IIID Public Library Information Design 2 Text Design Revised edition 2015 Rune Pettersson Institute for infology IIID Public Library The “IIID Public Library” is a free resource for all who are interested in information design. This book was kindly donated by the author free of charge to visitors of the IIID Public Library / Website. International Institute for Information Design (IIID) designforum Wien, MQ/quartier 21 Museumsplatz 1, 1070 Wien, Austria www.iiid.net Information Design 2 Text Design Printed words Spoken words Rune Pettersson * Institute for infology Information Design 2–Text Design Yin and yang, or yin-yang, is a concept used in Chinese philoso- phy to describe how seemingly opposite forces are intercon- nected and interdependent, and how they give rise to each other. Many natural dualities, such as life and death, light and dark, are thought of as physical manifestations of the concept. Yin and yang can also be thought of as complementary forces interacting to form a dynamic system in which the whole is greater than the parts. In information design, theory and prac- tice is an example where the whole is greater than the parts. In this book drawings and photos are my own, unless other information. ISBN 978-91-85334-27-8 © Rune Pettersson Tullinge 2015 2 Preface Information design is a multi-disciplinary, multi-dimensional, and worldwide consideration with influences from areas such as language, art and aesthetics, information, communication, be- haviour and cognition, business and law, as well as media pro- duction technologies. Since my retirement I have edited and revised sections of my earlier books, conference papers and reports about informa- tion design, message design, visual communication and visual literacy. The result is this series of six books: Information Design 1–Message Design Information Design 2–Text Design Information Design 3–Image Design Information Design 4–Graphic Design Information Design 5–Cognition Information Design 6–Predecessors & Pioneers These books include definitions, selected results from research, theoretical considerations, as well as practical guidelines for message design. The intended reader is especially interested in research and theory related to message design, and the design of information materials and information sets. Tullinge, Sweden Rune Pettersson, Ph.D. Retired Professor of Information Design 3 Contents Preface 3 Contents 4 Languages 7 Language models 7 Properties of verbal language 14 Perception and memory of verbal language 15 Properties of text 16 Literacy 18 Traditional literacy 18 New literacies 21 Musicacy 23 Numeracy 23 Visuacy 24 Electracy/Mediacy 27 Area specific literacies 31 Another literacy? 37 Reading objectives 38 Reading text 40 Learning from text 42 Language theories 44 Plain language 44 Literacy 45 Clarity of documents 45 Plain Writing Act 46 Terminology theory 47 Rhetorical theory 50 Aristotle 50 Visual rhetoric 52 Medium and message 53 Semiotic studies 55 4 Study of signs 55 The unified theory of ID 58 Pattern languages 59 Visual languages 62 Visual messages 62 Visual literacy 63 Contributions for ID 65 Comprehensibility 68 Providing structure 68 Internal textual structure 71 External textual structure 72 Providing simplicity 75 Readability of text 76 Readability of numerical values 83 Readability of layout 85 Simplification 85 Esoteric jargon 87 Technical and scientific language 87 Good information quality? 89 Poor information quality? 90 Quality of language 92 Spoken and written messages 95 Oral presentations 95 Verbal communication 95 Assessments of speakers 99 Audio-visual representations 107 Listening 111 Speech and body language 113 Speech and stills 115 Speech and moving pictures 122 Written presentations 124 Signs and words 124 Begin writing 127 5 Writing strategy 130 Professional writing 135 Text standards 137 Captions 145 Infodidactics 151 Successful teaching 152 Practice and theory 156 Work range 157 A pedagogical model 158 Terminology work 167 Concepts and terms 171 A glossary 174 An encyclopaedia 176 Conceptual models 177 Credibility and persuasion 186 Credibility of the sender 189 Credibility of the medium 194 Credibility of the message 196 Credibility of the context 201 Language theory for ID 204 References 206 6 Languages According to Skinner (1957), language is a behaviour that is learned by habit. Children imitate adults until they learn the language spoken by them. On the other hand, Eriksson (1986) cites Chomsky (1959) who argued that language is not “a set of habits.” Instead, the development of language is a continuous and creative process working in concert with the surrounding. The brain develops verbal proficiency making it possible for Man to formulate and understand an infinite number of senten- ces. This view has been supported by the findings of a number of scientists after Chomsky (e.g., Littlewood, 1984; Slobin, 1973). Language models According to semiotics, all cultural processes may be seen as communication processes (Eco, 1971). Thus, there are different languages, such as spoken, written, and visual languages. Lot- man (1973) suggested that any system used as a means of com- munications between people can be regarded as a language. Cochran (1987) concluded that humans cannot transfer ideas whole and intact from one person to another. Human com- munication depends upon an interactive series of successive approximations presented in metaphors. She found “languag- ing” useful in directing attention to the actions of people as they share their own ideas, listen to others, or learn from technologi- cally produced sights and sounds. There are many approaches to language and language class- ification systems. Twyman (1982) pointed out that while lin- guistic scientists distinguish between spoken and written lan- guage, graphic designers distinguish between verbal and pic- 7 torial language. From a design point of view, written, printed, or displayed texts or verbal graphic language are important com- ponents of visible language. Twyman noted that examples of poor design that hinder the comprehension of text contents are far too commonplace. Language Aural Visual Channel Graphic Nongraphic Verbal Nonverbal Verbal Pictorial Schematic Mode Hand-made Machine-made (writing) (printing, WWW) Language model 1. Twyman’s (1982) language model is de- vised to accommodate the approaches to language of linguistic scientists and graphic designers. Reproduced by permission of the author. However, if the linguistic representation (e.g., the medium and its content) is placed at the forefront, another approach is natural. In this model, linguistic differentiation is based on the form of the messages: words, sounds, images, and other forms. 8 Thus, verbal language has spoken (aural), written (visual), and tactile categories. Audial language comprises sound effects, music, and paralinguistic sounds (all aural). Visual language has symbols, pictures, and paralinguistic visual expressions (all visual). Other languages are based on smell, taste, touch, etc. Language Verbal Nonverbal Audial Other Visual Spoken Tactile Sound Music Symbols Pictures Written Paralinguistic Paralinguistic Language model 2. The Pettersson language model (1989) is based on the form of representation. The model can be divided into additional sub-categories. Unlike verbal language systems, which work linearly and require rational cognitive development in order to use them effectively, images and visual language speak directly to us in the same way experience speaks to us: holistically and emotion- ally. Languages differ in their ability to express concepts with precision and flexibility. Physics, chemistry, and mathematics, for example, employ non-ambiguous symbol and equation lan- guages. In verbal and technical descriptions, the language of 9 specialists must be as unambiguous as possible. Only people with the appropriate specialized knowledge may understand languages such as these. Often normal prose is open to multiple interpretations, namely, it is ambiguous. Pictures are often am- biguous too. Visual languages attempt equivalence with reality. Visuals are iconic and they often resemble the thing they repre- sent. Images speak directly to us in the same way experience speaks to us, that is, emotionally and holistically (Barry, 1998). In the animal world various body signals supply most of the communications between individuals. Animals send messages by displaying parts of their bodies in various ways. Message re- ceivers “respond” with equivalent displays or movements. Bees have developed an advanced “language.” After returning to the hive, a bee can perform a dance informing other bees about, e.g., the location of a source of food. Body language and paralinguistic and extra-linguistic sig- nals are also important in Man. Some scientists suggest that body language accounts for up to half, or more, of all our com- munications with others. By the time we are adults we are all highly sensitive to the tiniest changes in expression, gesture, posture, and bodily adornment of our companions. We acquire this sensitivity through intuition rather than analysis. If we took the trouble to make a more analytical study of body appearan- ces, we could become even more sensitized to them, and could avoid some of the pitfalls into which our intuition sometimes leads us (Morris, 1985). Many movements and gestures can be interpreted without ambiguity in a given cultural community but not outside that community. In some societies, for example, the raising of an eyebrow,