2 the nerve • 2016-17 CONTENTS R EARCH IN BRIEF 4 - The Diffusive Memristor Gabrielle Abad 9 - Zika Virus & Its Neurological Impacts Srijesa Khasnabish A icles 11 - Excoriation Disorder Emily Yao 14 - Infrared Vision in Snakes Can Yumuk 16 - Conquer Your Mind Mehul Khetrapal 18 - Neuroeconomics Tiantian Li 22 - The Next Generation of Captain America Akane Ichiki 24 - Architecture & Cognition in the Sydney Crotts Monolingual & Bilingual Brain S UDENT R EARCH 26 - Restoring Hearing Loss Andrea Zhang O INION 27 - The Suffering Artist Amanda Fortin 32 - Neuroethics of Identity Erin Ferguson

the nerve • 2016-17 3 STAFF Olivia Nguyen Erin Ferguson Colin Stuart Gabrielle Abad Janelle Maxwell Ian Anderson Ben Rabin Sydney Crotts Priyanka Shah Camila de Freitas Josh Strauss Erin Ferguson Colin Stuart Amanda Fortin Emma Wheeler Mehul Khetrapal Ryan Wong Srijesna Khasnabish Emily Yao Katherine Kolin Can Yumuk Tiantian Li Andrea Zhang Haodong Liu Sydney Crotts Martinelli Valcin Radhika Dhanak Valentina Wicki Nic Larstanna Emily Yao Natalya Shelchkova

4 the nerve • 2016-17 LETTER FROM THEE TOR Dear reader,

The word ‘neuroscience’ is often intimidating to those who do not pursue the study Janelle Maxwell of the human brain in an academic setting. Yet, with neuroscience research being Ben Rabin one of the largest growing fields to date, it is paramount to make all knowledge ac- cessible without all the scientific jargon in order to propel the general understand- Priyanka Shah ing of our society forward. Having served as editor-in-chief for the Nerve Magazine Josh Strauss for two and a half years, I am continuously humbled and inspired by the passion in Colin Stuart our community to make neuroscience, psychology, biomedical, and other scientific fields more available to the public. Our team may be small, but our creativity is Emma Wheeler always surprising me in the best way possible. Ryan Wong Our magazine is the culmination of hardworking by writers, editors, Emily Yao designers, artists, scientists, creators, and idealists who value the work Can Yumuk done on the bench and on the pages of this magazine. We hope you find all the articles informative, and hope that we can spark your Andrea Zhang own creativity and passion for understanding the very com- plexities that define our personalities and minds. It’s been an honor being a part of such a wonderful Martinelli Valcin community of dedicated and passionate individuals, Valentina Wicki and I can’t wait to see where we go next. Emily Yao -Olivia Nguyen (Editor-In-Chief)

the nerve • 2016-17 5 Artwork by Anastasia Kapitonava

6 the nerve • 2016-17 THE DIFFUSIVE MEMRISTOR: A Circuit Element That Emulates Calcium Movement and Plasticity in Neurons

By Gabrielle Abad parts of the circuit. Unlike normal resistors that have a set resistance value, the memris- Remember scouring the pages of tor has a varying resistance that depends on “Where’s Waldo?” hoping to find that set of the current flowing through it at any point in stripes among the chaos? We, as humans, find time. The memristor relies on its non-volatile this fairly simple and can accomplish it with property - a characteristic that refers to mem- ease (and a little bit of patience). Comput- ory storage. If something has this property, it ers, on the other hand, must be programmed can retain data even if its power supply is cut to do something like this. The human brain off. An example is the hard disk drive used by performs this task and others more accurate- your computer. When something, say this ar- ly and more quickly than any computer. But, ticle, is saved to this form of storage and then despite the brain being far more energy effi- the computer is turned off, the article in its cient, engineers and scientists have attempted most recent form can still be retrieved when to model it using software run on traditional the computer is later turned on. The mem- computer hardware. Yes, these programs du- ristor behaves this same way by being able plicate the decisions reached by our brains. to remember its most recent resistance even However, they do not mimic the processes though its power supply is cut off. The first our brains perform to reach these decisions. memristors behaved like neurons by simulat- Developments have occurred so that ing quick changes that occur when sending hardware is being built to act more like neu- and receiving signals, but did not replicate the rons. Why focus on the neuron? It is the ba- neuron’s plasticity, the brain’s ability to modify sic working unit of the nervous system and itself, or the neuron’s behavior during the peri- its main job is to transmit information to oth- od of time after a signal has been transmitted. er cells. Because of these neurons, the brain Jianhua Yang, an electrical engineer at functions the way it does. Exploration is large- University of Massachusetts Amherst, and his ly being spent on developing a relatively new team focused on the movement of calcium circuit element called the memristor, a con- across the gap between two neighboring neu- catenation between “memory” and “resistor,” rons. Calcium signals for the release of chem- to mimic the neuron. A resistor is crucial to a icals called neurotransmitters that allow for circuit as it limits the flow of current through the communication between neurons. During it – high resistance allows a small amount of signaling, calcium rushes into the synapse, the current to flow and low resistance allows a gap between neighboring neurons. This caus- large amount of current to flow. Current is the es necessary neurotransmitters to be released, flow of charge through a circuit and allows thus relaying the proper information across the circuit to operate. Too much current at neurons. After signaling, calcium remains in once can result in burning out and breaking the synapse and slowly diffuses back to its the nerve • 2016-17 7 channels. To better model this phenomenon, a outside of this time window, there was no in- device called the diffusive memristor, based on crease in conductance; and at times, even a the random movement of metal nanoparticles decrease in conductance occurred. There was due to external forces, was built. This device no change, or sometimes a decrease, in how consists of a layer of a dielectric film embed- easily current could flow through the device ded with silver nanoparticles, which are anal- compared to its initial state. This increase/ ogous to calcium, sandwiched between either decrease in conductance is analogous to the two platinum or gold inert electrodes, analo- strengthening and weakening of the connec- gous to two neighboring neurons. A dielectric tions between neurons when we learn new material is a good insulator (does not allow for tasks. Because this similarity occurs on a electric current to flow) that does not impede physical level, the memristor’s behavior un- but instead slightly reacts to an external elec- der these conditions can be called an emula- tric forces. An electrode, opposite of a dielec- tion, not just a simulation, of the movement tric material, is a good conductor and is used to of calcium between the neighboring neurons. establish a connection and allows for current Because the neuron and its functions are to flow in and out of a nonmetallic material. more complex than just its process of calcium When voltage was supplied to the device, flow and its characteristic of plasticity, it can- the silver nanoparticles filled and bridged not be said that the diffusive memristor built by the gap between the electrodes by form- Yang and his team emulates the neuron exact- ing small filaments. Current was allowed to ly. However, showing that these processes can flow from one electrode to the other in this be demonstrated on a hardware level opens low resistance state of the memristor. When a new door in neural computing and to the voltage was turned off and as the filaments many possibilities that come with developing broke down, the memristor returned to its new hardware to mimic the brain’s functions high resistance state. However, this did not and moving past just creating software to do so. happen immediately. Even without voltage applied to it, the memristor remained in its low resistance state as the silver nanoparti- cles slowly broke apart and moved back to either of the electrodes. This simulated cal- cium flow after the neuron receives a signal. Replicating the nature of plasticity in neu- rons became the ultimate goal of Yang and his team. First, voltage was applied to the memris- tor and then was turned off. If voltage was ap- References: plied again quickly, before the silver nanopar- ticles had enough time to settle back onto the Zhongrui Wang, Saumil Joshi, Sergey E. Savel’ev, Hao Jiang, Rivu Midya, Peng Lin, Miao Hu, electrodes, the device’s conductance, which Ning Ge, John Paul Strachan, Zhiyong Li, Qing is a property that describes the ease in which Wu, Mark Barnell, Geng-Lin Li, Huolin L. Xin, R. current flows through a material, increased as Stanley Williams, Qiangfei Xia, J. Joshua Yang. compared to its initial conductance. If voltage “Memristors with diffusive dynamics as synaptic was turned off and then applied again multi- emulators for neuromorphic computing.” Nature ple times within a certain amount of time, the Matierials, 26 September 2016. Web. 18 October memristor’s overall conductance increased. 2016. Therefore, current could flow more easily through the device as compared to its initial state. Contrasting this, if voltage was applied 8 the nerve • 2016-17 Srijesa Khasnabish

Brief History of Zika Virus Microcephaly caused specifically by maternal Zika Virus Zika Virus is a mosquito borne illness that was first detect- infection can be harmful because it not only causes impaired ed in humans in 1952 [1]. Since then, there have been scattered growth, but also causes prominent tissue and cell death and [2] small-scale outbreaks primarily in Africa, which spread to Asia retinal lesions that could lead to blindness . Since the start in the late 1900s. By 2007, Zika had spread to Micronesia, re- of the Zika Virus outbreak in Brazil, several case studies have sulting in large-scale outbreak that was previously unobserved. been conducted to characterize the effects of Zika on the de- Unlike South America’s current outbreak, the 2007 outbreak veloping brain. The Brazil National Ministry of Health claims did not have fatalities, hospitalizations, or neurological com- that since the Zika Virus outbreak, there has been a 20X in- plications. From 2007-2015 there were a couple of small-scale crease in number of microcephaly cases in the northeast region [4] outbreaks, but nothing as concerning as the current outbreak. of the country . A case study published in the New England Beginning in March 2015, Brazil informed the World Health Journal of Medicine (March 2016) by Mlakar et. al., documents Organization (WHO) of an illness characterized by a rash and the case of a woman infected with Zika Virus at the end of her blood samples were collected and tested for chikungunya, ru- third trimester during her pregnancy. The woman was work- bella, and measles among other viruses. Part of the challenge in ing in Brazil for the past two years and was 13 weeks pregnant identifying Zika Virus is that its signs and symptoms are sim- when symptoms of Zika Virus emerged. Since the symptoms, ilar other to mosquito-borne illnesses. It was not until later in namely a high fever, a rash, and musculoskeletal pain, are com- May 2015 that Brazil’s National Reference Lab was able to iden- mon to other mosquito-borne illnesses, diagnostic tests were tify the illness as Zika Virus. Once it was confirmed that the not performed. An ultrasonography conducted during 14 and illness was Zika, the Pan-American Health Organization and 20 weeks of gestation showed no abnormalities in fetal growth. WHO declared an epidemiological alert on May 7th, 2015 [1]. However, when the patient returned to Europe around 32 weeks of gestation, the results of the ultrasonography were concern- ing. The doctors observed reduced intrauterine growth, a head Zika and Microcephaly circumference below the expected value, and a lower than ex- Studies show that Zika Virus in pregnant women leads to pected transcerebellar diameter. An ultrasound image of the microcephaly, or a decrease in the circumference of a baby’s head baby’s brain shows deficits in brain development and placental due to improper growth during gestation [2]. A review of Zika calcifications. Coronal slices of fetal brain tissue showed a loss Virus by Araujo et al (2016) shows an MRI of a three-month of gyration, or less ridges in the cortex which are important old infant born with microcephaly. Unlike a normally develop- for increasing surface matter of brain tissue [4]. Since the doc- ing three-month old, this MRI is characterized by calcifications tors concluded the fetus was in poor neonatal health, the moth- and malformations in cortical development [3]. According to the er chose to have the pregnancy terminated. An autopsy of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, micro- fetal brain confirmed microcephaly, particularly a decrease in cephaly can be caused by genetic abnormalities or the mother’s the size of the cerebellum and brainstem structures. Calcifi- behavior during pregnancy. Such behaviors include excessive cations of varying sizes were noted in the cortex and frontal, drinking or drug use or infection with a cytomegalovirus, rubel- parietal, and occipital lobes [4]. Using a method called poly- la, varicella, or Zika [2]. Children with microcephaly can expe- merase chain reaction (which amplifies copies of a particular rience delayed cognitive development, dwarfism, seizures, and gene) , researchers were able to confirm the presence of Zika issues with balance and coordination among other neurological Virus in the fetal brain matter while tests for other flavivirus- deficits. While medication exists for seizures and physical ther- es (such as dengue fever) and chikungunya were negative [4]. apy can help children with microcephaly cope with the disor- der, no treatments currently exist to address all symptoms [2]. Zika and Guillain-Barré Syndrome the nerve • 2016-17 9 Guillain-Barré syndrome is an autoimmune disorder in References which cells of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) are attached 1. Kindauser, Mary Kay, Tomas Allen, Veronika Frank, Ravi [5] . This causes the destruction of myelin sheath surrounding pe- Santhana, and Christopher Dye. “Zika: The Origin and ripheral nerves, which is crucial for the speed of neural trans- Spread of a Mosquito-borne Virus.” World Health Organi- mission and enables transmission over long distances. Once zation. World Health Organization, 9 Feb. 2016. Web. 04 the myelin sheath is degraded, muscles are unable to respond May 2017. to the brain’s commands properly. The brain can also receive fewer sensory signals or “inappropriate signals that result in 2. Araujo, Abelardo Q. C., Marcus Tulius T. Silva, and Alex- tingling, skin-crawling, or painful sensations” [5]. Diagnosis of andra P. Q. C. Araujo. “Zika Virus-associated Neurological Guillain-Barre is difficult because scientists have not yet iden- Disorders: A Review.” Brain 139.8 (2016): 2122-130. Ox- tified a specific disease-causing event. However, studies show ford Academic. Web. that increased levels of protein are found in the cerebrospinal 3. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. fluid of those afflicted[5] . While this syndrome is rare, it occurs “Microcephaly Information Page.” National Institutes of in one person out of 100,000, and it affects people in any gen- Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, der or age group. It can occur post-respiratory or gastrointes- 2017. Web. 04 May 2017. tinal infection, post-surgery, or as consequence of Zika Virus. 4. Mlakar, Jernej, Misa Korva, Natasa Tul, Mara Popovic A case series, conducted in seven South American coun- Mateja Poljsak-Prijatelj, Jerica Mraz, Marko Kolenc, Katari- tries and published in the New England Journal of Medicine na Resman Rus, Tina Vesnaver Vipotnik, Vesna Fabjan Vo- ( 2016), highlights the correlation between Zika Virus and dusek, Alenka Vizjak, Joze Pizem, Miroslav Petrovec, and Guillain-Barre syndrome. Analysis suggests that during the Tatjana Avsic Zupanc. “Zika Virus Associated with Micro- time period from April 1, 2015 to March 31, 2016, the inci- cephaly.” New England Journal of Medicine 374.10 (2016): dence of both Zika Virus and Guillain-Barré syndrome both 951-58. NEJM. Web. increased. For instance, in Venezuela there was an 877% in- 5. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. crease in Guillain-Barré during the weeks of Zika Virus “Guillain-Barré Syndrome Fact Sheet.” National Institutes transmission. The increase was less drastic in other coun- [6] of Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, tries such as Columbia, where there was a 211% increase . July 2011. Web. 04 May 2017. Another New England Journal of Medicine article ( 6. Santos, Thais Dos, Angel Rodriguez, Maria Almiron, An- 2016) by Parra et. al., describes the temporal association be- tonio Sanhueza, Pilar Ramon, Wanderson K. De Olivei- tween Zika Virus symptoms and the clinical features asso- ra, Giovanini E. Coelho, Roberto Badaró, Juan Cortez, ciated with Guillain-Barré. Specifically, out of the 68 patients Martha Ospina, Raquel Pimentel, Rolando Masis, Frank- who fit the criteria for Guillain-Barré, 97% of them “had lin Hernandez, Bredy Lara, Romeo Montoya, Beatrix Jubi- symptoms of Zika Virus infection in the four weeks preced- [7] thana, Angel Melchor, Angel Alvarez, Sylvain Aldighieri, ing the onset of neurological symptoms” . The paper in- Christopher Dye, and Marcos A. Espinal. “Zika Virus and cludes a chart listing the various neurological symptoms ob- the Guillain–Barré Syndrome — Case Series from Sev- served in these patients, such as limb weakness and facial palsy. en Countries.” New England Journal of Medicine 375.16 (2016): 1598-601. NEJM. Web. Concluding Remarks 7. Parra, Beatriz, Jairo Lizarazo, Jorge A. Jimenez-Arango, The correlation between Zika Virus and neurological Andres F. Zea-Vera, Guillermo Gonzalez-Manrique, Jose disorders like microcephaly and Guillain-Barré suggest that Vargas, Jorge A. Angarita, Gonzalo Zuniga, Reydmar Lo- Zika could be a neuropathogenic disorder. This term means pez-Gonzalez, Cindy L. Beltran, Karen H. Rizcala, Maria that despite being a mosquito-borne illness, Zika Virus dam- T. Morales, Oscar Pacheco, Martha L. Ospina, Anupama ages the nervous system. Previous Zika outbreaks were small- Kumar, David R. Cornblath, Laura S. Munoz, Lyda Osorio, er-scale and unrelated to increased levels of other disorders. Paula Barreras, and Carlos A. Pardo. “Guillain–Barré Syn- The scale of this outbreak and its widespread impact should be drome Associated with Zika Virus Infection in Colombia.” a catalyst for resources to be invested in researching Zika Vi- New England Journal of Medicine 375.16 (2016): 1513-523. rus. The development of a vaccine or drug to combat the infec- NEJM. Web. tion would be beneficial to many communities. However, until a breakthrough in the research occurs, afflicted areas should probably focus on limiting transmission and developing better diagnostic tools. Part of the challenge in developing diagnos- tics is that the symptoms of Zika Virus are very similar to other mosquito-borne illnesses. Zika Virus as a public health issue is important because it has an impact on population growth.

10 the nerve • 2016-17 EXCORIATION DISORDER

By Emily Yao

ophia, a 20-year-old university student, recently visit- A. Recurrent skin picking resulting in skin lesions. ed her university’s mental health center for help with B. Repeated attempts to decrease or stop skin picking. Sher problems with skin picking. According to Sophia, C. The skin picking causes clinically significant dis- whenever she was stressed or bored, she felt compelled to pick tress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important at certain spots on her arms and scalp, sometimes unconscious- areas of functioning. ly, until they were raw and bleeding. Even though it hurt, she D. The skin picking is not attributable to the physio- admitted, picking at her skin felt like a heavy tension being lifted logical effects of a substance (e.g., cocaine) or another medical from her shoulders. She had numerous scars, scabs, and small condition (e.g., scabies). open wounds, and usually wore long sleeves to hide the physi- E. The skin picking is not better explained by symp- cal evidence, or avoided going to social events in fear of being toms of another mental disorder (e.g., delusions or tactile judged. Her first memory of skin picking was in middle school, hallucinations in a psychotic disorder, attempts to improve a but her symptoms remained relatively absent through most of perceived defect or flaw in appearance in body dysmorphic high school. Sophia said that it had come back full force once disorder, stereotypies in stereotypic movement disorder, or she started college, and she didn’t want to get help at first be- intention to harm oneself in nonsuicidal self-injury). cause she felt embarrassed and ashamed of her skin picking, and Not only does dermatillomania involve social stigma, it thought she could handle it herself. She tried multiple times to is also strongly correlated with other feelings of self-focused stop but nothing ever worked, so she finally turned to the mental shame, namely symptom-based shame and body shame[3]. health center despite her doubt that any treatment would help. In symptom-based shame, the individual experiences guilt According to her psychologist, she had low self-confidence and about the picking behavior itself. People with dermatilloma- was also struggling with anxiety about her classes and family nia usually feel tension or anxiety before picking, and a sense problems. Sophia was later diagnosed with excoriation disorder. of relief or even a trance-like state during picking[4][5]. How- Excoriation disorder (ExD), also commonly called skin ever, these feelings quickly shift to embarrassment or guilt picking disorder or dermatillomania, is a mental disorder that about their pre, during, and post-picking rituals and behavior, affects about 1 in 50 US adults (a lifetime prevalence of about which can also include tactile-stimulating behaviors like eat- 2%)[1]; however, many people are still unaware that excoriation ing the skin or rolling it between fingers[4]. This, in turn, leads disorder is, in fact, a mental disorder -- possibly because of its to body shame, which is in response to the physical effects of relatively recent recognition in the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Sta- picking, like open wounds or scabs in noticeable areas. Out tistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition), and also be- of embarrassment, many people who suffer from dermatil- cause some may believe that symptoms of dermatillomania are lomania attempt to cover up or camouflage their skin lesions simply a bad habit. A common belief is that the affected individ- or go as far as to avoid social activities or public areas[2][5]. ual can just stop at any time, or is simply unable to overcome their Despite our knowledge about the subjective psychologi- picking behavior due to mental weakness or lack of determi- cal experiences of dermatillomania, there is still a lot to learn nation. However, as demonstrated in Sophia’s case, excoriation about its neurobiology and etiology. Recent MRI studies have disorder revolves around very focused, specific, and compulsive shown that individuals with dermatillomania show greater vol- behavior. The recent addition of this disorder to the DSM-5 [2] ume of the ventral striatum, which is part of the reward sys- describes the specific diagnostic criteria as follows: tem of the brain[6]. This system is responsible for reward-as-

the nerve • 2016-17 11 sociated learning as well as desire (wanting something) and tillomania consists of both psychological (i.e. affective states, pleasure (liking something). In addition, these individuals also triggers) and neurobiological (i.e. compulsion) characteristics, display reduced cortical thickness, which may point to few- so the more severe cases may be difficult to fully treat with a er neural connections, in the right hemisphere frontal areas monopharmacological approach. In many cases, symptoms like the orbitofrontal cortex, which is important in habit for- may naturally appear and disappear for variable amounts of mation[6]. Other psychological studies have also aligned with time[2]. Some research has also suggested that dermatilloma- these results. For example, it has been shown that individu- nia may have a large heterogeneity, which means there may be als with dermatillomania perform worse in stop-signal task, many possible causes of this disorder[12]. In a clinical trial for which measures impulse control[7], but perform normally in antiepileptic drug Lamictal (Lamotrigine), researchers wanted intra-extra dimensional set-shifting, which measures cogni- to see if lamotrigine would produce a better effect in individu- tive flexibility, or the brain’s ability to multitask concepts[8][9]. als with dermatillomania who also had pre-existing prefrontal cortex dysfunction (problems in both cognitive flexibility and ETIOLOGY impulse control)[15]. Although they did not find any significant In general, dermatillomania appears more frequently in outperformance in subjects who took lamotrigine over placebo, people with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) as well as they found that only individuals with prefrontal cortex dysfunc- in their close relatives[10]. Other than the involvement of some tion responded relatively beneficially to lamotrigine. In the pa- kind of hereditary factor, there is no evidence of the specific per, they discuss that different subsets of dermatillomania may causes of dermatillomania. However, a mouse model study by require different types of pharmacotherapy, and acknowledge Greer and Capecchi (2002) has implicated the significance of the beneficial effects of psychotherapy and the potential great- a specific gene, Hoxb8, in expression of normal grooming be- er effect of a combination of psycho- and pharmacotherapy. haviors[11]. In the study, they observed that the mutant mice Multiple studies have also been conducted on the effect with loss of function of the Hoxb8 gene demonstrated four of antidepressant SSRI (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor) types of abnormal grooming behaviors in comparison to the drugs, with mixed results[12]. For example, escitalopram seems wild-type, non-mutant mouse: (1) Excessive self-grooming to help improve overall severity of symptoms and quality of life (hair removal and/or self-inflicted skin lesions), (2) signifi- but produces an unexplained high variance in reduction of se- cantly more time spent grooming, (3) more frequent groom- verity[16], implying that there may be different subsets of der- ing, and (4) excessively grooming other wild-type mice. This matillomania, or perhaps there may be other neurotransmitter study presents Hoxb8 gene mutation as a possible genetic pathways significantly involved. Augmenting an antidepressant factor that can contribute to dermatillomania, but more re- with another medication may be more effective in more ex- search about this hypothesis must be conducted to know ex- treme cases, as shown in a case study in which venlafaxine (an actly the extent of the impact this gene can have in humans. antidepressant) along with aripiprazole (an antipsychotic) suc- cessfully treated a patient’s severe skin picking[17]. Overall, how- TREATMENT ever, current available SSRI studies have shown a lack of signif- icant improvement in SSRI treatment as opposed to placebo. Typically, the most common and effective treatment for der- matillomania consists of psychotherapy treatments like Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Habit Reversal training (HR)[12]. FUTURE PHARMACOLOGICAL STUDIES Given the hereditary and stress-related nature of this disorder, this Future pharmacological studies on treatments for der- disorder fits into the diathesis-stress model, which is a psychologi- matillomania should be conducted with a larger diversity cal theory explaining that environmental stressors act on a genetic of participants. All of the previously mentioned trials were diathesis, or predisposition, which then causes manifestation of the conducted with a heavy majority of female participants, disorder. As a result, psychotherapy treatment based on the diathe- which does correlate with the fact that more females are di- sis-stress model focuses on developing protective measures to pro- agnosed with dermatillomania than males[2]. However, the mote resilience against environmental stressors, which may then DSM-5 mentions that this ratio may also be affected by so- help reduce symptom expression. In addition to promoting stress ciocultural norms regarding gender and appearance. Keep- management, HR training introduces the individual to a com- ing in mind that this disorder may be quite heterogeneous, peting response (i.e. fist clenching for one minute) following the more testing with increased subject diversity should be con- compulsion to pick, and designates a person in their community to ducted in order to determine reasons for this diagnosis ratio. provide additional support[13]. CBT training also consists of similar behavioral interventions as well as initial cognitive interventions, Future studies should also be conducted over a longer pe- which help replace flawed, self-destructive thoughts with more riod of time. Several of the previous studies had a test period of rational thinking[14]. Research studies on both HR and CBT have only a few months[15][18][19]; however, OCD patients treated with shown that subjects who underwent either treatment displayed sig- SSRIs typically take 10-12 weeks to respond[20], so we can infer nificantly less skin-picking than did wait-list control subjects[14][13]. that dermatillomania patients treated with SSRIs should take a Research trials on pharmacological treatments, on the similar amount of time for a noticeable response. Because many other hand, have been inconclusive so far[12], partly because previous research trials were only conducted for one to three of the particularly challenging nature of this disorder. Derma- months, it may be difficult to determine with certainty if the

12 the nerve • 2016-17 results are from the drug itself or some other external factor. In 18 Aug. 2016. Web. addition, longer trials are needed in order to research the effect 8. Cambridge Cognition Ltd. “Intra-Extra Dimensional Set of drug treatment on long-term resilience -- picking behavior Shift (IED).”Cambridge Cognition. N.p., 2016. Web. may be diminished or even extinguished during SSRI treatment but could potentially be reinstated by cues or stress after the pa- 9. Odlaug, B. L., Chamberlain, S. R., & Grant, J. E. (2010). tient is taken off the drug. Furthermore, the inherent fluctuating Motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility in pathologic nature of the disorder may be difficult to fully take into con- skin picking. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and sideration when planning a future study, but a longer trial will Biological Psychiatry, 34(1), 208-211. help reduce the effects that may have on the results of the study. 10. Bienvenu, O. J., Samuels, J. F., Wuyek, L. A., Liang, K. Y., Wang, Y., Grados, M. A., ... & Fyer, A. J. (2012). Is obses- CONCLUSION sive–compulsive disorder an anxiety disorder, and what, if After diagnosing Sophia with excoriation disorder, her psy- any, are spectrum conditions? A family study perspective. chologist began to work with her on cognitive behavioral therapy, Psychological medicine, 42(01), 1-13. which moderately helped to reduce the frequency and severity 11. Greer, J. M., & Capecchi, M. R. (2002). Hoxb8 is required of Sophia’s symptoms. However, she was still struggling with her for normal grooming behavior in mice. Neuron, 33(1), picking, so her psychologist referred her to a psychiatrist, who 23-34. then prescribed an SSRI for Sophia to take alongside CBT. These 12. Schumer, M. C., Bartley, C. A., & Bloch, M. H. (2016). two treatments, in addition to the support of her friends and Systematic Review of Pharmacological and Behavioral family, allowed Sophia to finally overcome her dermatillomania. Treatments for Skin Picking Disorder. Journal of clinical Despite treatment success in Sophia’s case study, there are psychopharmacology, 36(2), 147-152. many other cases that are even more severe than Sophia’s that may 13. Teng, E. J., Woods, D. W., & Twohig, M. P. (2006). Habit not be responsive to psychological treatment. Hopefully, future Reversal as a Treatment for Chronic Skin Picking A Pilot research in this area will allow us to create more effective, targeted Investigation. Behavior Modification, 30(4), 411-422. pharmacological treatments. In the meantime, one of the most important steps we can take as a society is to simply provide love, 14. Grant, J. E., Odlaug, B. L., Chamberlain, S. R., & Kim, S. acceptance, and support for people suffering from mental illness. W. (2010). A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of lamotrigine for pathologic skin picking: Treatment efficacy SOURCES and neurocognitive predictors of response. Journal of clinical psychopharmacology, 30(4), 396. 1. Odlaug B. L., Grant J. E. (2010). Pathological skin picking. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 36, 15. Schuck K, Keijsers GP, Rinck M. The effects of brief cog- 296–303. nitive-behaviour therapy for pathological skin picking: a randomized comparison to wait-list control. Behav Res 2. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Ther. 2011; 49: 11-17. statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. 16. Keuthen, N. J., Jameson, M., Loh, R., Deckersbach, T., Wil- helm, S., & Dougherty, D. D. (2007). Open-label escitalo- 3. Glazier, K., Wetterneck, C., Singh, S., & Williams, M. pram treatment for pathological skin picking. Internation- (2015). Stigma and shame as barriers to treatment for al clinical psychopharmacology, 22(5), 268-274. Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders. Journal of Depression and Anxiety, 2015. 17. Turner, G. A., Sutton, S., & Sharma, A. (2014). Augmen- tation of venlafaxine with aripiprazole in a case of treat- 4. Snorrason, I., Belleau, E. & Wood, D. (2012). How relat- ment-resistant excoriation disorder. Innovations in clinical ed are hair pulling disorder (trichotillomania) and skin neuroscience, 11(1-2), 29. picking disorder? A review of evidence for comorbidity, similarities and shared etiology. Clinical Psychology Re- 18. Arbabi, M., Farnia, V., Balighi, K., Mohammadi, M., view, 32, 618–629. Nejati-Safa, A., Golestan, B., & Darvish, F. (2008). Efficacy of citalopram in treatment of pathological skin picking, 5. Snorrason, I., Smari, J. & Olafsson, R. P. (2010). Emotion a randomized double blind placebo controlled trial. Acta regulation in pathological skin picking: Findings from a Medica Iranica, 46(5), 367-372. non-treatment seeking sample. Journal of Behavior Thera- py and Experimental Psychiatry, 41, 238–245. 19. Simeon, D., Stein, D. J., Gross, S., Islam, N., & Hollander, E. (1997). A double-blind trial of fluoxetine in pathologic 6. Roos, A., Grant, J. E., Fouche, J.-P., Stein, D. J. & Lochner, skin picking. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 58(8), C. (2015). A comparison of brain volume and cortical 341-347. thickness in excoriation (skin picking) disorder and trichotillomania (hair pulling disorder) in women. Be- 20. Harvard Health Publications. “Treating Obsessive-com- havioural Brain Research, 279, 255–258. pulsive Disorder.” Harvard Health Publications. Harvard University, Apr. 2009. Web. 7. Stoet, Gijsbert. “Stop Signal Task.” Stop Signal Task. N.p.,

the nerve • 2016-17 13 INFRARED VISIONIN SNAKES CAN YUMUK

even year old Claire and her family were walk- The IR detection system of snakes presents a paradox. ing in the woods after finishing a delicious picnic. The structure of the pit organ suggests that the resulting im- SEverything was calm and peaceful until they en- age will be blurry. However, when the information from the countered a pit viper slithering on the ground, looking for IR system combines with the visual system of the snake, it food. Claire was so scared that she immediately hugged turns into an image clear enough for the snake to understand her father. In order to soothe his little princess, the father the outside world. Because the pit hole is larger than IR wave- said that the snake was blind and it couldn’t understand lengths, the diffractive effect, which is the interference of that they were standing there so it would not attack. After light, doesn’t apply. This makes sense when we consider the some time, the snake went away without even coming to- geometric optics. The IR-sensing membrane, located at the ward them. Out of curiosity, Claire thought for a couple pit organ’s inner cavity, has sensors which are sensitive to little of seconds about how snakes could detect images if they changes in temperature. Based on this information, van Hem- were blind. However, her parents offered Claire ice cream, men and his team made some mathematical calculations af- so she started to think about which flavor to eat instead. ter constructing a model of the snake’s IR imaging. They con- How are snakes able to detect images if they are blind? cluded that image recognition depends on snake’s ability to By nature, snakes are not blind. They have functional eyes detect edges in the image produced by the pit membrane and and the quality of their vision varies throughout the spe- that it is possible to rebuild the pit organ structure of a snake. cies. Pit vipers, for example, use the pit organs located be- Eric A. Newman and Peter H. Hartline studied pit tween the eyes and the nostrils. These organs are formed of vipers and boid snakes and their IR sensitivity which was two holes and can be referred to as poor pinhole cameras. A evolved from the somatic sensory system. In mammals, this pit organ is effectively a pinhole infrared (IR) camera with sensory system is concerned with the sensations of touch, a temperature-sensitive membrane suspended near its back. pressure, temperature and pain. The trigeminal nerve con- Generally, pinhole cameras produce sharp images without a ducts the sensory messages from the facial area to the brain. lens if the diameter of the opening is smaller than its distance In infrared-sensitive snakes, a substantial part of the trigemi- from the imaging surface. This is not the case for the pit vi- nal nerve is devoted to the pit organs and IR sensitivity. Over pers because if we observe the pit organs, both the holes’ di- many generations, the somatic sensory system of pit vipers ameter and the pit depth are about 2 mm. Hence, the result- and boids evolved into a sense similar to vision. These snakes ing thermal image on the membrane even from a point IR also developed specialized clusters of nerve-cell bodies in the source is just a big blur. Biophysicist Leo van Hemmen and brain to receive and process the sensory information coming colleagues from the Technical University of Munich con- from the pit organs and send this information to the visual sidered how a snake could possibly use such poorly focused processor of the brain. Newman and Hartline built a com- IR input to find its prey with a surprisingly high accuracy. puter-controlled stimulator that could present infrared and visual stimuli whose intensity, location, and time courses 14 the nerve • 2016-17 were independent of one another in order to determine other or by way of both modalities at once. “Or” and “enhanced” kinds of interactions between the visual and the infrared mo- cells respond more strongly to combined stimulation than dalities. In a typical experiment, they put a recording micro- to stimulation evoked by either visible or infrared radiation electrode into the optic tectum, the structure which serves alone. Detection and localization would be improved by such as a relay center for the visual information in the brain, of excitatory interactions, particularly when neither modality is a rattlesnake. Their computer then generated a sequence of strongly excited “or” neurons and “enhanced” neurons might infrared, visual and combined infrared-visual stimuli and re- also be involved in an attentional process, one in which a corded the responses from the cell. They then encountered warm, visible object to one side of a snake might catch the another visually responsive neuron. In this way, they sampled “attention” of the orientation machinery of the brain. The and tested several sequences of neurons. They discovered a infrared component of the stimulus would generate an ele- number of novel infrared-visual interactions. The respons- vated excitatory state among “or” and “enhanced” units in a es of the cells found in the optic tectum, fell naturally into large tectal region because infrared receptive fields are fairly six classes, two of which were represented by the “or” and large. Such a heightened excitation could prime that region “and” neurons. They confirmed that “or” cells responded to of the tectum for visual stimulation by the same object or both infrared and visual stimuli presented alone as well as to a nearby one. The infrared stimulation would thereby serve combined infrared-visual stimuli. Furthermore, “and” cells to draw attention to the corresponding part of visual space. responded only to simultaneous infrared-visual stimulation. The cross-modality interactions that Newman and Tectal neurons of two other classes exhibited “enhanc- Hartline described, show that in the rattlesnake tectum, the ing” interactions of visual and infrared modalities. They infrared and visual sense modalities are integrated to a sig- described such cells as visual-enhanced infrared cells or as nificant degree. Could similar modality­combining interac- infrared-enhanced visual cells, depending on the stimulus tions operate in the optic tecta of other species? Are tactile that did the enhancing. For example, a visual-enhanced in- and auditory signals in mammals combined in complex ways frared cell would show a moderate response (say four nerve with visual input? We simply do not know because the ex- impulses) to an infrared stimulus presented alone and show periments necessary to identify such interactions have not no response to a visual stimulus. When infrared and visu- been done. It is likely, however, that the kinds of modality al stimuli were presented together, however, a larger re- interactions we observed in snakes are present and func- sponse would be seen. The excitatory influence of the visual tionally important in the tecta of most other vertebrates. stimulus could significantly enhance the cell’s response to The world of science is developing each day while the infrared stimulus. Similarly, an infrared-enhanced vi- making new discoveries and cultivating our gardens. There sual cell would show no response to an infrared stimulus may still be some unanswered questions but they will be but would show an enhanced response to a visual stimulus answered within time with the help of a childlike curiosi- when it was accompanied by an infrared stimulus. Tectal ty like that of Claire. More information about infrared vi- neurons of the remaining two classes displayed inhibitory sion of snakes will be acquired with scientific research. interactions of the infrared and the visual modalities. The neurons of one class, which they called infrared-depressed visual cells, responded vigorously to a visual stimulus pre- sented alone but failed to respond or responded weakly to SOURCES the combined infrared-visual stimulus. The inhibitory in- 1. Newman EA, Hartline PH. “The Infrared “Vision” of fluence of the infrared stimulus reduced or completely sup- Snakes.” Scientific American 246(3) March 1982: 116- pressed the response to the visual one. The neurons of the 127 other class, in which an infrared response was inhibited by a visual stimulus, were called visual-depressed infrared cells. 2. Schwarzschild B. “Neural-network model may explain the surprisingly good infrared vision of snakes.” Physics A simplified description of such behavior might divide Today 59(9) September 2006: 18-20 it into several processes: the detection and localization of a stimulus, the identification of the stimulus, and the trig- 3. van Hemmen J. L. et al. “Snake’s Perspective on Heat: gering of the appropriate orientation movement. An “atten- Reconstruction of Input Using an Imperfect Detection tional” process may also be involved in which the animal’s System.” Physical Review Letters August 2006 97(6): attention is focused preferentially on one region of space; 068105-1-068105-4 a stimulus in that region would trigger a movement of the head or the eyes but an equivalent stimulus in another region would not. “Or” cells and “enhanced” cells would be useful in the detection process. “Or” cells would signal events in a particular region of space regardless of whether the events are perceived by way of the visual or infrared modalities the nerve • 2016-17 15 Conquer Your Mind Mehul Khetrapal

Do emotions get the better of you? Do you ever of cortical thickness in the right insula, the right find yourself struggling to focus on an assignment middle frontal cortex and the right superior fron- because you are too overwhelmed by other factors tal cortex. These specific regions, that are associat- in your life? What if you could avoid the battle be- ed strongly with emotional regulation and decision tween focusing and not focusing, and could instead, making, were strongly activated when the medita- discover a way of unlocking your full potential? Al- tors focused their attention on their breath (Lazar). though there is certainly no “magical pill”, we are A longitudinal study led by Dr. Eileen Lucer at the beginning to realize that the solution may not come UCLA brain mapping center covered a group of peo- through future technological developments, but ple who meditated over a prolonged period of time, rather through an exploration of our ancient rituals. and who were initially amateurs. The neuro-images Mindful meditation, invented by the Brah- revealed an increase in the thickness of the posterior mans in 1500 BCE India, is a cognitive exercise that cingulate cortex, the temporo-parietal junction, and implores sensing one’s surrounding without any the cerebellum compared to the control who did not judgment or opinion, for the purpose of remain- meditate (Luders). These regions are largely responsi- ing present within the moment. If any thoughts ble for memory, learning, and emotional processing. or judgments recur (commonly referred to as the Although the effects of meditation are not “monkey mind”), one must attach their senses yet fully understood, those that have invested time to a particular part of their surroundings, for ex- into practicing these exercises have claimed to have ample one’s own breath. Mindful meditation was reaped enormous benefits in their lives. One study, created to enhance focus and mental clarity in conducted by a group of scientists at Harvard Med- preparation for long recitals by priests (Chimes). ical School, instructed regular participants to per- Although this ancient practice was developed form certain breathing exercises everyday over through basic intuition and observation, modern a year. The meditators’ anecdotal evidence at the science is only now fully beginning to understand end of the year suggested that meditation was like- the profound benefits meditation has on the mind. ly to improve work efficiency and improve rela- In fact, anecdotal evidence that meditation im- tionships in one’s social and family lives (Halzel). proves memory and overall cognitive abilities is Steve Jobs, former CEO of apple and a strict med- substantiated by numerous studies. A study led by itator, similarly describes meditation as a calming ex- neuroscientist Sara Lazar observed the cortex of periencing, enlightening people to see a “tremendous lifetime meditators, Tibetan Buddhist monks, to a expanse in the moment” where one can “see so much control group of non-meditators, showing that the more than before.” He claimed that introducing med- meditators had much higher cortical thickness. itation into his life was not only great for his mental The cortex of the brain is typically associated with stamina as a CEO, but also for his ability to calmly deal higher level functions such as memory, learning, with people in his life (James). Job’s anecdotal evidence problem solving, emotional control and decision on meditation is interesting since it is very similar to making. The study specifies a strong difference anecdotal evidence provided by other sample groups.

16 the nerve • 2016-17 Although Jobs was known to frequently lose his temper with his employees, and quite frankly, anyone who disagreed with him, which is atypical for a lifetime meditator, he was nonetheless noted to have tremendous motivation and persistence de- spite all his failures. A modern study on mindful meditation substantiates this linkage between med- itation, motivation and self control. This study fo- cused on lifelong meditators and a control study of non-meditators, specifically observing their brain’s limbic circuits, which are areas of the brain asso- ciated with addiction, self-control, and motivation. Literature Cited Neuroimages of the meditators were observed and Chimes, Chompoo. “History of Mindfulness: From results suggested strong connections between lim- Religion to Science.” Positive Psychology Program bic circuits and the prefrontal cortex. Specifically, - Your One-Stop PP Resource!, Positive Psychology there was a strong activation of the nucleus ac- Program , 8 Feb. 2017, positivepsychologyprogram. cumbens and other forelimbic structures that are com/history-of-mindfulness/. Accessed 25 Feb. known to send rewards to the prefrontal cortex (a 2017. structure that is associated with decision-making). These neural connections suggest meditators may Halzel, Britta K., et al. “Investigation of Mindful- have a much stronger reward system with more ness Meditation Practitioners with Voxel-Based highly regulated self-control (Vestergaard-Poulsen). Morphometry.” Social Cognitive and Affective In summary, studies have shown that medita- Neuroscience, vol. 3, no. 1, Mar. 2007, pp. 55–61., tion has profound benefits on not only basic cogni- doi:10.1093/scan/nsm038. tive abilities, such as memory and learning, but also in self-control, motivation and overall emotion- James, Geoffrey. “How Steve Jobs Trained His Own al stability. Although mindful meditation is not a Brain.” Inc.com, Inc., 19 Mar. 2015, www.inc.com/ shortcut to becoming “Einstein”, it can nonetheless geoffrey-james/how-steve-jobs-trained-his-own- be an effective way for you to enhance your own cog- brain.html. Accessed 25 Feb. 2017. nitive and mental performance. The beauty about mindful meditation is that it can be done during Lazar, Sara W., et al. “Meditation Experience Is As- any time of the day. It can be as simple as visualizing sociated with Increased Cortical Thickness.” Neu- and maintaining a steady breathing pattern, effec- roReport, vol. 16, no. 17, 2005, pp. 1893–1897., tively improving your focus and your stress levels. doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000186598.66243.19. In repeatedly performing such exercises daily, you will not only be able to find joy in the smallest of Luders, Eileen, et al. “The Underlying Anatomical details, but you will also slowly learn to conquer Correlates of Long-Term Meditation: Larger Hip- your emotions and use them to your advantage. pocampal and Frontal Volumes of Gray Matter.” NeuroImage, vol. 45, no. 3, 2009, pp. 672–678., doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.12.061.

Vestergaard-Poulsen, Peter, et al. “Long-Term Meditation Is Associated with Increased Gray Matter Density in the Brain Stem.” NeuroReport, vol. 20, no. 2, 2009, pp. 170–174., doi:10.1097/ wnr.0b013e328320012a.

the nerve • 2016-17 17 Neuroeconomics: an Emerging Field of Study

By Tiantian Li

Artwork by Natalya Shelchkova

18 the nerve • 2016-17 When we hear the word “economics,” we Decision scientists divided decisions into four instinctively think of banking, finance, and in- categories according to their complexity.3 The first vestment. This limited perspective makes us category is intuitive decisions which represent the believe that the field of economics doesn’t ex- most basic level of decision-making. We usually tend beyond money and the stock market. It is apply familiarity, existing preferences, and com- undeniable that money and businesses are vital mon sense when making this type of decision. The to the world we live in, however, we as human second type is empirical decisions. These are the beings drive all these financial activities. So, if decisions we make based on trial and error, ex- we want to understand how the world runs, we perience, and estimation. Heuristic decision is the need to start by understanding one of the most third category. We make these decisions based on fundamental human activities that exist in our scientific theories, rules of thumb, and beliefs. Ra- day to day life: decision-making. Economics can tional decision is the most complex category and be defined in many different ways. One- defini we perform this type of decision making based tions is the study of understanding how people on minimizing costs while maximizing benefits. take advantage of resources and make decisions. A growing consensus in behavioral neuro- To achieve this, we must first understand how science suggests that we always assign a value our brain, the CPU (Central Processing Unit) in the brain to all the options we have first and of our system, runs all the algorithms when then compare these values when making simple making decisions with financial consequences. choices.4-6 Professor Antonio Rangel’s neuroeco- The concept of “Homo Economicus” in tra- nomics lab at the California Institute of Technolo- ditional economics describes people as rational gy has conducted many interesting studies about actors who make optimal decisions without the our simple economic decisions. One of their re- influence of emotion.1 Based on this assumption, search studies was a search for a region in the the outcomes of our decisions should always be brain that computes representations for the de- predictable. Nonetheless, traditional economics cision values of dissimilar goods. They conduct- has a lot of limitations in terms of explaining our ed an experiment by scanning the participant’s confusion, indecisiveness and impulsivity when brain with functional magnetic imaging (fMRI) it comes to decision-making. Many behavioral while the participants make purchasing decisions experiments emerged in the late 1960s as Game among goods from different categories.7 They Theory slowly became part of the mainstream discovered that a single area in the ventromedi- microeconomics discussion.2 As the majority of al prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) was correlated with these experimental results challenge the predic- encoding values for all categories of goods.7 This tions associated with traditional economics, more result suggests that the brain has a “common cur- people are beginning to understand the signif- rency” by default that allows us to evaluate all of icance of what economists call bounded ratio- our options when we make purchasing decisions. nality, in decision making. Bounded rationality A widely applied concept in economics is is the idea that our brain does not function as a the idea of opportunity cost. Interestingly, this computer, but instead our decisions can be af- concept is naturally encoded in the human brain fected by our emotions and cognitive abilities. as a willingness-to-pay (WTP) computation.8 Neuroscientists have already started seek- WTP allows buyers to calculate the maximum ing to understand the neural and behavioral amount of resources they are willing to give basis of our economic behaviors. This incipient up in exchange for the object being sold, and is field of interdisciplinary study, Neuroeconom- an essential component of all economic trans- ics, combines neuroscience, economics, and psy- actions in every marketplace.8 Professor Ran- chology. Scientists studying in this field apply gel’s lab studied the neural basis of this type of knowledge about brain mechanisms and use a computation by scanning hungry participants’ variety of tools and technologies to ask questions brains with fMRI while they made bids on 50 about the mysteries of human decision-making. kinds of junk foods.9 Their study showed that WTP is encoded in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) the nerve • 2016-17 19 000010101110100100011011100101000 10011011100101100000000101011101001 0011011100110010011010000000101010111010010 and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC).9 having the idea of losing money. When we think about losing money, our fear and anxiety will de- The results of another study in Professor activate or suppress the activities of the originally Rangel’s lab revealed that when making pur- 00001010111011100100101activated brain regions.3 When we introduce this chasing decisions, attention has an influence concept into real life economic context, we can on choices. They presented their participants 10011011100101011001010101001suggest that consumers are faced with the joy of with a video of the images of two types of chips shopping (gain) and the expense of money (loss). blinking one after another repeatedly. Each im- So we can explain the popularity of credit cards: 0000101011101000110101010001101age shows up on the screen for a few seconds the effect of losing real money is discounted tem- each time and one of them has an unnoticeable porarily which allow consumers to experience longer total time of appearance. After the video purely the joy of owning new goods and services. 00110111001110101100101111010001they asked the participants to make a decision of 00001010110010101111010100010100100011101101001which type of chips they would like to purchase Another famous economic experiment that and the result was that the majority of partici- allows neuroscientists to study the fairness val- 100110111001010010101011101100011101101100001pants picked the one that was shown for a lon- ues encoded in the brain is the Ultimatum Game. ger time.10 This experiment suggests a role of In this game, the first player receives a sum of 000010101110001011110101000101111001010001100101visual fixations in the process of economic deci- money and decides how to split it up. This split 10011110101100110111001110101100101111010001sion-making. They also found through fMRI that is then offered to the second player, who has the vmPFC encodes values responding to the signals choice to accept or reject the offer. Neither play- that are attention modulated.10 These results also er gets any money if the second player rejects 10011011100111010110000100100111110111101000114 have the real life implication that smart market- the offer made by the first player. The rational 0000101011101110010010011010001111111001ing strategies should be able to manipulate how decision for the second player in this game is to 000010101110001000010111010011110111111100100101long the consumers’ eyes can fixate on a product. always accept the offer, even if it is unfair, since 100110111001110101100001011101100101111010001gaining some money is always better than gain- These are just a very few interesting studies 00001000100110100010101010111011100100101ing nothing. A study done in 2006 tested whether in neuroeconomics on our purchasing behaviors. 000010101110111000100101010111110100101a lesion to certain brain areas would affect a play- There are also many other social and behavioral ex- 100110111001110101100101111001001010011010001er’s ability to take an unfair, but still beneficial periments in the field that0000101011101000111010111100111100100101 explore the brain mech- 1001101110011101011001000111010011111010001offer.15 In their version of the Ultimatum Game, anisms behind people’s mysterious decisions. the split is always unfair. The first player had to In 2002, Nobel Prize winner Professor Daniel keep more of the money than he offered to the Kahneman presented the theory of loss aversion, second player. For example, if $100 was allocated which refers to the idea that people always prefer to the first player, they might split it up 80/20, avoiding losses over obtaining equivalent gains.11 offering the second player $20, or less than half This phenomenon was first observed by one of of the total amount. The second player, when of- the most influential modern economists, Paul fered an unfair split, theoretically should often re- Samuelson, in 1948. He proposed in his book that ject the offer because it is perceived as unfair. The the effect of a 100 dollar raise in salary is weak- study suggested that participants with lesion to er than the effect of a 100 dollar cut.12 Professor the right dlPFC have a higher tendency to accept Kahneman also suggested that under computable the so-called unfair, but still beneficial offer.15 So situations, people’s estimation for loss is approx- this particular area of the brain seems to encode imately twice as much as the gains with the same a sense of fairness, that is, patients with dlPFC real values.13 The study of neuroeconomics found lesions are more likely to accept unfair offers. that the brain has different processes for gain and Scientists have also discovered that human loss under a connected pathway. fMRI scanning beings are not the only ones that have encod- showed that the brain region correlated with eco- ed values in the brain for fairness, losses and nomic awards overlaps with the region correlated gains, and reward values. These computation- with our basic survival behaviors like foraging. al models can also be applied to primates who The reward pathway in our brains is shown to be behave as if they understand the concepts. In more sensitive to losing money.3 This can be ex- fact, animal models allow scientists to conduct plained by evaluating the contrast before and after

20 the nerve • 2016-17 000010101110100100011011100101000 10011011100101100000000101011101001 0011011100110010011010000000101010111010010 more detailed experiments for a better under- 6. Padoa-Schioppa, C. & Assad, J.A. (2006). Neurons standing of the neuronal circuits involved in in the orbitofrontal cortex encode economic value. decision-making. A research article published Nature 441, 223–226 00001010111011100100101in 2003 described how capuchins are able to de- 7. Chib VS, Rangel A, Shimojo S, O’Doherty JP. (2009). tect unequal pay and reject the inferior reward.16 Evidence for a common representation of decision 10011011100101011001010101001In 2005, Padoa-Schioppa and Assad published a values for dissimilar goods in human ventromedial prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 29(39):12315–20 study in which they asked monkeys to choose be- tween two unequal food rewards by looking left 8. Glimcher PW, Rustichini A (2004). Neuroeconom- 000010101110100011010101000110117 ics: the concilience of brain and decision. Science or right on a screen. By recording the monkeys’ 306:4447–4452 eye movement, they found that certain neurons in the OFC fire faster in response to a better re- 9. Plassmann H, O’Doherty J, and Rangel A. (2007). 00110111001110101100101111010001Orbitofrontal Cortex Encodes Willingness to Pay in ward which suggests that they encode economic 00001010110010101111010100010100100011101101001Everyday Economic Transactions. The Journal of values. More recent research has also shown that Neuroscience, September 12, 2007 • 27(37):9984 –9988 OFC plays an important role in learning from 100110111001010010101011101100011101101100001unexpected outcomes and helping us alter our 10. Krajbich I, Armel C and Rangel A. (2010). Visual economic behaviors when decisions go wrong.18 fixations and the computation and comparison of 000010101110001011110101000101111001010001100101value in simple choice. Nature neuroscience 13(10), All this information just scratches the sur- 1292-1298 10011110101100110111001110101100101111010001face of neuroeconomics and what scientists 11. Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, Values, 100110111001110101100001001001111101111010001have been able to learn about decision-making and Frames. American Psychologist. 39 (4): 341–350 throughout the years. It is remarkable how one 12. Samuelson, Paul A. (1948), Economics: An Introduc- 0000101011101110010010011010001111111001of our most common and seemingly easy activi- tory Analysis, ISBN 0-07-074741-5; with William D. 000010101110001000010111010011110111111100100101ties is so complicated to explain and so difficult Nordhaus (since 1985), 2009, 19th ed., McGraw–Hill. 10011011100111010110000101110110010111101000100001000100110100010101010111011100100101to comprehend. Hopefully with our wisdom ISBN 978-0-07-126383-2 and the help of advanced technology, we can 13. Kahneman, D.; Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect Theory: 000010101110111000100101010111110100101eventually solve this riddle of our own nature. An Analysis of Decision under Risk. Econometrica. 1001101110011101011001011110010010100110100010000101011101000111010111100111100100101 47 (2): 263–291 1001101110011101011001000111010011111010001 14. Li, T. (2016) Does Emotion Affect Our Ability to Make Rational Decisions. The Decision Lab. 15. Knoch D, Pascual-Leone A, Meyer K, Treyer V, Fehr E (2006). Diminishing Reciprocal Fairness by Disrupt- References: ing the Right Prefrontal Cortex. Science 314: 829-832 16. Sarah F. Brosnan and Frans B.M. de Waal (2003). Monkeys reject unequal pay. Nature 425: 297-299 1. Thaler, R. (2000). From Homo Economicus to Homo Sapiens. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(1), 17. Camillo Padoa-Schioppa and John A. Assad (2006). 133-141. Neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex encode economic value. Nature 441: 223-226 2. Aumann, R. (1987). Correlated Equilibrium as an Expression of Bayesian Rationality.Econometrica, 18. Takahashi YK, Roesch MR, Stalnaker TA, Haney RZ, 55(1), 1-18. Calu DJ (2009). The orbitofrontal cortex and ventral tegmental area are necessary for learning from unex- 3. Jianfeng Hu, Tangsheng Wang (2012). The influence pected outcomes. Neuron 62: 269-280 of neuroscience to modern society. Peking University Press 4. Rangel, A., Camerer, C. & Montague, P.R. (2008). A framework for studying the neurobiology of val- ue-based decision making. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 9, 545–556 5. Wallis, J.D. (2007). Orbitofrontal cortex and its contri- bution to decision-making. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 30, 31–56

the nerve • 2016-17 21 the NEXT GENERATION of CAPTAIN AMERICA AKANE ICHIKI

22 the nerve • 2016-17 From neuroimaging to artificial intelligence, cutting a way to reopen the so-called ‘Critical Period’ when the brain edge technology that was thought to be a future achieve- is more facile and adaptive. TNT technology will be designed ment a few decades ago, is now actually happening. A lot to safely and precisely modulate peripheral nerves to control of patients with physical or mental problems rooted in the plasticity at optimal points in the learning process.” Weber brain are now receiving help because of advances in neu- also states that the physiological mechanisms that con- roscientific research. However, neuroscience is not just ap- nect peripheral nerve stimulation to improve learning and plied to medical use, it is also used in the military to create a plasticity is still unknown.[8] DARPA is considering subjects “perfect soldier.” from the Department of Defense such as the Tactical Oper- ations Center, Foreign Language, Intelligence, Cryptography On April 2, 2013, President Barack Obama introduced [3] the BRAIN initiative (which stands for Brain Research and many more. through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies). The Living in an era where scientists are trying to push the purpose of BRAIN initiative was to apply brain mapping soldier’s limit more than what a normal human being is ca- technologies to find innovative treatment for diseases such pable of is like watching in real life Captain America dream as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Post-Traumatic Stress come true. However, creating soldiers like Captain America Disorder (also known as PTSD).[1] The estimated amount raises many questions. What are the consequences? What of money dedicated to the BRAIN initiative was about $100 are the responses from other countries? Will this be a great- million by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agen- er threat than nuclear weapons? In 1939, Albert Einstein cy, National Institutes of Health, and the National Science and many other physicists and engineers started to build Foundation.[2] the atomic bomb, a weapon built out of fear and a need for defense.After two atomic bombs were dropped in Japan, sci- At first, the BRAIN initiative looks like a great pro- [5] gram designed to help soldiers and patients recover mental entists expressed regret over their actions. If DARPA suc- diseases. However, one of the biggest funders, the Penta- ceeds with TNT, will we fear human soldiers like the atomic gon’s Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (also bomb? Will there be discrimination among those who are known as DARPA), had programs other than clinical usage. trained to be highly intelligent by using external stimula- In March 2016, DARPA announced a new program called tors to improve cognitive skills and those who are not? The TNT (which stands for Targeted Neuroplasticity Training), answers will be in your hands, readers. Experimenting with which is aimed at enhancing soldiers’ cognitive skill learn- science, and even neuroscience, will all have consequenc- ing by stimulating specific peripheral nerves. es, but I believe that DARPA or any military organizations should not fund a program to treat medical aspects. There TNT is a four year program divided into two sections: are many hospitals and medical research organizations that TA1- Biological Foundations for Targeted Neuroplastici- are qualified and passionate to treat mental diseases. ty Training and TA2-Targeted Neuroplasticity Training Applications for Humans. The TA1 is a hypothesis driv- en research program to show and measure the effects of SOURCES AKANE ICHIKI peripheral neurostimulation in promoting neuroplasticity, 1. “Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.” DARPA which is the brain’s ability to create and reorganize synaptic and the Brain Initiative. Defense Advanced Research Proj- connections to compensate for injury or to learn and adapt ects Agency, n.d. Web. 31 Mar. 2017. in a new environment.[7] It also determines the quantitative 2. “Fact Sheet: BRAIN Initiative.” National Archives and changes in neurophysiology and behavior with animals. On Records Administration. National Archives and Records the other hand, TA2 focuses on human subjects and its pur- Administration, n.d. Web. 31 Mar. 2017. pose is to develop, show, and check cognitive- skill training 3. “Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.” Defense applications which affects noninvasive peripheral neuro- Advanced Research Projects Agency. N.p., 16 Mar. 2017. stimulation to stimulate and promote synaptic plasticity. [4] Web. 31 Mar. 2017. 4. http://www.darpa.mil/attachments/Weber_TNT%20Over- According to DARPA, TNT is a noninvasive training view.pdf program which is different from all previous programs, such 5. “Truman is briefed on Manhattan Project.” History.com. as pharmaceutical, deep brain stimulation, and invasive pe- A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2017. ripheral nervous system stimulation where participants had 6. “Where the Future Becomes Now.” DARPA About Us. severe side effects and little response to cognitive training. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, n.d. Web. 31 The overall flow of the process is that a neurostimulation Mar. 2017. device stimulates and activates peripheral nerves. Then, 7. “Medical Definition of Neuroplasticity.” MedicineNet. in the brain, the neuromodulators accelerate the synaptic N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2017. plasticity, and neural connections are accommodated to 8. “Boosting Synaptic Plasticity to Accelerate Learning.” De- improve cognitive skills. The TNT program manager, Doug fense Advanced Research Projects Agency. N.p., n.d. Web. Weber said, “You can think of peripheral nerve stimulation as 24 Apr. 2017. the nerve • 2016-17 23 Architectureand Cognitionin the monolingual and bilingual brain sydney crotts

Real Life Context lingual and monolingual brain have been stud- As a child I can remember several times I was ied in many ways. For example, scientists have blown away by the brilliance of complete multilingual- looked at grey matter differences, white matter ism. Flashback to my childhood: I’m standing in line differences, and differences based on brain area with my parents for some tourist attraction—probably size. These studies aren’t conclusive enough to a zoo or an amusement park or some other escapade— come to any critical conclusions, but a paper in- and the couple in front of us is talking in a language cluding an in-depth list and discussion of them that I can no longer remember, but I do remember that has been published.4 I will discuss some possible I definitely knew it wasn’t my own language (English). differences that have been looked at one by one. As the line moved forward I stopped chatter- ing with my parents to turn toward the couple again Bilingual Grey Matter Differences as the woman flowed out of her native language and Scientists have noted that one interesting dif- into English when talking with one of the attraction’s ference is grey matter density, generally the thickness staff members. Her boyfriend then transitioned from of the cerebral cortex. One study compared cortical one language to the next, too, and all I could do was grey matter thickness between English monolinguals look at my parents confused. They didn’t just know and Italian-English bilinguals that were similar in age two languages, and their accents for both were quite and education level. They conducted this study using remarkable. I think I remember my jaw actually drop- online brain mapping software, and they found that ping to the floor, but with my new knowledge of the bilingual individuals had significant grey mat- neuroscience I find it likely that the memory is faulty. ter increases, specifically in the left inferior parietal Back then I didn’t wonder about the brain lobule (in general, the left hemisphere is seen as pri- complexities of the feat they accomplished—I was marily responsible for language, although there are simply amazed and wondered why I didn’t know two interesting, unusual cases that I will not mention).6 languages. This, not only, takes a lot of thought, but Other later studies showed increased grey also your brain has to do a lot of work of which you matter in other areas of the bilingual brain. For ex- are not consciously aware of. The complete break- ample, bilingual brains showed increased volume down of the differences between multilingual, bi- in the left Heschl gyrus8, in the left putamen1, lingual, and monolingual brains still isn’t well un- and the left caudate.10 Interestingly the putamen derstood, and there is still a lot to learn and explore. and caudate together form the dorsal striatum, which is a structure typically associated with Basic Neuroanatomical differences between bilingual reward, addiction, and other dopamine relat- and monolingual Brains Introduction ed functions—not necessarily with language. The anatomical differences between the bi- 24 the nerve • 2016-17 right brain areas than the left, and the experimenters explored a few reasons for this. They finally stated that it is likely because language is already strongly lateral- ized in the left, so the right hemisphere is more suscep- tible to second language age of acquisition effects.9

Possible Behavioral Consequences of Bilingual Brain Architecture If the bilingual brain is so different from the monolingual brain, you may wonder what effect this has on behavior. A recent experiment, using both En- glish monolinguals and Spanish-English bilinguals, was conducted to explore effects within the executive control brain regions. They did so by using function- al MRI while participants performed certain tasks and experienced either linguistic or non-linguistic distrac- tors. The bilinguals showed a greater signal change in the left superior parietal lobe than the monolinguals. Piece by Laura Melo Also, the bilinguals showed an overlap between lan- guage processing and cognitive function in the left Bilingual White Matter Differences inferior frontal gyrus, whereas monolingual individu- White matter studies regarding bilingual- als seemed to process these things in different areas.3 ism have been more contradictory, but there are This could mean that the structure is enhanced in bi- studies that have found white matter differences lingual people and enhances the executive process- using diffusor tensor imaging (DTI). DTI images the ing usually associated with this area. Executive control axons (the part of the neuron that makes up the and language processing could very well depend on brain’s white matter). One study, using 14 native each other in the bilingual brain, wherein the mono- English bilinguals and 14 English monolinguals, lingual brain the processes are more independent. showed increased white matter in the bilinguals This type of executive control includes con- in parts of the corpus callosum, which is the main scious inhibition, or attempting to perform a task form of communication between the two hemi- while ignoring distractors. James Bartolotti and Viorica spheres of the brain.5 Very recently a study using Marian at Northwestern University designed an exper- 20 English bilinguals and 25 English monolinguals iment in which both bilingual and monolingual indi- revealed an increase of white matter for bilingual viduals perform a word task while bombarded with individuals in the whole corpus callosum, which distractors from their native language.2 The results supports the findings from Luk’s study in 2011.7 showed that bilingual people were less distracted by words in their native language, whereas monolinguals Brain Differences Based on Age of Second were distracted by words from their native language Language Acquisition for longer periods of time (and more frequently). The A recent study based at the University of authors suggested that previous experience learning Southern California explored the brain effects of age and using other languages helps individuals hone of acquisition as well as proficiency and overall expo- their ability to ignore the attentional competition, sure to the bilingual individual’s non-native language. specifically when it is cross-linguistic competition. The experiment imaged the brain via high-resolution functional MRI and online mapping software. The age Conclusion of acquisition quite accurately predicted the volume Bilingualism seems to produce many effects, of the superior parietal lobule in both hemispheres some of which we cannot yet be sure of. However, it ap- among other parietal brain regions for both grey pears that bilinguals have increased grey matter densi- and white matter, but the age of acquisition more ty, increased white matter density in the corpus callo- strongly predicted increased cortical volume in the sum (possibly better communication between the left the nerve • 2016-17 25 and right hemisphere of the brain), and increased 5. Luk, G., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Grady, C. L. (2011). overlap in executive control areas when doing exec- Lifelong Bilingualism Maintains White Matter In- utive and language tasks (perhaps increased exec- tegrity in Older Adults. The Journal of Neuroscience utive control abilities as well as an intermingling of 31(46), 16808-16813. language handling and upper level cognitive tasks). Learning about the many possible cogni- 6. Mechelli, A., Crinion, J. T., Noppeney, U., O’Doherty, tive advantages of early-acquired multilingualism, I J., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S., & Price, C. J. began to feel bad about my barely conversational (2004). Neurolinguistics: Structural Plasticity in the and barely comprehensible Spanish, but then I re- Bilingual Brain. Nature, 431(7010), 757. membered that everyone has different experiences and different cognitive advantages. However, bilin- 7. Pliatsikas, C., Moschopoulou, E., & Saddy, J. D. gualism and its architectural effects should still be (2015). The effects of Bilingualism on the White further studied. Knowing the extent of the overlap Matter Structure of the Brain. Proceedings of the between being able to handle multiple languages National Academy of Sciences, 112(5), 1334-1337. and augmenting executive control abilities could 8. Ressel V., Pallier C., Ventura-Campos, N., Díaz, B., be revolutionary in the world of neuroscience and Roessler, A., Ávila, C., & Sebastián-Gallés, N., (2012). linguistics. The couple in front of me in line at the An Effect of Bilingualism on the Auditory Cortex. zoo (or amusement park or who really remembers?) The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(47), 16597-16609. may have incredible abilities that I hadn’t even con- sidered when I was dumbfounded by their abil- 9. Wei, M., Joshi, A. A., Zhang, M., Mei, L., Manis, F. R., ity to flow out of one complex language and into He, Q., Beattie, R. L., Zue, G., Shattuck, D. W., Leahy, another. Bilinguals are more impressive than they R. M., Zue, F., Houston, S. M., Chen, C., Dong, Q., & Lu appear, and we haven’t even begun to scratch the Z. (2015) How Age of Acquisition Influences Brain surface of their complex cognitive characteristics. Architecture in Bilinguals. The Journal of Neurolin- guistics 36, 35-55.

References 10. Zou, L., Ding, G., Abutalebi, J., Shu, H., & Peng, D. (2012). Structural Plasticity of the Left Caudate in Bimodal Bilinguals. Cortex 48(9), 1197-1206. 1. Abutalebi, J., Della Rosa, P. A., Gonzaba, A. K., Keim, R., Costa, A., & Perani, D. (2013). The role of the Left Putamen in Multilingual Language Pro- duction. Brain and Language, 125(3), 307-315.

2. Bartolotti, J. & Marian, V. (2012) Language Learn- ing and Control in Monolinguals and Bilinguals. Cognitive Science 36(6), 1129-1147.

3. Coderre, E. L., Smith, J. F., van Heuven, W. J. B., & Horwitz, B. (2015) The Functional Overlap of Ex- ecutive Control and Language Processing in Bi- linguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 19(3), 471-488.

4. García-Pentón, L., Garcïa, Y. F., Costello, B., Duñabeitia J. A., & Carreiras M. (2015). The Neu- roanatomy of Bilingualism: How to Turn a Hazy View into the Full Picture. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience 31(3), 303-327.

26 the nerve • 2016-17 RESTORING HEARING LOSS by Hair Cell Regeneration in the Organ of Corti

ANDREA ZHANG As we age, our senses begin to dull. Our eyesight becomes the brain by auditory nerves. After this extensive process of sound worse and worse, and we start to find a need for glasses, even after transduction, we are finally able to perceive this signal as sound. a lifetime of 20/20 vision. It becomes more difficult to focus on Most hearing loss is attributed to defects of these sensory news in the newspaper or enjoy some light reading without having hair cells that are crucial for converting the incoming me- to squint and struggle to see. Our taste buds become de- chanical signal into an electrical signal that our brains sensitized and our favorite foods that we once loved recognize. As we grow older, we experience more and become bland and tasteless. We also experience more exposure to environmental factors that can a gradual loss of hearing. The notes and tunes damage the hair cells. Once damaged, these hair of our favorite songs become less distinct and, cells are unable to grow back and hearing loss even with a hearing aid, turn into a jumbled may eventually lead to permanent deafness. mess. The once calming sounds of ocean waves or chirping birds become almost in- The Eaton-Peabody Lab at Massachu- audible. As a result of these sensory declina- setts Eye and Ear Infirmary sought to learn tions, our daily lives, previously filled with more about the initial development of hair little pleasures of delightful sights and sounds cells to help develop methods to regenerate gradually become less enjoyable. To this these lost hair cells. They discovered that a day, scientists have yet to discover a way to certain protein, called Sox2, that has been completely reverse these tragic aging effects; known to play an important role in stem however, with continued research, they have cell pluripotency, the ability for certain ba- been able to study the developmental aspects sic cells in embryos to differentiate into more of our sensory receptors which could eventual- specific cells throughout the body. Sox2 has ly lead to a cure that could significantly change therefore been discovered to be critical in the the health of and medical care for the elderly. differentiation of a similar type of basic cell, called progenitor cell, to a hair cell in the co- The degree of presbycusis, or age-related hear- chlea. To confirm this, the Eaton-Peabody Lab ing loss, may be worsened by environmental causes showed that when the Sox2 gene was removed such as exposure to toxins, noise, or ironically, even drugs from a genome, development of hair cells did such as antibiotics or chemotherapeutics. Common symptoms not occur. After an extensive study, it was deter- associated with hearing loss include a decreased sensitivity to mined that Sox2 is needed to initiate differentiation higher frequencies and an inability to differentiate between var- of embryonic cells and development of the sensory epithelium[1]. ious sounds. Our ability to hear relies on a series of events that occur when sound waves hit the ear. When a sound is projected, This discovery of the role of Sox2 in progenitor cell differen- the waves of that particular sound enter the ear canal and travel tiation in embryos can improve our understanding of techniques to the eardrum. The eardrum then vibrates which subsequently to regrow hair cells to reverse hearing loss caused by damage to causes three small bones deeper into the ear to also vibrate. The hair cells in the organ of Corti. Whether a loss of hair cells was bones transfer these mechanical vibrations into the fluid of the a result of aging or some other factor, research of how our hair following snail-shaped structure located in the inner ear, called cells initially form in embryonic auditory development can help the cochlea. The cochlea contains a structure called the organ of researchers learn how to reverse permanent damage to the in- Corti that runs from the beginning to the end of the cochlea. The ner ear. Perhaps, one day in the near future, old age will no lon- movement of hair cells, called stereocilia, located in the organ of ger be associated with unfortunate and adverse symptoms that Corti is ultimately responsible for our perception of sound. When diminish the quality of our senses and consequently, our lives. the vibrations hit the cochlea, the cochlear fluid ripples, causing the tips of these hair cells, which are embedded in the ceiling of SOURCES the cochlea, to bend and open ion channels. This allows ions to 1. Kempfle, J.S., J.L. Turban, and A.S. Edge,Sox2 in the differen- flow into the receptors, creating an electrical signal that is sent to tiation of cochlear progenitor cells. Sci Rep, 2016. 6: p. 23293. the nerve • 2016-17 27 Artwork by Natalya Shelchkova

28 the nerve • 2016-17 The Suffering Artist Fact or Correlation? By Amanda Fortin

Pop culture loves the idea of the trag- such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder ic, starving artist – the tortured soul yearning influence, or perhaps even predict, creativity. to be recognized for his or her talent as they Before diving into what genetics stud- waste away in a New York City studio. Scien- ies suggest, it is important to understand tists, meanwhile, are enamored with the idea the characteristics of schizophrenia and bi- that there might be a genetic reason why polar disorder. Schizophrenia is a thought artists suffer. Plagued with mental illness, disorder characterized by delusions, hal- Vincent van Gogh, Edvard Munch, and Pablo lucinations, and social withdrawal3. Mean- Picasso are the sparks igniting a ferocious de- while bipolar disorder is marked by mania bate over how scholars analyze their master- and depression2. Researchers link the ex- pieces. Are Van Gogh’s erratic, revolutionary tremes of each disorder to the moodiness strokes pure creative genius, or a result of his associated with artists. Whether or not such fragile psychological health? Can we conclude a link is plausible is unknown. Therefore sci- that Munch’s artistic prowess was pre-des- entists are interested in how schizophrenia tined by his mental struggles? Picasso’s “blue and bipolar disorder could impact creativity. period” was influenced by his depression; do One study, published in the June 2015 all great artists suffer? And is creativity lim- issue of Nature Neuroscience, tested wheth- ited to writing, music, art, and dance? These er genes (genetic information that provides inquiries all converge toward one overar- a framework for certain traits) associated ching question: is there a link between cre- with the development of schizophrenia and ativity and mental illness? Recent genetics bipolar disorder can predict creativity. The studies and anecdotal evidence paint a ka- researchers defined creative individuals as leidoscopic picture of how mental illnesses, anyone who was a member of the national

the nerve • 2016-17 29 societies for acting, dancing, writing, or mu- could potentially skew data due to the lack sic4. To explore this question, researchers used of genetic diversity. Until a study could ad- polygenic risk scores, a method for summing dress all these issues, it is unclear wheth- all the alleles (different versions of the same er polygenic risk scores are an adequate gene) that influence a trait1. Higher polygen- way of linking creativity and mental illness. ic risk scores indicate a higher risk of develop- Although some scientists believe cre- ing a trait. Researchers first wanted to estab- ativity and mental illness can be intrinsical- lish that polygenic risk scores could predict ly linked, others are less convinced. Albert bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. Once they Rothenberg’s opinion, published in The Lan- found that polygenic scores could feasibly cet, provides compelling reasons for why predict these disorders, they then compared correlational experiments do not prove that those scores to creative individuals, and found there is a link between creativity and mental a direct positive correlation; specifically, they disorders. He draws on the fickleness of defi- found that creative individuals have higher nitions for creativity, and laments how stud- polygenic risk scores that predict schizophre- ies fail to demonstrate “validity with respect nia and bipolar disorder than non-creative to actual creative performance.”5 His point is people. Based on their evidence, the re- compelling; scientists, like those in the study searchers conclude that creativity is associat- above, define creativity as a trait associated ed with certain genes, and that those genes with novel problem-solving, but then restrict increase the risk of psychiatric disorders4. creative professions solely to those related Genetics and correlational studies pro- to artistry, music, dance, and writing. Even vide a convincing argument that creativity more importantly, Rothenberg notes how and psychiatric disorders are linked – but if creative works were even remotely facil- they fail to be irrefutable. As the authors from itated by mental illness, then mental illness the previous study admit, environmental fac- would be required to produce great works.5 tors could cause both an increase in creativity Clearly not every creative person has schizo- and a risk of mental illness4. The researchers phrenia or bipolar disorder. One of the major also concede that it is difficult to define cre- issues surrounding whether or not creativity ativity, and that their definition for creativity and mental illness are genetically linked is is lacking – careers beyond dance, art, and that people draw upon anecdotal evidence, music require unique ways of approaching and omit all the examples of people who situations. For example, when a good lawyer do not fit that rule. Just because Virginia works to convince the jury that his client is Woolf suffered with psychological health is- innocent, he or she manipulates evidence sues does not mean that Jane Austen wrote and language to further their argument. “Pride and Prejudice” in a depressed state. When dedicated teachers design the curric- Rothenberg further argues that men- ulum for a class, they focus on presenting tal health disorders “tend to block or de- knowledge in interesting and novel ways – rail creativity,” yet some artists report that they guide students toward thinking about they worked during periods when their information in ways that are not obvious, or, symptoms were at a low.5 He cites Jack- in other words creative. As a final issue, the son Pollock, who was clinically diagnosed study focused primarily on the general pop- with alcoholism and bipolar disorder, as his ulation of Iceland. The isolation of the group prime example. According to Pollock, he 30 the nerve • 2016-17 founded abstract expressionism when he without mental illness can be highly creative was “devoid of moodiness and anxiety.”5 as well. Rather than pursuing mental illness Rothenberg’s point is that mental illness as a precursor to creativity, perhaps scientists does not facilitate creativity - rather, it hin- should explore how creative outlets might ders. For people like Pollock, art and creativ- act as a defense, treatment - or even a cure ity comes to life when free of symptoms; ill- - against society’s psychological struggles. ness is a disruption to the creative process. Rothenberg’s opinion is initially con- vincing too, yet like the study above, his ar- gument has complicated holes. He argues that studies on genetics and creativity “al- most all have had methodological and con- ceptual inadequacies: absent or poor con- trols, investigator bias, unreliable testing References tools”.3 However, research methods have improved in the last decade due to advance- 1. Euesden J1, Lewis CM, and O’Reilly PF. “PRSice: Polygenic Risk Score Software.” NCBI. N.p., 29 Dec. 2014. Web. 23 Oct. ments in technology. Additionally, his idea 2016. that creative works can only be made by the mentally ill during period of low symptom 2. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). “BIPOLAR DISORDER AND ITS DIAGNOSIS.” National Center for activity and anxiety is inaccurate – there are Biotechnology Information. U.S. National examples of artists who have made their Library of Medicine, 01 Jan. 1970. Web. 28 Jan. 2017. most astounding works when their symp- 3. Picchioni, Marco M., and Robin M. Murray. “Schizophrenia.” toms were active, such as Vincent Van Gogh. BMJ : British Medical Journal. BMJ Publishing Group Ltd., 14 Based on findings published in Nature July 2007. Web. 28 Jan. 2017. Neuroscience and Rothenberg’s opinion pub- 4. Power, Robert A. “Polygenic Risk Scores for Schizophrenia lished in The Lancet, it is dubious that creativ- and Bipolar Disorder Predict Creativity.” Nature Neuroscience. Nature Neuroscience, 8 June 2015. Web.15 ity and mental illness are intrinsically linked. Oct. 2016. Even with correlational studies, the link is too ambiguous to draw conclusions. Perhaps the 5. Rothenberg, Albert. “Essay: Creativity—the Healthy Muse - The Lancet.” The Lancet. N.p., Dec. 2006. two appear together in the study above be- Web. 23 Oct. 2016. cause those who suffer from mental illness are drawn to artistic pursuits as a therapeu- tic method of coping. Although correlational studies suggest the link between the arts and mental illness, correlation is very different from causation. Mental illness and creativity may appear together, but it must be demon- strated that one leads to the other, otherwise it is just an interesting observation. Art gives people a way to express how they feel so that others can understand; it attracts peo- ple who need an outlet for expressing them- selves. This also accounts for how people the nerve • 2016-17 31 The Neuroethics of Identity

Artwork by Nic Larstanna

Reasons Why We Are No More Than Our Brains

By Erin Ferguson

32 the nerve • 2016-17 From whenever we begin to exist, we are taught that we plant memories into mice that affect their behavior5. While are all individuals with unique traits and experiences. Every- this has not been replicated in human subjects, it suggests thing from the fun facts we share in the beginning of the year that memories are not as authentic as we might picture them. to the résumés we hand out to employers feed into the no- Our memories hardly stay the same, which affects how we tion that we all have distinct identities. To avoid technicalities react and respond in different situations. We are reliant on within philosophy and for clarity, identity is defined by “the our brain for these memories, not the scenarios themselves. qualities, beliefs, etc. that make a particular person or group 1 The patterns of our decision-making are no different. different from others” . While sometimes versatile, identity While we may consider ourselves strategic decision makers, is often something that remains constant. Our childhood scientists can often predict how we can react in experimental memories rarely change as we grow older. We are either ex- conditions. For example, take the ultimatum game, an ex- troverts or introverts, and we like certain types of food. All of periment in which one subject decides how to split a sum these pieces come together to create the illusion of identity. of money and the second subject can decide whether to ac- With advances in neuroscience, scientists are now begin- cept or deem it unfair6. In the end, the original study found ning to understand more about how our brains work. While that the second subjects were more likely to accept splits that this is beneficial in many ways, it is also beginning to break were equal than those that weren’t. Many different manipu- down what it means to have an identity. Contrary to what we lations of this original experiment have been done to date. are brought up to believe, most of the things that define us can Research suggests that unfair offers produce a response in be broken down by neuroscience into biological components. the anterior insula (associated with emotion) and the dorso- In doing so, neuroscience is challenging some of our core lateral prefrontal cortex (associated with decision making). beliefs. Who are we--ourselves or the product of our brain? This exposes a relationship between decision-making and 7 Neuroscience is beginning to explain how our behavior emotional responses . While we may feel like we are innately relates to activity in our brain. In fact, it is extremely common economically savvy, studies show that this is rarely the case. to change our behavior through medication. To treat mental These characteristics are not innate but develop as a result illnesses, we have developed drugs that alter our mood by of our brain activity. If this behavior is a result of our brain, altering levels of neurotransmitter in the brain. While anti- does this mean that people who are massive spenders are depressants and antipsychotics help improve mood, they not at fault? If the blame is where the source is, then our raise an interesting question-- by altering mood and person- brains are at fault for a lot of the mistakes that we make. ality, are these drugs changing the identity of the person? By Up to this point, we’ve discussed how the brain affects definition, a piece of someone’s identity is something that our behavior and personality. However, there is another lay- differentiates them from someone else. Arguably, taking a er of complexity that distinguishes us from each other--our mood-altering medication would cause enough of a differ- beliefs and morals. For example, some of us are religious, ence in personality that the identity of the person pre-medica- and others are not. Oftentimes, this is seen as an innate tion would be different from that post-medication. By this ar- part of who we are. Neuroscientists now believe that they gument, you are the result of a balance of neurotransmitters are even able to explain how religious experiences orig- in your brain, not actually a being with an innate personality. inate in the brain. Psychologist Michael Persinger present- ed a theory that stimulating the brain in specific places can A more extreme example of this is deep-brain stimu- 8 lation (DBS). DBS is a treatment that involves implantation produce a religious experience . This theory is supported of an electrode that stimulates the brain. Often, it is used by some studies on human subjects. It is known that peo- to treat Parkinson’s disease and other tremors. In extreme ple with epilepsy, more specifically located in their tempo- ral lobes, sometimes have religious experiences during sei- cases, it can also be used for depression. After chronic treat- 9 ment with DBS, it is possible for patients to experience de- zures . While this does not explain how a person develops pression, psychosis, or an improvement in mood2. Obvi- religious beliefs, this research suggests that there is a neural ously, treatment with DBS can improve a patient’s quality explanation for why and how someone is spiritual. The dif- of life, but it is also apparent that it changes fundamental ferences between an atheist and a Christian might reduce characteristics about an individual. Once again, it appears down to differences in activation in the brain, not in innate that our brains determine our personality and identity. differences in our being. This could potentially take out a lot of blame between faiths--if faith is a result of our brain, Memories, while seemingly concrete, are also at the can someone be held accountable for the way they praise? discretion of our brains. In fact, we forget the severity of our unpleasant memories faster than our happy ones3. This in- Morality is not much different from religion either. An dicates that we forget key feelings associated with memories fMRI study found that during a moral judgment task, the we create over time. So, we change the way we look at key brain recruits brain areas such as the frontopolar cortex, me- dial frontal gyrus, right anterior temporal cortex, left angular memories that define ourselves. It is also well understood 10 that we generally lose details of memories over time, often gyrus, and basal forebrain . Further studies have found that 4 these brain regions differ in people with criminal, or antiso- dramatically within the first 12 weeks . The memories that 11 we reference to share about ourselves, like childhood vaca- cial, backgrounds . Thus, even ability or inability to follow tions or stories about our families, are rarely the same as the morals can be explained by brain activity. Brain damage in areas such as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC) has original memory. This suggests that our identities are based 12 on partially fabricated memories. To make matters more been linked to impaired moral decision making . This has complicated, research suggests that is now possible to im- extreme implications in the courtroom. On September 11, the nerve • 2016-17 33 2009, Christopher Tiegreen sexually assaulted a woman out- 3. Walker et al. (1997). Autobiographical Memory: Un- side of his apartment while she was holding her 20-month- pleasantness Fades Faster Than Pleasantness Over Time. old son. In court, it was argued that Tiegreen was not in con- Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11, 299-413. Retrieved trol of his actions because of severe brain injuries he received from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/W_Walker3/ from a car crash that occurred when he was sixteen 13. Ty- publication/230233641_Autobiographical_Memory_Un- pleasantness_Fades_Faster_Than_Pleasantness_over_Time/ ing morality and the resulting consequences to brain dam- links/54d3b28b0cf25013d026372a.pdf age creates an interesting complexity: is the person to blame or is their brain? In asking this question, we are separating 4. Dewinstanley, WJ and PA Friedman (1998). Changes in the our brain from ourselves, and suggesting that our actions are Subjective Properties of Autobiographical Memories with the out of control. While this is an extreme case of violence, it Passage of Time. Memory, 6(4), 367-381. Retrieved from still relates to our daily lives. If our actions originate in our http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.bu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/ brains, we do not have any conscious control over ourselves. pdfviewer?sid=02941255-f607-4daa-87a4-c2573475e9e6%- 40sessionmgr4006&vid=1&hid=4204. So we are our brains, but how does this affect us? It can be demoralizing to realize that we are nothing more or 5. de Lavilléon et al. (2015). Explicit memory creation during less than our brains. We have no innate personality or be- sleep demonstrates a casual role of place cells in navigation. Nature Neuroscience, 18, 493-496. Retrieved from http:// liefs. Rather, we are solely the product of the connections www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v18/n4/abs/nn.3970.html and activity in our brain. While this has a lot of implications for further discussions on the meaning of our existence and 6. Güth et al. (1982). An experimental analysis of ultimatum larger issues like whether or not we have souls, this infor- bargaining. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, mation greatly affects our day-to-day lives. In fact, this could 3(4), 367-388. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/ change the way we think about our societal norms. If the science/article/pii/0167268182900117 drugs and medical interventions we use change our behav- 7. Sanfrey et al (2003). The Neural Basis of Economic Deci- ior, it is possible to argue that they are unethical on the ba- sion-Making in the Ultimatum Game. Science, 300, 1755- sis that they change our identity without our control. Like- 1758. Retrieved from http://science.sciencemag.org/con- wise, it can also be argued that the difference is worth it on tent/300/5626/1755 the basis that it saves lives. As mentioned, there are a lot of applications to law. Under what conditions are criminals al- 8. Persinger, MA (1987). Neuropsychological Bases of God lowed to use brain damage or differences as an excuse for Beliefs. New York: Praeger Publishers. their actions, and what should the resulting punishment be? 9. Dewhurst K, and AW Beard (1970). Sudden Religious There are a lot of ways that this argument would chal- Conversions in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 117(540), 497-507. Retrieved from http://bjp. lenge our current beliefs. However, as always, there are a rcpsych.org/content/117/540/497 lot of barriers to change. In order for this to actually change our way of life, more research has to be done to better un- 10. Moll J et al. (2002). Functional networks in emotional derstand the ways brain and identity intersect. Further- moral and nonmoral social judgments. Neuroimage, 16(3), more, this research would need to be publicized in order 696-703. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ to grab the public’s attention and concern. Until then, we pubmed/12169253 can continue to take comfort in the illusion of our identity. 11. Raine A and Yaling Yang (2006). Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior. Social Cognitive & Affective Neuroscience, 1(3), 203-213. Retrieved from http:// scan.oxfordjournals.org/content/1/3/203.short. 12. Koenigs et al. (2007). Damage to the prefrontal cortex increases utilitarian moral judgments. Nature, 446(7138), 908-911. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC2244801/ 13. Davis, K (2012). Brain trials: neuroscience is taking a stand in the courtroom. ABA Journal, 98(11), 36. Re- trieved from http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.bu.edu/ ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T002&resultListType=RESULT_ References LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&searchType=Ad- vancedSearchForm¤tPosition=1&docId=GALE%- 1. Identity. (2003) In Merriam-Webster’s dictionary (11th ed.). 7CA307787140&docType=Article&sort=RELEVANCE&- Springfield, MA: Marriam-Webster. contentSegment=&prodId=LT&contentSet=GALE%- 2. Castelli et al (2006). Chronic Deep Brain Stimulation of the 7CA307787140&searchId=R1&userGroupName=nellco_ Subthalamic Nucleus for Parkinson’s Disease: Effects on bpll&inPS=true Cognition, Mood, Anxiety, and Personality Traits. European Neurology, 55, 136-144. Retrieved from http://www.karger. com/Article/Abstract/93213

34 the nerve • 2016-17 Why do you like brains?

Nic Larstanna Colin Stuart Neuroscience Neuroscience I like brains because they are pretty Every single person has a brain, but neat compared to the other organs of there’s still so much we don’t know 2018 the body. about it. When we solve mysteries 2018 about the brain, we learn about our- selves! Emily Yao Psychology, Biology minor Amanda Fortin Our brains work harder than any Neuroscience other part of the body! We are contin- Besides the fact that it looks like a uously taking in and processing new squishy walnut, I think the brain is information every second of every an incredible organ. Anything that day, and most times, we aren’t even can hold meaningless song lyrics 2018 2020 conscious of it. And when someone and invaluable memories is pretty compliments your intelligence you cool. Also, there’s no other organ in can always say, “You fool! This isn’t the body (that I know of) that named even my final form!” itself.

Haodong Liu Olivia Nguyen Neurobiology Neuroscience People often ask: why are you doing The ability to know and understand this? There could be explanations in the science that’s currently out there many aspects, but I’m interested in can be inaccessible to those who what happens in brain that results don’t study it. I seek to make science the behavior. The reason I want to communication more of an open con- 2019 study brain is that it’s the organ we versation between scientific commu- use every second, and still we know nities, and the people it affects by 2017 so little about it. There are tons of translating neuroscience research new stuff waited to be discovered. into accessible media for the public. the nerve • 2016-17 35 36

brain to learn aboutthe brain. brain tolearn 2020I finditinteresting how we use our Neuroscience &Psychology Victoria Martinez

about it! to have the chance to explore more ing andmysterious topic,and Ihope intrigu decision makingisavery I thinkthebrainmechanism behind 2019it issomethingIwouldlove tostudy. knew I Neuroeconomics, of field the world. AssoonasIwasintroducedto the and impact lives our affect can simple economicchoices we make I amconstantly amazedbyhow Neuroscience &Economics Tiantian Li going togostudyitmyself.” have thisdumbed down for me--I’m So, Itoldmyself, “Idon’t want to me. dumb itdown anditfrustrated 2018on inthebrain--butthey’dalways toexplainmewhatwasgoing try doctor appointments,doctorswould neurological disorders.At various because ofmy family’s with history I decidedtomajorinneuroscience Neuroscience &PublicHealth Erin Ferguson share thisknowledge withothers. plore newtopicsinneuroscienceand toex opportunity 2017cause itisagreat psychology. IjoinedtheNerve be perfect combinationofbiologyand I love neurosciencebecauseitisthe Neuroscience Khasnabish Srijesa the nerve

• 2016-17 - - - thing controls everything aboutus. thing controlseverything It’s justamazingthatsuch a fragile Electrical Engineering Gabrielle Abad even explainittobehonest. back toneuroscience.Ialmostcan’t mind atthetime--butIalways came physiology orwhatever wasonmy or -thought aboutstudyingEnglish from thenon.Istrayed afew times- school, and was hookedelementary in brain the on project first my did I Neuroscience Sydney Crotts to learn aboutitself! to learn edge research thatallows the brain ical field and to participate in cutting neuroscience discoveries inthemed 2018ecstatic tobeable toutilizefuture thing youdoinyour life. Iambeyond body thatultimately controlsevery organis onesingle inyourentire I thinkitissofascinating thatthere Neuroscience Andrea Zhang brain anditsmechanisms. unlocking moreways ofstudyingthe technologies or evenoping smarter ware, which couldbeusefulin devel brain inorder to relateithard about the I’m interestedinlearning one studyingelectricalengineering, 2019 and hardware.As some software recreateitsprocessesthrough try we know solittle aboutbutyet we nating thatthebrainissomething I’ve always found itincredibly fasci 2017 ------Michelle Njoroge Akane Ichiki Neuroscience Undeclared As a freshman I knew I wanted to get The brain is the heart of the body involved on campus as much as pos- 2020 and soul. sible. Being a part of The Nerve staff has given me the great opportunity to learn so much through the arti- cles I’ve edited. Most importantly, I Pranav Yadati 2020 have learned about many fields, and Neuroscience research, within neuroscience that I I plan on becoming a neurosurgeon, have the opportunity to explore here which means I need to have detailed in my time at Boston University. knowledge about the brain. Also, I have always been fascinated with

2020 the fact that the human brain has al- lowed us to go from scavenging in the Can Volkan Yumuk wilderness to exploring other plan- Neuroscience ets, and I want to know what makes After my biology teacher in high the human brain so unique. school made us watch an interview about the brain, I was captivated by its mysterious nature which helped me to create new questions in my Janelle Maxwell mind. I wanted to find the answers to Psychology 2020 those questions, that is why I chose I like brains because brains learning neuroscience. I am looking forward about brains is awesome. I think it’s to find my way through the forest of fascinating that there’s always so neurons with the proper knowledge much more to learn about neurosci- that I will gain in this field.

2019 ence and psychology. The Nerve is just a great way to share what we know and what we’re still curious Anastasia Kapitonava about with other interested hu- Neuroscience mans. I love studying neuroscience because I think the brain is the most import- ant and fascinating organ in the hu- man body. In the future I want to 2020 become a neurologist and continue learning about how our brain works.

Martinelli Valcin Neuroscience They make up such a small part of

2018 our bodies but are responsible for more than we currently know.

the nerve • 2016-17 37 Undergraduate Program in Neuroscience

The Undergraduate Program in Neuroscience is an interdisciplinary major leading to a Bachelor of Arts in Neuroscience that takes advantage of the rich neuroscience mission of multiple departments and campuses of Boston University. As a field, neuroscience has grown considerably over the last few decades through its integration of multiple disci- plines; and, a current understanding of the field requires knowledge that spans tradition- al approaches while moving into the intersection between far-reaching technologies and new computational methods. This program combines breadth of exposure to the field as a whole with the opportunity for depth of experience in one of three central domains of neu- roscience: Cellular and Systems, Cognition and Behavior, and Computational Neuroscience.

Neuroscience students will have access to the extensive resources and expertise of affiliated faculty across multiple departments and colleges throughout the university. A wide array of courses are offered through the departments of Biology, Chemistry, Computer Science, Mathematics & Statistics, Physics, Psychology, and Health Sciences in Sargent College. Together more than 50 upper level neuroscience electives are offered, including laboratory courses and seminars.

Opportunities for independent laboratory research are available through multiple de- partments in the Colleges of Arts and Sciences and Engineering, and at Boston University School of Medicine, including Anatomy and Neurobiology, Biochemistry, Neurology, Pathol- ogy, Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, Physiology and Biophysics, and Psychia- try. Undergraduate research opportunities in neuroscience laboratories expand throughout the university across both the Charles River and Medical campuses.

mind and brain society

The Mind and Brain Society (MBS; formerly known as the BU Organization for the Mind and Brain Sciences) was founded in the fall of 2008 in concert with BU’s new undergraduate program in Neuroscience. The group aims to create a network for undergraduate students who wish to take an active role in current issues and research. MBS serves as a hub for not only Neuroscience majors, but all students interested in Psychology, Biology, Philosophy, Computer Science, etc. Our goal is to support an eager multidisciplinary undergraduate community with the conversations and resources fundamental to Neuroscience today.

Throughout the academic year, MBS hosts events spotlighting many different facets of Neuroscience. We hold discussion sessions during which we informally discuss a topic of interest over coffee; previous topics include “The Neuroscience of Religion” and “Neuro- Ethics.” The group also hosts research presentations by BU professors and screenings of thought-provoking films pertaining to neuroscience. Don’t Toss Out That Term Paper! we are looking for three types of ARTICLESpapers:

These are These are light reading, ana-logous to requiring the reviews that appear reader to have little REVIEWSin professional journals. background knowl- They explore the chosen top- edge. Typical length ic in depth and are based on serious research of is around 2,000 ! the literature. Typ- words. These are perspectives on current ical length is trends. Authors are encouraged to submit around 4,000 works that touch on any topic in the Mind and Brain words. Sciences. This includes, but is not limited to, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, biology and computer science. OPINIONS

learn more at bu.edu/thenerve/submissions BU Undergraduate Program in Neuroscience www.bu.edu/neuro/undergraduate

BU Mind and Brain Society www.bu.edu/mbs

The Nerve Blog www.blogs.bu.edu/ombs

40 the nerve • 2014/2015