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Exploring the Nutritional Potential of Carica papaya Linn Cultivars Emmy Hainida Khairul Ikram Bachelor’s Degree in Nutrition and Community Health/Master’s Degree in Nutritional Biochemistry A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2019 Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI) Abstract Carica papaya, commonly known as papaya or paw paw, is widely cultivated for its sweet, ripe edible fruits. However, papaya is also known for its health uses in some non-western cultures where green fruits and leaves are also eaten cooked as well as raw. This research project has looked at phytochemicals (carotenoids (provitamin A active compounds), polyphenols, ascorbic acid, and vitamin E) and antioxidant capacity (ORAC assay and total phenolic content) of fruit pulp, fruit peel and leaves from commercially available Australian papaya cultivars. Analysis was undertaken at different stages of fruit ripeness and leaf growth to understand the impact on nutritional quality and potential health properties. In addition, the release/bioaccessibility of the main phytochemicals was assessed as an initial measure to predict their potential bioavailability using an in vitro digestion procedure. Among cultivars, red fleshed papaya fruits exhibited the highest phytochemical values. Mid mature and/or fully ripen fruits gave the highest antioxidant capacities as well as ascorbic acid and carotenoid content. Ascorbic acid content ranged from 37.0-58.5 mg/100 g FW with large variations between cultivars and an increase as the fruits ripen. Major carotenoids found in red-fleshed papaya were β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, and lycopene with lycopene representing 42-58% of the total carotenoids. However, lycopene was undetectable in the yellow-fleshed cultivar. Leaves were found to exhibit the highest ORAC and total phenolic content (young and mature; ORAC: 93-185 µM trolox equivalents/g FW; total phenolic content: 148-210 mg gallic acid equivalents/100g FW) compared to the peels and pulps. Overall, the highest antioxidant capacity, ascorbic acid and polyphenols could be found in papaya leaves followed by peels and pulp. Vitamin E was below the limit of quantification in all samples. Cooking of the leaves and unripe fruit resulted in a significant reduction of ascorbic acid and antioxidant capacity. In addition, in vitro digestion clearly demonstrated that the major papaya phytochemicals are bioaccessible from the pulp as well as the leaf matrix. Heat treatment (boiling) may enhance the bioaccessibility of TPC papaya fruits and leaves. The findings of this study showed that the phytochemical composition and antioxidant capacity varied across different papaya cultivars, maturity stages and plant parts affecting the nutritional value of this important tropical fruit. i Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, financial support and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my higher degree by research candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis and have sought permission from co-authors for any jointly authored works included in the thesis. ii Publications included in this thesis 1. Ikram EHK, Stanley R, Netzel M, Fanning K (2015) Phytochemicals of papaya and its traditional health and culinary uses – a review. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 41: 201-211 Incorporated with modifications as part of Chapters 2. Contributor Statement of contribution Emmy Hainida Conception and design (80%) Analysis and interpretation of the research data (70 %) Drafting and critically reviewing (70%) Roger Stanley Conception and design (20%) Analysis and interpretation of the research data (20 %) Drafting and critically reviewing (20%) Michael Netzel Conception and design (15%) Analysis and interpretation of the research data (15%) Drafting and critically reviewing (20%) Kent Fanning Conception and design (5%) Analysis and interpretation of the research data (5%) Drafting and critically reviewing (10%) 2. Ikram EH, Netzel ME, Fanning K, Stanley R (2015) Phytochemicals in the tissues of Australian-grown papaya cultivars. Acta Horticulturae (ISHS) 1106: 175-178. Incorporated with modifications as part of Chapters 3. Contributor Statement of contribution Emmy Hainida Conception and design (80%) Analysis and interpretation of the research data (70 %) Drafting and critically reviewing (70%) Michael Netzel Conception and design (20%) Analysis and interpretation of the research data (20 %) Drafting and critically reviewing (20%) Roger Stanley Conception and design (15%) Analysis and interpretation of the research data (15%) Drafting and critically reviewing (20%) Kent Fanning Conception and design (5%) Analysis and interpretation of the research data (5%) Drafting and critically reviewing (10%) iii Submitted manuscripts included in this thesis No manuscripts submitted for publication. Other publications during candidature Abstracts 1. Ikram EHK, Stanley R, Netzel M, Fanning K (2012) Antioxidant capacity of Carica papaya Linn Cultivars. Abstract presented (Oral presentation) at QAAFI 2012 – Annual Research Meeting, Sanctuary Cove, Gold Cost, QLD, July 10-11, 2012, Abstract Collection. 2. Ikram EHK, Stanley R, Netzel M, Fanning K (2013) Maximising the potential health properties of papaya fruit and leaf eaten as a food. Abstract presented (Oral presentation) 46th Annual AIFST Convention Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow, Brisbane, QLD, Australia, July 14-16, 2013, Program & Abstracts: 42. 3. Ikram EH, Netzel M, Fanning K, Stanley R (2013) Phytochemicals in Australian papaya cultivars: the effect of maturity and cooking. Abstract presented (Oral presentation) 37th Annual Scientific Meeting of the Nutrition Society of Australia in conjunction with the Nutrition Society of New Zealand, Brisbane, QLD, Australia, December 4-6, 2013, Australasian Medical Journal 2013, 6, 11: 605. 4. Ikram EHK, Netzel M, Fanning K, Stanley R (2014) Carotenoid and polyphenol content of Carica papaya Linn cultivars. Abstract presented (Oral presentation) AIFST Food Science Summer School 2014, St. Leo’s College, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia, February 5-7, 2014, Program & Abstracts. 5. Ikram EH, Netzel M, Fanning K, Stanley R (2014) Phytochemicals in different plant parts of Australian papaya cultivars. Abstract presented (Oral presentation) 29th International Horticultural Congress, Brisbane, QLD, Australia, September 17-22, 2014, Abstract: 01452. 6. Ikram EH, Stanley R, Netzel M, Fanning K (2014) Maximising the potential health properties of papaya fruit and leaf eaten as a food. Abstract presented (poster presentation- finalist) at World Food Day Poster Competition. Global Change Institute Atrium, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Australia. 16 October 2014, Abstract collection. 7. Ikram EH, Stanley R, Netzel M, Fanning K (2014) Getting your fruits and greens from the one tree. Abstract presented (Poster presentation) at QAAFI Annual Research Meeting (ARM). Brisbane Convention Centre, Brisbane, Australia. 25-26 November 2014, Abstract collection. 8. Ikram EH (2016). Innovation of Nutrient dense Papaya Gummies. Gold Award. Abstract iv presented at Invention, Innovation & Design Exposition, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. 20-23 September 2016, Abstract collection. 9. Ikram EH (2018). DiPPs- Innovation of Dipping Papaya Sauce. Gold Award. Abstract presented at Invention, Innovation & Design Exposition, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. 24-28 September 2018, Abstract collection. Contributions by others to the thesis No contributions by others. v Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree No works submitted towards another degree have been included in this thesis. Research Involving Human or Animal Subjects No animal or human subjects were involved in this research. vi Acknowledgements I would like to gratefully acknowledge excellent advice, positive criticism, encouragement, kind attention, incredible patience, insight and continuous support from my principal advisor, Dr Michael Netzel and my associate advisors, Professor Roger Stanley and Dr Kent Fanning, during the preparation
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  • Sex Determination on Vasconcellea Pubescens A.DC in Java, Indonesia

    Sex Determination on Vasconcellea Pubescens A.DC in Java, Indonesia

    Local Knowledge: Sex Determination on Vasconcellea Pubescens A.DC in Java, Indonesia Ainun Nikmati Laily1, Purnomo2, Budi Setiadi Daryono3 and Aziz Purwantoro4 {[email protected]} Faculty of Biology, Gadjah Mada University Jl. Teknika Selatan, Senolowo, Sinduadi, Mlati, Sleman, Yogyakarta Abstract. Vasconcellea pubescens A. DC. is a fruit commodity that has the potential to be researched and developed This plant is the only member of the Family Caricaceae found in Indonesia There are 3 areas in Java that are overgrown with this plant: Dieng Plateau, Bromo, and Cangar-Batu with an altitude of 1500 - 2400 above sea level around the volcano area However, plants are known to have a variety of flower expressions in different trees It is necessary to know the determination of sex as an efficient effort inbreeding This research is a descriptive exploratory study with survey methods, semi- structured interviews and strengthened by a questionnaire. Retrieval of data in this study using a simple random technique. Utilization of plants as sweets and as fresh fruit for direct consumption. The utilization of plant organs includes ripe fruit and seeds. The knowledge of the local community regarding the determination of sex in this plant is still limited. Keywords: Local knowledge; Sex determination; Vasconcellea pubescens A.DC., Java, Indonesia 1 Introduction Vasconcellea pubescens A. DC. or "karika" or "mountain papaya" are plants originating from tropical America precisely from the highlands of the Andes, South America. This plant was introduced to Indonesia in the period before World War II by the Dutch East Indies colonial government and was successfully developed in the Dieng Plateau.