÇMEN Fen Fakültesi Biyoloji Bölümü Zooloji Anabilim Dalı Bornova-İzmir 2008 Ege Üniversitesi Yayınları Fen Fakültesi Yayın No. 194 HERPETOLOJİ (Ders Kitabı) (2. Baskı) Prof. Dr. Abidin BUDAK Doç. Dr. Bayram GÖÇMEN Ege Üniversitesi Fen Fakültesi Biyoloji Bölümü Zooloji Anabilim Dalı Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi Bornova-İzmir 2008 ii HERPETOLOJİ Prof. Dr. Abidin BUDAK, Doç. Dr. Bayram GÖÇMEN 2005, Birinci Baskı Ege Üniversitesi Yönetim Kurulu’nun 22.02.2005 tarih ve 2/2 sayılı kararı ile basılmıştır. © Bu kitabın tüm yayın hakları Ege Üniversitesi’ne aittir. Kitabın tamamı ya da hiçbir bölümü yazarının önceden yazılı izni olmadan elektronik, optik, mekanik ya da diğer yollarla kaydedilemez, basılamaz, çoğaltılamaz. Ancak kaynak olarak gösterilebilir. Ön ve Arka Kapaklar: Triturus vittatus (Ön Kapakta yer alan Şeritli Semender, Foto: Dr. Mehmet K. ATATÜR) fotoğrafı hariç, diğerleri Dr. Bayram GÖÇMEN tarafından çekilmiş ve dizayn edilmiştir. Fotoğraflarla ilgili detaylar için kitabın en arka sayfasına bakınız. Basım Yeri: Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi Bornova, İzmir Tel : 0232 388 10 22 / 2066 e-mail : [email protected] ISBN 975-483-658-2 iii Herpetoloji’ye Katkısı Olan Bazı Merhum Bilim Adamları *** Bu eseri Değerli Babalarımız Merhum Rıza BUDAK (1907-1989) Ve Merhum İrfan SALİH GÖÇMEN (1920-1994)’nin aziz hatıralarına ithaf ediyoruz. *** iv v ÖNSÖZ Herpetoloji dersi, Ege Üniversitesi Fen Fakültesi Biyoloji Bölümü Zooloji Öğretim Programı’nda 1970’ li yıllardan itibaren okutulmaktadır. Dersin açılmasına öncülük yapan ve 1980 yılına kadar işleyen, Hocamız Merhum Prof. Dr. Muhtar BAŞOĞLU’dur. Kendisinin gerek manuskript halindeki ders notlarından, gerekse yayımlamış olduğu çalışmalarından bu eserde büyük ölçüde yararlanılmıştır. Kitap esas olarak, yurdumuzda temsilcileri bulunan grupların morfolojileri, anatomileri, üreme biyolojileri, dağılışları ve teşhisleri üzerine tesis edilmiştir. Bunlar, Urodela (Kuyruklu Kurbağalar), Anura (Kuyruksuz Kurbağalar), Testudinata (Kaplumbağalar), Sauria (Kertenkeleler) ve Ophidia (Yılanlar)’dır. Her bir türün ve üst kategorilerinin Latince veya latinceleştirilmiş isimlerinin Türkçe anlamları da ilave edilmiştir. Kitapta Rhynchocephalia (Kalak Başlılar) ve Crocodilia (Timsahlar) gruplarının kısa tutulması, ayrıca dünyada yaygın pek çok kurbağa ve sürüngen türünden ancak en bilinenlerinden bahsedilmesinin nedeni, kitabın bir yarıyıllık ders programını aşmaması ile ilgilidir. Yurdumuz Flora ve diğer Fauna elementleri bakımından olduğu gibi, Amphibi ve Reptil türleri bakımından da, çok önemli Zoocoğrafik konumdadır; Trakya’dan Avrupalı, Kafkaslar ve Doğu Anadoludan Asyalı, Suriye ve Irak’dan Afrikalı kurbağa ve sürüngen türlerinin adeta harmanlandığı emsali olmayan bir kara parçasıdır. Çevremizi, yurdumuzu tanımak, diğer değerler yanında bunların da kaçırılmasını, yok edilmesini önlemek görevlerimiz arasında olmalıdır. Diğer bir husus, yılanlar genelde sevilmeyen ve korkulan hayvan türleridir. Yurdumuzda büyük çoğunluğu zehirsiz olduğu halde zehirli tür zannedilerek görüldüğü yerde öldürülmektedir. Bu, bilgisizlikten ileri gelir. Yok edilmeleri Doğa’daki dengeli düzeni bozar, besinlerini teşkil eden tarla fareleri ve başka hayvan türlerinin biyolojik kontrolünü güçleştirebilir. Kaldı ki, zehirli yılan türlerinden sağlanan zehir pek çok ilaç içeriğinde kullanılmaktadır. Bu nedenle bazı ülkeler Serpentarium (Yılan çiftliği) kurmak suretiyle yılan zehrini bilimin ve insanlığın hizmetine sunarak ekonomik katkı da sağlamaktadır. Unutmayalım ki, yılan sadece taciz edildiğinde saldırır. Bir kitabın ortaya çıkışı sadece yazarları ile sınırlandırılamaz. Başlangıçta bizi bilgilendiren, katkıda bulunan hocalarımıza ve meslektaşlarımıza gönül borcumuzu özellikle belirtiriz. Fotoğraf temininde yardımcı olan ve manuskript ile ilgili uyarılarından yararlandığımız, değerli dostumuz ve meslektaşımız Prof. Dr. Mehmet K. ATATÜR’e çok teşekkür ederiz. Kitabımızın, başta dersi alan Zooloji öğrencilerinin yanında ilgi duyanlara (biyolog, ekolog, ziraatçi, bazı askeri birimler v.b.) da yararlı olacağına inanıyoruz. Gösterilen dikkate rağmen bazı yazım ve kavram hatalarının metin ya da şekillere sızmış olması olasılığı kaçınılmazdır. Bu yöndeki meslektaşlarımızdan ve öğrencilerimizden gelecek düzeltme önerilerini memnuniyetle karşılayacağımızı belirtir, şimdiden teşekkür ederiz. Kitabın basımı esnasında göstermiş oldukları büyük gayret ve titiz çalışmadan ötürü Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi personeline şükranlarımızı sunuyoruz. Bornova – 12 Mart 2005 Abidin BUDAK - Bayram GÖÇMEN vi vii İKİNCİ BASKININ ÖNSÖZÜ İlk baskısı 2005 yılında yapılmış olan Herpetoloji adlı kitabımızın hem Ege Üniversitemiz hem de diğer üniversitelerde zooloji dalında kullanılır olması bizler için sevindirici olmuştur. Geçen sürede DNA ve diğer moleküler genetik analizler neticesinde veya nomenklatür kaideleri bakımından çok sayıda taksonun sistematik pozisyonu değişmiştir. Kitabın ikinci baskısında bu değişiklikler, metin içerisinde veya dipnotlar halinde verilmiştir. Kitabımızın yeni baskısının herpetoloji konusuna ilgi duyan herkese faydalı olmasını dileriz. Kitabın ikinci baskısında da göstermiş oldukları gayret ve titiz çalışmaları nedeniyle Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi personeline teşekkür ederiz. Bornova – 23 Kasım 2007 Abidin BUDAK - Bayram GÖÇMEN viii ix İÇİNDEKİLER GİRİŞ ........................................................................................................... 1 HERPETOLOJİNİN TARİHÇESİ ............................................................. 1 TÜRKİYE HERPETOFAUNASI TARİHÇESİ ........................................ 5 Classis 1: Amphibia (=Batrachia) (Kurbağalar, İki Yaşamlılar) ....... 7 Kurbağaların Başlıca Özellikleri .............................................................. 8 Ordo 1: Apoda (=Gymnophiona) (Bacaksız Kurbağalar) ...................... 15 Ordo 2 : Urodela (=Gradientia) (Kuyruklu Kurbağalar) ...................... 17 Ordo 3: Anura (=Salientia) (Kuyruksuz Kurbağalar) ............................ 34 Kurbağalarda Hareket .............................................................................. 60 Kurbağalarda Deri ve Türevleri ............................................................... 60 Kurbağalarda Sindirim Sistemi ................................................................ 64 Kurbağalarda Solunum Sistemi ................................................................ 65 Kuyruksuz Kurbağalarda Üreme Davranışları (Stratejileri) ................ 69 Kurbağaların Çevreyle ve İnsanla İlişkileri ............................................. 73 Classis 2: Reptilia (Sürüngenler) .......................................................... 75 Sürüngenlerin Başlıca Özellikleri ............................................................. 75 Ordo 1: Rhynchocephalia (Kalak Başlılar) .............................................. 89 Ordo 2: Chelonia (=Testudinata) (Kaplumbağalar) ............................... 90 Ordo 3: Crocodilia (Timsahlar) ................................................................ 105 Ordo 4: Squamata (Pullular) .................................................................... 108 Subordo 1: Sauria (=Lacertilia) (Kertenkeleler) .................................. 109 Subordo 2: Amphisbaenia (Kör Kertenkeleler) ................................... 148 Subordo 3: Serpentes (=Ophidia) (Yılanlar) ........................................ 151 Yılan Zehri ............................................................................................... 188 Zehirlenmede İlk Yardım ....................................................................... 189 Sürüngenlerde Deri ve Türevleri ........................................................... 191 Sürüngenlerde Hareket .......................................................................... 197 Sürüngenlerde Beslenme ................................................................................ 200 Sürüngenlerde Aktivite ve Vücut Sıcaklığı ........................................... 201 Sürüngenlerde Üreme ..................................................................................... 202 Sürüngenlerin Dağılışı .......................................................................................... 204 Yılan ve İnsan İlişkileri .......................................................................................... 204 YARARLANILAN KAYNAKLAR ............................................................. 207 DİZİN .............................................................................................................. 213 x GİRİŞ 1 GİRİŞ Herpetoloji, kurbağa ve sürüngen bilimi olup, “herpeton” Eski Yunanca’da sürüngen, logos ise bilim anlamındadır. Herpeton sürüngen olduğuna göre bu bilim kolunun yalnız sürüngenleri kapsaması icap eder. Fakat amfibiler de dahil edilmiştir. Bunun bazı nedenleri vardır: bu iki sınıf (Classis) birbirine çok yakındır. Her ikisi de omurgalılardan kara omurgalılarının (Superclassis: Tetrapoda) iki aşağı sınıfını teşkil ederler. Her iki sınıf da “poikilotherm” (poikilo: değişken, therm: sıcaklık), yani “soğukkanlı” hayvanlardır. Aorta yayları çift, kalpleri iki kulakçık (atrium) ve tek karıncıktan (ventriculus) yapılmıştır. Diğer bir sebep ise zoolojideki uzmanlaşma ile ilgili geleneksel olan tutumdur. Bu tutuma göre omurgalılar; Mammaloji, Ornitholoji, İchthyoloji ve Herpetoloji şeklinde gruplandırılır. Bu şekilde gruplamanın bir sebebi de, bu hayvan gruplarının başlangıçtaki (geçmişteki)
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    Literature Cited in Lizards Natural History database Abdala, C. S., A. S. Quinteros, and R. E. Espinoza. 2008. Two new species of Liolaemus (Iguania: Liolaemidae) from the puna of northwestern Argentina. Herpetologica 64:458-471. Abdala, C. S., D. Baldo, R. A. Juárez, and R. E. Espinoza. 2016. The first parthenogenetic pleurodont Iguanian: a new all-female Liolaemus (Squamata: Liolaemidae) from western Argentina. Copeia 104:487-497. Abdala, C. S., J. C. Acosta, M. R. Cabrera, H. J. Villaviciencio, and J. Marinero. 2009. A new Andean Liolaemus of the L. montanus series (Squamata: Iguania: Liolaemidae) from western Argentina. South American Journal of Herpetology 4:91-102. Abdala, C. S., J. L. Acosta, J. C. Acosta, B. B. Alvarez, F. Arias, L. J. Avila, . S. M. Zalba. 2012. Categorización del estado de conservación de las lagartijas y anfisbenas de la República Argentina. Cuadernos de Herpetologia 26 (Suppl. 1):215-248. Abell, A. J. 1999. Male-female spacing patterns in the lizard, Sceloporus virgatus. Amphibia-Reptilia 20:185-194. Abts, M. L. 1987. Environment and variation in life history traits of the Chuckwalla, Sauromalus obesus. Ecological Monographs 57:215-232. Achaval, F., and A. Olmos. 2003. Anfibios y reptiles del Uruguay. Montevideo, Uruguay: Facultad de Ciencias. Achaval, F., and A. Olmos. 2007. Anfibio y reptiles del Uruguay, 3rd edn. Montevideo, Uruguay: Serie Fauna 1. Ackermann, T. 2006. Schreibers Glatkopfleguan Leiocephalus schreibersii. Munich, Germany: Natur und Tier. Ackley, J. W., P. J. Muelleman, R. E. Carter, R. W. Henderson, and R. Powell. 2009. A rapid assessment of herpetofaunal diversity in variously altered habitats on Dominica.
  • Species List of Amphibians and Reptiles from Turkey

    Species List of Amphibians and Reptiles from Turkey

    Journal of Animal Diversity Online ISSN 2676-685X Volume 2, Issue 4 (2020) http://dx.doi.org/10.29252/JAD.2020.2.4.2 Review Article Species list of Amphibians and Reptiles from Turkey Muammer Kurnaz Gümüşhane University, Kelkit Vocational School of Health Services, Department of Medical Services and Techniques 29600, Kelkit / Gümüşhane, Turkey *Corresponding author : [email protected] Abstract Turkey is biogeographically diverse and consequently has a rich herpetofauna. As a result of active herpetological research, the number of species has steadily increased in recent years. I present here a new checklist of amphibian and reptile species distributed in Turkey, revising the nomenclature to reflect the latest taxonomic knowledge. In addition, information about the systematics of many species is also given. In total 35 (19.4%) amphibian and 145 Received: 8 October 2020 (80.6%) reptile species comprise the Turkish herpetofauna. Among amphibians, 16 (45.7%) Accepted: 23 December 2020 anurans and 19 urodelans (54.3%) are present. Among reptiles, 11 (7.6%) testudines, 71 Published online: 31 January 2021 (49%) saurians, 3 (2.1%) amphisbaenians and 60 (41.3%) ophidians are considered part of the herpetofauna. The endemism rate in Turkey is considered relatively high with a total of 34 species (12 amphibian species – 34.3% and 22 reptile species – 15.2%) endemic to Turkey, yielding a total herpetofaunal endemism of 18.9%. While 38 species have not been threat-assessed by the IUCN, 92 of the 180 Turkish herpetofaunal species are of Least Concern (LC), 13 are Near Threatened (NT), 10 are Vulnerable (VU), 14 are Endangered (EN), and 7 are Critically Endangered (CR).
  • Biodiversity Profile of Afghanistan

    Biodiversity Profile of Afghanistan

    NEPA Biodiversity Profile of Afghanistan An Output of the National Capacity Needs Self-Assessment for Global Environment Management (NCSA) for Afghanistan June 2008 United Nations Environment Programme Post-Conflict and Disaster Management Branch First published in Kabul in 2008 by the United Nations Environment Programme. Copyright © 2008, United Nations Environment Programme. This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations Environment Programme. United Nations Environment Programme Darulaman Kabul, Afghanistan Tel: +93 (0)799 382 571 E-mail: [email protected] Web: http://www.unep.org DISCLAIMER The contents of this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of UNEP, or contributory organizations. The designations employed and the presentations do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP or contributory organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Unless otherwise credited, all the photos in this publication have been taken by the UNEP staff. Design and Layout: Rachel Dolores