Volume 54 • Number 3 • 2013
The Effects of a Time Management Professional Development Seminar on Stress and Job Satisfaction of Beginning Agriscience Teachers in West Texas Rudy Ritz, Scott Burris & Todd Brashears ...... 1
How Six Women Deans of Agriculture Have Attained Their Leadership Role: A Qualitative Study Sarah Kleihauer, Carrie A. Stephens , William E. Hart & Christopher T. Stripling ...... 15
Agrarianism: An Ideology of the National FFA Organization Michael J. Martin & Tracy Kitchel ...... 28
Utilization of a High Stakes High School Graduation Exam to Assess the Impact of Agricultural Education: A Measure of Curriculum Integration Joshua Brock Nolin & Brian Parr ...... 41
Recruiting Strategically: Increasing Enrollment in Academic Programs of Agriculture Lauri M. Baker, Quisto Settle, Christy Chiarelli, & Tracy Irani ...... 54
Examining the Professional, Technical, and General Knowledge Competencies Needed by Beginning School- Based Agricultural Education Teachers Christopher T. Stripling & R. Kirby Barrick ...... 67
Diffusion of Social Media Among County 4-H Programs in Tennessee Rebekah D. Bowen, Carrie A. Stephens, Courtney C. Childers, Elizabeth J. Avery & Christopher T. Stripling ...... 84
Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning Stages in Agricultural Laboratories Catherine W. Shoulders & Brian E. Myers ...... 100
Vocational Programs in the Federal Bureau of Prisons: Examining the Potential of Agricultural Education Programs for Prisoners Ricky H. Coppedge & Robert Strong ...... 116
What Images Show that Words Do Not: Analysis of Pre-service Teachers’ Depictions of Effective Agricultural Education Teachers in the 21st Century J. Shane Robinson, Kathleen D. Kelsey & Robert Terry, Jr...... 126
Socioscientific Issues-based Instruction: An Investigation of Agriscience Students’ Content Knowledge based on Student Variables Catherine W. Shoulders & Brian E. Myers ...... 140
Intrapersonal Factors Affecting Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Agricultural Education Teachers Jessica Stewart, Pavlo D. Antonenko, J. Shane Robinson & Mwarumba Mwavita ...... 157
Student and Faculty Perceptions of ICT Use in Undergraduate Agriculture Courses Donald M. Johnson, Leslie D. Edgar & Casandra K. Cox ...... 171
Impacts of a Faculty Abroad Experience on Teaching Style and Technology Use in a College of Agriculture and Life Sciences M’Randa R. Sandlin, Theresa Pesl Murphrey, James R. Lindner & Kim E. Dooley ...... 186
The Effect of Vee Maps and Laboratory Reports on High- and Low-Order Content–Knowledge Achievement in Agriscience Education Andrew C. Thoron & Eric D. Rubenstein ...... 198
Embracing Alter-Identities: Socio-Cultural Development for Graduate Education Bryan J. Hains, Jonathan Tubbs & Stacy K. Vincent ...... 209
Corn Clubs: Building the Foundation for Agricultural and Extension Education Cassandra Uricchio, Gary Moore & Michael Coley ...... 224
Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 1 – 14 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03001 o The Effects of a Time Management Professional u r Development Seminar on Stress and Job Satisfaction of n Beginning Agriscience Teachers in West Texas a l Rudy Ritz Scott Burris o f Todd Brashears Texas Tech University A g The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a time management seminar on stress and job r satisfaction of beginning agriscience teachers. The target population for this study consisted of i agriscience teachers in the first or second year of tenure. All twenty-three (N = 23) beginning teachers c from a selected region of the state participated in the study. There was a 100% response. Eleven u participated in the time management seminar (n = 11) and 12 participated in the control group (n = 12). l The study employed a quasi-experimental, static-group comparison design. The treatment, a t comprehensive time management seminar, included: planning and scheduling, goal setting, and work and u family balance. A post-test, including instrumentation for stress and job satisfaction, was administered to r both groups. Independent samples t-tests revealed there were not any statistically significant differences a between groups on stress levels or job satisfaction levels. However, sub-scale constructs from each l instrument resulted in medium to large effect sizes in several sub-scale factors. Stress differences included work-related stress, time management, and professional investment. Job satisfaction differences included pay, recognition and advancement. Overall, the beginning teachers had slight to E moderate stress. Additionally, the teachers had slightly above neutral levels of job satisfaction. d u Keywords: teacher stress, time management, beginning teachers, work and family balance c a Teacher shortages in our public school profession and reflect the National Research t system have been occurring at an alarming rate Agenda (Doerfert, 2011). i (U.S. Department of Education, 2009). Some Teachers involved in agricultural education o school districts employ teachers who lack proper at the secondary level often face schedules that n certification due to a shortage of teacher extend well beyond a typical eight-hour work V education program graduates who decide to day. Professional development efforts targeting o pursue a teaching career. As a result, struggles areas such as job satisfaction, stress, and time l may occur in the quality of instruction available management are a reasonable approach to u to students (Camp, Broyles, & Skelton, 2002). possible burnout, particularly with beginning m There are national concerns about shortage teachers (McLean & Camp, 2000). e and efforts involving methods to recruit and Beginning teachers in the agricultural retain agriscience teachers including the education profession prepare for challenges in 5 National Council for Agricultural Education and classroom management, classroom instruction or 1 the National FFA (National FFA Organization, FFA activities (Roberts & Dyer, 2004a). , 2009). Members of the profession have However, research has caused other pressing monitored the supply of available pre-service issues to surface such as managing stress, N teachers. There is a reported shortage of balancing work and personal life, and time u qualified teachers (Kantrovich, 2007). Prior- management (Myers, Dyer, & Washburn, 2005). itizing teacher recruitment and retention must be Teacher job satisfaction levels should be m an area of focus to attain the goals of the addressed by teacher education programs b e r 1 , 1
p p . Ritz, Burris, and Brashears The effects of time management… through professional development efforts certified teachers. Roberts and Dyer found (Chaney, 2007). teacher stress and time management as the largest professional development concerns Theoretical/Conceptual Framework among both of the sample groups. The first year of teaching involves emotional The Herzberg Motivation-Hygiene Theory, reactions to the experience as suggested in the also described as the Two-Factor Theory, was Phases of a First-Year Teacher (Moir, 2005). developed by a study conducted in the 1950’s The phases were displayed as the trend of the (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). beginning teacher through the academic Herzberg defined two independent domains calendar. The initial anticipation or elation of which determine one’s level of job satisfaction securing that first teaching position was with their occupation. Herzberg identified the followed by the anxiety of the reality of the day- six factors which determine job satisfaction: to-day demands of the job. There was an achievement, recognition, work itself, increase toward a more satisfied level of responsibility, advancement, and growth. These agreement by the teacher as the growing pains of satisfaction factors were labeled motivators as the break-in period begin to subside (Moir, they cause satisfaction, but are not necessarily 2005). related to dissatisfaction. The top six factors Education research conducted by Ingersoll which determine dissatisfaction, or hygiene (2003) reported that staffing problems will not factors, were: company policy, supervisor, be solved if schools do not address the sources relationship with boss, working conditions, of low teacher retention. Ingersoll found that salary, and relationship with peers. The hygiene teachers are leaving the profession for reasons factors are basic needs of the workplace to such as job dissatisfaction and the pursuit of conduct the day’s activities. Herzberg’s employment elsewhere. Cano and Miller (1992) distinction between the two domains was based conducted a gender analysis of job satisfaction on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, and job satisfier and dissatisfier factors of 1943). agricultural education teachers in Ohio. The Stress, defined by Maslach (1982), is the researchers found that male and female teachers body’s reaction to change which may be were satisfied with their jobs. Interestingly, physical or environmental. Maslach, noted for Cano and Miller found that the relationship for research involving burnout, conceptually tenure and job satisfaction was significant for explained and identified the categorical stages females. Leaving the profession due to reasons one may experience including emotional of dissatisfaction was found to lead attrition exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced issues with females. Castillo and Cano (1999) personal accomplishment. Working conditions, also found that females tend to leave the emotional or physical, cause stress. profession at a greater rate than males. Gender Consequently, stress ties directly to Herzberg attrition issues play a considerable role in Two-factor Theory (Herzberg et al., 1959). beginning teacher retention as two studies; Elimination of stress as a solution is not possible Burris & Keller, (2007); and Burris, according to Maslach. Control and prevention McLaughlin, Brashears, & Fraze (2008); of becoming overstressed is the approach. The reported one half of beginning Texas teachers to emotional levels as a result of any occupational be female. strain could lead one to reach a level of The strategy used to resolve or prevent frustration or high stress (Maslach, 1982). stress and conflict in the agricultural education Research conducted on the inservice needs setting may help retain some quality teachers of agricultural science teachers found teacher (Croom, 2003). Croom concluded that as stress and time management were issues needing teachers gain experience teaching, they cope attention in teacher professional development well to alleviate work-related stress. Stress- (Roberts & Dyer, 2004b). The research sample causing agents of the workplace, such as time consisted of both traditional and alternatively demands, have appeared to be a surprise to
Journal of Agricultural Education 2 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Ritz, Burris, and Brashears The effects of time management… beginning teachers. According to Walker, 1. Describe the characteristics of beginning Garton, and Kitchel (2004), assignments on agriscience teachers. campus are a surprise reality for new teachers at 2. Describe the level of stress of beginning the secondary level. Moreover, a bad experience agriscience teachers. while student teaching may prevent many 3. Describe the level of job satisfaction of university graduates from entering teaching beginning agriscience teachers. altogether (Osborne, 1992). 4. Determine differences between part- The factors which determine dissatisfaction icipants and non-participants on level of and stress must be addressed taking a stress and level of job satisfaction. professional development approach (Walker et al., 2004). Torres, Lawver, and Lambert (2009) As a means of accomplishing the objectives, conducted a study on job-related stress and the following null hypotheses were tested: found that hours per week at work was the 1. Ho: There is no difference in scores on largest predictor of stress. Agriscience teachers stress for teachers receiving the time have reported professional development needs in management professional development and time management as indicated by research those not receiving the time management identifying problems facing the profession professional development. (Myers et al., 2005). Myers et al. identified 11 2. Ho: There is no difference in scores on major issues facing beginning teachers including job satisfaction for teachers receiving the time work-life balance, lack of preparation time, and management professional development and time management. those not receiving the time management Time management strategies have been professional development. examined mostly in settings outside of education. Macan (1996) conducted a study Methods/Procedures comparing the effect of time management training on time behaviors, attitudes and job This study was a quasi-experimental, static- performance. Macan concluded that there was group comparison design (Gall, Gall, & Borg, not a significant change in job performance, job 2003). According to Gall et al., the static-group satisfaction, or job tension. However, there was comparison design involves non-random an increased perception of having more control assignment to treatment and there is only a post- over time in the group receiving the time test administered. Limitations of this study management training include that the static-group comparison design According to a national new teacher study does not control for threats due to individual involving general education, time management subject characteristics. Since the pre-test needs surfaced among young professionals. component is lacking, it is not possible to Meister and Melnick (2003) concluded that 84% control for the two groups’ similarities or of the teachers reported feeling “overwhelmed differences prior to the treatment (Fraenkel & by the workload” and that “time management is Wallen, 2006). Additionally, this study consists another area where teacher preparation programs of a regional sample from the university service need a greater focus” (p. 92). region. Caution should be taken when interpreting the findings beyond the scope of this Purpose, Objectives, and Hypotheses study. The target population for this study The purpose of this study was to determine consisted of secondary agricultural science the effects of a time management professional instructors in the first or second year of teaching. development seminar on job satisfaction and Subjects were chosen based on geographical stress of beginning agriscience teachers in West region which allowed for voluntary participation Texas. The following research objectives were by the subjects and for safe travel. There were used to conduct this study: 500 miles north to south and 480 miles east to west respectively in the region. The names of
Journal of Agricultural Education 3 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Ritz, Burris, and Brashears The effects of time management… the teachers were obtained from the professional statement on a five-point scale: 1) not notice- association membership data (updated annually) able, 2) barely noticeable, 3) moderately which included years of tenure. The accuracy of noticeable, 4) very noticeable and 5) extremely the list obtained from the professional noticeable (Lester & Bishop, 200). association was confirmed by visiting the Lester (1987) defined the nine factors of the individual school district web-based 77-item Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire information, email, and telephone contacts. (TJSQ): Supervision is the supervisory style, There was a total of 204 (N = 204) beginning task-oriented or person-oriented. Colleagues teachers in the state. There was a total of 23 (n consist of the teaching group and social aspects. = 23) beginning teachers in selected region. The Working conditions are the physical conditions researchers utilized a census of beginning of the work environment. Pay is the annual teachers from the region in the study. income which may be an indicator of The researchers presented the treatment at recognition and achievement. Responsibility is the conclusion of the fall semester (December), the desire to be accountable for one’s work or to the low point of the Phases of a First Year take part in policy or decisions. Work itself is Teacher (Moir, 2005). The participants the job of teaching and related tasks. voluntarily participated in the time management Advancement is change in status or position, and seminar. Eleven (n = 11) of the beginning may include a salary increase. Security refers to teachers in the region received the treatment, a job security. Recognition refers to appreciation, seven hour seminar. The treatment occurred in a prestige, and esteem. Rated statements follow a university classroom and involved a curriculum 5-point scale: 1 (Strongly Disagree), 2 consisting of three learning outcomes including: (Disagree), 3 (Neutral), 4 (Agree), and 5 planning and scheduling, goal setting, and (Strongly Agree) (Lester & Bishop, 2000). personal time. Following the treatment, the Reliability was reported in a study on 10- remaining 12 (n = 12) instructors were assigned year aggregate data collected by the TSI author to the control group for comparison on the post- (Fimian & Fastenau, 1990). The Cronbach’s test data. The instrumentation occurred at the alpha coefficients were greater than 0.75 and final reporting period of the school year in April overall TSI alpha coefficient of 0.93. Fimian and May. The Teacher Stress Inventory (TSI) and Fasteneau conducted factor analyses on the was used to measure the stress levels (Fimian, TSI to refine the instrument. A Cronbach’s 1984). The Teacher Job Satisfaction Question- alpha coefficient for the entire TJSQ instrument naire (TJSQ) was the instrument used to was 0.93. The nine factors of the TJSQ measure job satisfaction (Lester, 1987). reported alpha coefficients greater than 0.71. Fimian and Fastenau (1990) defined the ten The authors also conducted factor analyses of factors of the 49-item TSI: Professional stress is the original instrument which determined the how teachers see themselves as professionals. nine-factors of the TJSQ. The content validity Behavioral manifestations are inappropriate of the TJSQ was determined by a panel of ways to deal with stress. Time management is experts where the original instrument was the “balancing act” related to teaching. analyzed (Lester & Bishop, 2000). Discipline and motivation are aspects of the The instrumentation involved web-based teacher-student relationship. Emotional questionnaires. Collection of data followed the manifestations are ways that teachers respond procedures according to Dillman’s (2007) emotionally to stress. Work-related stress tailored design method. The internet links consists of environment-specific events that are accompanied by instructions were sent to sources of stress. Gastronomical manifestations participants along with an explanation of are stomach ailments related to stress. confidentiality of their response. The timeline Cardiovascular manifestations are cardio- of the data collection transpired through the vascular problems associated with stress. month of April. The researchers obtained a 100 Fatigue manifestations are fatigue problems percent response rate. associated with stress. Participants rated each
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The descriptive data regarding the teachers white, 100% for both groups (see Table 1). and the workplace included frequencies and Eight of the teachers were single, never been percentages. Mean scores, and standard married. The married teachers represented deviations were used to analyze data which almost two-thirds of the participants in the measured stress levels of the 23 (n = 23) study. One of the teachers reported their marital agriscience teachers. Mean scores, ranges and status as divorced. standard deviations were used to analyze the The instrument requested number of data on job satisfaction of the beginning teachers teachers, and contract length from the (n = 23). Negative statements were agriscience teachers (see Table 1). The majority recoded in order to obtain the summative scores of the subjects taught in single-teacher for the data. The two null hypotheses were agriscience programs. The remaining teachers tested using independent samples t-tests to taught in two-teacher programs. The participant compare the two groups’ mean scores on the TSI group consisted of one-teacher programs and and the TJSQ. The summated scores for the two-teacher programs. Non-participants were TSI and the TJSQ provided the means and made up of two-thirds one-teacher and one-third standard deviations for the independent samples two-teacher programs. Contract length ranged t-tests. The alpha level, which was established from 10-month contracts to 12-months in length. by the researcher a priori, was set at 0.05 (α = The four contract terms consisted of 10-month .05). Effect size was also calculated using the (187 days), 11-month (207 days), 11 ½ -month means and standard deviations to determine the (216 days) and 12-month (226 days). Cohen’s d coefficient. Agriscience teachers were mostly on 11-month or 12-month contracts with 43.5% (n = 10) and Findings/Results 39.1% (n = 9) respectively. The treatment group was similar with 11-month or 12-month Research Objective 1 contracts respectively consisting of 45.4% (n = 5) 36.4% (n = 4) of the participants. The control Research objective 1 was to describe the group reported 11 or 12-month contract lengths characteristics of beginning agriscience teachers. with 41.7% (n = 5) and 41.7% (n = 5) Table 1 displays the demographic data of the respectively. Teachers were asked to provide the beginning agriscience teachers in the study. The total unduplicated enrollment (see Table 2). The participants in the seminar consisted of one third overall mean was 75.08. Seminar participants females and two-thirds males. The control reported a mean of 96.36 students. The non- group consisted of a higher representation of participant group reported a mean of 55.58. males and only two females. Ethnicity among the subjects consisted of only one demographic,
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Table 1
Summary of Demographic Data of Beginning Teachers by Treatment Level
Participants Non-participants Total Demographic (n =11) (n =12) (N = 23) f % f % f % Gender Female 4 36.4 2 16.7 6 26.1 Male 7 63.6 10 83.3 17 73.9 Ethnicity White 11 100.0 12 100.0 23 100.0 Marital Status Single 4 36.4 4 33.3 8 34.8 Married 7 63.6 7 58.3 14 60.9 Divorced 0 0.0 1 8.3 1 4.3 Number of Children 0 9 81.8 7 58.3 16 69.6 1 2 18.2 2 16.7 4 17.4 2 0 0.0 3 25.0 3 13.0 Number of Teachers 1 6 54.5 8 66.6 14 60.9 2 5 45.5 4 33.3 9 39.1 Contract Length 10 mo.(187 days) 0 0.0 2 16.7 2 8.7 11 mo.(207 days) 5 45.4 5 41.7 10 43.5 11 ½ mo.(216 days) 2 18.2 0 0.0 2 8.7 12 mo. (226 days) 4 36.4 5 41.7 9 39.1 Which best describes your vehicle situation? I drive my own; no allowance/fuel. 0 0.0 1 8.3 1 4.3 I drive my own; monthly 1 9.1 2 16.7 3 13.0 allowance. I drive my own; vehicle allowance 1 9.1 0 0.0 1 4.3 and out-of-district mileage. The school provides vehicle & 9 81.8 9 75.0 18 78.3 fuel.
Table 2
Agriscience Student Enrollment
Participants Non-participants Total (n = 11) (n = 12) (N = 23) Enrollment M SD M SD M SD Number of Students 96.36 59.76 55.58 26.43 75.08 49.08
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Research Objective 2 Research Objective 3
Research objective 2 was to describe the Research objecive 3 was to describe the level of stress of beginning agriscience teachers. level of job satisfaction of beginning agriscience There were ten factors or constructs in teachers. The beginning agriscience teachers measuring the level of stress. were measured by the 77-item Teacher Job The stress level was measured by the 49- Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ). The TJSQ item Teacher Stress Inventory (TSI). (See Table data by factor means are illustrated in Table 4. 3.) The grand mean for the beginning Summated scores were analyzed and means and agriscience teachers on the TSI was M = 2.71 standard deviations were reported by factor. (SD = .57). Therefore, the overall stress is The overall grand mean for the TJSQ for the barely to moderately noticeable stress. teachers was 3.38. This range of job satisfaction Discipline and Motivation, Time Management is from neutral to agree on the five-point scale. and Work-Related Stressors measured above the The Advancement mean for the beginning noticeable level on the five-point scale. agriscience teachers was 3.07. Recognition mean score for beginning teachers was 2.81. Pay produced a mean of 2.67. Disagreement with job satisfaction statements ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 3 (neutral) on the five- point scale.
Table 3
TSI Mean and Standard Deviation by Stress Factor
Total (N = 23) TSI Factor M SD Rank Discipline and Motivation 3.56 0.79 1 Time Management 3.47 0.67 2 Work-Related Stressors 3.13 0.61 3 Professional Stress 2.85 0.86 4 Fatigue Manifestations 2.68 1.05 5 Professional Investment 2.53 0.77 6 Emotional Manifestations 2.44 1.05 7 Cardiovascular Manifestations 2.07 1.08 8 Gastronomical Manifestations 1.82 1.08 9 Behavioral Manifestations 1.45 0.42 10 Note. 1 = Not Noticeable; 2 = Barely Noticeable; 3 = Moderately Noticeable; 4 = Very Noticeable; 5 = Extremely Noticeable.
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Table 4
TJSQ Mean Score Rankings by Treatment
Total (N = 23) TJSQ Factor M SD Rank Responsibility 3.96 0.43 1 Security 3.75 0.71 2 Work Itself 3.62 0.47 3 Colleagues 3.57 0.71 4 Supervision 3.50 0.69 5 Working Conditions 3.32 0.51 6 Advancement 3.07 0.81 7 Recognition 2.81 0.49 8 Pay 2.67 0.67 9 Note. 1 = Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Neutral; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly Agree.
Research Objective 4 According to Kirk (1982), the t-test is used to test a null hypothesis when comparing means Research objective 4 was to determine dif- of two groups. The range of the mean for the ferences between participants and non- participants was 1.50 to 3.83. Non-participants participants on level of stress and level of job mean scores ranged from 1.41 to 3.30. Mean satisfaction. scores for summated items on the TSI were To test null hypothesis one, the summated 142.80 (SD = 25.93) for the treatment group and mean scores on the TSI were compared between 122.40 (SD = 27.74) for the control group. the treatment group and the non-treatment There was not a significant difference, t (18) = - group. The researchers compared the equality of 1.69, p = .11, between the groups on the mean means of the summated scores of the TSI using scores analyzed using the TSI summated items an independent samples t-test, with an alpha (p > .05). Table 5 displays findings of the level established a priori at 0.05 (α = .05). independent samples t-test from the TSI scores.
Table 5
Independent Samples t-test - Mean Scores of Beginning Teacher Stress
Treatment Group N M SD t p Participants 10 142.80 25.93 -1.69 0.11 Non-Participants 10 122.40 27.74 Note. Data were missing for three participants (one item each). As a result, subjects were not included in the independent samples t-test according to SPSS.
To further compare the ten subscale factors measure effect size for practical differences. of the TSI, effect size for differences in stressors The TSI ten factor means and standard and stress manifestation factors was measured deviations by treatment group were analyzed using the treatment group and control group and compared. Table 6 displays the means, means, standard deviations, and Cohen’s d standard deviations and effect size for the ten coefficients. Thalheimer and Cook (2002) TSI factors. suggested the relative size of Cohen’s d to
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Cohen’s d coefficients determined large To test null hypothesis two, the mean scores effect sizes for professional investment (d = .92) on the TJSQ were compared between the and emotional manifestations (d = .83). treatment group and the non-treatment group. Medium effect sizes resulted in time The researchers compared the means of the management (d = .40), discipline and motivation groups, the participants and non-participants (d = .72), work-related stress (d = .66), fatigue using an independent samples t-test, the alpha manifestations (d = .53) and professional stress level set at 0.05 (α = .05). Table 7 illustrates the (d = .74). findings of the independent samples t-test for job satisfaction (TJSQ).
Table 6
A Comparison of Teacher Stress Factors, Effect Size by Treatment
Participants Non-Participants Effect Size n = 11 n = 12 TSI Factor M SD M SD Cohen’s d Effect Professional Investment 2.86 0.81 2.22 0.62 0.92 Large Behavioral Manifestations 1.50 0.41 1.41 0.44 0.20 Small Time Management 3.61 0.73 3.35 0.63 0.40 Medium Discipline and Motivation 3.83 0.96 3.30 0.51 0.72 Medium Emotional Manifestations 2.85 0.96 2.06 1.02 0.83 Large Work-Related Stressors 3.33 0.60 2.95 0.59 0.66 Medium Gastronomical Manifestations 1.63 0.78 2.00 1.31 0.35 Small Cardiovascular Manifestations 2.09 1.16 2.05 1.05 0.03 Negligible Fatigue Manifestations 2.96 0.85 2.43 1.18 0.53 Medium Professional Stress 3.14 0.87 2.56 0.77 0.74 Medium
Table 7
Independent Samples t-test - Mean Scores of Beginning Teacher Job Satisfaction
Treatment Group N M SD t p Participants 11 218.00 23.36 1.10 0.28 Non-Participants 10 228.60 20.36 Note. Data were missing for two participants (single items only). As a result, subjects were not included in the independent samples t-test.
The range of the mean for the participants To compare the nine individual subscale was 2.61 to 3.95. Non-participants mean scores factors of the TJSQ, effect size for differences in ranged from 2.72 to 3.96. Mean scores for job satisfaction factors was measured using the summated items on the TJSQ were 218.00 (SD = treatment group and control group means, 23.36) for the treatment group and 228.60 (SD = standard deviations, and Cohen’s d coefficients. 20.36) for the control group. There was not a Table 8 illustrates the means, standard significant difference, t (19) = 1.10, p = .28, deviations, and effect size of the nine between the groups on the mean scores analyzed comparisons for the TJSQ. using the TJSQ summated items (p > .05).
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Table 8
A Comparison of Teacher Job Satisfaction Factors, Effect Size by Treatment
Participants Non-Participants Effect Size TJSQ Factor n = 11 n = 12 M SD M SD Cohen’s d Effect Supervision 3.33 0.83 3.50 0.56 0.25 Small Colleagues 3.45 0.74 3.68 0.68 0.35 Small Working Conditions 3.27 0.62 3.38 0.41 0.22 Small Pay 2.61 0.77 2.72 0.60 0.18 Small Responsibility 3.95 0.50 3.96 0.39 0.03 Negligible Work Itself 3.46 0.39 3.81 0.51 0.80 Large Advancement 2.78 0.94 3.35 0.59 0.76 Large Security 3.57 0.61 3.91 0.79 0.50 Medium Recognition 2.72 0.35 2.88 0.59 0.34 Small
A large effect size was determined by the interpreted that there is a possible diversity issue Cohen’s d coefficients for work itself (d = 0.80) in agricultural education. and advancement (d = 0.76). Medium effect Most of the beginning agriscience size was determined for security (d =0.50). The instructors are on extended contracts of 11 or 12 remaining factors were found to have small or months in length. However, 100% of the negligible size. treatment group was on the extended contract compared to 83.4% of the control group. The Conclusions, Implications, treatment group mean for student enrollment and Recommendations was double compared to the control group. This finding shares similarities with the study Although this study included a census of the conducted by Myers et al. (2005) whose findings beginning teachers in the selected region, it was included classroom and FFA program a fairly small group in comparison to the entire management as needs to be addressed for state. Caution should be taken when making any induction teachers. The teacher contract length inferences beyond the scope of this study. information implies that there are additional Most of the beginning teachers, or time requirements based on program activities, approximately three-fourths, are male. One- extended summer responsibility, and other third of the teachers were single and had never demands outside of the classroom. The been married. Married teachers consisted of enrollment difference between groups implies almost two-thirds and one teacher was divorced. that the treatment group was possibly seeking Most of the agriscience teachers reported having assistance to manage time requirements. The no children. Although the majority of this observation suggests that higher student study’s participants are male, one fourth of the enrollment may lead to more work load and time beginning teachers in this region were female, a demands of the agriscience teacher. suggestion that females are an increasing The beginning teachers are considered to concern for work and family balance in the have low to moderate stress. This finding is agriscience teaching role. Burris et al. (2008) consistent with Croom & Moore (2003) who reported half of the Texas beginning teachers found a moderate level of emotional exhaustion. were female. The work and family balance There were factors which cause dissatisfaction retention issues with females may differ from according to Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory the same issues with male teachers (Castillo & (Herzberg et al., 1959). Three of the TSI Cano, 1999). The ethnicity of the beginning factors were moderate to very noticeable, ranked teachers (100% white, non-Hispanic) may be from highest to lowest, were: discipline and
Journal of Agricultural Education 10 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Ritz, Burris, and Brashears The effects of time management… motivation, time management, and work-related there was not an effect on work performance, stress. These findings coincide with Mundt and attitude and behavior after time management Connors (1999), Meister & Melnick (2003) and training, but the subjects did feel more control of Roberts and Dyer (2004b) who found time their time. A large effect size indicating demands and work load are concerns for practical differences was determined for work beginning teachers. This mid-range level of itself and advancement. Medium effect size was stress for beginning teachers may not sound determined for security. There is a possibility alarming. However, in order for the stress mean there were existing confounding variables such score to fall in the middle range, mathematically, as student enrollment or personal demographics there were some concerns from beginning which lead the practical differences on the teachers which were rated on the very noticeable individual constructs of each instrument. range of the stress index. Time management Granted, the differences between the groups was one factor where beginning teachers may were not statistically significant. There is an need assistance. implication that those actively seeking Job satisfaction of beginning teachers professional development are different than ranged from neutral to slight job satisfaction. those who do not. This finding concurs with Cano and Miller It is recommended that stress, job (1992) and Castillo and Cano (1999). Both satisfaction, and time management research, studies concluded teachers in Ohio reported which controls for gender, be conducted mid-range levels of job satisfaction. The three (Chaney, 2007). Additionally, gender roles on TJSQ factors ranging from lowest disagreement work and family balance among agricultural level toward agreement included: pay, science teachers should be explored similar to recognition, and advancement. Pay is a hygiene the study conducted by Cano and Miller (1992). factor (causes dissatisfaction) and recognition Scholarly efforts in work and family balance and advancement are motivators (cause should coincide with the national retention satisfaction) according to the Two-Factor efforts in the profession including the National Theory (Herzberg et al., 1959). The job Research Agenda (Doerfert, 2011) research satisfaction factors imply that some beginning priorities and the National Council for teachers are experiencing disillusionment. The Agricultural Education , along with profession teachers were not dissatisfied with work, but goals of encouraging students to teach secondary also did not appear to be very satisfied. Walker agricultural science. et al. (2004) as well as Chaney (2007) found Secondly, there is a need to explore ethnicity reasons for attrition as teachers being fairly and gender distribution in secondary agricultural satisfied but leaving for factors which could not education. Research involving recruitment and be met by teaching. retention of university teacher education There was not a statistically significant programs should examine the levels of diversity difference in stress levels between the two among agricultural education student groups. Professional investment and emotional populations along with intentions of entering the manifestation were two TSI factors which had teaching profession. practical differences among the treatments with As a result of the limitations of this study, it large effect sizes. Medium effect sizes is recommended to replicate this study and indicated differences between treatment groups involve random assignment and a larger sample in time management, discipline and motivation, size of induction teachers. Research studies and work-related stress. These minor should control for differences such as student differences may imply the treatment groups in enrollment and gender among the sample prior this study do have differing psychological, to measuring stress and job satisfaction. As a pedagogical, and emotional needs. result of this study’s limitations, pre-test There is not a statistically significant methodologies are highly encouraged. Although difference in job satisfaction levels between the this study included a census from the designated two treatment groups. Macan (1996) concluded region, quasi-experimental research is needed
Journal of Agricultural Education 11 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Ritz, Burris, and Brashears The effects of time management… which includes a sample of the population which should be included in the investigation regarding is representative of secondary agriscience the agriscience teachers. Additionally, teachers across the state. investigations of stress levels and job This study only involved first and second- satisfaction should occur which would involve year teachers, further research is recommended comparisons between agriscience teachers and to include agriscience teachers of varying tenure. other secondary education professionals with Work and family balance, particularly among abundant workloads. teachers in years one through five of teaching
References
Burris, S., & Keller, J. (2007). Professional roles and responsibilities: Challenges for induction teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education. 49(2), 118-129. doi: 10.5032/jae.2008.02118 Burris, S., McLaughlin, E. K., Brashears, T., & Fraze, S., (2008). Personal teaching efficacy, general teaching efficacy and content efficacy: A comparison of first and fifth year agriculture teachers. Proceedings of the 2008 Western Region AAAE Research Conference. 27, 142 – 153. Camp, W. G., Broyles, T., & Skelton, N. S. (2002). A national study of the supply and demand for teachers of agricultural education. Blacksburg, VA: Agricultural and Extension Education College of Agricultural and Life Sciences Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Cano, J., & Miller, G. (1992). A gender analysis of job satisfaction, job satisfier factors, and job dissatisfier factors of agricultural education teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education. 33(3), 40-46. Castillo, J. X., & Cano, J. (1999). A comparative analysis of Ohio agriculture teachers’ level of job satisfaction. Journal of Agricultural Education. 40(4), 67-79. doi: 10.5032/jae.1999.04067 Chaney, C. A. R. (2007). Work-life variables influencing attrition among beginning agriscience teachers of Texas. Unpublished dissertation, Texas Tech University. Croom, B. (2003). Teacher burnout in agricultural education. Journal of Agricultural Education. 44(2), 1-13. doi: 10.5032/jae.2003.02001 Croom, B., & Moore, G. E. (2003). The relationship between teacher burnout and student misbehavior. Journal of Southern Agricultural Education Research. 53(1), 262-274. Dillman, D. A. (2007). Mail and internet surveys: The tailored design method. (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Willey & Sons, Inc. Doerfert, D. L. (Ed.) (2011). National research agenda: American Association for Agricultural Eductaion’s research priority areas for 2011-2015. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University, Department of Agricultural Education and Communications. Fimian, M. J. (1984). The development of an instrument to measure occupational stress in teachers: The teacher stress inventory. Journal of Occupational Psychology. 57, 277-293. Fimian, M. J., & Fastenau, P. S. (1990). The validity and reliability of the Teacher Stress Inventory: A re-analysis of data. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 11. 151-157. Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2006). How to design and evaluate research in education (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P. & Borg, W. R. (2003). Educational research: An introduction (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
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Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B., (1959). The motivation to work. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley Sons. Ingersoll, R. M. (2003). Is there really a teacher shortage? A research report co-sponsored by the Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy and the Consortium for Policy Research in Education. Kantrovich, A. J. (2007). A national study of the supply and demand for teachers of agricultural education from 2004-2006. Morehead, KY: Morehead State University. Kirk, R. E. (1982). Experimental design: Procedures for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co. Lester, P. E. (1987). Development and factor analysis of the teacher job satisfaction questionnaire (TJSQ). Educational and Psychological Measurement. 47(1), 223-233. Lester, P. E., & Bishop, L.K. (2000). Handbook of tests and measurements in education and the social sciences. (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Macan, T. H. (1996). Time-management training: Effects on time behaviors, attitudes, and job performance. The Journal of Psychology. 130(3), 229-236. Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: The cost of caring. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review (50), 370-396. McLean, R. C., & Camp, W. G. (2000). An examination of selected pre-service agricultural teacher education programs in the U.S. Journal of Agricultural Education. 41(2), 25–35. doi: 10.5032/jae.2000.02025 Meister, D. G., & Melnick, S. A. (2003). National new teacher study: Beginning teachers’ concerns. Action in Teacher Education. 24 (4), 87-94. Moir, E. (2005). California formative assessment and support system for teachers (CFASST). Training for support providers, year 1. Participant’s manual. October, 2005. Mundt, J. P., & Connors, J. J. (1999). Problems and challenges associated with the first years of teaching agriculture: A framework for pre-service and inservice education. Journal of Agricultural Education. 40 (1), 38-48. doi: 10.5032/jae.1999.01038 Myers, B. E., Dyer, J. E., & Washburn, S. G. (2005). Problems facing beginning agriculture teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education. 46 (3), 45-55. doi: 10.5032/jae.2005.03047 National FFA Organization (2009). FFA Facts and Statistics. Education. Retrieved January 19, 2009, from http://www.ffa.org/index.cfm?method=c_about.stats Osborne, E. (1992). A profession that eats its young. Agricultural Education Magazine. 64 (12), 3-4. Roberts, T. G., & Dyer, J. E. (2004a). Characteristics of effective agriculture teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education. 45(4), 82-95. doi: 10.5032/jae.2004.04082 Roberts, T. G., & Dyer, J. E. (2004b). Inservice needs of traditionally and alternatively certified agriculture teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education. 45(4), 57-70. doi: 10.5032/jae.2004.04057 Thalheimer, W., & Cook, S. (2002). How to calculate effect sizes from published research: A simplified methodology. Retrieved May 28, 2009 from: http://www.workinglearning.com/ Catalog/index.htm .
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Torres, R. M., Lawver, R. G., & Lambert, M. D. (2009). An investigation of job-related stress among secondary agricultural education teachers in Missouri and North Carolina. Proceedings of the 2009 American Association for Agricultural Education Research Conference, Louisville, KY (May 20-22, 2009). 601-614. United States Department of Education. (2009). Teacher shortage areas nationwide listing 1990-91 thru 2009-10. Office of Postsecondary Education Policy & Budget Development Staff. Walker, W. D., Garton, B. L., & Kitchel, T. J. (2004). Job satisfaction and retention of secondary agriculture teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education. 45(2), 28-38.
RUDY RITZ is an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural Education and Communications at Texas Tech University, Box 42131-Lubbock, TX 79404-2131, [email protected].
SCOTT BURRIS is an associate professor in the Department of Agricultural Education and Communications at Texas Tech University, Box 42131-Lubbock, TX 79404-2131, [email protected]
TODD BRASHEARS is an associate professor in the Department of Agricultural Education and Communications at Texas Tech University, Box 42131-Lubbock, TX 79404-2131, [email protected]
Journal of Agricultural Education 14 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 15 – 27 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03015 o u r n How Six Women Deans of Agriculture Have Attained a Their Leadership Role: A Qualitative Study l
o Sarah Kleihauer f Cascade High School, Tennessee Carrie A. Stephens A g William E. Hart r Christopher T. Stripling i The University of Tennessee, Knoxville c u l There is a disproportionate ratio of men to women in leadership roles in higher education and agricul- t ture. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the lives of women deans in agriculture in an u attempt to conceptualize the leadership styles they have developed as a result of their positions as deans r in a predominantly male field. Six women deans of agriculture were interviewed and observed in an at- a tempt to recognize the impact their personal journeys have had in developing their leadership styles and l attaining their leadership role. The overarching conclusions for the women in this study was that their E leadership role was not limited to their education and work experience, gender, peoples’ perceptions of d women, fairness, or power. In addition, each of the women deans in this study exhibited personality traits u such as surgency, conscientiousness, agreeableness, adjustment, and intellectance, which are traits con- c sidered relevant for leadership effectiveness. a t Keywords: deans; women; higher education; leadership i o Leadership is a process whereby an individ- skills in order to gain maximum benefit from n ual influences a group of followers to achieve a their diverse talents and skills (Madsen, 2008). V common goal (Northouse, 2007). Therefore, While contributions of all types of leaders o l leadership is not a trait internalized by leaders are vital, factors such as gender tend to hinder u but rather an interactive event between the lead- the involvement of capable individuals whose m er and follower. Furthermore, the leader is af- talents may improve the competitiveness and e fected by those individuals he or she leads viability of an organization (Madsen, 2008). (Northouse, 2007), which attests that leaders are Furthermore, there is an unmistakable difference 5 not born, they are made. in the leadership and decision-making power 1 Leaders invent themselves by following; bestowed on men and the responsibilities allot- , they develop character and vision as a result of ted to women in organizations and society (Ea- experiences and growth through following and gly & Carli, 2004). There are four types of ex- N learning from individuals who have influenced planations for the absence of women’s occupan- u m them (Bennis, 1989). Thus, since there is no cy in high-level leadership positions: (a) under- b leader cookie cutter, leaders may come in “eve- investment in human capital (e.g., education, e ry size, shape, and disposition – short, tall, neat, work experience); (b) the difference in leader- r sloppy, young, old, male, and female” (Bennis, ship styles of men and women; (c) the nature of 1 1989, p.39). In fact, the diversity of these indi- men (not women) to lead others; and (d) dis- , viduals is and will continue to be critical in af- crimination against female leaders based on fecting change in organizations and our rapidly gender norms (Eagly & Carli, 2004). p changing world (Bennis, 1989). Today’s society Gender gaps in workplace leadership occur p should not be content with preparing only a se- when women’s human capital investment in ed- . lected few for leadership; however, all individu- ucation, training, and work experience is lower 1 als should be encouraged to develop leadership than men’s (Eagly & Carli, 2004). Today, 1
– 15 2 1 D O Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture… women attain university degrees at higher rates Achua, 2007). Such leaders first establish them- than men, which discredit this portion of the ar- selves as role models by gaining the trust and gument. However, women’s salaries and repre- confidence of their followers. Transformational sentation in leadership roles are not equivalent leaders then encourage followers to develop with men’s (Kellerman & Rhode, 2007). A fac- their full potential and thus contribute more ef- tor which further supports this statement is fectively to their organization through mentoring women’s greater involvement in domestic work and empowerment (Eagly & Carli, 2004). (housework and child care), which may result in Therefore, the drive of transformational leaders women acquiring less training than men, con- to shift their followers’ focus from their personal tributing less effort to paid work, and experienc- needs, aspirations, and values to a concentration ing more interruptions in work history (Eagly & on an organization’s collective interest, may be Carli, 2004). While men increasingly share in crucial in helping organizations adapt to current housework and child-rearing responsibilities, the geopolitical, social, and economic changes (Lus- majority of domestic duties are still performed sier & Achua, 2007). by women; resulting in necessary breaks from Burns (1978), Avolio (1999) and Bass employment, less job experience, and missed (1998) compared transformational leadership to opportunities for advancement (Kellerman & transactional leadership. Transactional leader- Rhode, 2007). Therefore, domestic expectations ship resembles traditional management practic- impose an added burden on women advancing in es, producing a give-and-take relationship be- leadership positions and account for slowed ca- tween the leader and his or her followers. This reer progress and reduced earnings (Northouse, style involves assigning a subordinate responsi- 2007). bility, rewarding them for meeting objectives, The difference in leadership styles of men and correcting them for failing to meet objec- and women is another explanation for the exclu- tives (Eagly & Carli, 2004). Transactional lead- sion of women from leadership roles. The style ership facilitates an exchange of effort for re- with which an individual leads largely deter- wards which provides for the achievement of mines the leader’s influence; any difference is both leader and follower agendas (Kuhnert, generally perceived as a product of gender and 1994). Transactional leadership is effective be- ultimately affects people’s views of who should cause followers benefit from fulfilling the lead- advance to a leadership position (Eagly & Carli, er’s requests. Conversely, transformational 2004). As more women have begun occupying leadership motivates followers to accomplish positions of leadership, studies have been con- more than what is anticipated of them, trans- ducted to determine whether or not there are dis- cending their own self-interests for the good of tinct differences in female and male leadership the organization (Northouse, 2007). While styles and identify which types of leadership are transformational and transactional leadership best suited to conditions faced by contemporary styles are very different, both can contribute to organizations. effective leadership. Beginning in the early 1980’s, leadership re- When determining the distinction between searchers began studying a new, future-oriented transactional and transformational leaders, it is style of leadership introduced by James Mac- helpful to associate this comparison with the Gregor Burns as transformational leadership difference between managers and leaders. (Northouse, 2007). Transformational leadership While leadership and management both involve is a process which changes and transforms peo- influence, working with people, and effective ple and organizations. According to Eagly and goal accomplishment; they are also two different Carli (2004), transformational leaders “state fu- constructs. The overriding function of man- ture goals, develop plans to achieve those goals, agement is to provide order and consistency to and innovate, even when their organizations are organizations, whereas the primary function of generally successful” (p. 285). Leaders of this leadership is to produce change and movement approach articulate to followers the problems in (Northouse, 2007). the current system and offer a compelling vision Lussier and Achua (2007) described trans- of what a new organization could be (Lussier & formational leaders as “influential, inspirational,
Journal of Agricultural Education 16 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture… and charismatic” (p. 382), whereas transactional ter that equips them with a natural tendency to leaders are classified as “task- and reward- seek leadership and take a dominant role in situ- oriented, structured, and passive” (p. 383). A ations (Kellerman & Rhode, 2007). Evolution- connection can be made linking management ary psychologists link current sex differences in and transactional leadership in that transactional behavior to the differing reproductive pressures leaders reward followers for performing specific males and females experienced in the early his- behaviors that meet the leader’s expectations tory of the human species (Eagly & Carli, 2004). and punish followers when performance does While men possess an internal instinct to com- not meet expectations. Transformational leaders pete for dominance and mating partners, as well are similar to charismatic leaders in their ability as a tendency to evolve dispositions of aggres- to articulate a compelling vision of the future, sion, risk taking, and competition for status; and influence followers by arousing strong emo- women possess a predisposition to invest more tions in support of the vision (Lussier & Achua, in the offspring and depend on their mates to 2007). provide resources to support them and their chil- Although there are clear differences between dren (Kellerman & Rhode, 2007). transformational and transactional leadership, Personality traits are of further relevance in like management and leadership, both styles are understanding gender differences in effective effective in leading followers. In addition to contemporary leadership. Most managerial ex- transformational and transactional leadership, perts advocate the more feminine and androgy- Burns (1978), Avolio (1999), and Bass (1998) nous skills of negotiation, cooperation, diploma- distinguished a third leadership style labeled cy, team building, and inspiring and nurturing laissez-faire leadership. Laissez-faire leaders others rather than distinctively masculine traits abdicate responsibility, delay decisions, do not and skills (Eagly & Carli, 2004). These femi- provide feedback, and make little effort to help nine qualities parallel those that depict transfor- followers satisfy their needs (Northouse, 2007). mational leadership. In addition, some charac- Unlike transformational and transactional lead- teristics that are known to derail leaders are in- ership, there is no exchange between laissez- timidating or abrasive style, arrogance, and faire leaders and their followers and no effort to coldness (Nahavandi, 2003), are at least stereo- help their followers grow. typically masculine (Diekman & Eagly, 2000). Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, and van Engen Therefore, it is unlikely that effective leadership (2003) confirmed the generalization that wom- in contemporary organizations consists of tradi- en’s typical leadership styles are more transfor- tionally male behaviors or that men’s attainment mational than those of men, especially when of leadership roles reflects their natural domi- providing encouragement and support to subor- nance. dinates. Thus, women are more focused on the Additionally, leadership scholars have iden- aspects of leadership that promote effectiveness. tified five broad personality trait categories that In addition, women leaders were more engaged correspond to many of the specific traits found in rewarding followers’ behaviors, an aspect of relevant for leadership emergence, advancement, transactional leadership called contingent reward or effectiveness (Yukl, 2010). This five factor (Lussier & Achua, 2007). Conversely, male model of personality, or the Big Five Model, leaders appear to be more prone to exhibiting distinguishes five personality traits: (a) surgen- aspects of transactional leadership other than cy, (b) conscientiousness, (c) agreeableness, (d) contingent reward, such as corrective and disci- adjustment, and (e) intellectance (Yukl, 2010). plinary actions that are either active (timely) or Surgency is defined through specific traits such passive (belated) (Eagly et al., 2003). Moreover, as extroversion (outgoing), energy/activity level, men are also more likely to operate as laissez- and need for power (assertive); conscientious- faire leaders, who take little responsibility for ness is characterized by dependability, personal managing (Eagly et al., 2003). integrity, and need for achievement; agreeable- Another explanation as to the disproportion- ness is described through attributes including ate occupation of men in leadership roles asserts cheerfulness and optimism, nurturance (sympa- that men have an evolved psychological charac- thetic, helpful), and need for affiliation; adjust-
Journal of Agricultural Education 17 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture… ment is identified through the specific traits of ers’ interest in women’s development of the emotional stability, self-esteem, and self-control; leadership competencies that are essential for and intellectance is defined as curious and in- effective leadership in postsecondary education quisitive, open-minded, and learning-oriented. is steadily growing (Kellerman & Rhode, 2007). The dearth of women in high-level leader- Hatch (2002) stated feminist researchers take ship also points to prejudicial attitudes and dis- interest in “exposing material differences gender criminatory behaviors as a liable cause. The makes in women’s life chances” (p. 16). There- term glass ceiling was introduced in 1986 in the fore, this article explored the leadership styles Wall Street Journal (The Corporate Woman, developed by each woman dean, the gender dis- 1986), which rapidly spread among journalists crimination each faced in their journey to dean- and other writers and soon became part of the ship, and how these factors impacted the wom- culture (Eagly & Carli, 2004). While this meta- en’s personal development and professional ad- phor paints an unmistakable picture of the invis- vancement to their leadership role in agriculture. ible barrier that challenges the ascent of many women to high-level leadership positions, what Purpose and Objectives is not so clearly understood is that women face a variety of obstacles throughout their leadership The purpose of this qualitative study was to journey. Women and men are not granted equal explore the lives of women deans in hopes of access to entry- and mid-level positions (Eagly understanding their leadership and personality & Carli, 2007); indicating that a woman’s trek to styles along with challenges they have faced in leadership is complex with resistance and preju- becoming deans of agriculture. The central re- dice, but ultimately attainable and a goal worth search question addressed during the study was, striving for. How have women deans of agriculture attained Prejudice toward female leaders materializes their leadership role in agriculture? from the incongruity that people often perceive between the characteristics typical of women Methods/Procedures and the attributes of leadership roles (Kellerman & Rhode, 2007). Women are associated with Research Approach communal qualities (e.g., being especially affec- tionate, helpful, friendly, kind, sympathetic, in- In order to fully comprehend the experiences terpersonally sensitive), which convey a concern participants shared, the study was performed for the compassionate treatment of others (Eagly using the qualitative mode of inquiry, which & Carli, 2007). These traits are inconsistent provided for a “complex, detailed understanding with those society perceives to be necessary for of the issue” (Creswell, 2007, p. 40). Gathering successful leadership, which are predominantly information from interviews, observations, doc- argentic (e.g., being assertive, dominant, force- uments, and pictures provided the researcher ful, self-reliant, masterful) (Kellerman & Rhode, with a bank of data from which themes could be 2007). People readily associate leadership quali- created, interpretations made, and a “rich, full ties with masculine characteristics, placing the picture of a research situation” painted (Wright, daunting task on women to find an effective bal- 2002, p. 8). A phenomenological approach was ance between showing their followers compas- utilized in an attempt to gain entry into the con- sion and demonstrating assertiveness and main- ceptual world of study participants in order to taining control (Kellerman & Rhode, 2007). understand how and what meaning they con- The gendered nature of leadership has sig- struct from their lived experiences (Bogdan & nificantly influenced the lives of women who Biklen, 2007). Phenomenology allowed for the have chosen to pursue leadership roles (Keller- accurate interpretation and description of the man & Rhode, 2007). There is little published meaning of the six women deans’ experiences in research on the advancement of influential indi- attaining their leadership roles in a predominant- viduals in higher education, and even less litera- ly male field. ture is available on the development of high- Twenty-five women deans and associate level women leaders in education. But research- deans were identified as possible study partici-
Journal of Agricultural Education 18 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture… pants using the 2009 Directory of Deans and ture and how they have achieved their current Directors of Academic Programs in Schools and status. Next, the primary researcher is female Colleges of Agriculture (Association of Public and possesses moderate feminist beliefs. She and Land-grant Universities, 2009). The deans takes special interest in the stories of women of agriculture were then analyzed based on the who have overcome challenges in fields subju- region of the United States they were located. gated by males. This may influence the inter- The researchers sought to engage women deans view questions asked of participants pertaining from each region of the Continental United to how they have achieved and attained leader- States (North, South, East, and West), and the ship positions in agriculture, a predominantly identity of the deans and their affiliated institu- male field. Finally, the primary researcher has tions remained confidential to protect the parties developed leadership characteristics and inde- participating in this study. Deans of agriculture pendence, skills which have led to successful in each region were contacted and questioned attainment of leadership roles. Prior to com- about their willingness to participate in the mencing the study, the primary researcher be- study. Eight of the twenty-five women agreed to lieved women deans were independent and have participate and then, because of job responsibili- assumed many leadership roles throughout their ties, two of the women declined to participate. lives. Therefore, the sample for this study consisted of In an effort to bracket the primary research- six women deans of agriculture in land-grant er’s own knowledge and presuppositions, the institutions. researcher reflected on personal biases of the research topic and assumptions of the outcomes Researchers, Validation Strategies, and Re- of the study prior to and during the research to search Bias maintain as impartial of a position as possible. The primary researcher personally reflected on Four researchers were involved in this each occasion of contact and communication study: (a) a primary researcher and (b) three with the participants. The primary researcher secondary researchers. The primary researcher also structured the research question and probing conducted the in-depth interviews, made field questions in such a way that did not lead or visits, analyzed data, and led the composition of guide the participant’s responses in a predeter- this manuscript. A more detailed description of mined direction. the primary researcher is given in the next para- In addition to the primary researcher’s ef- graph. In regard to the secondary researchers, forts to reduce the impact of bias on the data one is a female, associate professor in the Agri- collected, several validation strategies were em- cultural Education, Leadership and Communica- ployed to document the accuracy and value of tions Department at the University of Tennessee this phenomenological research study. Pro- and is currently employed in a college of agri- longed engagement in the field by the primary culture with a woman dean. She assisted with researcher and the triangulation of data sources, the research design, data analyses, and manu- methods, observation notes and reflection jour- script composition. The other secondary re- nals were techniques used to establish credibility searchers are males and are also employed at the (Creswell, 2007). Additionally, member checks University of Tennessee. Both assisted with of data, analyses, interpretations, and conclu- data analyses and manuscript composition. sions were performed by the women participants Prior to the study, the primary research- involved in the study to also confirm credibility er reflected on qualities she possessed which of the findings. From the primary researchers’ may impact relationships with the environment observations, a thick description of the partici- and people in the study. First, the primary re- pants in their working environment was con- searcher holds a strong passion for agriculture as structed to help readers determine the transfera- she grew up on a farm and was pursuing a de- bility of the research. Dependability of the study gree in agriculture. The primary researcher’s was established through a peer review by anoth- strong interest in this field may result in more er researcher trained in qualitative analysis focus on the selected women’s impact in agricul- throughout the research process. Furthermore,
Journal of Agricultural Education 19 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture… confirmability was established by bracketing the Furthermore, data was examined using several researcher’s assumptions. methods, which included identifying significant statements and elements of meaning; creating Gaining Entry textural and structural descriptions; and recog- nizing descriptions which revealed commonali- After this research was approved by the ties among the participants’ experiences (Cre- University of Tennessee’s Institutional Review swell, 2007). Emerging themes from all data Board, each perspective participant was contact- were coded and sorted into specific categories ed by phone and email to secure authorization to that emerged from the data by the primary re- participate in the study. Prior to conducting the searcher and the female, secondary researcher. interviews with each individual, an informed Once the data was analyzed and coded and spe- consent letter was signed and collected at the cific themes were identified, the primary and interview. secondary researchers explored theoretical frameworks to explain the leadership styles and Data Collection personalities of the women deans of agriculture. In addition, the primary and secondary research- The methods employed to collect data in this ers identified Eagly and Carli’s (2004) research study included one to two hour in-depth semi- as a viable explanation after the data analysis to structured interviews that were audio-taped, in explain challenges the women deans of agricul- which the primary researcher asked open-ended, ture had face. The specific categories were simi- non-leading questions (Creswell, 2007). The lar to the themes identified by Eagly and Carli: interviews focused on revealing the influences human capital (e.g., education, work experi- and experiences which helped to develop each ence); the difference in leadership styles of men woman. The interview protocol asked each par- and women; the nature of men and not women to ticipant to describe her family upbringing, her lead and dominate others; and discrimination immediate family, and her road to becoming a against female leaders based on gender norms. dean of agriculture. The primary researcher’s In addition, observation notes and reflection presence as a participant observer in the envi- journals were kept by the primary researcher. ronments of each of the six women deans for The primary researcher and the female second- two days was also utilized to gather data. Dur- ary researcher analyzed and coded the interview ing each field visit, the primary researcher rec- transcriptions, observation notes and reflection orded descriptive and reflective notes as she ob- journals to determine what type of personality served events and interactions in each dean’s traits each woman possessed. This process was daily routine. This enabled the primary re- utilized to see if there were common personali- searcher to gain an accurate account of the field ties amongst the women deans. Those traits that as well as maintain subjectivity in understanding surfaced were closely aligned with the Big Five each dean’s experience. Model which consist of personality traits such as Data Analysis surgency, conscientiousness, agreeableness, ad- justment, and intellectance. Furthermore, the The in-depth interviews were transcribed male, secondary researchers confirmed that the and analyzed along with the primary research- emerging themes that were sorted into the er’s field notes by the primary and the female, aforementioned categories and personality traits secondary researcher. The field notes were uti- were representative of the data. lized to describe the facts and details related to the women deans and their environment. In ad- Findings dition, the field notes captured the primary re- searcher’s thoughts related to the women deans When discussing the women deans’ experi- and their environment. These field notes were ences, only one woman dean’s quote is utilized utilized in the data analysis to assist both the to describe the theme; however, the quote is rep- primary and secondary researchers’ in recalling resentative of what the other women’s opinions what had occurred during the field experience. were as well. This provided the opportunity for
Journal of Agricultural Education 20 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture… the researchers to use thick, rich descriptions to of leadership, and entered into departments support the themes that emerged from the data. comprised primarily of males. As they dis- cussed their experiences, each woman was quick Possible Challenges for Women Leaders to comment that they grew as professionals be- Identified by Eagly and Carli (2004) cause of the obstacles they had to overcome. Moreover, one woman dean acknowledged that Underinvestment in human capital. While if we understand and support both perspectives research shows that women do not achieve lead- (men and women) and educate people about ership roles due to a lack of education and work these viewpoints, as a society we will become experience (Eagly & Carli, 2004), these six more accepting of each gender. women all have doctoral degrees and numerous It’s a real challenge, because I don’t like years of experience in agricultural fields. The partitioning people out. I like to help deans in this study obtained degrees in agricul- men to understand women and women tural and extension education, agricultural engi- to understand men and understand that neering, animal science, biology, horticulture, when we bring things to the table and entomology. They have also assumed nu- that…if you work with women alone, I merous leadership roles in their pursuit of dean- think it’s easy to create an ‘us against ship. In addition, the majority of the women them’ attitude or men with women. I deans are married with children which compared don’t ever want to create an ‘us against to their mothers was quite different. One dean them’. I think men and women bring described the landscape for women during the some unique things to the table in very transitional time between now and when they different ways. I also know that there were being raised by her parents. are things that I can do that a man Now, during that period of time, there couldn’t do, in terms of working with were very few females that sort of students, I mean…if I give a hug to a branched out of their sort of pre- student, it’s very different than if a man determined career fields at the time, and gives a hug to a student…even if that so for a female to be in agriculture was student needs a hug. But men can do really not, I don’t know that there were things like being more authoritative and any here to be honest with you…you more direct. Men can get away with live in the sort of social expectations and that type of leadership, but there are so that was just sort of the first group of things that women can get away with more females entering into college that men can’t. And I also know that if I working outside the home. More and have to deliver bad news to somebody, more women were working outside the they’re much less likely to take me on home and taking on professional ca- and yell and banter back than they are if reers, so I was just sort of on that edge, a man told them. They would be more that cutting edge of that transition peri- argumentative, and so they would chal- od. lenge that more than they might with me because of this sense of respect. And so Gender discrimination. The areas of dis- there are some huge advantages, so you crimination identified and discussed in this study need to know what are the advantages, are perceptions of women, fairness in the work- what are the disadvantages, and recog- place, and power structures. Five of the six nize that I will never be a person that deans provided accounts of discrimination they can pound my fist on the table and say experienced in their journey to deanship. Bias this is the way it’s going to be guys, but and opposition were encountered by these wom- there are some other things that I have en as they pursued agricultural degrees and ca- that are an advantage in terms of gender reers, joined agricultural organizations, applied roles in a workplace that men don’t and interviewed for faculty/administrative posi- have. Basically, it is one having an un- tions and promotions, advanced to higher levels
Journal of Agricultural Education 21 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture…
derstanding of what those differences decided not to grant me promotion and are and how to use them appropriately. their justification for that was…they said I needed to have some international Perceptions of women. There are per- experience, well there was nowhere ceptions individuals have about women in the where that was specified in the docu- workplace, particularly in agriculture. Some of ments for associate professor, and the those perceptions are that women involved in two guys that went up at the same time I agriculture cannot accomplish certain tasks that did didn’t have international experience, need to be done. As one woman dean described: but they got promoted. I had more pubs When I first applied for the academic than they had, so basically….And they position I was a post-doc, and the aca- said I could fight it, but at that time the demic position opened up and I applied back log for fighting it was about three for that and the dean at the time told me years to have a hearing, so it was easier we don’t really want you because you’re just to go get the international experi- a woman, we don’t think you can do the ence and then apply the next year, and I job. We want someone who can do the got it the next year. But I remember research in fruits and I said, ‘Well, what thinking that, the fairness issue was not is it you think I can’t do? I’ve installed right… And one other case too where irrigation, I’ve grafted trees, and I’ll there were five directors in the depart- show you how to graft one right here. ment and I was the director of I’ve planted 57,000 trees; I know how to ______, the only woman, and I was do this. He said, ‘Well, you know, if being underpaid by $20,000. All the you’ve done the practical things…can guys, even the ones that came after me you drive a tractor?’ and I said, ‘Yes.’ had higher salaries…so…I had to fight ‘Can you drive a backhoe?’ ‘Yes, it’s no that, and it took eight years before I won big deal.’ ‘Post hole digger?’ ‘No big that, well I won it in five but it took deal.’ And he said, ‘Well, can you cali- three years to collect. So, there were brate a sprayer?’ I said, ‘Yes.’ And he problems, but I learned a lot there. I said, ‘Well how would you calibrate a learned about fighting when things are sprayer?’ He kind of copped an attitude. unjust, you know, you have to fight. So I described to him how you would You may not always win, but you have calibrate a sprayer. He said, ‘Well, how self-respect at least. would you do the irrigation?’ So I showed him a typical irrigation layout, Power Structure. The power struggle that you know, and he said, ‘Oh, well okay, takes place in the workplace can be critical to maybe you would be a good candidate.’ the success of either party. As one dean de- So he let me go ahead and apply and in- scribed: terview and I got the position. I put in a When I became the department chair 40-acre orchard…a research orchard and they saw me as…shifting in the right away and got the irrigation in un- power structure and when it became ev- der the railroad. But, that was one of the ident that I was my own person and I examples of…I guess they were going was not going to carry forward their on perception. agenda…all hell broke loose…to put it mildly and it was a really difficult Fairness. Fairness between men and wom- year…The dean at the time convinced en in the workplace can sometimes be daunting me to change job positions. In retro- or at least the perception that exists appears spect, I recognize that I was not going to daunting. One women dean described her expe- win that battle and I also recognize that rience of getting promoted to tenure as such. there was nothing that I could have Like when I went for promotion and done, no accomplishment I could have tenure, I received my tenure and they made, no…strategic goal I could have
Journal of Agricultural Education 22 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture…
set and reached that would have won the the tools, if it’s the right time for that respect of this group of men…because it step. was so fundamentally a problem of my gender. There was absolutely nothing Conscientiousness. A conscientious in- that I would be able to do to win their dividual exhibits specific traits including de- respect, and it’s very difficult to lead pendability, personal integrity, and need for people who don’t respect you. achievement. The deans desired for community and to feel pride in the work they do and feel The Big Five Model Personality Traits energized. In addition, the deans have launched discussions with department chairs to empower These six women deans can be characterized faculty members. as having strong leadership characteristics based We want people to feel proud of what on the Big Five personality traits: (a) surgency, they do here, they have every reason to. (b) conscientiousness, (c) agreeableness, (d) ad- The work of this college is so important justment, and (e) intellectance. and so valued. To feel safe, to feel com- fortable, to feel proud, and to feel ener- Surgency. Surgency is defined as individ- gized, that’s what we’re looking for. We ual possessing traits such as extroversion, ener- are a very large organization, can I en- gy, and need for power. As demonstrated by the sure that every pocket across the college deans, they are passionate and assertive concern- feels that way…no, but where we don’t, ing work. we try hard to know that that’s true and But in the classroom, oh my good- be an active part of the solution towards ness…I get in the classroom and I am something better. So we explicitly wound up for the day. I tell you what, launched a series of conversations about when I guest lecture…I’ve begged to what some characteristics of healthy de- teach, they think I’m crazy. When I was partments were. And that turned out to at ______, I taught every be a very revealing and important tool freshman orientation class, I taught six for many of our chairs…empowering for sections of freshman orientation every lots of our faculty. fall and we met twice a week. So I had 12 contact hours along with everything Agreeableness. Agreeableness is character- else I was doing and I wouldn’t give it ized by traits such as cheerful and optimistic, up. I was passionate about not giving it nurturance, and need for affiliation. Deans value up. It is rewarding, encouraging, engag- the relationships they have created in their insti- ing, motivating, exciting. Getting in tutions with both faculty and students. front of students just really revs me up. I think you have relationships with peo- So I don’t want to pass up that oppor- ple that seem to last forever, and some tunity…. Every job I’ve ever taken, of the relationships that I’m enjoying that’s been my measure…is this the kind here have carried over from my previous of job that I could spend the rest of my institution. A lot of my kids still come career doing and feel rewarded and feel by, and they’ll probably be mine forev- like I’m making a difference and feel er. One of mine works for like I can contribute in very meaningful ______now in ______, and ways? I never want to take a job where I’ll see the emails to me that are title I feel like I’m taking more than I’m giv- ‘mom’, you know, I did this, and it gives ing, I never want to take a job where I me the chance to be proud of him and don’t have that passion for what I do, how much he’s grown. It’s a good feel- and I never want to take a job that I ing to have your students coming back don’t think I’m adequately prepared for. and becoming full-fledged professionals You always have to take that next step, too or having people that you’ve been but you know inside whether you have able to work with or encourage become
Journal of Agricultural Education 23 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture…
leaders here. That’s exciting. Or when much better understanding for…what you’ve been able to dream up ideas with they do with their major, what they’re the help of a real committed team and trying to accomplish with the education those ideas work. That’s exciting! of students…and the three programs that they offer there…where their students Adjustment. An individual who possesses go and the types of things they do and emotional stability, self-esteem, and self-control the types of backgrounds that they come exhibits an adjustment personality trait. The from. I never would have known that deans acted as mediators in diverse, sometimes type of thing. I mean we’ve got ___ de- hostile environments where people had many partments…we have ____ undergradu- differences. In addition, they took on leadership ate majors in this college and… I get to roles in the face of adversity. have access to information that I never But in my department, there was a lot of would have seen before. conflict between new people who had been hired from the ______, and Transformational Leadership people who had either been in ______for…30 or 40 years or Eagly et al. (2003) confirmed the generaliza- people who grew up there and were on tion that women’s typical leadership styles are the faculty. And there was just this huge more transformational than those of men, espe- divide and I was often the person who cially when it came to providing encouragement could cross that divide.... I ended up and support to subordinates. In addition, trans- having quite a number of leadership formational leaders are more focused on the big roles in difficult things that had to picture of the organization instead of just the happen in the department. The chair day-to-tasks that need to be accomplished. Per- would be looking for somebody to lead fectly stated by the deans: who could make it happen without I’ve read in a number of documents that World War Three occurring. For there’s a kind of tipping point in the di- example, I led a reevaluation of space versity of a community. When you have and reassignment of space for the a very homogeneous community, it will faculty, there is nothing more precious function through the filter of whatever in a university than space. People will those groups of people are, if it’s all fight to the death for their space. So I men, or all Caucasian, whatever the ho- had to find a way to make a totally mogeneity is, it’s going to function with transparent and fair process and I was an that as its primary filter. If you start assistant professor so I was like really bringing in diversity and you just drop dancing a fine line. in say one person, they’re going to be very much influenced by the weight of Intellectance. Intellectance is defined as an whatever that filter is. If you’ve got 9 individual who is curious and inquisitive, open- men and one woman, it’s going to func- minded, and learning oriented. As was tion like a male society and that is going expressed by the deans: to be the expectations of that woman, to I like being able to interact with and to function like a white male. If it’s a be knowledgeable about majors beyond white male society, she’s going to be the one that I came from. My depart- asked to function like a white male, only ment of ______is housed in the problem is…she’s not. So as you shift same department with that and you become more and more di- ______. Did I know verse, there’s a place where there’s a anything about those majors or anything kind of a tipping point and you lose that about the types of stuff they did? Nahh, homogeneous filter that the society is even though I was in the same building. functioning under. You start to get it But now that I’m in this office, I have a functioning like the diverse society that
Journal of Agricultural Education 24 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture…
it is…which means you’re taking into is that these six women deans displayed charac- account everybody’s views and the way teristics of transformational leaders and each of they are, and their needs, what they need the women deans in this study exhibited person- to be successful, and I think that that’s ality traits such as surgency, conscientiousness, what we need to do to really transform agreeableness, adjustment, and intellectance the institution, is to arrive at that tipping (Yukl, 2010). point. Everybody agrees that once you Women and men pursuing leadership posi- get there it’s a really great thing. People tions in academia can benefit from other wom- say, ‘Oh, how are you going to maintain en’s experiences. Knowing some of the gender excellence?” But once you hit that tip- barriers that could exist in academia can assist ping point, you realize how much you both women and men in the preparation of be- bring with the diversity…the view- coming a leader in the agriculture academia are- points, the ability to be creative, the pro- na. There is a tendency for individuals to jects that people are willing to take on, choose people like themselves and by under- the kind of work that’s being done…it standing different perspectives in leadership all gets better. (women and men’s perspectives) one can work on making the organization stronger. This study Conclusion and Recommendations described how women attained deanship, but how have male deans obtained and attained their The overarching conclusions for the women leadership role in agriculture? in this study was that attaining their leadership In addition to recognizing the gender barri- role was not limited to their education and work ers which exist in an organization, one may want experience, and they grew from their obstacles to evaluate their personality traits such as those related to gender discrimination. This explana- included in the Big Five Model. If one analyzes tion is supported by the findings of Eagly and their personality and determines that most of the Carli (2004). These women even stated they personality traits are solid, one may be ready to wanted to understand both men and women to pursue a leadership position. However, if one is make the academic environment a better work- deficient in several personality traits, then on ing place. The perceptions of women in leader- may want to consider leadership development ship positions have not always been positive but training. Some questions that still remain are: these women deans learned to be great strate- (a) How do men and women deans compare on gists and establish their presence within the Uni- measures of the Big Five Model? and (b) What versity. is the relationship between faculty/institutional In addition, women’s experiences related to moral and their dean’s score on a Big Five Mod- power structure within the workplace were relat- el assessment? ed to the natural tendency of males to lead and dominate others. However, these women over- Discussion came that issue quickly. Even though these women overcame many obstacles there are still There are several areas one could focus on questions that surfaced. Hence future research and learn from when hearing from women deans should be focused on the following questions: in agriculture. The first area of emphasis is on (a) Are there differences in communicating vi- the original voice of each woman who told her sion and goals among men and women deans? story. Five of the six woman deans had similar If so, how are these differences perceived among discrimination and power structure experiences the faculty?, (b) What is the most effective and each still became a dean of agriculture. ways to communicate vision and goals within They even referenced that because of those ob- colleges of agriculture?, and (c) How are women stacles, they grew professionally. As the re- deans viewed by colleagues in their institutions? search team, we believe that any job is going to Transformational leadership is a process have obstacles and it is clearly how we handle which changes and transforms people (Lussier & those obstacles, which defines our advancement Achua, 2007). Another conclusion of this study in the workplace. One could argue there are
Journal of Agricultural Education 25 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture… negative perceptions of individuals and unfair- ness, (d) adjustment, and (e) intellectance. ness in the agriculture sector but it is the job of These traits are not only seen in women but men the individual to change those perceptions. If too (Kellerman & Rhode, 2007). One can utilize individuals continually allow obstacles to keep this information to assist in training of faculty them from succeeding, then we will continue to members who wish to pursue a career as a dean. stifle one’s professional advancement. All indi- Furthermore, there is value in understanding viduals must continue to strive to change nega- these traits, how to effectively apply these traits tive perceptions. in the workplace and how each individual (male According to Yukl (2010), there are five or female) exhibits these traits. By having the broad personality traits which correspond to overarching understanding of different leader- leader effectiveness. These women deans of ship styles and gender issues, one has a better agriculture exhibited many of those traits: (a) understanding of how to attain a leadership role surgency, (b) conscientiousness, (c) agreeable- as a dean.
References
Association of Public and Land-grant Universities. (2009). Dean and directors of academic programs in schools and colleges of agriculture, agriculture and life sciences, or agriculture and natural re- sources. Retrieved from www.aplu.org/NetCommunity/Document.Doc?id=1645 Avolio, B. J. (1999). Full leadership development: Building the vital forces in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Bass, B. M. (1998). The ethics of transformational leadership. In J. Ciulla (Ed.), Ethics: The heart of leadership (pp. 169-192). Westport, CT: Praeger. Bennis, W. (1989). On becoming a leader. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theories and methods. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among the five approaches. Thou- sand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H. (2000). Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1171-1188. Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2004). Women and Men as Leaders. In J. Antonakis, A. T. Cianciolo, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The nature of leadership. (pp. 279-301). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publica- tions, Inc. Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Women and the labyrinth of leadership. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from http://hbr.org/hbr-main/resources/pdfs/comm/philips/women-labyrinth.pdf Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., & van Engen, M. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulle- tin, 95, 569-591. Hatch, A. J. (2002). Doing qualitative research in educational settings. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press Kellerman, B., & Rhode, D. (2007). Women & leadership: The state of play and strategies for change. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons
Journal of Agricultural Education 26 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Kleihauer, Stephens, Hart, and Stripling Six Women Deans of Agriculture…
Kuhnert, K. W. (1994). Transforming leadership: Developing people through delegation. In B. M. Bass & B. J. Avolio (EDs.), Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership (pp. 10-25). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Lussier, R. N., & Achua, C. F. (2007). Leadership: Theory, application, & skill development (3rd ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Madsen, S. R. (2008). On becoming a woman leader: Learning from the experiences of university presi- dents. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Nahavandi, A. (2003) The art and science of leadership (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Northouse, P. G. (2007). Leadership: Theory and practice (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publica- tions, Inc. The Corporate Woman: A special report. (1986, March 24). Wall Street Journal, pp. 32. Wright, H. K. (2002). Qualitative research in education: From an attractive nuisance to a dizzying array of traditions and possibilities. In Tennessee Education 32 (2)/33(1), pp. 7-15. Yukl, G. A. (2010). Leadership in organizations (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
SARAH KLEIHAUER is an Agriculture Educator at Cascade High School, 1165 Bell Buckly-Wartrace Road, Wartrace, TN 37183, [email protected]
CARRIE A. STEPHENS is an Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Educa- tion and Communications at the University of Tennessee, 320B Morgan Hall, 2621 Morgan Circle, Knoxville, TN 37996-4511, [email protected]
WILLIAM E. HART is an Associate Professor in the Department of Biosystems Engineering & Soil Sci- ence at the University of Tennessee, 306 OFC, 2621 Morgan Circle, Knoxville, TN 37996-4511, [email protected]
CHRISTOPHER T. STRIPLING is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education and Communications at the University of Tennessee, 320B Morgan Hall, 2621 Morgan Circle, Knoxville, TN 37996-4511, [email protected]
Journal of Agricultural Education 27 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 28 – 40 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03028
Agrarianism: An Ideology of the National FFA Organization
Michael J. Martin Colorado State University Tracy Kitchel University of Missouri
The traditions of the National FFA Organization (FFA) are grounded in agrarianism. This ideology fo- cuses on the ability of farming and nature to develop citizens and integrity within people. Agrarianism has been an important thread of American rhetoric since the founding of country. The ideology has mor- phed over the last two centuries as the country developed from a nation of farmers to an industrial world power. The agrarian ideology that resonated in rural America during the formation of the FFA was southern agrarianism. Southern agrarian ideology argued for self-reliance and adherence to past tradi- tions. These concepts appear in the FFA traditions of the creed, opening ceremony, motto, and awards. The historical growth and success of the FFA within rural communities demonstrates the ability of the southern agrarian ideology to connect with contemporary rural values. However, the southern agrarian ideology may not connect with the culture of diverse, urban, or suburban students. Advisers of diverse, urban, or suburban FFA chapters may need to reconceptualize the FFA traditions to accommodate their students.
Keywords: National FFA Organization; philosophy; ideology; agrarianism
The theme Beyond Diversity to Cultural LaVergne, Larke, Elbert, & Jones, 2011). One Proficiency resonated at the 2011 American As- study highlighted how some non-FFA members sociation for Agricultural Education (AAAE) viewed FFA members as hicks (Phelps, Henry, conference. Fittingly, AAAE invited James & Bird, 2012). These studies indicate that some Banks, founder of multicultural education, to students are culturally disconnected from the give the keynote speech. A question emerged FFA. The researchers posit new lenses are from the audience during the workshop on di- needed in which to view the FFA, which is not versity about the lack of minority representation to say the lens which serves the current base of in the National FFA Organization (FFA). Banks FFA membership should be discarded. Hence, did not have an immediate answer; instead he FFA leaders and advisors will have to find the called on the discipline of agricultural education appropriate balance between diverse ideas for to act. Banks urged AAAE members to explore America’s evolving student population and the FFA philosophy and work to develop a more celebrated traditions of FFA. inclusive organization. The statistics of the FFA Researchers have investigated the philo- would indicate a possible cultural disconnect for sophical roots of agricultural education and ca- diverse students. For instance, Caucasians rep- reer and technical education, yet ideological in- resent a majority of the organization’s member- vestigations are few. Researchers situated career ship (National FFA Organization [FFA], 2011c) and technical education within the philosophical and a majority of FFA chapters reside in rural continuum of realism and pragmatism (Lynch, communities (Team Ag Ed, 2006). Conversely, 2000; Martinez, 2007; Miller, 1985, 1996), a students of color from suburban and urban claim researchers in agricultural education gen- communities are seemingly underrepresented in erally concur with (Barrick, 1989; Croom, 2008; the FFA (FFA, 2011c; Team Ag Ed, 2009). The Love, 1978; Moore, 1988; Wardlow & Osborne, FFA may have more cultural appeal to rural and 2010). While a philosophical perspective can white students as opposed to diverse, urban or explain curriculum development, it does not ad- suburban students. Research would substantiate equately explain the culture of the FFA. For this claim as well (Hoover & Scanlon, 1991; instance, an educational philosophy could not
28 Martin and Kitchel Agrarianism, an Ideology… easily explain the cultural meaning represented could also form a cultural barrier to some FFA in the FFA creed. A discussion about ideologies members. If agrarianism still resonates in FFA would appropriately facilitate a cultural investi- traditions, exploring how the ideology manifests gation (Gutek, 2004). Research conducted by in FFA structures might help researchers and Lakes (1997) provided a culturally aware con- practitioners understand the organization’s cul- ceptualization of the perspective in question. tural image. The agrarian ideology may appeal Lakes critically examined vocational education to traditional FFA students, but it can form a through the ideological lens of Marxism and barrier for diverse, urban, or suburban students. Paulo Freire’s social justice. This research ex- tends Lakes’ position by a contextual ideological Purpose lens to examine the cultural nuances of FFA. Identifying the ideology that represents the This philosophical study articulates FFA specific contexts of FFA required an examina- traditions through the ideological lens of agrari- tion of agricultural education history. A clue anism. This research aligns with the American emerged from the history of the FFA name. The Association for Agricultural Education’s 5th charter of the first state FFA association, Virgin- priority (efficient and effective agricultural edu- ia, took its original name from an agrarian tradi- cation programs) (Doerfert, 2011) by exploring tion. The Future Farmers of Virginia originated how effective educational programs will meet from the acronym FFV, which stood for the First the academic, career, and developmental needs Families of Virginia (Hillison, 1993). The First of diverse learners in all settings and at all lev- Families of Virginia included influential and els. historical figures of Virginia such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. Henry Ideological Framework of Agrarianism Groseclose mentioned Washington and Jefferson as significant American farmers when naming The culture of agrarianism influenced Amer- the F.F.V. (Tenney, 1977). These founding fa- ican history and literature (Marx, 2000); howev- thers were also important figures in the for- er, the specific arguments of agrarianism shifted mation of the American agrarian ideology. over time. The ideology followed America’s Agrarianism emphasized rural culture and the historical development from the classic agrarian- value of agricultural work in America. ism of Jefferson to the neo-agrarian arguments Agrarian ideals form part of the historical of environmentalism and sustainability. Famous national consciousness. Agrarianism had faded agrarian authors throughout history include since the start of the 20th century; yet, the ideol- Michel-Guillaume Crevecoeur (1782/1998), ogy experienced a renaissance in the 1920s and Henry David Thoreau (1855/1995), and Wendell ‘30s with the rise of southern agrarianism (Hof- Berry (1977). Agrarian ideals guided Americans stadter, 1955; Murphy, 2001). Southern agrari- along rural and agricultural norms for the past anism was a reaction against the social, political, two centuries, often countering the economic and economical transformations occurring in and social developments of the era. While the rural America. This new form of agrarianism message of agrarians varied over time, their borrowed from older agrarian arguments and general purpose has remained the same – to re- created some new ideals. These reformed agrar- mind people of their agricultural roots, argue for ian principles seeped into the social fabric of people to live a more meaningful way of life, rural America and helped form the traditions of and be cognizant of the land and nature. Table 1 FFA which are still practiced today. This is im- presents different types of agriarian thought in portant as traditions can personify an organiza- American history within their appropraite time tion’s beliefs and values. For FFA in particular, frame with their distinguishing ideals and their traditions represent a gateway and stepping proponents or representatives. stones for members. These same traditions
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Table 1
Agriarian ideology in American history
Type Time Frame Distinguishing Ideals Representatives Classical Late 18th to early Farming produces the ideal citizen Thomas Jefferson & Agrarianism 19th Century Crevecoeur
Romantic Middle to late 19th Health and therapeutic qualities of Henry David Thoreau & Agrarianism Century farming and nature Ralph Waldo Emerson
Southern Early 20th Century Continuity of society through clas- Allen Tate Agrarianism sical ideals & Donald Davidson
Neo- Late 20th Century Sustainability and environmental- Wendell Berry & Paul Agrarianism to today ism Thompson
The FFA did not emerge in a cultural vacu- tion that societal norms should contain linkages um. School-based agriculture grew out of rural to the agricultural and rural traditions of Ameri- communities (Kliebard, 1999) and the formative ca. Murphy (2001) described the agrarian ideol- years of the FFA (1920-30s) were challenging ogy as ideals that preserved a past culture by years for rural America. The southern agrarian stating: “A culture is inherited. It is communi- ideology popularized the sentiment of American cated as history, which is a master narrative of citizenry during the early 20th century and repre- society’s development but also a set of cultural sented a movement against industrialization and myths, assumptions, and values that intercut in urbanization of America during that era complex ways with one’s own personal devel- (Danbom, 1991). The progressive mindset of opment” (p. 8). President Theodore Roosevelt culminated with The arguments of southern agrarianism the Country Life Commission and Movement of stemmed from classical agrarianism and con- the 1910s. The Movement aimed to improve the servatism (Murphy, 2001). The southern agrari- living conditions of rural America by focusing an authors originated primarily from the South on important issues of rural communities (i.e. although their message had broad appeal (Hof- lack of transportation, utilities, health services); stadter, 1955). The agrarian thinkers of that era however, the spotlight on their shortcomings had an awareness of the social, scientific, and alienated rural citizens (Montmarquet, 2000). By economic factors which were altering the fabric the 1920s, the attitudes of rural citizens shifted of rural life. The writer, D. Davidson, outlined away from the deficiencies of rural communities how rural citizens should handle the changes to focus on the virtues of rural life. The cultural forced upon them: shift received much publicity during the Scopes We must recover the past, or at least in Monkey trial. Southern intellects were angered some way realize it, in order that we over how the Northern media portrayed South- may bring the most genuine and essen- ern culture as backwards (Stewart, 1965). While tial pasts of our tradition forward in con- southern agrarianism began with the motivation tact with the inevitable new tradition to defend Southern culture, the ideology shifted now in process of formation. Only thus to more agrarian interests soon after. The sub- can we achieve vital continuity in the sequent Great Depression exacerbated the shift. national life (as cited in Murphy, 2001, Southern agrarianism had strong ties to classical p. 48). arguments, often drawing direct links to classical Some important themes emerged from the agrarian traditions and figures such as Jefferson. writings of the southern agrarians including Agrarianism of the 1920-30s supported the no- recognition of the need for people to be self-
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Martin and Kitchel Agrarianism, an Ideology… dependent, the importance of remaining loyal to search on FFA history and traditions cannot as- American traditions, advantages of rural life certain if FFA members actually believe the val- over urbanization, and reconciling the changes ues they recite and memorize, the ideological of modernity with lessons from America’s agrar- roots of those values can be analyzed. ian past (Murphy, 2001). Even though the The qualitative research methodology pre- southern agrarian ideology had faded away by sented here utilized the southern agrarianism the 1940s (Karanikas, 1969), its legacy still res- ideology as a lens to study FFA traditions. A onate today within the traditions of FFA. broad spectrum of agrarianism was initially studied (1782-2000s); however, the study fo- Procedures cused on the tenets of southern agrarianism ide- ology from the 1920-30s. This time frame cor- This study utilizes a philosophical research responded to the formation of FFA and FFA tra- methodology (Elliott, 2006; Ruitenberg, 2009). ditions. The researchers searched for important Burbules and Warnick (2006) described philo- concepts within southern agrarianism that could sophical research as follows: “The things that serve as themes to code the traditions of the philosophers do are things that many of us do in FFA. The sources of agrarian ideological in- thinking about problems of our daily life… phi- formation included contemporary books and losophers generally do them more rigorously, reports as well as research articles detailing the and with greater awareness of a history of pervi- ideology of the era. Four themes emerged from ous investigations on these matters” (p. 490). the literature: 1) dependence on self; 2) loyalty The researchers utilized basic qualitative meth- to tradition, 3) advantages of rural living; and 4) ods. The philosophical research presented here- utilizing history as a guide. The researchers then in thoroughly analyzed the traditions of the FFA scrutinized the traditions of the FFA to find evi- through the lens of the agrarianism. Southern dence of these two themes. Two southern agrar- agrarianism was chosen as the lens because of ian themes identified in the traditions of the FFA the historical context of the FFA; however the became evident, dependence on self and loyalty researchers acknowledged that other agrarian to tradition. The researcher team then aligned ideologies exist and could warrant further study. each FFA tradition with the appropriate southern A variety of FFA traditions have withstood agrarian tenet. The researchers arranged the the test of time. These traditions identify and findings section by unpacking the themes within reinforce FFA beliefs and values. The research- the southern agrarian literature and then analyz- ers utilized FFA traditions to analyze the ideolo- ing FFA traditions utilizing that theme as a lens. gy of the FFA. The traditions of the FFA were Between the researchers, there are relevant expe- analyzed as they appeared in current FFA docu- riences that lend to this philosophical study including ments such as handbooks and manuals. The use publishing historical, philosophical, and theoretical of current documents allowed the researchers to studies, teaching a history and philosophy graduate explore the ramifications of the exposed ideolo- course, and formal education in history and historical research. This experience helped the researchers gy for current FFA members. The FFA tradi- maintain standards of the trustworthiness during this tions analyzed include the creed, opening cere- study. The researchers scrutinized scores of manu- mony, motto, proficiency awards, star awards, scripts, documents, book, and chapters to build the jacket, degree system, and curriculum. These credibility of the southern agrarian ideology. FFA traditions are universal for all FFA chap- The researchers scoured a multitude of southern ters. For example, separate FFA creeds do not agrarian publications to develop a consensus exist for rural and urban FFA chapters. While around the identified themes. The utilization of the individual activities of each FFA chapter the current FFA traditions allowed for transfera- may differ, the traditions have only changed bility of the findings to all FFA chapters and slightly since the 1930s. Traditions have signif- members that follow those traditions. The re- icance for the FFA. Activities like memorizing searchers utilized peer-debriefing, audit trails, the FFA creed and conducting the FFA opening and reflexivity to build the dependability and ceremony represent statements of organizational confirmability of their findings (Ary, Jacobs, & values. While this analysis of philosophical re-
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Razavieh, 2002). The researchers tried to re- Southern Agrarianism in the Traditions of main objective by highlighting how the southern the FFA agrarian ideology has been both a positive and possibly negative influence on the FFA. Philo- The southern agrarian ideology argued for a sophical work cannot truly be objective, thus the variety of ideals, two of which appeared in both researchers tried to reduce bias by forming ar- the southern agrarian literature and FFA tradi- guments around the literature. tions: dependence on self and loyalty to tradi- tion. The following section outlines themes with southern agrarian arguments that appear within the traditions of the FFA. Figure 1 graphically organizes the traditions of the FFA that contain the southern agrarian themes of dependence on self, loyalty to tradition, or both.
Dependence on Self Loyalty to Tradtion FFA Opening Ceremony Both FFA Jacket FFA Motto FFA Creed FFA Degree System FFA Profeicney Awards FFA curriculum FFA Star Awards
Figure 1. FFA traditions aligning to the themes of southern agrarianism.
Dependence on Self – Southern Agrarians creased the involvement of the federal govern- ment in people’s daily interactions. The pro- The argument for the self-dependent person grams were intended to improve the welfare of formed a core value for the southern agrarians. people, yet the programs also created lasting While the ideal of independent people stretches changes in society. For instance, the Agricultur- back before the Revolution, the social issues of al Adjustment Act of 1933 reshaped agricultural the era made this value significant for the south- practices by paying farmers subsidies to leave ern agrarians (Hofstadter, 1955). The high lev- some fields fallow (Murphy, 2001). The south- els of unemployment during the Great Depres- ern agrarians opposed these federal programs. sion forced many into poverty. The federal gov- They argue such mandates shifted the control of ernment under Franklin D. Roosevelt enacted a society away from the people. However, the wide-range of social programs collectively titled southern agrarians did not jump into the political the New Deal. The New Deal significantly in- battles of the era. They argued for their posi-
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Martin and Kitchel Agrarianism, an Ideology… tions through essays, poems, books, and maga- following phrase during FFA opening ceremony zines. exalting the virtue of Washington’s self- The southern agrarians called for adherence dependent work ethic. “I [the treasurer] keep a to agrarian ideals versus industrialization and record of receipts and disbursements just as urbanization (Twelve Southerners, 1930/1977) Washington kept his farm accounts—carefully and regionalism over federalism (Davidson, and accurately…. George Washington was bet- 1938). Maintaining self-dependence formed the ter able to serve his country because he was fi- core argument in these debates. Agrarianism nancially independent” (FFA, 2009, p. 25). could not function if people relied on others to Washington’s success as a self-sufficient farmer, do things. The agricultural economist T. J. which the opening ceremony describes as ena- Cauley (1935/1969) discussed how farmers rep- bling his presidency, functions as a role model resented the model of self-dependency: for students to follow. A farmer engaging in relatively self- sufficing farming on a farm which he Entrepreneurism, as a concept within the owns outright can be about the most in- FFA, also aligns to the theme of self- dependent specimen to be discovered in dependence. Dependence on self through entre- this country. He can be independent in preneurism focuses on individual success while politics, in ethics, in his general behav- conducting individual endeavors. For instance, ior. (p. 8) the FFA award system recognizes students who The southern agrarians did not rely on just practice entrepreneurism in production agricul- their own arguments of self-dependence. They ture and related agricultural areas. FFA mem- turned to America’s agrarian tradition for sup- bers can win proficiency awards in a variety of port (Karanikas, 1969). Thomas Jefferson, the different agricultural career areas while engag- quintessential classical agrarian, became the flag ing in entrepreneurial production experiences barrier for self-dependence (Quinn, 1940). Jef- (FFA, 2006). FFA members can also win the ferson’s works and quotes often framed posi- Star Award in the areas of farming or agribusi- tions (Hofstadter, 1955; Tindall, 1974). J. C. ness (FFA, 2009). These awards are the highest Rawe (1936/1999) invoked Jefferson’s notion of level of individual achievement in the FFA. One the independent farmer while arguing against of the benchmarks of the awards is the students’ government interference in the private economy. growth within the scope of supervised agricul- “There is but one solution for this nation and tural education project. Judges evaluate students that is a new Declaration of Independence and a on their level of personal ownership and expan- return to the Jefferson concept of the Constitu- sion of personal responsibilities. In general, tion through wide-spread ownership…” (p. 71). bigger projects fare better in the award selec- In short, southern agrarians idealized farmers tions. FFA members winning these awards also and rural citizens as the prototypical citizen be- serve as role models of self-dependence for oth- cause they lived off the land and required little er members and demonstrate the influence of the dependence on others (Cauley, 1936/1999; southern agrarian ideology on the FFA. Lytle, 1936/1999; Twelve Southerners, The concept of self-dependence does not 1930/1977). necessarily indicate that the FFA advocates sole- ly individualistic principles. The FFA and Dependence on Self – FFA southern agrarian ideology honor community and the interrelationships between people, com- Self-dependence also appeared as an im- munities, and place. Southern agrarians argued portant concept in the traditions of the FFA. for local and regional identities (Davidson, FFA members are encouraged to develop self- 1938), as well as small-town culture (Fisher, sufficient skills for adulthood. The FFA offers a 1936/1999). The FFA creed (2011a) highlights role model of self-dependence for FFA members the responsibility FFA members have to their to emulate. The emblem for the FFA office of communities. “I believe that American agricul- treasurer is the iconic president and agrarian ture can and will hold true to the best traditions George Washington. Treasurers must recite the of our national life, and that I can exert an influ-
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Martin and Kitchel Agrarianism, an Ideology… ence in my home and community” (para. 5). tain a local identity. They argued contemporary The National Chapter Award within the com- issues and struggles through classical agrarian munity development section also illustrates the arguments. For example, Who Owns America? value that FFA places on community (FFA, A New Declaration of Independence forged a 2012b; Tenney, 1977). rural identity through classical agrarian ideas FFA traditions also frame the importance of (Agar & Tate, 1936/1999). O’Donnell FFA members helping other individuals with the (1936/1999) called for a reemergence of the fruits of their labor. The members’ efforts yeoman farmer to replace the evil practice of should not stop at just building their own suc- tenant cotton farming. The overarching theme cess. The FFA motto (FFA, 2009) outlines this that emerged through many of the southern progression: a student will learn, engage in la- agrarian texts was that identity and tradition bor, and then serve others. The model FFA should be intertwined. One only needed to ex- member can finish their own personal responsi- amine the traditions of the past to find guidance bilities and still have enough time and energy for the future. left in the day to help others in need. The 4th paragraph of the FFA creed (2011a) articulates Loyalty to Tradition – FFA this type of self-reliance, “I believe in less de- pendence on begging and more power in bar- The FFA places the same high regard for gaining; in the life abundant and enough honest tradition as the southern agrarians. In the intro- wealth to help make it so--for others as well as duction to Blue Jackets, Gold Standards (Miner, myself...” (para. 4). 2003) the author’s description of the FFA in- cluded, “Half a million kids in blue corduroy, Loyalty to Tradition – Southern Agrarians toss a mix of dedicated advisors… blend in 75 years of tradition and more than four million Rural communities experienced constant involved in all that time…” (p. 1). This descrip- flux during the first half of the 20th Century in- tion highlights the integral role of traditions in cluding rural youth migrating to urban centers, the FFA. The traditions of FFA can be divided the agricultural crisis of the 1920s, and the Great into two types: the agrarian tradition and tradi- Depression (Danbom, 1995). Rural citizens had tions of the FFA itself. to adapt to keep their communities alive. The The agrarian tradition appears throughout pressures to adapt led many people to accept the organization, including the FFA creed. federal policies and new economic practices that These messages form a linkage between Ameri- endangered the old social order. The southern ca’s agrarian roots and the future of America. agrarians feared these changes would lead to the The first paragraph of the FFA creed (2011a) loss of local identity (Murphy, 2001; Shapiro, outlines the importance of past agricultural 1972). The preservation of rural identity be- achievements: came a focus of many southern agrarian authors. I believe in the future of agriculture, They wrote about how rural citizens could with a faith born not of words but of change, yet still remained loyal to agrarian ide- deeds - achievements won by the pre- als (Lanier, 1930/1977; Lytle, 1930/1977; Peeks, sent and past generations of agricultur- 1927/1969). Donald Davidson (1930/1977) ists; in the promise of better days urged artists to follow agrarian traditions to pre- through better ways, even as the better serve local identities: things we now enjoy have come to us He must learn to understand and must from the struggles of former years. try to restore and preserve a social econ- (para. 1) omy that is in danger of being replaced The FFA also encourages members to think altogether by an industrial economy hos- about past struggles and “the best traditions of tile to his interests. (p. 51) national life…” (FFA, 2011a, para. 5) as they However, the quest for maintaining local progress through the organization. The inclu- identity proved challenging. The southern agrar- sion of the agrarian traditions is important to the ians turned to America’s agrarian roots to main- organization. The FFA can promote a sense of
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Martin and Kitchel Agrarianism, an Ideology… historical continuity between the FFA and America to the National FFA Organization and a America’s agrarian traditions, appealing to peo- broadening of the organization’s scope (National ple who favor an agrarian ideology. Research Council, 1988). The researchers do not The FFA also creates its own traditions for want to understate the changes the FFA has en- members to follow. Personal development and acted over the past decades. The FFA has advancement within the FFA requires FFA worked to stay relevant to contemporary Ameri- members to understand their place in the history can society (Miner, 2003; FFA, 2012a). How- of the organization. Advancement in the FFA ever, the researchers argue the traditions of the degree system requires members to engage in FFA have remained true to the organization’s the traditions of the organization (FFA, 2011b). southern agrarian roots. For instance, the FFA For example, members must be able to explain has not shifted its traditions to be more aligned the FFA creed, motto, and mission statement in with or more accepting of neo-agrarian ideology, order to be eligible for the Greenhand Degree, which includes concepts like environmentalism the first degree a member can earn. Classroom and/or sustainability (Berry, 1977; Major, 2011; curriculum about the FFA requires agriculture Thompson, 2010; Wizba, 2003). The ramifica- students, possibly even non-FFA members, to tions of these traditions warrant further discus- learn and participate in FFA traditions. For ex- sion. ample, many agriculture students are required to The historical growth and success of the memorize and recite the FFA creed as part of FFA within rural communities demonstrates the their class assignment (Connors & Velez, 2008). ability of the southern agrarian ideals to resonate These activities reinforce the rhetorical tradi- with rural students. Arguing that southern agrar- tions of the organization. ian ideals appeal to all rural students can lead to Some FFA traditions are also visual and not overgeneralization. Yet the success of the FFA just rhetoric. The FFA jacket stands as the most in rural areas cannot be understated. However, recognizable FFA tradition. Wearing the jacket the question remains, how does the southern provides even the youngest member a chance to agrarian ideology resonate with the diverse, ur- submerge themselves into the culture of the ban or suburban students? Despite modest FFA. “It [the FFA jacket] provides identity and growth in diverse urban and suburban schools, gives a distinctive and recognizable image to the the FFA (and school-based agricultural educa- organization and its members. Official Dress tion) remains primarily a rural and white student has been worn with pride by millions of FFA phenomenon (FFA, 2011c; Team Ag Ed, 2006). members since 1933” (FFA, 2009, p. 19). The The southern agrarian ideals and their focus on FFA stresses the symbolic importance of the rural life and production agriculture could be a jacket. Wearing the jacket identifies the young cultural roadblock for diverse, urban, or subur- adult as a leader. The pride of wearing the jack- ban students. The researchers are not arguing et is comparable to the pride of wearing a mili- for FFA traditions to shift completely away from tary uniform (Miner, 2003). The jacket demon- southern agrarianism. The southern agrarian strates the ability of the FFA to develop its own argument has served and still serves an existing traditions. The power of these traditions, both population of agriculture students. The re- rhetorical and visual, should not be overlooked. searchers do argue for FFA advisors to think These traditions have given the FFA a lasting critically about their program’s activities and identity. traditions, and the culture of their students. Cer- tain FFA traditions that are culturally incompat- Discussion ible with students life styles may need to be foregone or altered at the local level to ensure “Each member is charged with the respon- students can identify with the chapter. sibility of upholding the ideals and principles of Programs have been implemented at the na- the organization” (FFA, 2009, p. 20). The FFA tional level to broaden the appeal of FFA. The maintains the southern agrarian ideas in the tra- FFA award programs now recognize students in ditions of the organization, despite a name more diverse award areas. For example, stu- change in 1988 from the Future Farmers of dents can now earn proficiency awards in non-
Journal of Agricultural Education 35 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013
Martin and Kitchel Agrarianism, an Ideology… production areas like veterinary medicine, re- velopment Events (competitive educational search, and agricultural education. The FFA has events) in which they engage, if students do not also worked to provide role models for diverse culturally value competitive activities. For ex- FFA members. For example, the national FFA ample, multiculturalists argue that Mexican- leadership has also become more diversified American students do not culturally identify over the last 20 years with the election of nu- with Caucasian students (Banks, 2010). The merous national FFA officers of color. The FFA emblems that do not match the culture of changes in the award programs and student lead- the students can be adapted or bypassed. For ership have provided role models and opportuni- example, the owl is a symbol of death for some ties for diverse urban or suburban students, yet American Indians people (Tillar, 2011), so a the southern agrarian ideology still permeates chapter in an American Indian community may the traditions of the organization. If these tradi- bypass or alter the opening ceremony. In short, tions are viewed as the doorway and stepping the researchers suggest advisors of diverse urban stones of the organization, then diverse urban or or suburban chapters reconceptualize the activi- suburban students may not be motivated to join ties of their FFA chapter to meet the cultural or participate in the FFA. needs of these students. For example, neo- The heart of the FFA is the local chapter and agrarian arguments may represent a blueprint for the chapter should reflect the community’s some FFA advisors in programs where sustaina- needs (Phipps, Osborne, Dyer, & Ball, 2008). ble agriculture, urban agriculture and local foods Although FFA chapters in diverse urban or sub- are prevalent. Thus, further research into the urban communities may find difficultly separat- application of other ideologies such as neo- ing the southern agrarian ideals of FFA tradi- agrarian ideologies to the FFA will provide a tions, the researchers recommend FFA chapters clearer picture of how to envision the activities in diverse urban or suburban schools emphasize of the FFA along diverse urban or suburban per- FFA activities reflecting the culture of their spectives. However, all of these individual communities. These chapters might not require changes are temporary local adaptations. The students to memorize and recite the FFA creed. future of the FFA may someday require this sort Students could wear professional attire rather of ideological shift at the national level to stay than FFA jackets. The FFA chapter activities relevant in an American culture that is demo- could focus on activities that teach sustainability graphically and socially evolving. and environmentalism. A chapter could be se- lective about the number and type of Career De-
References
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Burbules, N. C., & Warnick, B. R. (2006). Philosophical inquiry. In J. L. Green, G. Camilli, P. B. Elmore, A. Skukauskaitė, & E. Grace (Eds.), Handbook of complementary methods in education research (pp. 489-502). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Cauley, T. J. (1999). The illusion of the leisure state. In H. Agar & A. Tate (Eds.), Who owns America? A new declaration of independence (pp. 365-380). Wilmington, DE: ISI Books. (Reprinted from Who owns America? A new declaration of independence, by H. Agar & A. Tate, Eds., 1936, New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company) Cauley, T. J. (1969). The merits of agrarianism. In M. T. Inge (Ed.), Agrarianism in American literature (pp. 28-36). New York, NY: The Odyssey Press. (Reprinted from Agrarianism: A program for farmers, pp. 104,109-114, 117-121, 124-127, by T. J. Cauley, 1935, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press) Connors, J. J., & Velez, J. J. (2008). The contribution of E. M. Tiffany and the FFA creed to leadership development within the FFA. Journal of Agricultural Education, 49(2), 98-107. doi: 10.5032/jae.2008.02098 Crevecoeur, J. H. St. De. (1998). Letters from an American farmer. New York: Oxford University Press. (Reprinted from Letters from an American farmer, by J. H. St. De. Crevecoeur, 1782) Croom, D. B. (2008). The development of the integrated three-component model of agricultural educa- tion. Journal of Agriculture Education, 49(1), 110-120. doi: 10.5032/jae.2008.01110 Danbom, D. B. (1991). Romantic agrarianism in twentieth-century America. Agricultural History, 65(4), 1-12. Danbom, D. B. (1995). Born in the country: A history of rural America. Baltimore, MA: John Hopkins University Press. Davidson, D. (1977). A mirror for artists. In Twelve Southerners (Eds.), I’ll take my stand: The South and the agrarian tradition (pp. 28-60). Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. (Reprint- ed from I’ll take my stand: The South and the agrarian tradition, by Twelve Southerners, Eds., 1930, New York, NY: Harper & Brothers) Davidson, D. (1938). The attack on leviathan: Regionalism and nationalism in the United States. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press. Doerfert, D. L. (Ed.) (2011). National research agenda: American Association for Agricultural Education’s research priority areas for 2011-2015. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech Universi- ty, Department of Agricultural Education and Communications. Elliott, J. (2006). Educational research as a form of democratic rationality. Journal of Philosophy of Edu- cation, 40(2), 169-185. Fisher, W. (1999). Small-town middle-western. In H. Agar & A. Tate (Eds.), Who owns America? A new declaration of independence (pp. 283-307). Wilmington, DE: ISI Books. (Reprinted from Who owns America? A new declaration of independence, by H. Agar & A. Tate, Eds., 1936, New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company) Gutek, G. (2004). Philosophical and ideological voices in education. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Hillison, J. (1993). The role of Virginia in the development of the FFA. Journal of Agricultural Educa- tion, 34(2), 37-45. doi: 10.5032/jae.1993.02037 Hofstadter, R. (1955). The age of reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf. Hoover, T. S., & Scanlon, D. C. (1991). Enrollment issues in agricultural education programs and FFA membership. Journal of Agricultural Education, 32(4), 2-10. doi: 10.5032/jae.1991.04002
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Moore, G. E. (1988). A philosophy primer for agricultural educators. The Agricultural Education Maga- zine, 61(6), 15-17. Murphy, P. V. (2001). The rebuke of history: The Southern agrarians and American conservative thought. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press. National FFA Organization. (2006). Agricultural proficiency award handbook. Retrieved from www.ffa.org National FFA Organization. (2009). Official FFA manual, 2009-2010. Indianapolis, IN: National FFA Organization. National FFA Organization. (2011a). The FFA creed. Retrieved from https://www.ffa.org/ docu- ments/creed.pdf National FFA Organization. (2011b). FFA degrees. Retrieved from https://www.ffa.org/Program s/Degrees/Pages/default.aspx National FFA Organization. (2011c). FFA statistics. Retrieved from https://www.ffa.org/About /WhoWeAre/Pages/Statistics.aspx National FFA Organization. (2012a). Diversity and inclusion. Retrieved from https://www.ffa.org /About/NationalFFA/diversity_and_inclusion/Pages/default.aspx National FFA Organization. (2012b). National chapter award program. Retrieved from https://www.ffa.org/Programs/Awards/NationalChapter/Pages/default.aspx# National Research Council. (1988). Understanding agriculture: New directions for education. Washing- ton, D.C.: National Academy Press. O’Donnell, G. M. (1999). Looking down the cotton row. In H. Agar & A. Tate (Eds.). Who owns Ameri- ca? A new declaration of independence (pp. 211-232). Wilmington, DE: ISI Book. (Reprinted from Who owns America? A new declaration of independence, by H. Agar & A. Tate, Eds., 1936, New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company) Peeks, G. N. (1969). “The issue… is whether our ideal of American agriculture … can endure.” In L. H. Douglas (Ed.), Agrarianism in American history (pp. 143-148). Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath & Company. (Reprinted from Congressional Record, vol. 68, part 4, pp. 4403-4405, by G. N Peeks, 1927, Washington D.C.: Government Printing Offices) Phelps, K., Henry, A. L., & Bird, W. A. (2012). Factors influencing or discouraging secondary school students’ FFA participation. Journal of Agricultural Education, 53(2), 70-86. doi: 10.5032/jae.2012.02070 Phipps, L. J., Osborne, E. W., Dyer, J. E., & Ball, A. (2008). Handbook on agricultural education in pub- lic schools. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning. Quinn, P. F. (1940). Agrarianism and the Jefferson philosophy. The Review of Politics, 2(1), 87-104. Rawe, J. C. (1999). Agriculture and the property state. In H. Agar & A. Tate (Eds.). Who owns America? A new declaration of independence (pp. 53-92). Wilmington, DE: ISI Book. (Reprinted from Who owns America? A new declaration of independence, by H. Agar & A. Tate, Eds., 1936, New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company) Ruitenberg, C. (2009). Introduction: The question of method in philosophy of education. Journal of Phi- losophy of Education, 43(3), 315-323. Shapiro, E. S. (1972). The southern agrarians, H. I. Mencken, and the quest for Southern identity. Ameri- can Studies, 13(1), 75-92.
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MICHAEL MARTIN is an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics at Colorado State University, Clark B-333, Fort Collins, CO 80523, [email protected].
TRACY KITCHEL is an associate professor in the Department of Agricultural Education and Leadership at the University of Missouri, 126 Gentry Hall, Columbia, MO 65211, [email protected].
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Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 41 – 53 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03041 o Utilization of a High Stakes High School Graduation Exam u r to Assess the Impact of Agricultural Education: A Measure n a of Curriculum Integration l
Joshua Brock Nolin o f Tallassee City Schools, Alabama Brian Parr A Auburn University g r i Phipps, Osborne, Dyer, and Ball , (2008) posited that, “Agricultural education in secondary schools has c played an important role in enhancing student achievement in the core subject areas…” (p. 4), while u Enderlin and Osborne (1992) reported that agricultural students received higher test scores in biology l than students in other science classes. However, further evaluation of this academic integration is war- t ranted to determine which practices are most beneficial to students. This study sought to determine if u there was a relationship between the number of agricultural education classes that students took and the r subsequent outcomes on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam. To address the research question, a binary logistic regression was employed. Results indicated that the model did predict the outcomes on the l language and math portion of the exam while the model failed to predict outcomes on the social studies, E biology, and reading portions of the exam. This study should be replicated using standardized tests in d other states. Comparable data should be collected for students not enrolled in agriculture classes so that u the groups mean scores could be compared. c a Key Words: academic integration; contextualized learning; high-stakes exams t i The incorporation of academics into career their curriculum and develop ways to further o and technical classes, while initially proposed in enhance those lessons and bring out academic n the comprehensive high schools of the early 20th standards to provide a more meaningful experi- V o century, has experienced a revitalization of in- ence for their students. According to the United l terest among agricultural educators. “The model States Department of Education (2010a): u for agricultural education in the public schools The 1994 reauthorization of the Elemen- m has changed” (Myers & Dyer, 2004, p. 47). Ac- tary and Secondary Education Act e cording to Myers and Dyer (2004), the “old” (ESEA) established a requirement that model for career and technical education includ- each state set standards defining what 5 ed a major focus on job training skills while the their students should know and be able 1 “new” model is more holistic in nature that in- to do in critical subjects and assess , cludes all facets of a well-rounded education. whether students were mastering those With mandates established by federal legisla- standards. (p. 1) N u tion, career and technical instructors are ex- Similarly, mandates established by the No m pected to present a rigorous and challenging cur- Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (USDE, 2001) b riculum for their students while preparing them dictate that students should be prepared to meet e for both work and secondary schooling (USDE, minimum competencies set forth by the state. A r 2010). Whether preparing for college or a career, major goal, according to NCLB (Title I, Sec 1 high school graduates need to have the founda- 1001,(9)), is “promoting school wide reform and , tional skills to enable them to learn additional ensuring the access of children to effective, sci- academic and job-specific skills, both at the en- entifically based instructional strategies and p try-level and throughout their careers. Further, challenging academic content” (p. 1440). Spe- p instructors have been challenged to determine cifically, the reauthorization of NCLB includes . what content already exists within three major goals. 1 1
41 –
2 1 D Nolin and Parr Utilization of a High Stakes
1. Raising standards for all students in case-study in which students in a high school English, language arts, and mathemat- biology class were taught using animal agricul- ics; ture as a context. Balschweid (2002) noted, “The 2. Developing better assessments aligned purpose of this study was to determine how high with college-and career-ready standards; school students perceived science and agricul- 3. Implementing a complete education ture after completing a traditional year-long bi- through improved professional devel- ology class that used animal agriculture as the opment and evidence-based instruction context” (p. 1). The study was conducted from models and supports. 1993-1999. Students taught using animal agri- 4. (United States Department of Educa- culture as a context totaled 531. Three animal tion, 2010b, p. 1) agricultural themes were used to teach biology. The themes revolved around dairy, poultry, and In 1988 researchers working with the Na- swine. Themes were rotated each year to the tional Research Council (NRC) published a re- next. The teacher in the study had earned a port entitled: Understanding Agriculture: New bachelor’s degree in Agricultural Education but Directions for Education. This report marked a had chosen to teach general science instead of call for major change in agricultural education. agricultural education. His teaching of biology, The authors offered several purposes behind the using animal agriculture as a context, stemmed study, at the top of the list was a sincere concern from a desire to teach students where their food for “declining enrollment, instructional context, comes from. and quality of agricultural education programs” Results from the study indicated that the ma- (National Research Council, p. V). The report jority of the students did well in the class (90% focused on two major areas: agricultural literacy reported earning an A or B). Over 85% indicated and education in agriculture. The committee that by taking an agricultural based biology posited that, “renewed commitment to and class, they had a better understanding and appre- broadening of agricultural education will ensure ciation of the food and fiber industry. Other con- skills and knowledge essential to the future vital- clusions of interest from the study were: ity of American agriculture” (p. VII). The au- students gained a better understand- thors went on to elaborate on the importance of ing of the role that science plays in the all persons become agriculturally literate. Agri- world of animal agriculture as a result of cultural literacy is defined broadly in that per- taking a biology course that taught sci- sons have some knowledge and appreciation of ence using animal agriculture as the the food and fiber industry. This report had a context; subject matter taught in the myriad of recommendations. Of those, one has context of animal agriculture, from a particular interest to this study. The authors pro- teacher experienced in modern animal posed that agriculture is an excellent context for agricultural practices, can have a posi- teaching science principles, especially biology. tive effect upon student attitudes to- “The most significant opportunity after junior wards agriculture and those who work in high for teaching science through agriculture the agriculture industry, even when comes in biology” (National Research Council, taught within a school corporation locat- 1988, p. 14). The report reflected that through ed in a larger metropolitan city; finally, the use of real world examples and in class pro- students instructed using animal agricul- jects, science concepts could be more effectively ture as a context for teaching biology taught. This could be accomplished in the agri- were able to transfer general information cultural classroom. The committee posited that regarding health to related subject mat- by using curriculum integration, both agricultur- ter in animal health as taught during the al literacy and science literacy could be en- class (Balschweid, 2002, pp. 64-65). hanced. Concurrent with recommendations from The National Research Council (1988), re- searcher Mark Balschweid (2002), conducted a
Journal of Agricultural Education 42 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Nolin and Parr Utilization of a High Stakes
Perceptions of Agricultural Education and an important role in enhancing student achieve- the Influence on Academic Achievement ment in the core subject areas…” (p. 4), while Enderlin and Osborne (1992) reported that agri- Agricultural education in the past has been cultural students received higher test scores in considered by some as primarily vocational in biology than students in other science classes. nature; however, instructors have been called According to No Child Left Behind legislation, upon to teach a curriculum with greater empha- students’ progress in science will be assessed sis on academic content (Parr, Edwards, & Leis- during their school career multiple times (Myers ing, 2006). Myers and Dyer (2004) noted, & Washburn, 2008). Due to this, standardized “Teachers of agriculture in the secondary test performance will play a major role in school schools are being called upon to integrate cur- funding and student graduation (Hamilton, riculum that addresses standards in science, Stecher & Klein, 2002). mathematics, and other content areas” (p. 44). Subsequently, much research relying on per- According to Thompson & Warnick (2007a), spectives of both students and teachers who have “As graduation requirements and external pres- participated in science or math integrated agri- sures for accountability have increased over the cultural classrooms has been done. Other re- past few years, greater attention has been given search noted a marked difference in scores be- to the integration of academic subjects into ca- tween standard education students and agricul- reer and technical education, including the agri- tural students on National Assessment of Educa- cultural education curriculum” (p. 75). Accord- tion Progress (NAEP) science tests. The Nation- ing to Myers and Washburn, “A number of re- al Center for Education Statistics (NCES) identi- searchers (Balschweid & Thompson, 2002; fied in its 2010 document, Science Achievement Conroy & Walker, 2000; Enderlin & Osborne, and Occupational Career/Technical Education 1992; Roegge & Russell, 1990) believe agricul- Course taking in High School: The Class of tural education, with its natural ties to the bio- 2005, that concentrators in agricultural educa- logical, chemical, and physical sciences is well- tion outscored non- concentrators. The NCES positioned to offer a rigorous and meaningful noted: learning context for applied scientific principles” Among graduates earning 0.00–1.00 core (2008, p. 27). Further, Newcomb (1995) noted science credit, concentrators in five occupational that students must be prepared to use higher or- program areas (agriculture; business support and der thinking skills [analysis, synthesis, and eval- management; computer and information sci- uation] as defined by Bloom’s taxonomy. Re- ence; engineering technology; and manufactur- search has revealed that these higher order skills ing, repair, and transportation) scored higher on may be accomplished through agricultural edu- the NAEP science test than non-concentrators cation (Parr & Edwards, 2004). However, fur- (scores of 130–142 vs. 123). (pp. 4-5) ther evaluation of this academic integration must States have been given options from the fed- take place to determine which practices are most eral government in developing standards that beneficial to students. “Agricultural educators ensure that students are ready for college and realize that their instructional programs and stu- career. According to the USDE, states may ei- dent learning activities must reflect the dynamic ther: and ever-changing industry of agriculture” upgrade their existing standards, work- (Phipps et al., 2008, p. 7). Efforts must be made ing with their four-year public university to determine if integrating academics into career system to certify that mastery of the and technical classes is making a difference in standards ensures that a student will not student preparedness for meeting minimum re- need to take remedial coursework upon quirements on high stakes standardized tests. admission to a postsecondary institution Several researchers have suggested that aca- in the system; or work with other demic performance and achievement is influ- states to create state-developed common enced by agricultural education. Phipps, Os- standards that build toward college and borne, Dyer, and Ball (2008) posited, “Agricul- career readiness. (United States Depart- tural education in secondary schools has played ment of Education, 2010b, p. 1)
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The field of agricultural education has un- ple contexts is to have the experience of apply- dergone many changes in recent decades and ing knowledge in multiple contexts” (p. 32). subsequently the focus of agricultural education Relying on the aforementioned framework, research has followed suit. In 2005, 27 influen- it seems reasonable to believe that approaching tial professionals involved in agricultural educa- education from a contextualized teaching and tion met to develop a National Research Agenda learning perspective, i.e., where students are for agricultural education and was revised in provided hands-on, true-to-life situations as a 2011 (Doerfert, 2011). An agenda containing six context for understanding abstract principles, national research priorities has been developed. should be an effective and beneficial method for According to Doerfert, a “key outcome” identi- improving student achievement. fied by the agenda included “Accurate and relia- ble data that describe the quality and impact of Purpose of the Study educational programs and outreach efforts at all levels [that] will be distributed to respective de- With increases in accountability for academ- cision groups (e.g. students, parents, administra- ics, industry credentialing, and post- secondary tion, industry, policy makers)” (p. 24) . This re- training, as mandated by Carl D. Perkins Act search represents an attempt to fulfill this aspect (USDE, 2006), career and technical educators of the agenda. must produce empirical evidence of compliance. This study represented an attempt to accomplish Theoretical Framework this mandate by exploring the relationship be- tween academics and agricultural education At the base of the theoretical framework for classes. The purpose of this study was to exam- this study is pedagogical philosophy of contex- ine the connection between academics and agri- tualized learning which traces its roots to con- cultural education. More specifically, the study structivism. Doolittle and Camp (2003) de- sought to determine if there is a relationship be- scribed constructivism as “. . . the belief that tween the number of agricultural education clas- learners construct their own knowledge from ses that students took and the subsequent out- their experiences” (p. 2). To that end, Berns and comes on the Alabama High School Graduation Erikson (2001) stated that, “In this teaching and Exam (AHSGE). learning model, students construct their own Competencies in core subjects are assessed knowledge by testing ideas based on prior by the Alabama High School Graduation Exam. knowledge and experience, applying these ideas Edwards & Ramsey (2004) noted: to a new situation, and integrating the new if significant associations [between agri- knowledge gained with pre-existing intellectual cultural education and core subjects] ex- constructs” (From Behaviorism to Constructiv- ist that could be demonstrated with sub- ism and Contextual Teaching and Learning sec- stantial empirical rigor, then it is more tion, ¶ 2). Contextualized learning theory places likely that stakeholders, including deci- a great deal of importance on providing students sion makers who set priorities and allo- with authentic examples and situations in which cate resources, would be inclined to they can interact and manipulate in a fashion learn more about secondary agricultural that brings meaning to their learning (Dworkin, education and its potential for positively 1959; Haury & Rillero, 1994). Fosnot (1996) enhancing student achievement in select echoed this perspective when she referred to the core subjects contextual educator as one who “. . . gives learn- ers the opportunity for concrete, contextually Phipps et al. (2008) stated, “Agricultural ed- meaningful experience through which they can ucators must participate in testing and school search for patterns, raise their own questions, accountability imperatives to ensure that their construct their own models, concepts and strate- programs remain viable and important to the gies” (p. ix). To this end, Buriak, McNurlen, overall objectives of the school” (pp. 14-15). As and Harper (1996) posited, “The best way for proposed by Edwards and Ramsey (2004), em- learners to learn how to use knowledge in multi- pirical data must be analyzed to determine if
Journal of Agricultural Education 44 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Nolin and Parr Utilization of a High Stakes career and technical teachers are being success- Instrumentation ful in making academic standards salient in their teaching, thereby increasing the likelihood that The Alabama High School Graduation Ex- their students will pass high stakes tests such as am was used as the instrument to record aca- the Alabama High School Graduation Exam. demic achievement. According to the Alabama The identification of positive relationships could State Department of Education (2003), “the test make legislators and administrators realize that is given to assess students’ mastery of content agricultural education programs could be viable defined as ‘fundamental’, a requirement for re- options to traditional science classes or, at min- ceipt of an Alabama high school diploma”. The imum, a substantial complement to traditional exam tests mastery in five curriculum areas: core academics. Such a substitute option could Language, Mathematics, Social Studies, Biolo- be beneficial especially to kinesthetic learners. gy, and Reading. The following research question guided the Validity of the Alabama High School Grad- study: Can outcomes on the AHSGE be predict- uation Exam was assessed by a panel of experts. ed by the number of agriscience classes that a According to a report from the Alabama State student completes? Department of Education (2003), “Teachers from more than 100 school systems from across Methods the state worked in various phases of test devel- opment and validity checks for more than four The methodology for this study involved years to make certain this goal was met” (p. 2). taking an existing measure of academic ability, However, after an extensive and exhaustive AHSGE, and attempt to predict group member- quest both through internet search and contact- ship based on the number of agricultural classes ing Alabama State Board of Education person- that were taken by each student. Group member- nel, no reliability coefficient was found for the ship in this context was defined as the passing AHSGE. group or the failing group. Therefore, the de- After obtaining permission from Auburn pendent variable was outcomes on the AHSGE, University’s Institutional Review Board, the re- (pass/fail) and the independent variable was the searcher began the data collection process. The number of agricultural classes that each student researcher sent a formal request asking for par- had taken. ticipation and information concerning this re- search project. The request was made to four Participants school systems in Alabama. Of the four, three were willing to participate in the research pro- For the purpose of this study, data was col- ject. The agricultural education teachers in each lected from three public school systems in cen- system were asked to secure a copy of the Final tral Alabama. The three school systems were Status Report detailing pass/fail status on the chosen based on the fact that each of the systems AHSGE in the spring of 2010 for their system. offered agricultural education as an elective From the Final Status Report, the teachers were class and had very active agricultural education asked to identify agriscience students that had programs. Each of the three school systems were participated in their respective programs. Teach- in rural areas. It is recognized that no results ob- ers then assigned each of their students a code tained through this study may be generalized number. Using that code number, the student’s beyond the three school systems that comprised test outcomes were recorded for each section of the convenience sample from which the data the AHSGE. The teachers then consulted their were collected. Participants were enrolled in student records and determined how many agri- agricultural education classes in 2010. The cultural classes each student had completed. The population for this study was made up of 264 data was retrieved from the teachers by the re- agricultural education students grades nine searcher and entered into SPSS. through twelve.
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Data Analysis Procedures also allows for the use of both ordinal and con- tinuous independent variables. The independent Test data detailing passing or failing scores variable in this case was ordinal in that it was for each of the agriculture students were tabulat- the number of classes taken by a student. ed with the number of agricultural courses com- An alpha level of 0.05 was set a priori. The pleted by each student. A binary logistic regres- appropriate measure of effect sizes when con- sion analysis was performed to determine if sidering logistic regression is the odds ratio and there was a relationship between the number of has been included in the data tables. agricultural classes that a student took and sub- sequent outcomes on the Alabama High School Findings Graduation Exam. “Logistic regression tests the ability of a model or group of variables to pre- Reading dict group membership as defined by some cate- gorical dependent variable” (Mertler & Vannat- Regression results indicated that the ta,2010 p. 304). Mertler and Vannatta (2010) overall model of predictors was not reliable in indicate that logistic regression is more flexible distinguishing between pass and fail on the than other types of analyses in that, “predictor AHSGE reading portion. Regression coefficients groups do not have to be normally distributed, are presented in Table 1. While the test did not linearly related, or have equal variances within indicate that the variable predicted AHSGE out- each group” (p. 290). The authors went on to comes in reading; results indicated that the prob- state, “Logistic regression tests the ability of a ability that a student would pass the reading por- model or group of variables to predict group tion of the AHSGE did increase with the number membership as defined by some categorical de- of agricultural classes taken. The probability for pendent variable” (Mertler & Vannatta, p. 304). passing when a student took 1 class = .71, 2 Further, in order to meet the requirements of the classes = .79, and 3 classes = .86. Number of binary logistic regression, the dependent varia- agricultural classes was not a statistically signif- ble must be recorded as dichotomous. The de- icant (p > 0.05) predictor of pass/fail on the pendent variable for this study was pass/fail on reading portion of the AHSGE. each portion of the AHSGE. Logistic regression
Table 1
Regression Coefficients for Reading
B Wald df p Odds Ratio Number of Agricultural Classes .47 3.36 1 .07 1.59
Language probability that a student will pass the language portion of the AHSGE did increase with the Regression results indicated that the overall number of agricultural classes taken. The proba- model of predictors was reliable in distinguish- bility for passing when a student took 1 class = ing between pass and fail on the AHSGE lan- .59, 2 classes = .71, and 3 classes = .80. Number guage portion. The model correctly classified of agricultural classes was a statistically signifi- 64.1% of the cases. Regression coefficients are cant (p < 0.05) predictor of pass/fail on the lan- presented in Table 2. Results indicate that the guage portion of the AHSGE.
Journal of Agricultural Education 46 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Nolin and Parr Utilization of a High Stakes
Table 2
Regression Coefficients for Language
B Wald df p Odds Ratio Number of Agricultural Classes .529 5.545 1 .02 1.697
Mathematics that a student would pass the mathematics por- tion of the AHSGE did increase with the number Regression results indicated that the overall of agricultural classes taken. The probability for model of predictors was reliable in distinguish- passing when a student took 1 class = .65, 2 ing between pass and fail on the AHSGE math classes = .76, and 3 classes = .85. Number of portion. The model correctly classified 71.8% of agricultural classes was a statistically significant the cases. Regression coefficients are presented (p < 0.05) predictor of pass/fail on the math por- in Table 3. Results indicated that the probability tion of the AHSGE
Table 3
Regression Coefficients for Mathematics
B Wald df p Odds Ratio Number of Agricultural Classes .53 6.27 1 .01 1.71
Social Studies would pass the social studies portion of the AHSGE did increase with the number of agricul- Regression results indicated that the overall tural classes taken. The probability for passing model of predictors was not reliable in distin- when a student took 1 class = .69, 2 classes = guishing between pass and fail on the AHSGE .73, and 3 classes = .79. Number of agricultural social studies portion The model correctly clas- classes was not a statistically significant (p > sified 70.8% of the cases. Regression coeffi- 0.05) predictor of pass/fail on the social studies cients are presented in Table 4. However, re- portion of the AHSGE. sults indicate that the probability that a student
Table 4
Regression Coefficients for Social Studies
B Wal df p Odds Ra- d tio Number of Agricultural Classes .28 1.68 1 .2 1.32 0
Biology that the probability that a student would pass the biology portion of the AHSGE did increase with Regression results indicated that the overall the number of agricultural classes taken. The model of predictors was not reliable in distin- probability for passing when a student took 1 guishing between pass and fail on the AHSGE class = .87, 2 classes = .91, and 3 classes = .94. biology portion. The model correctly classified Number of agricultural classes was not a statisti- 70.8% of the cases. Regression coefficients are cally significant (p > 0.05) predictor of pass/fail presented in Table 4. However, results indicate on the biology portion of the AHSGE.
Journal of Agricultural Education 47 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Nolin and Parr Utilization of a High Stakes
Table 5
Regression Coefficients for Biology
B Wald df p Odds Ratio Number of Agricultural Classes .45 2.15 1 .14 1.57
Conclusions tent. The results from this study support the conclusion by the NRCCTE that the mathemat- Results indicated that the model generated ics content already in the curriculum is sufficient for the reading portion was not effective in pre- to achieve positive results. Also, Students in the dicting the pass/fail outcome on the AHSGE (p sample performed well compared to an overall = .06); however, probabilities indicated that stu- average for all students in the school systems dents were more likely to pass the reading por- used in the study. The overall passing rate for tion having taken more agricultural classes. One the mathematics portion of the AHSGE was must interpret these results with caution. The 32% in the systems. result may be indicative of students having taken The results from the social studies portion of the exam multiple times, henceforth learning the the exam yielded that the model was not statisti- exam itself, not necessarily more reading content cally significant in predicting outcomes on the in the subsequent agricultural classes. Further, exam (p = .20). The result may be indicative of students in the sample performed well compared agricultural classes’ curriculum not being laden to an overall average for all students in the with historical facts other that which relate to the school systems used in the study. The overall field of agriculture itself. Students in the sample passing rate for the reading portion of the performed well compared to an overall average AHSGE was 52% in the systems. for all students in the school systems used in the Results indicated that the model did predict study. The overall passing rate for the social the outcomes on the language portion of the ex- studies portion of the AHSGE was 51% in the am (p = .02). This result could supports findings systems. from a recent study conducted by researchers at Finally, the results from the biology portion the National Research Center for Career and yielded that the model was not a statistically Technical Education (Pearson et al., 2010). significant predictor of outcomes (p = .14). Since the results from the NRCCTE study and This result should be considered when the this study coincide, more validity investigation NRCCTE completes the study regarding science should be performed relative to the field of ca- integration in career and technical classes. The reer and technical education as a vehicle for im- result from this study could be attributed to the proving student performance as mandated by the fact that biology is a new portion of the exam. It No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Students in replaced the science portion in 2010. Test mak- the sample performed well compared to an over- ers may be still in a refining stage on this portion all average for all students in the school systems of the exam, and teachers may be in a learning used in the study. The overall passing rate for stage as to how best to teach standards for this the language portion of the AHSGE was 38% in portion of the exam. Students in the sample per- the systems. formed comparable to an overall average for all Results from the regression analysis regard- students in the school systems used in the study. ing the mathematics portion (p =.01) are compa- The overall passing rate for the biology portion rable to a study done by the NRCCTE. The of the AHSGE was 72% in the systems. NRCCTE found that when agricultural classes were taught using math enhanced lessons, stu- dents performed better on standardized tests (Parr, Edwards, and Leising, 2006). The stu- dents were taught using existing curriculum con-
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Implications and Recommendations COVA should be used. This could lead to more statistical power by accounting While the limitations of this study do not al- for variance of the other predictors (aca- low for any cause and effect relationships to be demic classes, diploma track, remedia- insinuated, the results are certainly worthy of tion classes). contemplation. Further, it is recognized that 3. Comparable data on standardized tests many variables that contribute to student success should be collected for students not en- or failure on the AHSGE were outside of the rolled in agriculture classes while col- control of this study. However, with such weight lecting data on agricultural students, being put on accountability of instruction and then the group mean scores can be com- accountability being operationalized in the form pared. of student performance on standardized tests, Several interesting findings were noted with career and technical education must continue to regards to the results of this study. First, the field evaluate means to enhance student scores on of agricultural education is latent in the study of high stakes exams such as the AHSGE while not both plant and animal biology. Many agricultur- losing sight of its raison d'etre (Parr, Edwards, & al class curriculums are largely composed of the Leising, 2008). This study was done to explore study of plant and animal anatomy and environ- a facet of the current relationships between agri- mental science. One would think that students cultural education and student performance on who are enrolled in a curriculum so saturated in standardized high stakes tests. Research cited in biology principles would fare well on a biology this study as well as the data presented provides test such as the biology section of the AHSGE, evidence that warrant further investigation into however; the results indicated that there was no how agricultural education may best enhance statistically significant relationship between scores on standardized tests; however, one must passing the biology portion of the AHSGE and realize that a multitude of variables must be in number of agriculture classes taken. This was place for such models to succeed. The most im- admittedly a perplexing finding. To address portant of those variables is an agricultural in- this, a list of explanations is noted. Any of these structor willing to break the mold of the old vo- or combinations thereof could have led to these cational agricultural class and learn how to en- findings. 1) The biology portion of the AHSGE hance the curriculum and bring out concepts that is not a reliable gauge of academic achievement are on standardized tests. Career and Technical in biology 2) Agriculture teachers students in the education as a whole should grasp empirical re- sample population are not being taught with rig- search studies that suggest career and technical orous biology standards 3) Biology standards education has a place in preparing students for taught in agricultural classes are not aligned with standardized tests. Edwards, Leising, & Parr content tested by the biology portion of the (2002) stated, “Student achievement, using AHSGE. standardized tests, is “the coin of the realm” in According to Dr. Joseph Morton, Alabama education today” (p. 5). State Superintendent of Education, the Alabama State Department of Education voted unani- Recommendations for future research mously on a resolution to approve the proposed Alabama Student Assessment Protocol. The 1. This study should be replicated using proposal included phasing out the Alabama High standardized tests in other states. If this School Exam, replacing it with end-of-course were accomplished, generalizations as tests. The memorandum notes that, described in this study would not be so Since then [September 10, 2009], events narrow in scope. have occurred on both the state level and 2. Limitations as described in this study the national level that necessitate a should be addressed. Data detailing stu- change to the expected implementation dent variables such as other academic dates for these changes, not the least of classes and remediation classes should which are the current financial situation be collected. Analysis such as an AN- and the uncertainty about the timing of
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the reauthorization of the Elementary students are not satisfied with their and Secondary Education Act of 1965 scores, it will be their responsibility to (currently known as No Child Left Be- pay to take it again. (para. 9) hind), which impacts our state’s ac- The state of Alabama is apparently only countability system. ([State School changing the measure of achievement by using Superintendant], personal communica- yet another standardized testing instrument, the tion, , January 21, 2011) ACT. St. Ambrose (387 A.D.) said, “When in The expectation is that ninth graders of Rome, do as the Romans do” (Christiansen, 2011-2012 will be the last cohort to be required 2000, p. 1). It appears Rome believes the only to pass the AHSGE in order to receive a diplo- way to measure achievement is through test ma. According to an article in the Birmingham scores. Regardless whether we agree or disagree news (Leech, 2009), the ACT will also be part of with standardized testing as the form of deter- the new state testing package. The article noted, mining student achievement in the United States, The state also will require all 11th- it is at the forefront of education today. Until graders to take the ACT college en- other methods are developed that show clear and trance exam, along with a writing as- definitive ways to assess achievement it will sessment. The state will pay the $75 fee continue to be the “coin of the realm” (Edwards, for students to take the ACT once. If Leising, & Parr 2002, p. 5).
References
Alabama State Department of Education. (2003). Great expectations: A guide to Alabama’s high school graduation exam. Retrieved from http://www.alsde.edu/general/great_expectations.pdf Alfeld, C., Jensen, S., Lewis, M. V., & Stone, J. R., Pearson, D. (2006). Building academic skills in con- text: Testing the value of enhanced math learning in CTE. Retrieved from http://www.aypf.org/forumbriefs/2007/Resources/MathLearningFinalStudy.pdf An Act to amend the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act of 1998, S. 250, Sec. 122, 109th Cong. (2006). Retrieved from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/getdoc.cgi? dbname=109_cong_bills&docid=f:s250enr.txt.pdf Balschweid, M. A., Thompson, G. W. (2002). Integrating science in agricultural education: Attitudes of Indiana agricultural science and business teachers. Journal of Agricultural Education, 43(2), 2- 10. DOI: 10.5032/jae.2002.02002 Balschweid, M. A. (2002). Teaching biology using agricultural as the context: Perceptions of high school students. Journal of Agricultural Education, 43(2), 56-67. DOI: 10.5032/jae.2002.02056 Berns, R.G., & Erickson, P.M. (2001). Contextual teaching and learning: Preparing students for the new economy. The Highlight Zone Research @ Work (5). Retrieved from http://www.cord.org/uploadedfiles/NCCTE_Highlight05-ContextualTeachingLearning.pdf Bottoms, G., & Sharpe, D. (n.d.). Teaching for understanding through integration of academic and tech- nical education. Southern Regional Education Board. Buriak, P., McNurlen, B., & Harper, J.G. (1996). Toward a scientific basis for the craft of teaching. Journal of Agricultural Education, 37(4), 23-35. DOI: 10.5032/jae.1996.04023 Chiasson, T.C., & Burnett, M.F. (2001). The influence on enrollment in agriscience courses on the sci- ence achievement of high school students. Journal of Agricultural Education, 42(1), 60-70. DOI: 10.5032/jae.2001.01060 Christiansen, R. (2000). The Victorian visitors: Culture shock in nineteenth-century Britain. New York, New York: Grove Press
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Conroy, C. A., & Walker, N. J. (2000). An examination of integration of academic and vocational subject matter in the aquaculture classroom. Journal of Agricultural Education, 41(2), 54-64. DOI: 10.5032/jae.2000.02054 Doerfert, D. L. (Ed.) (2011). National research agenda: American Association for Agricultural Eductaion’s research priority areas for 2011-2015. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University, De- partment of Agricultural Education and Communications. Doolittle, P. E., & Camp, W. G. (1999). Constructivism: The career and technical education perspective. Journal of Vocational and Technical Education, 16(1). Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JVTE/v16n1/doolittle.html Dworkin, M.S. (1959). Dewey on education. NY: Teachers College Press. Edwards, M.C., Leising, J. G., & Parr, B.A. (2002) Improving student achievement in science: An im- portant role for secondary agricultural education in the 21st century. Unpublished manuscript. Oklahoma State University. Edwards, M.C., & Ramsey, J.W. (2004). Informal learning in science: Does agricultural education have a role? Journal of Southern Agricultural Education, 54(1), 86-99. Enderlin, K.J. & Osborne, E. W. (1992). Student achievement, attitudes, and thinking skill attainment in an integrated science/agriculture course. Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual National Agricul- tural Education Research Meeting, St. Louis, MO. Flowers, J., & Osborne, E. W. (1988). The problem solving and subject matter approaches to teach- ing vocational agriculture: Effects on student achievement and retention. The Journal of the American Association of Teacher Educators in Agriculture, 29(1), 20-26, 52. Fosnot, C.T. (1996). Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice. New York, NY: Teachers Col- lege Press. Fraenkel, J., & Wallen, N. (2006). How to design and evaluate research in education, 2nd ed. New York: MacGraw-Hill. Hamilton, L. S., Stecher, B. M., & Klein, S. P. (2002). Making sense of test-based accountability in edu- cation. Santa Monica, CA: Rand. Hamilton, R.L., & Swortzel, K.A., (2007). Assessing Mississippi AEST teachers’ capacity for teaching science integrated process skills. Journal of Southern Agricultural Education Research, 57(1). Retrieved from http://www.jsaer.org/pdf/Vol57/57-01-053.pdf Haury, D.L., & Rillero, P. (1994). Perspectives of hands-on science teaching. North Central Regional Education Laboratory. Retrieved from http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas /science/eric/eric-toc.htm Jennings, M., Brashears, T., Burris, S., Davis, C., & Brashears, M. (2007). A national assessment of beef cattle producers’ educational needs regarding pre-harvest. Paper presented at the thirty-fourth conference of the American Association for Agriculture Education research Conference, Minne- apolis, MN. Retrieved from http://aaaeonline.org/allconferences1.php?show_what=National &sorter_conf=National&sorter_year=2007 Leech, M. (2009, September 11). Alabama scraps high school graduation exam, replaced with end-of-year subject test. The Birmingham News. Retrieved from http://www.al.com/news /birminghamnews /metro.ssf?/base/news/1252656964314590.xml Mertler, C. A., & Vannatta, R. A. (2010). Advanced and multivariate statistical methods (4th ed.). Glen- dale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
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Myers, B. E., & Dyer, J. E. (2004). Agriculture teacher education programs: A synthesis of the literature. Journal of Agricultural Education, 45(3), 44-52. DOI: 10.5032/jae.2004.03044 Myers, B. E., & Washburn, S. G. (1998). Integrating science in the agriculture curriculum: Agriculture teacher perceptions of the opportunities, barriers, and impact on student enrollment. Journal of Agricultural Education, 49(2), 27-37. DOI: 10.5032/jae.1998.02027 National Center for Education Statistics (2010). Science achievement and occupational career/technical education course taking in high school: The class of 2005. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2010/2010021.pdf National Research Council. (1988). Understanding agriculture: New directions for education. Danville, IL: The Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc. Newcomb, L. H. (1995). The genius of the agricultural education mode for nurturing higher order think- ing. The Agricultural Education Magazine, 68(6) 4-6. Parr, B.A., & Edwards, M. C. (2004). Inquiry-based instruction in secondary agricultural education: Problem solving—An old friend revisited. Journal of Agricultural Education, 45(4), 106-117. DOI: 10.5032/jae.2004.04106 Parr, B. A., Edwards, M. C., & Leising, J. G. (2006). Effects of a math-enhanced curriculum and instruc- tional approach on the mathematics achievement of agricultural power and technology students: An experimental study. Journal of Agricultural Education, 47(3), 81-93. DOI: 10.5032/jae.2006.03081 Parr, B. A., Edwards, M. C., & Leising, J. G. (2008). Does a curriculum integration intervention to im- prove the mathematics achievement of students diminish their acquisition of technical compe- tence? An experimental study in agricultural mechanics. Journal of Agricultural Education, 49(1), 61-71 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2008.01061 Pearson, D., Park, T. D., Sawyer, J., Santamaria, L., van der Mandele, E., Keene, B., & Taylor, M. (2010, March). Capitalizing on context: Curriculum integration in career and technical education. Lou- isville, KY: National Research Center for Career and Technical Education, University of Louis- ville. Phipps, L.J., Osborne, E.W., Dyer, J.E., & Ball, A.L., (2008). Handbook on agricultural education in public schools. (6th ed.) Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning Roegge, C.A., & Russell, E.B. (1990). Teaching applied biology in secondary agriculture: Effects on stu- dent achievement and attitudes. Journal of Agricultural Education, 31(1), 27-31. Smith, E., Park, T., & Sutton, M. (2007). Effect of location and education on perceptions and knowledge about agriculture. Paper presented at the thirty-fourth American Association for Agricultural Ed- ucation Research Conference, Minneapolis, MN. Retrieved from http://aged.caf.wvu.edu/Research/NAERC- 2007/IndividualPapers/305-Smith_etal.pdf Thompson, G. W., & Schumacher, L. G. (1998). Selected characteristics of the national FFA organiza- tion’s agriscience teacher of the year award winners and their agriscience programs. Journal of Agricultural Education, 39(2), 50-60. DOI: 10.5032/jae.1998.02050 Thompson, G. W., & Warnick, B. K. (2007a). Barriers, support, and collaboration: A comparison of sci- ence and agricultural teachers’ perceptions regarding integration of science into the agricultural education curriculum. Journal of Teacher Education, 48(1), 75-85. Thompson, G. W., & Warnick, B. K. (2007b). Integrating science into the agricultural education curricu- lum: Do science and agricultural teachers agree? Journal of Teacher Education, 48(3), 1-12.
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United States Department of Education. (2001). The No Child Left Behind Act. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/pg1.html United States Department of Education. (2006). Vocational education. Carl D. Perkins career and tech- nical education act of 2006. Reauthorization of Perkins. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/policy/sectech/leg/perkins/index.html United States Department of Education. (2010a). College and career ready students. Retrieved from: http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/blueprint/college-career-ready.pdf United States Department of Education. (2010b). College and career-ready standards and assessments. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/blueprint/faq/college-career.pdf
JOSHUA BROCK NOLIN is an Agriscience Instructor at Tallassee High School, 502 Barnett Blvd., Tal- lassee, Alabama 36078 [email protected]
BRIAN PARR is an Associate Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Teaching at Auburn Uni- versity, 5040 Haley Center, Auburn, AL 36849 [email protected]
Journal of Agricultural Education 53 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 54 – 66 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03054 o Recruiting Strategically: Increasing Enrollment in Academic u r Programs of Agriculture n a Lauri M. Baker l Kansas State University Quisto Settle o f Christy Chiarelli Tracy Irani A University of Florida g r Agriculture continues to struggle to find enough qualified students to advance the industry. Thus, recruit- i ing practice improvement is imperative. This study assessed the efficacy of message strategies, message c channels, recruiting materials, and messages for recruiting students into an academic program with low u enrollment. Focus groups were conducted with agriculture students outside of the department of interest l to address the following objectives: 1) identify the most effective message strategies and message chan- t nels to reach and attract potential students, and 2) conduct testing of strategically developed recruitment u r materials and messages. Results indicated job stability and positive contextual messages would be effec- a tive for recruiting. Participants preferred messages delivered in person, targeted online advertisements, l and campus publications. Additionally, findings showed participants wanted full-color materials with pictures; messages with statistics on the industry; online videos that are 1-2 minutes, with videos on a E website based on user interest; and testimonials from a range of individuals in the industry. Participants d were mixed on the perceived effectiveness of Facebook advertisements. The results of this study indicate u an increased need to target recruitment efforts through a strategic communication process. This research c has implications for recruiting the millennial generation using both gain and non-loss framed messages. a t Keywords: recruitment; strategic communication; message strategies; material development i o n This research was funded by a grant from the American Floral Endowment. V o There continues to be a shortage of qualified programs (Goecker, Gilmore, Smith, E., & l graduates for agriculture and natural resources Smith, 2004). u job openings in the United States (Goecker, One reason for this national shortage of m Smith, P. G., Smith, & Goetz, 2010). Between qualified agriculture graduates may be attributed e 2010-2015, there are an estimated 54,400 job to a decline in student enrollment in colleges of openings available for college graduates with agriculture (COAs). Bobbitt (2006) reported 5 degrees in agricultural, food, and natural re- COA enrollment trends at eight colleges located 1 , sources each year (Goecker et al., 2010). Of the in the central United States. Bobbitt revealed open positions, it is anticipated 53,000 qualified declining enrollment for six of the eight colleges N graduates will be produced. However, only from the fall of 2001 to the spring of 2004.This u 29,300 of these jobs will be filled by graduates is troubling given that COAs spend a large m with degrees from colleges of agriculture and amount of time, energy, and financial resources b life sciences, forestry, and veterinary medicine, on their efforts to recruit students (Washburn, e and 24,200 jobs will be filled by graduates from Garton, & Vaughn, 2002). Despite efforts to r related higher education programs (Goecker et draw students into agriculture-related majors, 1 al., 2010). Five years ago, 32,000 qualified COAs rarely use empirical research data in the , graduates were expected to be produced by col- development of recruitment messages and prac- p leges of agriculture and life sciences, forestry, tices (Washburn et al., 2002). Promoting careers p and veterinary medicine; 17,000 were expected in agriculture can be particularly difficult be- . to be produced by the allied higher education cause of negative perceptions. In particular, ag- 1 1
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2 1 D Baker, Settle, Chiarelli, and Irani Recruiting Strategically… ricultural careers are often viewed as only being major of ornamental horticulture. Baker et al. related to production agriculture and difficult (2010) concluded the largest barrier for enrolling work for low pay, and students are generally in the program was a lack of awareness about unaware of the wide range of careers available that field of study and its related careers. Myers, in agriculture (Dobbins, King, Fravel, Keels, Breja, and Dyer (2004) found a similar lack of Covington, 2002; Sutphin & Newsom-Stewart, awareness relating to job opportunities in agri- 1995). cultural education. Myers et al. recommended One model that offers insight into college addressing the placement of past graduates of recruitment is Chapman’s (1981) model of stu- the program and developing specifically targeted dent college choice. Chapman discussed three placement programs. Likewise, Bobbitt (2006) external factors that determine college choice and Williams (2007) both found job availability when combined with student characteristics. to be important in students’ selection of major. These external factors include the influence of While job availability is important, career significant persons, the fixed characteristics of interest is also an important part of the career the academic institution, and the institution’s decision-making process, specifically for stu- own efforts to communicate with prospective dents understanding their own interests and the students. The scope of this paper specifically options available to them. Krumboltz and examines the effectiveness of the institution’s Worthington (1999) suggested that secondary efforts to communicate with prospective stu- students should expand their career interests dents. when making career choices instead of relying Logically, if an academic institution is on their current interests to make decisions. Sim- communicating poorly with potential students, ilarly, Savickas (1999) said students who were the students will likely not possess an accurate, more aware of their options fared better in the complete awareness of the institution’s majors transition from school to work. While these and programs of study. Without an accurate studies were intended for high school students, awareness of the potential academic options of- these same principles could apply to post- fered by a college, Hossler and Gallagher (1987) secondary students. Relating to agriculture, warn that students “may mistakenly eliminate an Boumtje and Haase-Wittler (2007) stated the institution which is potentially a good choice variety of careers available in agriculture should due to a lack of awareness of the range of insti- be promoted to help students better understand tutions as well as the accurate information about their options. Bobbitt (2006) indicated that in- institutions” (p. 215). This same lack of aware- formation about the university, college, and de- ness can hurt individual programs. Baker, Irani, gree program were the most used recruiting ma- Abrams, and Telg (2010) showed that students terials and degree program information online have a preference for academic programs that was the most influential published recruiting have high visibility (i.e., most people know practice. Rocca and Washburn (2005) also found about the program). Moreover, Wildman and degree program information was used the most Torres (2001) showed that recruiting practices and considered to be the most influential for stu- from individual academic departments were dents’ college decisions. more influential than from the COA as a whole The students currently being recruited into for students’ decision to select their major. To college academic programs are in a generation this point, Lingenfelter and Beierlein (2006) known by multiple names, including Millenni- recommended that recruiting practices should be als, igeneration, generation Y, or generation ME geared toward specific interest areas, not agri- (Twenge, 2006). For the purpose of this study, culture in general. These studies indicate that 1982 was used as the reference date for the start promoting specific programs and fields of study of the Millennial generation (Twenge, 2006). would be more advantageous than promoting The generation in which a person was born is agriculture and natural resources careers as a more influential in the career decision-making whole. process than income, sex, or education (Twenge, A recent study addressed student motiva- 2006). As a result, it is essential that researchers tions to enroll in the low-enrollment academic work to determine how this generation com-
Journal of Agricultural Education 55 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Baker, Settle, Chiarelli, and Irani Recruiting Strategically… municates and interacts (Provitera-McGlynn, negative domain than the positive. The third 2005) in order to develop recruitment materials component is diminishing sensitivity, which is a that are effective. function of the marginal value of gains and loss- es decreasing with their magnitude (Tversky & Theoretical Framework Kahneman, 1991). The grouping of these com- ponents equates in a value function that is an While this study is qualitative in nature and asymmetric S-shape, which demonstrates that an is therefore not based on a true theoretical “impact of a difference on a dimension is gener- framework, theory related to recruitment in- ally greater when the difference is evaluated as a formed this study, provided a conceptual frame- loss than when the same difference is evaluated work, and guided the development of messages as a gain” (Tversky & Kahneman, 1991, p. tested. In particular, theory provided a lens for 1040). Additionally, it has been suggested that interpreting the findings of the research (Reeves, losses are psychologically twice as powerful as Albert, Kuper, & Hodges, 2008). The decision to gains (McGraw, Larsen, Kahneman, & Schkade, focus on career-oriented information is based on 2010). Thus, recruitment messages using loss the results of past studies (Bobbitt, 2006; Baker aversion focus on what people may lose by not et al., 2010, June; Myers et al., 2004; Williams, taking advantage of the academic or career op- 2007), as well Chapman’s Model of Student portunity being advertised as opposed to what College Choice (1981). Chapman’s model in- they may gain by taking advantage of an oppor- cludes two large sections affecting decisions: tunity. student characteristics, which include socioeco- nomic status, aptitude, educational aspirations, Purpose & Objectives and high school performance; and external in- fluences, which include significant persons, The purpose of this study was to determine fixed college characteristics, and university how to reach and attract potential students to communication with students. As mentioned in majors and careers in specialized academic pro- the introduction, while this study largely deals grams of agriculture more efficiently and effec- with improving the effectiveness of the institu- tively. Ultimately, the goal is to use this infor- tion’s communications with prospective stu- mation to improve educational programs de- dents, it focuses on communicating career- signed to raise awareness and motivate career oriented information, which is a component of choice among students in post-secondary aca- fixed college characteristics as a part of an aca- demic programs. This purpose correlates with demic program’s ability to place graduates in the national research agenda for agricultural ed- careers. ucation and communication, which has a priority Recruitment is not a concern unique to high- area of “sufficient scientific and professional er education. Marketing and advertising disci- workforce that addresses the challenges of the plines have looked at recruitment issues through 21st century” (Doerfert, 2011, p. 18). For the the lens of loss aversion. Loss aversion is a con- purpose of this study, one academic program – cept within prospect theory, which has been ornamental horticulture – was chosen. Ornamen- used to develop campaigns for recruiting new tal horticulture is an example of an agriculture customers. Loss aversion refers to people’s de- program area that is struggling nationally to find sire to avoid losses more than their desire to ac- enough qualified students to meet industry de- quire gains (Tversky & Kahneman, 1991). There mands (Rom, 2004). Like agriculture and natural are three essential tenets represented by a value resources overall, the industry of ornamental function that Traversky and Kahneman suggest horticulture has a surplus of jobs when com- are used by a decision maker, like a student pared to the number of applicants being pro- choosing a major. The first of these is reference duced (National Center for Educational Statis- dependence, which is determined uniquely based tics, 2007). Additionally, ornamental horticul- on an individual’s beginning reference point to ture enrollment dropped almost 40% from 2003 the decision and its accompanying factors. The to 2007 (FAEIS, 2008). In this study, ornamen- second is loss aversion, which is higher in the tal horticulture has been defined as a discipline
Journal of Agricultural Education 56 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Baker, Settle, Chiarelli, and Irani Recruiting Strategically… of horticulture concerned with growing and us- ence in the protocol was a new focus on testing ing flowering and ornamental plants for gardens, specific messages and recruitment materials landscapes, and floral display. The following based on the recommendations from the previ- research questions guided this study: ous research. As a part of the protocol proce- 1. What message strategies and channels dure, participants were asked to evaluate re- are most effective for reaching and at- cruitment messages, a postcard, and two web- tracting potential students? sites, one of which included three short recruit- 2. What are potential students’ preferences ment videos (approximately 30 seconds each). for recruiting messages and materials? The protocol was used to guide the discussion and to keep the focus groups consistent; it was Methodology reviewed by a panel of experts for face and con- tent validity. This study used a set of two focus groups The same experienced, formally trained with representative members of the target popu- moderator was used for both focus groups to lation of college students. A market research ensure credibility. All focus groups were video firm was hired and used Computer Assisted Tel- and audio recorded for verbatim transcription. ephone Interviewing (CATI) telephone random Verbatim transcripts are a more rigorous means digit dialing (RDD) sampling to qualify poten- of analyzing focus groups than relying on notes tial participants. Probability samples were gen- alone (Krueger, 1998a). Transcripts from the erated using a predetermined sampling frame focus groups were imported into Weft QDA based on demographic variables for both focus software to be analyzed for themes accordance groups. Thus, the sampling frame for this study with Glaser’s (1965) constant comparative was students enrolled at a land grant institution method. The constant comparative method in- in the southeastern United States, with 30-60 volves coding each incident into a category, hours completed toward their degree, and who comparing each incident to prior incidents; inte- were not already enrolled in a plant-related ma- grating incidents into categories of shared prop- jor. The focus groups were conducted February erties; defining the boundaries of categories; and 23, 2010. Prior focus group research in this same writing theory, which consists of describing the area determined students who were already en- participants’ responses in terms of themes, orga- rolled in a college of agriculture and were early nized by research objective. enough in their program to change their major The epistemological lens this research team, were the best choices for recruiting efforts including the moderator, viewed this study (Baker, Irani, & Abrams, 2011). The university through was that of people outside the industry this study was conducted at does not allow stu- of interest. Therefore, research and reports relat- dents to have an undeclared major, so it was not ed were able to be free of bias. However, epis- possible to have students with undeclared majors temologically the researcher should try to get as in the study. Ten students were selected for par- close as possible to the subjects (Creswell, ticipation in each group for a total sample of 20 2007), which was done in this study by the re- participants. searchers being close to participants’ age and Focus group research is common in market- developing a familiarly and trustworthiness with ing studies due in part to the researcher’s ability participants in the beginning of the sessions. to determine emotional and unconscious motiva- Credibility, transferability, dependability, tions, which are sometimes difficult to assess in and confirmability are commonly used terms to conventional survey research (Morgan, 1998). A describe rigor in qualitative research (Ary, Ja- protocol was developed to guide both focus cobs, Sorenson, 2010). Triangulation was used groups using the procedures set forth by Krueger in this study, as it is recommended to gain a de- (1998b). As this study was designed to test the tailed and balanced depiction of the situation previous Baker et al. (2011) study and move being investigated (Altrichter, Feldman, Posch, forward with recommendations from the prior & Somekh, 2008). This consisted of multiple research, the protocol in the current study was researchers analyzing transcripts to ensure valid- based on the same protocol. One major differ- ity of themes for confirmability. Additionally, to
Journal of Agricultural Education 57 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Baker, Settle, Chiarelli, and Irani Recruiting Strategically… ensure veracity, an audit trail was kept and a get out of college.” Participants said they would member check was completed. The moderator be attracted to recruitment messages addressing summarized participants’ responses at the end of job availability. Specifically, one participant said each focus group, allowing participants to make “If there is like an ample amount of jobs, that’s clarifications or additions as a means of member probably a really big deal to tell people that.” checking, which also aided the credibility of the Beyond getting a job after graduation, partici- study (Creswell, 2007). Credibility of the re- pants also expressed long-term concern for jobs search was also aided by the verbatim transcripts by saying “Job stability nowadays is important.” helping to maintain richness of information, Others were concerned with the larger long-term low-inference descriptors through the use of prospects of the industry. One participant quotes, putting participants at ease through the summed up the discussion by saying “Knowing use of ice breaker questions, and having the par- if [jobs are available] is, like, good to know, but ticipants serve as validators for each other’s re- maybe, like, if the industry is increasing or de- sponses (Bloor, Frankland, Thomas, & Robson, creasing, like, what are the chances that you’d 2001; Flick, 2006; Krueger, 1998c; LeCompte & still have a job in 5 or 10 years.” Goetz, 1982). Even though this study was with Positive contextual messages. Other mes- one specific academic program, the factors were sages participants were attracted to were positive similar to other programs within the COA, and contextual messages. These messages conveyed thus results may be transferrable to other pro- the positive aspects of what a student could ex- grams with similar characteristics. To address pect if they took a position in a specific career transferability, as much description of partici- field. One participant expressed this sentiment as pants’ responses was provided as possible (Cre- “Like, the passion within the industry . . . how it swell, 2007). The dependability of the study was relates to your life and how it’s, like, ethical and aided by the audit trail (Ary et al., 2010). Con- a fun job type thing.” Additionally, participants firmability of the study occurred through the wanted to know their lives would be improved audit trail and member checking measures (Ary because of their career choices. Thus, career et al., 2010; McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). messages that offered more than a paycheck but a chance to make a difference were valued by Results participants. One participant conveyed this by saying “Like, how taking your career, like, turn- What Message Strategies and Channels Are ing your career in that certain direction would Most Effective for Reaching and Attracting better your life.” While participants desired to be Potential Students? happy and fulfilled, they also wanted to help others through their career, including messages Participants in both focus groups were asked about careers improving other people’s lives. questions about the most effective strategies for One participant communicated this by saying “A reaching students with messages about majors job that satisfies people. Like, I know for me, I and/or careers. Major themes about what mes- know I really like to make other people happy.” sages would be effective in recruiting students High-touch channels. One of the preferred emerged. Key career messages that resonated message channels for participants to receive ca- with participants were job stability/availability reer and major information was high-touch and positive contextual messages. Message channels, meaning channels that involved per- channels participants believed would be the sonal contact. Some of the channels mentioned most effective ranged from high-touch channels consistently were advisors’ offices, seminar to online channels, and campus publications. classes, career fairs, and preview or orientation Job stability/availability. One of the programs. Specific to advisors, students ex- themes was job stability and availability, which pressed that they listened to advisors’ advice and was a major concern with the slowed economy. suggested “You could ask your advisor or they One participant expressed this concern as “I feel could have slips or something.” Seminar classes like one of the main concerns for college stu- were thought by participants to be a place where dents now is, like, not having a job when they students sought advice on careers. One partici-
Journal of Agricultural Education 58 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Baker, Settle, Chiarelli, and Irani Recruiting Strategically… pant expressed this by saying “I think that’s other publications like magazines or the city what that class is mainly for, to see, like, your newspaper. One participant said “I sometimes options for that major . . . so I think yes, some- read the Campus Talk just ‘cause, like, it has thing like that would work.” The participants funny ads in it and advertisements, but I don’t expressed similar sentiments about career fairs really read anything else.” The general consen- and previews or orientations. Participants sus of the groups was that campus publications thought these situations were ideal for students were convenient for them to pick up and take to pay attention to career or major information. with them to read between and sometimes dur- One participant conveyed this by saying “That’s ing classes. Participants conveyed that they did when the kids are really like, ‘What’s my major not read newspapers or magazines. As one par- going to be?’” ticipant said, “I don’t read newspapers or maga- Online channels. Participants in both zines at all.” Other campus printed pieces at- groups suggested online channels of communi- tracted students, like posters and flyers in the cation to deliver career and major information. dorm mailboxes. One participant said Online advertisements were suggested by partic- A poster would catch your eye, too, ipants as a possible way to attract students. One though . . . so, like, sometimes you’re participant said “Web ads, that’s another good sitting in the waiting room for your place to put them.” More specifically, partici- name to be called for the advisor. I look pants said these advertisements should be in around or I try to read, but if there’s a places students already seek career and major poster that’s got beautiful flowers, I advice online. Some participant suggestions might read that and ask questions. were SAT or College Board. One participant One participant said of advertisements expressed the point in targeted advertisements placed in dormitory mailboxes, “I, like, look at it by saying “Put ads online but, like, when we’re and if it catches your eye and you can keep it.” specifically searching, like people search majors, like ad majors or something like that out there. What Are Potential Students’ Preferences for But not just, like, random ads for it.” Recruiting Messages and Materials? Another place where participants expressed they would pay attention to online advertise- The participants were exposed to sample re- ments were before or during online television cruitment materials developed strategically from programming or videos. One participant, talking previous research (Baker et al., 2011). These about websites like YouTube, summed this idea materials included a postcard designed to be up by saying “Those are things that, like, that a given away at career and/or major fairs, three lot of times you can’t avoid them. You’re forced Facebook advertisements, a traditional major to watch them. And they’re, like, shorter usually website, and a career website with interactive and more effective since they have less time features, including three short recruitment vide- than regular commercials.” Another participant os. The key findings from testing these materials stated “I’ve seen a lot of them that made me re- were that participants wanted full-color materi- ally stop and think and go, like, wow! That was als with pictures, statistics and information about awesome!” However, when online advertise- an industry where they might find work after ments were not targeted appropriately, partici- graduation, short videos with multiple offerings pants did not trust them. As expressed by one and progression of topics, and testimonials from participant, “Sometimes online ads are creepy, a range of people working in the prospective and you don’t, like, know who they come from.” career field. Participants diverged on whether Overall, participants expressed that online tar- they wanted Facebook advertisements and/or geted advertisements would catch their attention, groups, as seen in the following sections. which would lead them to a website for more Full-color materials with pictures. Partici- information. pants expressed a desire for materials that were Campus publications. Participants said full color and included pictures to catch their they paid attention to advertisements in campus eye. One participant articulated this by saying “I publications but were not attuned to messages in mean, I feel like this industry could be very vis-
Journal of Agricultural Education 59 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Baker, Settle, Chiarelli, and Irani Recruiting Strategically… ually appealing on paper. So just in terms of pic- saying something good about the indus- tures, it could be, like, just people standing in try. fields, that could be a lot more appealing than, Short videos with multiple offerings and like, [school colors].” Specifically, participants progression of topics. Participants wanted short thought school colors would blend in with eve- videos with information about people and ca- rything else they received on campus or at career reers in an industry where they make work. Par- fairs on their campus. A participant expressed ticipants in both groups agreed they would not this by saying “Right off the bat, if you’re going be willing to watch a video that was lengthy. to go to a career fair, I’m assuming it’s going to One participant said “I’m not going to watch a be at [this school] . . . every paper that you’re seven-and-a-half minute video for anything.” going to get is going to be [school colors].” The Participants thought a video that was 1-2 idea of recruitment materials needing to stand minutes in length would be the most effective. out from the other mass of materials students One participant said “I think a minute to 2- receive was a key concept for participants. One minute video would probably work better.” Par- summed this up by stating ticipants suggested having multiple videos bro- You can put a lot of colors on . . . papers ken down by different topics. Additionally, par- that you’re handing out, and I think you ticipants suggested a possible progression of could really make it stand out, and if I videos throughout a recruitment website, such as have a stack of [school color] papers starting with an overall career video and then when I’m going home at least this one moving to testimonials from specific career are- might stay on my floor instead of ending as, or beginning with a short introduction video up in the trash can. of each career and moving to a longer video af- Statistics and information about an indus- terward if students are interested in the first. One try. Participants in both focus groups expressed participant summed up this idea by saying the desire to have statistics and information You have a video, and if you wanted to available about the industry or major being pro- have longer, more in-depth videos, like, moted. Participants liked hearing statistics that on a different link, like, under that so specifically related to the size of the industry. you can, just like, cause it gives a good One participant said “Maybe . . . say it’s a 40 overview but then have, like, the more million dollar industry, or like the 12th biggest information later. industry or something.” Participants also desired Testimonials from a range of people in information about how much money they could the prospective career. One of the aspects par- expect to make and the prospects for jobs in the ticipants wanted in recruitment materials was industry. The participants were not attracted to testimonials from people currently employed at negative statistics about other industries or jobs different levels within the prospective career in an effort to recruit them to a new industry. In field. Participants said it would be good to hear response to a statistic about job dissatisfaction, from someone similar to their age so they could one participant said “It’s kind of mean.” Another picture themselves being in that career. One par- participant said “I feel like they’re trying to, ticipant said “I want to hear from someone my like, just lure you for no reason. Like, I feel like ageish.” Participants felt that by seeing people if you want people to come into the career, they who were young and had already been success- need to be actually genuinely interested.” Over- ful in their careers, the participants may also be all, participants expressed the desire for positive able to be successful soon after graduation. One statistics and information about the industry that participant expressed this by saying “It’s good is recruiting. One participant said because it’s showing, look how far you can get I think an important thing that they so quick.” However, participants also valued could add is saying something good testimonials from people who had been in the about the industry. Like, I mean, be- prospective career for a length of time. One par- cause it’s like I’m interested in that. I’m ticipant explained this as “For a career, I would interested in that, but will I make mon- like to have someone who’s been in the field ey, like, will I have a job? You know long enough to tell me what it’s about, pros and
Journal of Agricultural Education 60 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Baker, Settle, Chiarelli, and Irani Recruiting Strategically… cons.” Participants expressed a desire to see needs of different types of students. These find- from the testimonials that people were happy ings support previous work by Lingenfelter and with their career choice and had stayed a long Beierlein (2006) who recommended recruiting time and were able to support their families practices be geared toward specific interest are- through this career. One participant expressed as. However, this study indicates a need for ma- this sentiment humorously by commenting terials to be developed with multiple target stu- he/she would like to hear a testimonial that said dent audiences in mind, incorporating multiple “I’ve been working for 20 years, and I haven’t channels and messages. starved yet.” Messages that were likely to resonate with Facebook advertisements and/or groups. participants were those that conveyed job stabil- The participants were mixed about perceptions ity and availability. This corresponds with loss of Facebook advertisements as a good way to aversion research, which suggests losses are reach students with messages about careers and psychologically twice as powerful as gains majors. Participants were under the impression (McGraw et al., 2010) in that students were that Facebook advertisements were expensive afraid to enter an industry where jobs might not and as a result may not be worth the investment. be available. Student comments were particular- One participant said ly specific about being scared of losing a job I just don’t know that it’s a good choice once they had it, indicating an aversion for an to put them [on Facebook] and spend all industry that was not stable. This corresponds to that money because, honestly, if I’m on previous recruitment studies that show prospects Facebook, I’m going to check my mes- for future careers are important in major selec- sages and check friend requests and then tion (Baker et al., 2011; Bobbitt, 2006; Myers et I’m out of there. al., 2004; Williams, 2007). It should be noted Other participants thought the concept of that this loss aversion may be due to the current Facebook advertisements made sense for recruit- slowed economy and intense media coverage of ing students who were already interested in that job losses and shortages. area. One participant said “They are usually Participants desired recruitment materials good at giving you ads that, like, are about what that portrayed positive contextual messages you are interested in or what you have, like, about the industry. They wanted to know specif- sorta searched for recently or whatever.” Some ic details about the positive benefits of jobs in participants thought the advertisements on Face- the industry. This suggests students are more book were not authentic, so they avoided them attracted to messages with gain frames, which entirely. One participant said, “I think they’re emphasize the advantages of a program. Addi- like scams and stuff.” However, the majority of tionally, this suggests students are less likely to participants expressed a desire to join groups on respond to messages with loss-framed appeals, Facebook that mirrored their already chosen ca- which emphasize the disadvantages of an alter- reer path or major. One participant expressed native option (Tversky & Kahneman, 1991). this by saying “I’m going to become a fan of This concept was confirmed by participants’ something I’m already interested in, so I opposition to negative messages against other wouldn’t, like, just randomly join it because I’m fields or jobs in general. These results run coun- there, but it is good to have once you are in that ter to the concept of loss aversion, which sug- area.” gests messages about avoiding losses are typi- cally more powerful than gain-framed messages Conclusions and Discussion (Tversky & Kahneman, 1991). These results support research on Millenials, who have been The results of this study indicate a greater taught their entire lives they can do anything and need for recruitment materials that are targeted seek positive motivations for doing so (Twenge, appropriately and designed strategically. Alt- 2006). Thus, it is not surprising that Millenials hough this study was limited to one institution, violate assumptions of the loss aversion concept key findings suggest recruitment materials by preferring gain frames over loss frames. should be developed that are segmented for the
Journal of Agricultural Education 61 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Baker, Settle, Chiarelli, and Irani Recruiting Strategically…
High-touch channels of communication considering that Facebook is one of the cheapest were desired by participants. The desire for ways to advertise to a large group of people in a high-touch channels in recruitment efforts corre- targeted and direct way. Recruitment targeting sponds to Chapman’s (1981) model of external specific interests is in line with results from Lin- factors that are influential in students’ choice of genfelter and Beierlein (2006) and Wildman and where to attend college. In this study, the signif- Torres (2001). This study indicated that whether icant persons who had the most influence in col- or not students responded to Facebook adver- lege choice were students’ advisors. The institu- tisements was an individual preference. As a tional programs of most significance to partici- result, this study concluded Facebook adver- pants were seminar classes, career fairs, and tisements are worthy of further exploration as an preview or orientation programs, which were effective delivery method for recruitment mes- also considered high-touch communication sages for at least some students. channels. Online channels were deemed as a possible way to attract students in this study; Recommendations however, participants expressed a need for these messages to be targeted appropriately and only The findings in this study may be transferra- appear in places where they were already seek- ble and have implications for all academic pro- ing career and major information and/or advice. grams of agriculture, even though this study was Online and high-touch channels were related. limited as a case study of one academic program The participants wanted to be able to find more in a land grant institution. Recommendations for information online after high-touch interactions. recruitment messages to target the Millennial Campus publications were another channel generation include messages that convey job where students sought career and major infor- stability or availability and positive contextual mation. This study concluded that students messages. These results additionally indicate would respond to career information in campus that future recruitment messages should focus on publications if it “caught their eye” and ad- gain frames that emphasize the advantages of a dressed their area of interest. This idea is similar specific academic program of agriculture. It is to conclusions by Lingenfelter and Beierlein also important to note that participants reacted (2006) that recruitment messages should be tar- negatively to messages that used negative fram- geted toward areas of interest as opposed to ag- ing in regard to other industries. riculture in general. Participants reported paying As evidenced by the results of these focus attention to campus publications, fliers, and groups, what is important in recruitment materi- posters, but they did not notice community or als for this generation of students are full-color national publications. materials with pictures, statistics, and infor- Participants’ desire for short videos may be mation about an industry where they would due to their generation’s need for immediate work; short videos with multiple offerings and a information and constant stimulation to be inter- progression of topics; and testimonials from a ested (Twenge, 2009). Additionally, it is note- range of people working in the prospective ca- worthy that participants valued testimonials reer. As a result, videos embedded in websites from people in a prospective career. It was not should include a plethora of information about surprising that participants wanted to see testi- the prospective career, including job duties and monials from people like them, as this is a con- long-term job availability. Multiple videos cept that has been explored in advertising. How- should be developed that are 1-2 minutes in ever, it was unexpected that participants wanted length and feature people in a variety of stages to hear from someone who had been at this ca- of their careers. Websites should be advertised reer for a long time to show that it was a stable and marketed through online channels where industry. This idea, though, correlates with par- students are already seeking major and career ticipants’ desire for a job with stability and op- information, and be advertised prominently on portunity for long-term advancement. all materials delivered through high-touch chan- Participants’ perceptions that Facebook ad- nels. This will avoid wasting resources on reach- vertisements were expensive was interesting
Journal of Agricultural Education 62 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Baker, Settle, Chiarelli, and Irani Recruiting Strategically… ing individuals who are unlikely to be interested through a strategic communication process, in the information. which is recommended in corporate models of While the participants in this study were communication (Smith, 2002). This is due to the mixed about whether Facebook advertisements differences in preferences within these groups were an effective method of delivery for re- for specific messages. Strategically developed cruitment and career messages, it is recommend- materials should be based on empirical research, ed that Facebook advertisements be further ex- something research indicates has not been done plored as a part of the overall recruitment cam- in programs of agriculture in the past when de- paign for academic programs of agriculture. This veloping recruitment strategies (Washburn et al., is primarily due to the low cost of advertising on 2002). The students within this generation and in Facebook and the results of previous work that this study consider themselves unique individu- indicates Facebook is a place where students als and believe they are highly valued (Twenge, respond to advertisements that are directed to 2009). As a result, they want materials targeted their special interests (Baker et al., 2010). Addi- to their specific wants and desires in a program tionally, Facebook allows for targeted advertis- and in a future career. It is recommended that ing, which responds to students’ desire for mes- future research be conducted in a quantitative sages to appear only after they were seeking ca- research design to test materials developed using reer and major information. the targeted, strategic strategies resulting from Finally, the results of this study indicate an qualitative research such as used in this study. increased need to target recruitment efforts
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Dobbins, T. R., King, D. R., Fravel, P. M., Keels, W. E., & Covington, C. (2002). Factors that influ- ence African-American students not to enroll in secondary agriculture courses and not to pur- sue agricultural related careers as a profession. Proceedings of 2002 National Agricultural Education Research Conference, 29. Retrieved from http://aaaeonline.org/uploads/allconferences/210802.proceedings.doc Doerfert, D. L. (Ed.) (2011). National research agenda: American Association for Agricultural Education’s research priority areas for 2011-2015. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University, Department of Agricultural Education and Communications. FAEIS Reports. (2008, October 16). Food and Agricultural Education Information System. Flick, U. (2006). An introduction to qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Glaser, B. (1965). The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. Social Problems , 12(4), 436- 445. Retrieved from http://www.sssp1.org/index.cfm/m/325 Goecker, A. D., Gilmore, J. L., Smith, E., & Smith, P. G. (2004). Employment opportunities for college graduates in the U.S. food, agricultural, and natural resources system, 2005-2010. Retrieved from the Food and Agricultural Education Information System website: http://faeis.ahnrit.vt.edu/hep/employ/employ00-05.html Goecker, A. D., Smith, P. G., Smith, E., & Goetz, R. (2010). Employment opportunities for college grad- uates in food, renewable energy, and the environment: United States, 2010-2015. Retrieved from Purdue University website: http://www.ag.purdue.edu/USDA/employment/Documents/USDAEmployOp2010.pdf Hossler, D., & Gallagher, K. S. (1987). Studying student college choice: a three-phase model and the im- plications for policymakers. College and University, 62(3), 207-221. Retrieved from http://www.aacrao.org/publications/candu/index.cfm Krueger, R. A. (1998a). Analyzing & reporting focus group results. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Krueger, R. A. (1998b). Developing questions for focus groups. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Krueger, R. A. (1998c). Moderating focus groups. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Krumboltz, J. D., & Worthington, R. L. (1999). The school-to-work transition from a learning theory per- spective. The Career Development Quarterly, 47, 312-325. Retrieved from http://associationdatabase.com/aws/NCDA/pt/sp/cdquarterly LeCompte, M. D., & Goetz, J. P. (1982). Problems of reliability and validity in ethnographic research. Review of Educational Research, 52(1), 31-60. doi:10.3102/00346543052001031 Lingenfelter, K. M., & Beierlein, J. G. (2006). Recruitment into the college of agricultural sciences: fac- tors related to student major choices. Proceedings of 2006 American Association of Agricultural Education National Research Conference, 33. Retrieved from http://aaaeonline.org/ McGraw, A. P., Larsen, J. T., Kahneman, D., & Schkade, D. (2010). Comparing gains and losses. Psychological Science. doi:10.1177/0956797610381504 McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2010). Research in education: Evidence-based inquiry. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Morgan, D. L. (1998). The focus group guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
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Myers, B. E., Breja, L. M., & Dyer, J. E. (2004). Solutions to recruitment issues of high school agricul- tural education programs. Journal of Agricultural Education, 45(4), 12 - 21. doi:10.5032/jae.2004.04012 National Center for Educational Statistics. (2007). Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov Provitera-McGlynn, A. (2005). Teaching millennials our newest cultural cohort. The Education Digest , 71(4), 12-16. Retrieved from http://www.eddigest.com/ Reeves, S., Albert, M., Kuper, A., & Hodges, B. D. (2008). Qualitative research: Why use theories in qualitative research? British Medical Journal, 337(7670), 631-634. doi:10.1136/bmj.a949 Rocca, S. J., & Washburn, S. G. (2005). Factors influencing college choice of high school and transfer matriculants into a college of agriculture. North American Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture Journal, 49(1), 32-38. Retrieved from http://www.nactateachers.org/journal.html Rom, C. R. (2004). Horticulture higher education for the 21st century; The case of curriculum change and degree requirements at the university of Arkansas, USA. In C. R. Rom, & G. R. Dixon (Ed.), Proceedings of the XXVI International Horticulture Congress - The Horticulture Knowledge Business, (pp. 49-56). Savickas, M. L. (1999) The transition from school to work: a developmental perspective. The Career De- velopment Quarterly, 47, 326-336. Retrieved from http://associationdatabase.com/aws/NCDA/pt/sp/cdquarterly Smith, R. D. (2002). Strategic Planning for Public Relations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Sutphin, H. D., & Newsom-Steward, M. (1995). Students’ rationale for selection of agriculturally related courses in high school by gender and ethnicity. Journal of Agricultural Education, 36(2), 54-61. doi:10.5032/jae.1995.02054 Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1991). Loss Aversion in Riskless Choice: A Reference Dependent Model. Quarterly Journal of Economics 106, 1039-1061. doi:10.2307/2937956 Twenge, J. M. (2006). Generation me: Why today's young Americans are more confident, assertive, entitled and more miserable than ever before. New York, NY: Free Press. Washburn, S. G., Garton, B. L., & Vaughn, P. R. (2002). Factors influencing college choice of agricul- ture students college-wide compared with students majoring in agricultural education. Paper pre- sented at the 29th meeting of the American Association of Agricultural Educators, Las Vegas, NV. Wildman, M., & Torres, R. M. (2001). Factors identified when selecting a major in agriculture. Journal of Agricultural Education , 42(2), 46-55. doi: 10.5032/jae.2001.02046 Williams, K. B. (2007). Factors influencing choice of academic major: A comparison of agricultural and non-agricultural degree programs (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX.
LAURI M. BAKER is an Assistant Professor in Agricultural Communications in the Department of Communications and Agricultural Education at Kansas State University, 307 Umberger Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506, [email protected].
QUISTO SETTLE is a Research Coordinator for the National Public Policy Evaluation Center at the Uni- versity of Florida, G086A McCarty Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611, [email protected].
Journal of Agricultural Education 65 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Baker, Settle, Chiarelli, and Irani Recruiting Strategically…
CHRISTY C. CHIARELLI is an Associate Director of Development in the IFAS Development Office at the University of Florida, 1001 McCarty Hall D, Gainesville, FL 32611, [email protected].
TRACY IRANI is a Professor and Development Director of the Center for Public Issues Education in Agriculture and Natural Resources and Co-Director Scientific Thinking Educational Partnership (STEP) in the Agricultural Education and Communication Department at the University of Florida, 121E Bryant Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611, [email protected].
Journal of Agricultural Education 66 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 67– 83 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03067 o u Examining the Professional, Technical, and General r n Knowledge Competencies Needed by Beginning School- a Based Agricultural Education Teachers l
Christopher T. Stripling o f University of Tennessee, Knoxville
R. Kirby Barrick A University of Florida g r The philosophy behind the kind of teacher education one receives affects the preparedness of beginning i agricultural education teachers. The purpose of this philosophical study was to examine and summarize c the professional knowledge, technical knowledge, and general knowledge competencies needed in a com- u prehensive teacher education program to prepare beginning school-based agricultural education teach- l ers. Sixteen professional knowledge competencies, three technical knowledge competencies, and 16 gen- t eral knowledge competencies were derived from the literature. The authors hope the competencies com- u plied in this inquiry will spur philosophical discussions regarding the coursework and experiences pro- r vided by an agricultural teacher education program. a l Keywords: teacher education; professional knowledge; technical knowledge; general knowledge
E At best, a philosophy for teacher educa- agricultural education teachers’ effectiveness d tion in agriculture is a framework for and success. thinking about, and acting on, the goals With that influence in mind, what should u and the ends-means relationships in ag- preservice agricultural education teachers learn c ricultural education. It is a framework during a baccalaureate agricultural teacher edu- a derived from, and continuously influ- cation program, and what should they be able to t enced by, standards and values which do as a result of completing a baccalaureate ag- i are formed by inquiry, inquiry which ricultural teacher education program? The an- o leads to empirical verification and con- swers to these questions encompass the essential n sistency with reality. Philosophy, there- professional knowledge, technical knowledge, V fore, is at the heart of the enterprise. It and general knowledge competencies that should o requires a consideration of the destiny of be included in a baccalaureate agricultural l individuals, groups, and society itself. It teacher education program. This study will seek u is concerned, therefore, with the concept to answer the aforementioned questions and ad- m of destination (ends) and the appropriate dress priority five (efficient and effective agri- e choice of routes (means) which may be cultural education programs) of the American available, or which may be made availa- Association for Agricultural Education’s nation- 5 ble. (Swanson, 1982, p. 298) al research agenda (Doerfert, 2011). 1 As described by Swanson (1982), philoso- , phy is at the heart of agriculture teacher educa- Purpose tion, and the philosophy behind the kind of N teacher education one receives affects the pre- The purpose of this philosophical study was u paredness of beginning teachers (Darling- to examine and summarize the professional m Hammond, 2006). Therefore, based on Darling- knowledge, technical knowledge, and general b Hammond’s (2006) extensive research in teacher knowledge competencies needed in a compre- education, philosophical decisions made in pre- hensive teacher education program to prepare e service agricultural teacher education should, beginning school-based agricultural education r theoretically, influence beginning school-based teachers. This paper provides an overview of 1 ,
67 p p .
1 Stripling and Barrick Examining the Professional… relevant literature and outlines the professional Professional Knowledge knowledge, technical knowledge (the content area), and general knowledge competencies that Beginning teachers should “start their ca- are required to sufficiently prepare beginning reers with a background of experiences that al- school-based agricultural teachers. The authors lows them to handle classroom situations com- believe that a teacher education program is more fortably” (National Education Association as than what is generally referred to as teacher cited in Cruickshank, 1985, p. 27). In response preparation, the courses taught and experiences to the National Education Association report, provided within agricultural education. The pa- Cruickshank (1985) posited that the “most seri- per is not intended to include a comprehensive ous obstacle preventing teaching from having historical review of preservice agricultural true professional status is the lack of consensus teacher education. Rather, the authors hope this among educators regarding what constitutes the article will spur dialogue and research aimed at requisite specialized body of knowledge and identifying a vision of what agricultural teacher skills for effective teaching” (p. 14) and thus education should encompass at the baccalaureate called for the professionalization of teacher edu- level and further develop the knowledge base for cation. One would be hard pressed to argue with teaching school-based agricultural education. the National Education Association’s statement and with Cruickshank’s call for a distinct body Methodology of knowledge for preparing teachers. Therefore, what are the experiences and knowledge that a The researchers began the preparation of this preservice teacher should have to successfully philosophical paper by reviewing in-depth the lead a classroom of students with a variety of only two textbooks written to address teacher backgrounds, experiences, and different pre- education in agriculture: the book edited by ferred ways of learning? Are those experiences Berkey in 1982, and the book edited by Torres, different for preservice agricultural education Kitchel and Ball in 2010. In addition, a review teachers? of the Journal of Agricultural Education was To Cruickshank (1985) professional conducted to locate sources of relevant research knowledge in education was the “pedagogy or and writing. Other primary sources were the the art and science of teaching” (p. 4); however, works of Darling-Hammond and Cruickshank. in 1996, Cruickshank et al. divided his concep- As is important in philosophical argument, re- tualization of professional knowledge or peda- cent literature must be examined within the con- gogy into educational knowledge and education- text of more historical writing. The Berkey al skills. In addition, Cruickshank (1985) noted books serves as a point of departure for discus- that the NCATE Standards of 1982 stated that sions within agriculture teacher education. Final- the professional curriculum for preparing teach- ly, commonly accepted standards were re- ers should be discernible from the general edu- viewed, including the National Council for Ac- cation curriculum and the professional curricu- creditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and lum should be comprised of the following four the National Standards for Teacher Education in categories: “1) content for teaching specialty, 2) Agriculture. humanistic and behavioral studies, 3) teaching and learning theory, and 4) practicum.” (p. 17). Overview of Literature and Outline of Content for the teaching specialty is knowledge Knowledge Competencies of subject matter and the curriculum of the sub- ject matter; humanistic and behavior studies is The following sections provide an overview the foundational studies of education and in edu- of literature related to each component of an ag- cation; teaching and learning theory is study of riculture teacher education program, followed by the knowledge base of teaching and learning; a summary of the competencies needed in each practicums are experiences related to teaching in (professional knowledge, technical knowledge, real and artificial classrooms such as observa- and general knowledge). tions, part-time participations, and apprentice- ships (Cruickshank, 1985).
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In How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experi- assessment strategies and analysis of student ence, and School, Bransford, Brown, and Cock- learning; (d) how students learn and develop; (e) ing (2000) purported that, in addition to subject the relationship between content and content- matter and pedagogical knowledge, teachers specific pedagogy; (f) how to effectively inte- need an understanding of how to teach specific grate technology into instruction and curriculum; subject matter (pedagogical content knowledge) (g) how to use educational research to inform to be more effective and that they should possess practice; and (h) how to contribute to profes- a general understanding of learners. sional communities. Pedagogical content knowledge is In an attempt to provide the teaching profes- different from knowledge of general sion with a conceptual framework of the teaching methods. Expert teachers know knowledge base for teaching, Darling-Hammond the structure of their disciplines, and this and Bransford (2005) introduced their conceptu- knowledge provides them with cognitive al framework for effective teaching and learning roadmaps that guide the assignments (Figure 1). Darling-Hammond and Bransford they give students, the assessments they also professed that effective teachers needed use to gauge students’ progress, and the more than subject matter knowledge and general questions they ask in the give and take pedagogy. Their framework proposed that of classroom life. (Bransford, Brown, & teaching is a professional endeavor that prepares Cocking, 2000, p. 155) learners to participate in our democratic society. Additionally, Bransford et al. stated that The framework also proposed the following pedagogical content knowledge allows a teacher three areas of knowledge as essential for teach- to understand the aspects of the subject matter ing: that can be grasped easily or may prove more knowledge of learners and how they challenging for the learner; without pedagogical learn and develop within social con- content knowledge teachers rely on others for text; information related to how to organize the cur- conceptions of curriculum content riculum. Thus, according to Bransford et al. (2000), pedagogical content knowledge is an and goals: an understanding of the “extremely important part of what teachers need subject matter and skills to be taught to learn” (p. 45). in light of the social purpose of edu- Similarly, the NCATE Standards of 2008 cation; and purported teachers should possess “pedagogical an understanding of teaching in light content knowledge and skills, pedagogical and of the content and learners to be professional knowledge and skills, and profes- taught, as informed by assessment sional dispositions necessary to help all students and supported by classroom envi- learn” (p. 12). More specifically, teachers ronments. (Darling-Hammond & should possess knowledge in the following: (a) Bransford, 2005, p. 11) how school, family, and community context in- fluence learning; (b) instructional strategies; (c)
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Preparing Teachers for a Changing World
Teaching as a Profession
Knowledge of Learners Knowledge of Subject & their Development Matter & Curriculum in Social Contexts: Goals Learning Educational Goals and
Human Purposes for skills,
development content, subject matter
Language A Vision of Professional Practice
Knowledge of Teaching
Teaching Subject Matter
Teaching Diverse Learners Assessment Classroom Management
Learning in a Democracy
Figure 1. A Framework for Understanding Teaching and Learning (Darling–Hammond & Bransford, 2005, p. 11).
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Darling-Hammond (2006) studied exempla- Specific to agricultural teacher education, ry teacher education programs and found that the Crunkilton and Hemp (1982) suggested that the teacher education programs conceptualized pro- professional training of agricultural teachers fessional teaching knowledge in similar ways. should consist of “professional knowledge, pro- fessional attitudes, and professional skills” (p. They emphasized understanding learn- 139). Also, Crunkilton and Hemp stated that an ers and learning as central to making undergraduate agricultural teacher education sound teaching decisions (p. 81). program “must provide the pedagogical compe- They understand that the subject matters tencies needed by beginning teachers to conduct (p. 81). a local agricultural education program success- They unite the study of subject matter fully” (p. 135) and should develop a theoretical and children in the analysis and design understanding of educational processes to be a of curriculum (p. 82). professional teacher. Similar to Bransford et al. They see learners, subject matter, and (2000), Darling-Hammond (2006), and Darling- curriculum as existing in a sociocultural Hammond and Bransford (2005), Barrick and context that influences what is valued Garton (2010) professed that subject matter and how learning occurs (p. 82). knowledge alone is not sufficient for the effec- They seek to develop a repertoire of tive teaching of agriculture. Preservice teachers teaching strategies (p. 82). are expected to acquire knowledge and skills They place extraordinary emphasis on related to teaching that allows their students to the process of assessment and feedback learn and understand the subject matter of agri- as essential to both student and teacher culture (Barrick & Garton, 2010). To that end, learning (p. 82). Roberts and Kitchel (2010) indicated that peda- gogical knowledge and pedagogical content They seek to develop teachers’ abilities knowledge are types of knowledge needed for as reflective decision makers who can teaching agriculture, and the American Associa- carefully observe, inquire, diagnose, de- tion for Agricultural Education’s (2001) national sign, and evaluate learning and teaching standards for agricultural education indicated so that it is continually revised to be- that teachers should complete pedagogical and come more effective (p. 83). professional studies that foster pedagogical and They see teaching as a collaborative ac- professional knowledge for instructing all stu- tivity conducted within a professional dents. community that feeds ongoing teacher
learning, problem solving, and the de- Professional Knowledge Competencies De- velopment of ever more sophisticated rived From the Literature practice (p. 83).
Darling-Hammond (2006) stated that the Based on the literature discussed above, conceptualization of teaching knowledge that the competencies presented in Table 1 are essen- resulted from the study of exemplary teacher tial professional knowledge competencies need- education programs was consistent with the con- ed for teaching. ceptual framework for understanding teaching and learning offered by Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2005).
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Table 1
Essential professional knowledge competencies for beginning teachers
Professional knowledge competency Author(s) Pedagogical knowledge Barrick & Garton, 2010; Bransford, Brown, & Cock- ing, 2000; Cruickshank, 1985; Crunkilton & Hemp, 1982; Darling-Hammond, 2006; Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; NCATE, 2008; Roberts & Kitchel, 2010
Pedagogical content knowledge Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Darling- Hammond, 2006; Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; NCATE, 2008; Roberts & Kitchel, 2010
Understanding of learners and learning Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Darling- o “Deep understanding of human development and learning, how people devel- Hammond, 2006; NCATE, 2008 op and learn in distinctive social context, and how some develop and learn in exceptional ways” (Darling-Hammond, 2006, p. 81) Ability to utilize a wide-range of teaching strategies for particular purposes and stu- Darling-Hammond, 2006; NCATE, 2008 dents
Ability to plan curriculum beyond an individual lesson and the ability to define and Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005 defend the educational goals they choose; curricular vision o “Consideration of educational goals and purposes in general and within con- tent areas, including review of national and state learning and teaching stand- ards and practices with how to embody them in curriculum; learning about in- structional design, including guided practice in developing, implementing and reflecting on and revising curriculum plans; and review and evaluation of cur- riculum plans and materials from the perspectives of instructional design, evaluation of the implementation of others’ curriculum efforts, and study of research on curriculum and its implementation” (p. 191) o Understand that “curriculum is not static, but is continuously negotiated” (p. 172) Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005 Table 1 Continues
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Table 1 Continued Professional knowledge competency Author(s) Ability to design curriculum and tailor instruction based on the subject matter, the Darling-Hammond, 2006 learners, and purposes of education
Understand how instructional goals are related to assignments and assessments Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005
Ability to develop appropriate assignments and assessments and then utilize the in- Darling-Hammond, 2006; NCATE, 2008 formation gained to influence instruction and student learning
Ability to be a reflective decision maker Darling-Hammond, 2006; NCATE, 2008 o “Carefully observe, inquire, diagnose, design, and evaluate learning and teaching so that it is continually revised to become more effective” (Darling- Hammond, 2006, p. 83) o “Diagnosticians and planners who know a great deal about the learning pro- cess and have a repertoire of tools at their disposal” (Darling-Hammond, 2006, p.80)
Ability to be a contributing member of a professional community and view teaching Darling-Hammond, 2006; NCATE, 2008 as a collaborative activity
Knowledge and skills related to effective classroom management Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005
Ability to see “learners, subject matter, and curriculum as existing in a sociocultural Darling-Hammond, 2006; NCATE, 2008 context that influences what is valued and how learning occurs” (Darling- Hammond, 2006, p. 82).
Understand how to effectively integrate technology into instruction and curriculum Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; NCATE, 2008
Understand how to use educational research to inform practice Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; NCATE, 2008
Knowledge and understanding of how to plan and manage an agricultural education Crunkilton & Hemp, 1982 program
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Technical Knowledge/Content Knowledge should be dedicated to technical knowledge coursework. “To argue that teachers need to know the In 1982, McCracken stated that agricul- subject they teach seems almost tautological, for tural experiences that were previously consid- how can we teach what we do not understand ered as prerequisites to entering a teacher educa- ourselves” (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, tion program such as farm and practical agricul- 2005, p. 205)? Likewise, Roberts and Dyer tural experiences “must now be provided within (2004) purported that effective agricultural the preservice curriculum” (p. 121), because teachers have an “excellent knowledge of the fewer undergraduate students have an agricul- subject matter” (p. 92). One would be hard ture background. Anecdotally, this also seems pressed to argue with the quotes above; howev- to be true of today’s agricultural education pre- er, there is not a consensus in the agricultural service teachers, and in a qualitative study by education literature on the technical Shelley-Tolbert, Conroy, and Dailey (2000), knowledge/content area competencies required university faculty and staff present at the 1999 for beginning school-based agricultural educa- National FFA Convention also professed that tion teachers to be successful. The authors rec- preservice teachers are less familiar with agri- ognize that the technical agricultural competen- culture and many do not have experiences in cies needed may vary among different school- FFA as compared to preservice teachers of the based agricultural education programs; however, past. the authors believe it is important to have a phil- Additionally, McCracken (1982) called for osophical discussion related to core technical agricultural teachers to be prepared as specialists agricultural competencies needed by beginning in a technical agricultural content area with a agricultural education teachers. general knowledge of agriculture versus being With that in mind, the American Association prepared as agricultural generalists because of for Agricultural Education’s (2001) national the loss of commonality among the different standards for agricultural education suggested agricultural technical content areas. He cited that one-third of the agricultural teacher educa- that the loss of commonality was due to the shift tion preparation coursework should consist of in agriculture from general crop and livestock technical content and be designed so that pre- farms to specialized farms and jobs within agri- service teachers attain competence in basic prin- cultural industries, thus reducing the breadth of ciples, concepts, and experiential practices in technical competencies required of an agricul- agricultural science and natural resources related tural workforce. The standards for quality pro- to: grams identified the following technical agricul- A. Business, Management, and Economic tural content areas: (a) agricultural engineering Systems and mechanics, (b) plant and soil science, (c) B. Agricultural and Mechanical Systems animal science, and (d) agricultural economics C. Plant, Animal, and Food Systems and business management (McCracken, 1982). D. Natural Resources and Environmental Furthermore, the standards identified the follow- Systems ing specialty agricultural content areas: (a) or- with proficiency or advanced competence in at namental horticulture, (b) agricultural products least one of the areas. (pp. 3-4) Correspondingly, processing, (c) forestry, and (d) natural re- Connors and Mundt (2001) found in a survey of sources (McCracken, 1982). Moreover, 61 agricultural teacher education programs that McCracken (1982) purported that technical agri- technical agriculture coursework comprised ap- cultural knowledge preparation should have proximately one-third of the teacher education “priority over general education and professional programs’ coursework, but specific technical education in the allocation of credit-hours in the agricultural competences were not identified. curriculum of the prospective teacher” (p. 133). Myers and Dyer (2004) advocated that research McCracken hypothesized that as technical com- was needed to determine the most effective per- petence increased a teacher could succeed with centage of a teacher preparation program that less professional competence. The authors feel that they should note that they do not agree with
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McCracken’s assertion that technical knowledge In addition to the technical knowledge coursework should take priority over profession- courses mentioned above, having an understand- al education coursework. The authors believe ing of the science of agriculture is also an im- they are equally valuable. portant technical knowledge competency for Similar to McCracken (1982), Edwards and preservice teachers to possess (Edwards & Thompson (2010) noted that the technical Thompson, 2010). knowledge competencies needed for teaching This view is also supported by Barrick school-based agricultural education have (2012), Conroy, Trumbull, and Johnson (1999), changed over time. However, Edwards and and Stripling (2012) who stated that agriculture Thompson stated that the technical knowledge is a science and that the science (Barrick, 2012) competencies needed have evolved from and core academics (Conroy, Trumbull, & John- knowledge and skills in specific careers to a son, 1999; Myer & Dyer, 2004; Stripling, 2012) broad knowledge and skill base for career clus- in agriculture should be emphasized. Barrick ters or groups of related agricultural industries. (2012) indicated that his high school rural sci- Therefore, today’s agricultural preservice teach- ence teacher, “Mr. Stimpert[,] knew that stu- ers need a broader understanding of agriculture dents who were interested in agriculture as a and career skills. In regard to how the career but were also college–bound needed and knowledge and skills are typically obtained, wanted the science of agriculture as much as or Edwards and Thompson (2010) noted: more than the vocational aspect of the program” Frequently, the acquisition of technical (p. 1). In addition, Barrick postulated that the competence has meant that preservice vocational aspects of agriculture “simply tell us students complete required coursework what to do….The science aspect tells us why we that includes introductory or survey do it that way” (p. 2). Correspondingly, Phipps, courses in the animal sciences, plant and Osborne, Dyer, and Ball (2008) stated that soil sciences, mechanized agriculture (or teaching agriscience involves understanding the agricultural systems technology), agri- science behind agricultural practices and “asking cultural economics, and natural re- and investigating ‘why’ questions that support sources. In addition, some upper- agricultural practices” (p. 337). This philosophy division or advanced coursework is re- is also consistent with Roberts and Ball (2009), quired in those or related subject are- who posited that school-based agricultural edu- as…. At some institutions, requirements cation today utilizes agriculture as a content and also involve coursework – introductory context for learning (Figure 2) in which agricul- and/or advanced – in horticulture, agri- tural content and knowledge from other domains cultural communications, and agricul- are taught. tural leadership. (pp. 114-116)
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Figure 2. Conceptual model for agricultural subject matter as a content and context for teaching (Roberts & Ball, 2009, p. 87).
Technical Knowledge/Content Knowledge are essential technical knowledge/content area Competencies Derived From the Literature competencies needed by beginning school-based agricultural teachers. Based on the literature above, one could ar- gue that the competencies presented in Table 2
Table 2
Essential technical knowledge/content knowledge competencies for beginning teachers
Technical knowledge/content knowledge Author(s) competencies Broad knowledge of agricultural content American Association for Agricultural Education, 2001; areas Edwards & Thompson, 2010
Knowledge and skills related to the science Barrick, 2012; Conroy et al., 1999; Edwards & Thomp- of agriculture son, 2010; Myer & Dyer, 2004; Phipps et al., 2008; Rob- erts & Ball, 2009; Stripling, 2012
Knowledge and skills related to the tradi- Barrick, 2012; Conroy et al., 1999; Edwards & Thomp- tional academic areas found naturally in son, 2010; Myer & Dyer, 2004; Phipps et al., 2008; Rob- agriculture erts & Ball, 2009; Stripling, 2012
General Knowledge “what should an educated person know?” (Cheney, 1992, p. 30). A university’s general “Educating the person as a human must re- education requirements may reflect what a uni- main the forerunner to educating the person as versity sees as the answer. General education is an agriculturalist” (Barrick, 1989, p. 27). Then, “purported to be of value to all persons”
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(Cruickshank, 1985, p. 4) and is not intended to people should be familiar with them. In 1978, prepare the learner for a specific job or career. Harvard University proposed five academic are- Cruickshank (1985) posited that in light of Dew- as of general education (a) literature and the arts, ey’s Democracy and Education, general educa- (b) history, (c) social and philosophical analysis, tion should focus on living in a democratic soci- (d) science and mathematics, and (e) foreign ety. Similarly, the Harvard Committee on Gen- culture (Seligman & Malamud as cited in eral Education (as cited in Cruickshank, 1985), Cruickshank, 1985). Conant (1963) recom- stated that general education was the mended that general education for teachers means of preparing an individual to be a should comprise approximately one-half of the free person and citizen. It was an educa- curriculum and include the following subjects: tion designed to give a person the capac- (a) English and composition, (b) western world’s ity to examine his or her life, a sense of literary tradition, (c) history, (d) art and music inner freedom, and a broad outlook in appreciation, (e) mathematics, (f) science, (g) order to overcome provincialism. (p. 5) general psychology, (h) sociology and anthro- Correspondingly, Miller (1992) purported pology, (i) philosophy, (j) economics, and (k) that “the purpose of general education is to de- political science. Miller (1988) suggested that velop the student’s ability to function effectively general education should develop in society – as an individual, as a family and in individual students the attitude of in- community member, and as a professional” (p. quiry, the skills of problem solving, the 73). In regard to teachers, Cruickshank (1985) individual and community values asso- stated that there is an expectation that teachers ciated with a democratic society, and the need a broad general education for the following knowledge needed to apply these atti- reasons: (a) general education enhances their tudes, skills, and values so that the stu- teaching, (b) teachers are responsible for educat- dents may maintain the learning process ing our youth, and (c) teachers are models of over a lifetime and function as self- educated individuals. Supporting Cruickshank, fulfilled individuals and as full partici- NCATE (2008) indicated that a broad liberal arts pants in a society committed to change education was needed in a teacher preparation through democratic processes. (p. 2) curriculum. In agricultural teacher preparation, Likewise, in 1992, Miller professed that the general education comprises approximately one- goals of general education were “problem solv- third of the curriculum, but research is needed to ing, decision making, and values clarification” determine the best configuration of coursework (p. 73). (Myers & Dyer, 2004). Therefore, this section In 50 Hours: A Core Curriculum for College will seek to answer the question – what are the Students, Cheney (1989) outlined a core curricu- essential general knowledge competencies need- lum with the purpose of “encouraging coherent ed by beginning school-based agricultural edu- and substantive learning in essential areas of cation teachers to teach? knowledge” (p. 8). Cheney’s proposal included Adler (2009) posited that general education required courses in (a) culture and civilization, in K-12 schools should include knowledge in (b) foreign language, (c) mathematics, (d) natu- three areas – (a) language, literature, and the fine ral sciences and (e) the social sciences (Table 3). arts; (b) mathematics and natural sciences; and As with Conant (1963), Cheney’s proposed core (c) history, geography, and social studies. Fur- curriculum comprises approximately one-half of thermore, Adler professed that those areas of a college student’s program of study. knowledge are fundamental and all educated
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Table 3
Fifty hours: A core curriculum for college students (Cheney, 1989, p. 17)
Semester hours per Courses/Requirements study area 18 hours: Culture and The origins of Civilization: A one-semester course that considers the begin- Civilization nings of civilization on various continents. 3 hours Western Civilization: A one-semester course that considers the development of western society and thought from Periclean Athens through the Refor- mation. 3 hours. Western Civilization (continued): A one-semester course that considers the development of Western society and thought form the Reformation into the twentieth century. 3 hours. American Civilization: A one-semester course that traces the major devel- opments in American society and thought from colonial times to the pre- sent. 3 hours. Other Civilizations: Two one-semester courses to be chosen from the fol- lowing: Civilizations of Africa, East Asia, Islam, Latin America, South Asia. 6 hours.
12 hours: Foreign Lan- A two-year requirement; it is recommended that students fulfill this re- guage quirement by taking more advanced courses in a language they have stud- ied in high school.
6 hours: Concepts of A one-year course focusing on major concepts, methods, and applications of Mathematics the mathematical sciences.
8 hours: Foundations of A one-year laboratory course that focuses on major ideas and methods of the the Natural Sciences physical and biological sciences.
6 hours: the Social Sci- A one-year course that explores ways in which the social sciences have been ences and the Modern used to explain political, economic and social life as well as the experi- World ence of individuals, in the last 200 years.
Specific to agricultural education, the na- nication; apply basic mathematics con- tional standards for agricultural teacher educa- cepts and processes; gain an understand- tion only state that general education in liberal ing of the natural and social sciences; arts and sciences is an expectation and that the and develop an appreciation of the arts, learner should develop theoretical and practical humanities, and cultural values, cus- understandings in those areas (American Asso- toms, and social interactions. (pp. 36- ciation for Agricultural Education, 2001). Bar- 37) rick and Garton (2010) purported that the pur- In regard to courses, Swortzel (1995) was pose of general education in the agricultural the only agricultural education literature found teacher preparation curriculum is to that made recommendations for specific general help students gain knowledge and de- education courses, including 46 semester hours velop skills of analysis, synthesis, and in the arts and humanities, mathematics and sta- evaluation essential to understanding in- tistics, natural science, and social science, for tellectual ideas and principles; develop preservice agricultural education teachers. competence in written and oral commu- Swortzel recommended (a) English and writing,
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(b) visual and performing arts, (c) oral commu- complementary knowledge allows the teacher to nication, (d) philosophy, (e) literature, (f) calcu- draw upon a broad education to enhance the lus, (g) statistics/data analysis, (h) biology, (i) learning environment (Cruickshank, 1985). chemistry, (j) physics, (k) American history, (l) Moreover, the specific general education re- political science, and (m) rural sociology. quirements required by agricultural teacher edu- Swortzel also noted that the coursework helped cation programs vary due to the requirements of to prepare preservice agricultural teachers for institutions and state departments of education the following roles: (a) facilitator of learning, (b) but “typically include coursework in communi- understander of the learner, (c) program devel- cation arts, mathematics, biological and physical oper, (d) administrator, (e) professional educa- sciences, behavioral and social sciences, human- tor, and (f) role model and mentor. The notion ities, and fine arts” (Barrick & Garton, 2010, p. that general education coursework can help pre- 37). pare preservice teachers for future roles of an agricultural teacher or provide knowledge that General Knowledge Competencies Derived complements the teaching of agriculture is From the Literature known as complementary knowledge (Barrick & Garton, 2010; Swortzel, 1995). To that end, one Based on the literature above, the competen- could argue that complementary knowledge is cies presented in Table 4 are essential general vital for facilitating learning among students knowledge competencies needed for teaching. with diverse backgrounds and experiences, since
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Table 4
Essential general knowledge competencies for beginning teachers
General knowledge competencies Author(s) Understanding of and the ability to be a contrib- Barrick & Garton, 2010; Cheney, 1989; Harvard Committee uting citizen/teacher in a democratic society on General Education as cited in Cruickshank, 1985; Miller, 1988, 1992
Knowledge of mathematics Adler, 2009; Barrick & Garton, 2010; Cheney, 1989; Co- nant, 1963; Seligman & Malamud as cited in as cited in Cruickshank, 1985; Swortzel, 1995
Knowledge of science Barrick & Garton, 2010; Conant, 1963; Seligman & Mal- amud as cited in as cited in Cruickshank, 1985
Knowledge of the social sciences Barrick & Garton, 2010; Cheney, 1989; Swortzel, 1995
Knowledge of history Adler, 2009; Conant, 1963; Seligman & Malamud as cited in as cited in Cruickshank, 1985; Swortzel, 1995
Ability to effectively communicate – oral and Barrick & Garton, 2010; Conant, 1963; Swortzel, 1995 written Ability to solve problems and make informed Barrick & Garton, 2010; Miller, 1988, 1992 decisions Understanding and appreciation of social values Barrick & Garton, 2010; Miller, 1988, 1992
Knowledge of natural sciences Adler, 2009; Cheney, 1989; Swortzel, 1995
Knowledge of literature and arts Adler, 2009; Barrick & Garton, 2010; Seligman & Malam- ud as cited in as cited in Cruickshank, 1985; Swortzel, 1995
Knowledge of culture and civilizations Barrick & Garton, 2010; Cheney, 1989; Seligman & Mal- amud as cited in as cited in Cruickshank, 1985
Knowledge and skills of analysis, synthesis, and Barrick & Garton, 2010; Harvard Committee on General evaluation Education as cited in Cruickshank, 1985; Miller, 1988, 1992
Knowledge of political science Conant, 1963; Swortzel, 1995
Knowledge of language Adler, 2009; Cheney, 1989; Conant, 1963; Seligman & Malamud as cited in as cited in Cruickshank, 1985
Knowledge of western literature Cheney, 1989; Conant, 1963
Understanding and appreciation of multiple Conant, 1963; Seligman & Malamud as cited in as cited in philosophical paradigms Cruickshank, 1985; Swortzel, 1995
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Conclusions, Recommendations, heart of teacher education, and philosophy “re- and Implications quires a consideration of the destiny of individu- als, groups, and society itself. It is concerned, The purpose of this philosophical study was therefore, with the concept of destination (ends) to examine the professional knowledge, tech- and the appropriate choice of routes (means) nical knowledge, and general knowledge compe- which may be available, or which may be made tencies needed in a comprehensive teacher edu- available” (p. 298). Additionally, the recom- cation program to prepare beginning school- mendation is supported by Roberts and Kitchel based agricultural education teachers. Sixteen (2010) who purported that quality teacher educa- professional knowledge competencies, three tion programs are guided by a coherent scope technical knowledge competencies, and 16 gen- and sequence with sound theoretical underpin- eral knowledge competencies were derived from nings. the literature. The authors recognize the compe- Future research should seek to discover the tencies identified must be placed within the con- most effective and efficient ways of preparing text of state teacher licensure standards and re- beginning school-based agricultural education quirements. With that in mind, we recommend teachers in regard to the professional knowledge, that agricultural teacher education programs use technical knowledge, and general knowledge the competencies complied in this inquiry to competencies discussed in this study. This re- spur philosophical discussions regarding the search is vital due to budgetary concerns and coursework and experiences provided by an ag- based on the fact that many universities are de- ricultural teacher education program. Engaging creasing or limiting the number of hours in the in discussion will aid teacher educators in meet- baccalaureate degree. Moreover, the course- ing the needs of preservice teachers and other work configuration and the professional stakeholders of agricultural education. Further- knowledge, technical knowledge, and general more, by engaging in philosophical discussion knowledge competencies emphasized should be related to preparing school-based agricultural guided by a philosophy of agricultural teacher education teachers, teacher educators are proac- education, since the philosophy behind the kind tively seeking to improve the teacher education of teacher education one receives affects the program in an effort to meet societal needs. preparedness of beginning teachers (Darling- This recommendation is consistent with Swan- Hammond, 2006). son (1982) who stated that philosophy is at the
References
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Phipps, L. J., Osborne, E. W., Dyer, J. E., & Ball, A. (2008). Handbook on agricultural education in pub- lic schools (6th ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning. Roberts, T. G., & Ball, A. (2009). Secondary agricultural science as content and context for teaching. Journal of Agricultural Education, 50(1), 81-91. doi: 10.5032/jae.2009.01081 Roberts, T. G., & Dyer, J. E. (2004). Characteristics of effective agriculture teachers. Journal of Agricul- tural Education, 45(4), 82-95. doi: 10.5032/jae.2004.04082 Roberts, T. G., & Kitchel, T. (2010). Designing professional knowledge curriculum and instruction. In R. M. Torres, T. Kitchel, & A. L. Ball (Eds.), Preparing and advancing teachers in agricultural ed- ucation (pp. 100-111). Columbus, OH: Curriculum Materials Service, The Ohio State University. Shelly-Tolbert, C. A., Conroy, C. A., & Dailey, A. L. (2000). The move to agriscience and its impact on teacher education in agriculture. Journal of Agricultural Education, 41(4), 51-61. doi: 10.5032/jae.2000.04051 Stripling, C. T. (2012). Effects of mathematics integration on mathematical ability and efficacy of pre- service teachers (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. Swanson, G. I. (1982). Philosophy for teacher education in agriculture. In A. L. Berkey (ed.). Teacher education in agriculture (pp. 287-300). Danville, IL: Interstate Printers & Publishers. Swortzel, K. A. (1995). Program for the preparation of preservice agricultural education teachers for the twenty-first century (ERIC No. ED 389 676). Educational Resources Information Center. Re- trieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED389676.pdf
CHRISTOPHER T. STRIPLING is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education and Communications at the University of Tennessee, 320B Morgan Hall, 2621 Morgan Circle, Knoxville, TN 37996-4511, [email protected]
R. KIRBY BARRICK is a Professor in the Department of Agricultural Education and Communication at the University of Florida, PO Box 110540, Gainesville, FL 32611–0540, [email protected]
Journal of Agricultural Education 83 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 84 – 99 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03084 o Diffusion of Social Media Among County 4-H Programs in u r Tennessee n a Rebekah D. Bowen l University of Georgia Cooperative Extension Carrie A. Stephens o Courtney C. Childers f Elizabeth J. Avery A Christopher T. Stripling g The University of Tennessee, Knoxville r i Over the past decade, Cooperative Extension and 4-H professionals have been faced with the decision of c whether to adopt new communication technologies such as social media. Research on social media and u Cooperative Extension has identified risks and barriers to adoption; however, many Cooperative l Extension professionals believe that social media usage could be very beneficial for Cooperative t Extension and/or 4-H usage. In order to increase the body of knowledge on this subject, a quantitative u study was conducted to determine the diffusion of social media among country 4-H programs in r Tennessee. The study was conducted via an online questionnaire distributed to all 4-H program leaders a in Tennessee, and a 49% (n = 196) response rate was obtained. Eight-four percent of county 4-H l program leaders utilized social media for their county program. A majority of program leaders had a positive view of social media usage and felt that it was an efficient and effective way to communicate information. Overall, the study determined that social media is gaining widespread usage throughout E rural and urban county 4-H programs in Tennessee, and that increased efforts toward training and d research in this area is warranted. u c Keywords: social media usage; diffusion of social media; Cooperative Extension a t Since its earliest days, Cooperative traditional clientele (Borden & Harris, 1998). i Extension has been an organization that required Due to their reliance on effective o its professionals to be competent in the field of communication, Cooperative Extension and 4-H n communication. Training in the area of personnel have identified a need to adapt to V communication, however, has not always been changing communication techniques in order to o readily available to Cooperative Extension ensure that communication and programming l professionals (Agunga, 1993). In both the remain relevant to new generations of 4-H and u Agricultural Education and Extension fields, it is Cooperative Extension clientele (Fuess & m becoming apparent that communication training Humphreys, 2011). Today, over six million e should become an integral part of pre-service youth are involved in 4-H projects, clubs, and and in-service training for professionals in both activities nationwide (National 4-H Council, 5 of these fields. Recent research has shown that 2010). The majority of 4-H youth, ages 9 to 19, 1 communication skills are a necessary are a part of the generation known as the , competency for Cooperative Extension Millennial Generation (Howe & Strauss, 2000; professionals from a leadership (Moore & Rudd, Lindbeck & Fodrey, 2010). Typically considered N 2004), human resources (Scheer, Cochran, to be born between 1982 and 2000, members of Harder & Place, 2011) and academic extension the millennial generation are tech-savvy, u education viewpoint (Scheer et al., 2011). community-minded individuals who prefer to m Communication competency was found to be communicate via text messaging, blogging, b important whether Cooperative Extension Facebook, and other more social types of media e professionals worked with traditional or non- (Howe & Strauss, 2000; Lindbeck & Fodrey, r 1 , 84 p p . Bowen, Stephens, Childers, Avery and Stripling Diffusion of Social Media...
2010). According to a recent study, over 70% of five key characteristics that moderate technology 18 to 29 year olds use social media and 72% of adoption: (a) relative advantage, (b) American teens use social networking sites, such compatibility, (c) complexity, (d) trialability, as Facebook, Myspace, or LinkedIn (Lenhart, and (e) observability (Rogers & Shoemaker, Purcell, Smith & Zickuhr, 2010). Because of the 1971; Rogers, 1995). Relative advantage widespread usage of social media, Agricultural describes the degree to which adopting the new Education and Extension professionals have technology would be more beneficial than begun to research how social media can be continuing to utilize current technologies effectively utilized to support existing methods (Rogers, 1995). Compatibility addresses whether of communication and information delivery or not the new technology works well with (Coates, 2004; Doerfert, Graber, Myers & currently established technologies and practice Irlbeck, 2012; Fuess & Humphreys, 2011; (Rogers, 1995). Complexity is the difficulty of Kinsey, 2010; Rhoades, Thomas & Davis, 2009; learning how to utilize a new technology or Murphrey, Rutherford, Doerfort, Edgar and adopt a new idea (Rogers, 1995). Trialability Edgar, 2012; Seger, 2011). In 2011, researchers represents the ability of new users to experiment in two Midwestern states conducted research with the idea or technology and what investment studies on utilizing social media as a of time and/or money is involved with communication method for Cooperative experimentation (Rogers, 1995). Observability is Extension professionals (Hill, Bailey, Arnold & the ability to see visible results from utilizing the Myers, 2012; Russell, Reynolds, Washburn & new technology (Rogers & Shoemaker, 1971; Chumbley, 2012). However, at the time this Rogers, 1995). Together these five established research study was proposed, there was no characteristics help determine whether a new empirical evidence found that investigated the innovation will be highly successful or face adoption and diffusion of social media on an failure (Katz, Levine & Hamilton, 1963). While organizational or individual level among county Rogers’ theory was established in the mid- 4-H programs. To that end, this study sought to 1900s, research has shown that Rogers’ describe how county 4-H program leaders are predictions for adoption and diffusion still hold utilizing social media to communicate with their true for modern technological advances such as clientele, the types of social media being social media (Liebrenz-Himes, Dyer & Shamma, utilized, and the program leaders’ perceptions of 2009). Rogers’ theory posits that an individual’s current and future usage of social media. This decision to adopt or reject a new innovation study will contribute to Research Priority Two follows a model known as the innovation- (new technology, practices, and products decision process. The innovation-decision adoption decisions) of the American process is “the process through which an Associations for Agricultural Education’s individual (or other decision making unit) passes National Research Agenda, which seeks to from first knowledge of an innovation, to “achieve positive outcomes in current and future forming an attitude toward the innovation, to a agriculture-related diffusion efforts” (Doerfert, decision to adopt or reject, to implementation of 2011, p. 8). the new idea, and to confirmation of this decision” (Rogers, 1995, p.20). Theoretical Framework While the acceptance or rejection of innovations by individuals can be described by Roger’s (1995) theory of diffusion of Rogers’ (1995) innovation-decision process, the innovations was used to frame this study, and diffusion of innovations in organizations has describes diffusion as a process by which been shown to follow a different pattern due to innovations or new technologies are factors that cannot be controlled on an individual communicated and distributed through various level (Rogers, 1995; Frambach & Schillewaert, channels over time between members of a 2002). Furthermore, the adoption of innovations society or the social system (Rogers & should contribute to the effectiveness of the Shoemaker, 1971; Rogers, 1995). According to organization. Rogers’ posited, however, that the theory of diffusion of innovations, there are organizational factors such as system openness
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and formalization could have an effect on 1. Describe which types of social media the organizational innovation process. System sites are utilized by county 4-H openness was described as “the degree to which programs. members of a system are linked to others of a 2. Describe how county 4-H program system” (Rogers, 1995, p. 377), and leaders currently utilize social media to formalization was defined as “the degree to interact with 4-H members, volunteers which an organization emphasizes following and other adults in their county. rules and procedures in the role performance of 3. Determine perspectives towards current its members” (Rogers, 1995, p. 377). While a and future social media usage for 4-H as high degree of system openness was found to shown by the county 4-H program have a positive effect on organizational leaders. innovation, formalization was found to have a negative effect on the innovation process Methods and Procedures (Rogers, 1995). The profit or non-profit structure of an organization has also been shown For this descriptive study, a cross- to have some impact on the organizational sectional survey design (Ary, Jacobs & innovation process (Hull & Lio, 2005; Jaskyte & Sorenson, 2010) was utilized to investigate the Dressler, 2005). In its most basic form, however, perceptions and usage of social media by county Rogers (1995) describes the innovation process 4-H program leaders in Tennessee. The target in an organization as having five key stages: population of the study was county 4-H agenda-setting, matching, personnel in Tennessee, which included County redefining\restructuring, clarifying and Program Assistants, County Extension Agents routinizing. Research of innovation adoption and County Extension Directors. Tennessee 4-H within an organization indicated that some staff assisted the researchers with identifying the elements which aid in the first two stages members of the target population and provided actually have negative effects on the final three access by granting permission for the stages; therefore, a dual-core model was researchers to utilize three regional Cooperative established that represents the different Extension 4-H listservs. The listservs included a processes as they occur before and after the total of 207 4-H personnel, 11 of whom were decision to adopt (Rogers, 1995). The initiation excluded from participation because of their phase of the process consists of gathering previous inclusion in the pilot study. information, conceptualizing needs and potential The questionnaire used in this study was a uses, and planning for how the innovation will researcher-developed questionnaire that was be utilized once adopted (Rogers, 1995). Once based on works of several authors (Cavazza, the decision to adopt an innovation has been 2011; Kattan & Adams, 1994; Lenhart, Purcell, made, the implementation phase takes place. The Smith & Zickuhr, 2010), and contained survey implementation phase includes all of the steps questions and a scale that was either used or necessary to fully integrate the innovation as a modified from the previously mentioned studies. natural part of the organization’s daily activities The questionnaire included concepts and ideas (Rogers, 1995). from the Pew Internet and American Life Project’s study on social media and internet Purpose and Objectives usage by teens and young adults (Lenhart, Purcell, Smith & Zickuhr, 2010); social media The purpose of this study is to describe how categories similar to the Social Media county 4-H program leaders in Tennessee utilize Landscape developed by Fred Cavazza social media and to determine perceptions of 4- (Cavazza, 2011); determination of population H program leaders toward current and future size based on the Rural Urban Commuting Area usage of social media communication methods Classification System (as cited in Avery, (i.e. Twitter, Facebook, or blogging). The Lariscy, Amador, Ickowitz, Primm & Taylor, specific objectives of this study include: 2010); and a modification of the Perceived Usefulness Scale (Kattan & Adams, 1994).
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Furthermore, one section in the questionnaire and asked about their willingness to participate sought to determine how social media was being in the pilot study. Each of the 11 participants utilized by personnel in extension. In that who were contacted agreed to participate and particular section, questions related to social they were sent the questionnaire via email with media use were divided into three categories: (a) an explanation of the purpose of the study. direct communication, (b) in-direct Participants were asked to complete the communication, and (c) sharing and mass questionnaire and to contact the researchers with communication. Direct communication options any additional feedback about the design of the included the use of Facebook messaging, Twitter questionnaire. Reliability of the usefulness of direct message, Twitter @ reply, or other social media scale included in the questionnaire method to specifically contact an individual or a was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha targeted group of individuals. In-direct coefficient, and the alpha coefficient was found communication choices included posting to a 4- to be .87. This is acceptable according to H interest group, sharing information via Nunnally (1978), who suggested .7 as a Facebook or Twitter status updates, or other minimum threshold for an acceptable alpha methods of providing targeted information to a coefficient. For the survey portion of the large group of fans or followers. Finally, the questionnaire, no reliability measures were sharing and mass communication category established due to the independent design of the choices were creating a blog, Facebook page, items. An online questionnaire was chosen as YouTube account, Twitter account or other the method of delivery based on the resources profile with the general intention of sharing available to conduct this study, as well as the information that would be publicly accessible ability to gain an increased amount of data from but had no direct target audience. a larger population (Ary et al., 2010). Through Face and content validity for the the usage of the three Cooperative Extension questionnaire were established through review listserves, a total population of 207 county 4-H by an expert panel. The expert panel consisted of program leaders, which included program three members of the Tennessee 4-H staff, one assistants, county agents and county extension National 4-H staff member, four university coordinators, were sent the questionnaire via agricultural education and extension faculty email. Eleven recipients were excluded from the members, and one social media professional. number of potential respondents due to their Feedback from the panel members was received earlier participation in the pilot study. The individually and combined to identify changes questionnaires were distributed with a cover needed to clarify questions and constructs. Panel email indicating: a) the purpose of the study, b) members indicated that the questionnaire was instructions for completing the questionnaire, c) very lengthy and that some questions seemed clear indication of the University of Tennessee repetitive. Questions were combined and sponsorship, and d) information about streamlined so that the questionnaire was shorter incentives. A $25 gift card was awarded to five and concepts were clearer. randomly selected participants. A pilot study was then conducted with After three initial contacts by email, the 11 county 4-H program leaders who represented response rate was 41.3%. The counties that were each of the three Cooperative Extension regions not represented after the three initial email in Tennessee. The pilot study included males (= contacts were contacted via telephone. 4) and females (n = 7) ranging in age from 27 to Researchers asked to speak with the primary 4-H 63 years old. Participants were selected from a contact in that county and personally encouraged list provided by the Tennessee 4-H office. A the 4-H leader to complete the questionnaire. purposeful sample was selected to ensure that These program leaders were individually the pilot study sample would be representative emailed an additional copy of the questionnaire of each Cooperative Extension region. Age was to ensure that they had easy access to complete unknown at the time of the pilot study and was the questionnaire and return it in a timely not used to select pilot study participants. Pilot manner. At the end of a three week period, a study participants were contacted via telephone total of 15 leaders had completed the
Journal of Agricultural Education 87 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Bowen, Stephens, Childers, Avery and Stripling Diffusion of Social Media... questionnaire in response to personal outreach Results via telephone. Overall, a total of 96 responses were received out of a possible 196 for a final Objective 1: Describe which types of social response rate of 49%. A total of 81% (n = 95) of media sites are utilized by county 4-H pro- county 4-H programs in Tennessee were grams represented in the study, with some counties having representation by more than one program As shown in Table 1, several of the social leader. Non-response error was addressed by media categories exhibited very limited usage, comparing early and late respondents, as and four categories showed usage greater than described by Ary et al. (2010). Survey results 5% on at least a weekly basis. These included from each unique survey mail-out were social networking, text chat, commerce, and compared using SPSS statistical analysis and no photo sharing. Additionally, 74.4% (n = 79) significant differences were found. Therefore, reported using social networking sites, such as the respondents were determined to represent an Facebook. Text chat was the category with the unbiased sample of the population. Descriptive second highest frequency of weekly usage statistics including means, frequencies and (22.8%, n = 79). standard deviations were calculated to summarize the data as appropriate.
Table 1
County 4-H Program Leaders’ Frequency of Social Media Usage by Social Media Service
At least Every few Less often Never Variable weekly weeks n f % F % f % f % Blogging (Blogger, Wordpress, 77 3 3.9 3 3.9 4 5.2 67 87.0 Posterous)
Commerce (Groupon, LivingSocial, Swipely) 77 4 5.2 2 2.6 4 5.2 67 87.0
Micro-Blogging (Twitter) 77 2 2.6 3 3.9 9 11.7 63 81.8
Video Chat (Skype) 75 3 4.0 1 1.3 12 16.0 59 78.7
Photo Sharing (Flickr, Pinterest) 76 8 10.5 10 13.2 9 11.8 49 64.5
Text Chat (Yahoo!, Google 76 17 22.4 9 11.8 6 7.9 44 57.9 Talk, Facebook Chat) 77 3 3.9 8 10.4 29 37.7 37 48.1 Video Sharing (YouTube, SocialCam)
Social Networking (Facebook, 78 58 74.4 10 12.8 5 6.4 5 6.4 Myspace, LinkedIn, Google+) Note. Categories in which 90% or more of respondents indicated they had never utilized the social media service or technology were not included in the table. These categories were social gaming, virtual worlds, dashboards, analytics, discussion, and check-in.
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Objective 2: Describe how county 4-H addition, 50% had access to social media program leaders currently utilize social through a Smartphone with internet. media to interact with 4-H members, vol- Respondents were also asked to report their unteers and other adults in their county approximate total usage of social media for personal and professional purposes. Over 60% In order to determine if technology reported a total social media usage of less than accessibility was an issue, participants were four hours per week. In addition, 51% felt that asked to select all devices in which they had the usage of social media for 4-H was very access for use with social media services (see important to extremely important. An additional Table 2). A majority of respondents had access 45.7% felt that social media was slightly to a personal computer of some type, whether it important to moderately important. was a desktop PC, laptop or netbook. In
Table 2
General Usage of Social Media by County 4-H Program Leaders in Tennessee
Variable n f % Access to Devices* 96 66 68.8 Desktop PC 82 85.4 Laptop computer\Netbook 33 34.4 iPad or tablet computer 30 31.3 Cell phone 48 50.0 Smartphone (with internet) 7 7.3 E-book reader (Kindle, etc.) Total Weekly Usage of Social 96 Media Do not use 6 6.3 0-2 hrs. 38 39.6 3-4 hrs. 20 20.8 5-6 hrs. 12 12.5 7-8 hrs. 11 11.5 9+ hrs. 9 9.4 Importance of Social Media for 4-H 94 Low importance 3 3.2 Slightly important 11 11.7 Neutral 11 11.7 Moderately important 21 22.3 Very important 35 37.2 Extremely important 13 13.8 Note: *Participants were asked to select all that apply
County program leaders were also asked (n = 94) of county 4-H program leaders utilized whether or not they officially used social media social media to help promote their county to promote their county program or interact with program or interact with their clientele. 4-H members, volunteers and other adults in Additionally, 80.5% (n = 77) of counties utilized their county (see Table 3). Eighty-four percent social media to interact with 4-H members,
Journal of Agricultural Education 89 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Bowen, Stephens, Childers, Avery and Stripling Diffusion of Social Media... volunteers and other adults. 4-H program leaders communication with volunteers and adult in 11 counties (14.3%, n = 77) reported their leaders (67.0%, n = 79). county did not currently use social media, but In regard to their county 4-H program’s had considered using it in the future. ability to successfully use social media, a Of the counties that officially utilized social majority of the program leaders somewhat media, 70.8% used social media at least once per agreed or agreed that social media was utilized week, while an additional 24.1% reported using effectively and efficiently (see Table 5). social media every few weeks (see Table 4). Overall, county 4-H program leaders in Social media was most commonly used for Tennessee somewhat agreed or agreed with their direct communication with 4-H members counties social media usage. (72.1%, n = 79), in-direct communication with 4-H members (69.0%, n = 79), and direct
Table 3
Official Social Media Usage by Program Leader and by County Program
Variable n f % Officially Utilize Social Media by Program Leader 94 Yes 79 82.3 No, but have considered 14 14.6 No, and have not considered 1 1.0
Officially Utilize Social Media by County 77 Yes 62 80.5 No, but have considered 11 14.3 No, and have not considered 1 1.3 Mixed Response 3 3.9
Table 4
Description of Usage of Social Media by County 4-H Program Leaders in Tennessee
Variable n f % Frequency of Social Media Use 79 Several times a day 2 2.5 About once a day 5 6.3 3-5 times per week 18 22.8 1-2 times per week 31 39.2 Every few weeks 19 24.1 Less often 4 5.1 How Sites Are Used* 79 Direct communication with 4-H members 57 72.1 Direct communication with volunteers\adult leaders 53 67.0 In-direct communication with 4-H members 55 69.6 In-direct communication with 4-H volunteers\adult leaders 50 63.3 Sharing\Mass Communication 53 67.0 Note. *Participants were asked to select all that apply. Objective 3: Determine perspectives towards current and future social media usage for 4-H as shown by the county 4-H program leaders.
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Table 5
County Usage of Social Media as Perceived by County 4-H Program Leaders in Tennessee
agree Agree Agree Neutral disagree disagree Strongly Strongly Strongly Strongly Disagree Somewhat Somewhat
f % f % f % f % f % f % f % My county 4-H program has the 1 1.0 3 3.0 5 5.1 2 2.0 16 16.2 48 48.5 22 22.2 resources necessary to use social media. My county 4-H program has the 1 1.0 6 6.1 6 6.1 5 5.1 28 28.3 38 38.4 13 13.1 knowledge necessary to use social media. I believe that county 4-H 3 3.0 19 19.2 9 9.1 30 30.3 23 23.2 10 10.1 3 3.0 members are satisfied with the way our county uses social media. I believe that my county 4-H 2 2.0 21 21.2 16 16.2 19 19.2 23 23.2 13 13.1 3 3.0 program uses social media very efficiently. I believe that my county 4-H 2 2.0 19 19.2 16 16.2 22 22.2 25 25.3 11 11.1 2 2.0 program uses social media very effectively. I am very satisfied with the way 6 6.1 19 19.2 20 20.2 14 14.1 24 24.2 10 10.1 4 4.0 my county uses social media. My county 4-H program feels 3 3.0 28 28.3 16 16.2 15 15.2 22 22.2 9 9.1 2 2.0 apprehensive about using social media. My county 4-H program 6 6.1 33 33.3 10 10.1 20 20.2 21 21.2 3 3.0 4 4.0 hesitates to use social media because of online privacy concerns. Note. 1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3-somewhat disagree, 4-neutral, 5-somewhat agree, 6-agree, and 7-strongly agree.
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Questionnaire items also assess the county knowledge with Cooperative Extension emp- program leaders’ willingness to engage in using loyees. social media and participate in training Five questions based on the perceived opportunities related to social media (see Table usefulness scale by Kattan and Adams (1994) 6). Program leaders disagreed with the statement were utilized to measure the program leaders’ that they had no interest in using social media for perceptions of the usefulness of social media their county. They also somewhat disagreed that (see Table 7). To that end, county 4-H program they would like to use social media but lacked the leaders perceived social media to be moderately needed knowledge. In reference to participating useful (M = 4.71, SD = 1.56). A majority of the in social media training, program leaders mostly program leaders somewhat agreed, agreed, or somewhat agreed that they would be willing to strongly agreed that social media enhanced their participate in online regional and state training effectiveness on the job, allowed tasks to be opportunities. In addition, program leaders accomplished more quickly, made their job somewhat agreed that they were willing to learn easier, increased their productivity, and about social media and then share their improved their job performance.
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Table 6
County 4-H Program Leaders’ Willingness to Participate in Training
agree Agree Agree Neutral disagree disagree Strongly Strongly Strongly Strongly Disagree Somewhat Somewhat
f % f % f % f % f % f % f % I would be willing to participate in 0 0.0 2 2.1 1 1.0 20 20.8 31 32.3 27 28.1 13 13.5 an online training session to learn how to use social media for my program. I would be willing to learn about 0 0.0 0 0.0 6 6.3 18 18.8 30 31.3 27 28.1 13 13.5 social media and then share my knowledge with fellow Cooperative Extension employees. I would be willing to attend a 0 0.0 3 3.1 7 7.3 17 17.7 21 21.9 29 30.2 17 17.7 regional training meeting to learn how to use social media for my program. I would be willing to attend a 6 6.3 5 5.2 8 8.3 25 26.0 24 25.0 17 17.7 9 9.4 statewide training meeting to learn how to use social media for my program. I would be willing to use social 21 21.9 22 22.9 4 4.2 19 19.8 19 19.8 7 7.3 2 2.1 media for my county program, but do not know how. I have no interest in using social 40 41.7 35 36.5 9 9.4 4 4.2 6 6.3 0 0.0 0 0.0 media for my county program. Note. 1-strongly disagree, 2-disagree, 3-somewhat disagree, 4-neutral, 5-somewhat agree, 6-agree, and 7-strongly agree.
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Table 7
County 4-H Program Leaders’ Perceptions of the Usefulness of Social Media
agree Agree Agree Neutral disagree disagree Strongly Strongly Strongly Strongly Disagree Somewhat Somewhat
f % f % f % f % f % f % f % Using social media enhances my 4 4.2 5 5.2 4 4.2 19 19.8 24 25.0 29 30.2 9 9.4 effectiveness on the job. Using social media allows me to 5 5.2 6 6.3 7 7.3 23 24.0 20 20.8 19 19.8 14 14.6 accomplish tasks more quickly.
Using social media makes it easier to 4 4.2 7 7.3 8 8.3 21 21.9 19 19.8 24 25.0 11 11.5 do my job. Using social media increases my 4 4.2 7 7.3 5 5.2 27 28.1 23 24.0 17 17.7 11 11.5 productivity. Using social media improves my job 4 4.2 8 8.3 2 2.1 30 31.3 17 17.7 24 25.0 8 8.3 performance.
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Conclusions, Implications opportunities for utilizing social media for and Recommendations Cooperative Extension. This research study was designed to measure This study indicates that social media has the diffusion and adoption of social media become a widely adopted technology for county among county 4-H programs in Tennessee based 4-H programs in Tennessee, and was utilized by on the theoretical framework of diffusion the majority of county 4-H program leaders. models established by Rogers (1995). As stated While Rhoades et al. (2009) found that 4-H earlier, this process of adoption can be viewed social media use was primarily youth led, this from an individual or organizational standpoint. study supports research by Fuess and Because this study is intended to measure Humphreys (2011) which indicated there has adoption across an organization, the been some level of adoption of social media for organizational process of innovation proves to official usage by county 4-H program leaders. be the most helpful in describing the current Social networking sites were the key social state of social media adoption by Cooperative media service used by county 4-H program Extension and 4-H. As described previously, the leaders. Of the county program leaders who organizational innovation process can be divided officially utilized social media, the majority of into two key phases (initiation and program leaders utilized social networking sites, implementation) and five subordinate stages such as Facebook, on at least a weekly basis, and (agenda-setting, matching, a very few program leaders indicated that they redefining/restructuring, clarifying and had never used social networking for their routinizing). The changing landscape of county program. This finding is consistent with communication among constituents has served results found by Curtis et al. (2010) in which as a strong agenda-setting motivator for social networking was the second most Cooperative Extension and 4-H to prioritize commonly used social media service for social media adoption. The National 4-H nonprofits following only email (which was not Council has initiated training programs to included in this study). encourage adoption of this new technology to A potential need for training in social media help 4-H reach a larger, more diverse audience usage and updating social media technology and (2011). In addition, a variety of Cooperative resources was also identified. While a high Extension and 4-H programs have also percentage of program leaders engaged in using succeeded in finding effective ways to social media for their county, they expressed incorporate social media and match these new only a moderate level of agreement that their technologies to existing communication needs in county possessed the knowledge and resources their programs (Kinsey, 2010; National 4-H necessary to utilize social media. Some Council, 2010). Results of this diffusion study, participants specifically indicated they lacked combined with prior research on Cooperative the technical knowledge necessary to efficiently Extension and 4-H usage of social media, and effectively utilize social media for their indicate that the organizational decision to adopt county program. Likewise, respondents social media technologies has been made and somewhat disagreed they were very satisfied social media adoption may continue to the with the way their program was currently second phase of the innovation process. This utilizing social media or believed their 4-H may prove challenging, however, because many clientele were satisfied by their current usage of of the factors that are beneficial during the social media. Participants also indicated that initiation phase can prove to be quite negative they would be at least somewhat willing to during the implementation stage. For instance, participate in online, regional or statewide during the initiation process, organizations may training opportunities. Lack of technical benefit from low centralization, high knowledge and need for training are consistent complexity, and low formalization. During the with findings from the Fuess and Humphreys implementation phase, however, an organization (2011) study which identified barriers, risks and would benefit from high centralization, low
Journal of Agricultural Education 95 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Bowen, Stephens, Childers, Avery and Stripling Diffusion of Social Media... complexity, and high formalization (Rogers, Results of this study support findings by 1995). These factors may have an effect on the Murphey et al. (2012) that technology successfulness of the implementation of social acceptance is not consistent across social media media by the organization as a whole. platforms. While the study by Murphey et al. While this study provides some insight into shows that content management systems are the way that county 4-H programs are currently most accepted for agricultural education uses, implementing social media, further research is this study supports findings by Fuess & encouraged to determine how these new Humphreys (2011), Hill et al. (2012) and technologies can best be utilized to support the Russell et al. (2012) that social networking (i.e. Cooperative Extension system and serve Facebook) is most accepted by Cooperative established and new clientele. Analysis of Extension professionals. Learning to effectively participants overall perceptions of social media utilize the social media tools and technologies showed strong support of previous findings that are accepted by target audiences can help indicating that social media could prove to be a agricultural education professionals best develop highly beneficial promotional and training programs to help prepare college communication tool for county 4-H programs students for careers in agricultural education or and other Cooperative Extension personnel extension. Based on the findings of this study, as (Coates, 2004; Fuess & Humphreys, 2011; supported by Fuess & Humphreys (2011), Hill et Rhoades et al., 2009). Further research is al. (2012) and Russell et al. (2012), those suggested to determine best practices for training future and current extension utilizing social media to maximize the benefit to professionals should ensure that educational the organization. This may include research on opportunities are presented to provide training which social media services are the best fit for 4- on utilizing Facebook in a safe, efficient and H use and\or how to most efficiently and effective manner. Based on the findings of these effectively utilize these services. studies, we can see that use of Facebook is a key This study may also provide a foundation communication competency for Cooperative for other researchers to more effectively isolate Extension professionals in order to reach perceived barriers and risks to usage of social clientele and stakeholders efficiently and media. Results of this study indicate support for effectively. Therefore, it is strongly suggested several barriers of social media usage as that training in social media, specifically identified by Fuess and Humphreys (2011). Facebook, be incorporated into Cooperative Additional research should be conducted to Extension education programs and that in- further identify how to decrease these barriers in service training opportunities be provided. order to improve the social media adoption Future research on acceptance of social media process in Cooperative Extension and 4-H. technologies in agricultural education and Finally, this study provides interesting extension fields is strongly encouraged to further insight into social media adoption by 4-H as part determine best practices for social media use. of the Cooperative Extension organization.
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Borden, L., & Harris, W. (1998). An occupational analysis comparing 4-H youth development agents serving traditional and non-traditional clientele. Journal of Agricultural Education, 39(4), 53-64. doi: 10.5032/jae.1998.04053 Cavazza, F. (2010). Social Media Landscape 2011 [infographic]. Retrieved from www.fredcavazza.net/2010/12/14/social-media-landscape-2011/ Coates, D. (2004). Weblogs as a disruptive technology for extension. Journal of Extension, 42(3). Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/2004june/comm1.php Curtis, L., Edwards, C., Fraser, K. L., Gudelsky, S., Holmquist, J., Thornton, K., & Sweetser, K. D. (2010). Adoption of social media for public relations by nonprofit organizations. Public Relations Review, 36 (1), 90-92. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2009.10.003 Doefert, D. (Ed.) (2011). National research agenda: American Association for Agricultural Education’s research priority areas for 2011-2015. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University, Department of Agricultural Education and Communications. Doerfert, D., Graber, L., Myers, C., & Irlbeck, E. (2012). Traditional and social media channels used by Texas agricultural producers. Research poster presented at the American Association for Agricultural Educators National Research Conference, Ashville, NC. Retrieved from http://aaaeonline.org/uploads/allconferences/5-17-2012_790__2012 _AAAE_Research_Proceedings.pdf Frambach, R. T., & Schillewart, N. (2002). Organizational innovation adoption: A multi-level framework of determinants and opportunities for future research. Journal of Business Research, 55, 163-176. Fuess, L. L., & Humphreys, L. (2011). An analysis and recommendations of the use of social media within the Cooperative Extension System: opportunities, risks, and barriers (Unpublished honor’s thesis). Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. Retrieved from http://dspace.library.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/2312912 /Fuess,%20Lucas%20- %20Research%20Honors%20Thesis.pdf Hill, A., Bailey, N., Arnold, S., & Myers, C. (2012). Extension’s online presence: are land-grant universities promoting the tripartite mission? Research poster presented at the American Association for Agricultural Educators National Research Conference, Ashville, NC. Retrieved from http://aaaeonline.org/uploads/allconferences/5-17-2012_790__2012 _AAAE_Research_Proceedings.pdf Howe, N., & Strauss, W. (2000). Millennials rising: the next great generation. New York, NY: Vintage Books. Hull, C. E., & Lio, B. H. (2006). Innovation in non-profit and for-profit organizations: visionary, strategic, and financial considerations. Journal of Change Management, 6(1), 53-65. doi: 10.1080/14697010500523418 Jaskyte, K., & Dressler, W. W. (2005). Organizational culture and innovation in non-profit human service organizations. Administration in Social Work, 29(2), 23-41. doi: 10.1300/J147v29n02_03 Kattan, M. W., & Adams, D. A. (1994). Explaining information technology use with the usefulness scale: A comparison with user age. Proceedings of the annual symposium on computer application (sic) in medical care. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7950037 Katz, E., Levine, M. L., & Hamilton, H. (1963). Traditions of research on the diffusion of innovation. American Sociological Review, 28(2), 237-253. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2090611
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Kinsey, J. (2010). Five social media tools for the Extension toolbox. Journal of Extension, 48(5). Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/2010october/tt7.php Lenhart, A., Purcell, K., Smith, A., & Zickuhr, K. (2010). Social media & mobile internet use among teens and young adults. Pew Internet and American Life project. Retrieved from http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1484/social-media-mobile-internet-use-teens-millenials-fewer-blog Liebrenz-Himes, M. L., Dyer, R. F., & Shamma, H. M. (2009). Diffusion of innovations as illustrated by today’s social media explosion: Did Rogers know best?. Proceedings of the Conference on Historical Analysis and Research in Marketing, 14(1), 37-39. Retrieved from http://faculty.quinnipiac.edu/charm/CHARM%20proceedings/ CHARM%20article%20archive%20pdf%20format/Volume%2014%202009/liebrenz- himes%20dyer%20shamma.pdf Moore, L., & Rudd, R. (2004). Leadership skills and competencies for extension directors and administrators. Journal of Agricultural Education, 45(3), 22-33. doi: 10.5032/jae.2004.03022 Murphrey, T., Rutherford, T., Doerfert, D., Edgar, L., & Edgar, D. (2012). Technology acceptance related to Second Life, social networking, Twitter, and content management systems: are agricultural students ready, willing and able? Journal of Agricultural Education, 53(3), 56-70. doi: 10.5032/jae.2012.03056 National 4-H Council. (2010). 4-H.org. Retrieved from www.4-h.org Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Rhoades, E., Thomas, J. R., & Davis, A. (2009). Social networking among youth: How is 4-H represented? Journal of Extension, 47(5). Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe /2009october/a6.php Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York, NY: The Free Press. Rogers, E. M., & Shoemaker, F. F. (1971). Communication of innovations: A cross-cultural approach. New York, NY: The Free Press. Russell, M., Reynolds, B., Washburn, N., & Chumbley (2012, May). County extension agents’ methods of communicating 4-H and extension programs in Arkansas. Proceedings of the American Association for Agricultural Educators Research Conference, Asheville, North Carolina, 39, 46. Retrieved from http://aaaeonline.org/uploads/allconferences/5-23-2012_23_abstracts2012.pdf Scheer, S., Cochran, G., Harder, A., & Place, N. (2011). Competency modeling in extension education: integrating an academic extension education model with an extension human resource management model. Journal of Agricultural Education, 52(3), 64-74. doi: 10.5032/jae.2011.03064 Seger, J. (2011). The new digital [st]age: barriers to the adoption and adaptation of new technologies to deliver extension programming and how to address them. Journal of Extension, 49(1). Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/2011february/a1.php
REBEKAH D. BOWEN is a County Extension Agent, 4-H and Youth Development, with University of Georgia Cooperative Extension in Burke County, P.O. Box 300, Waynesboro, GA 30830, [email protected]
CARRIE A. STEPHENS is an Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education and Communications at the University of Tennessee, 320B Morgan Hall, 2621 Morgan Circle, Knoxville, TN 37996-4511, [email protected]
Journal of Agricultural Education 98 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Bowen, Stephens, Childers, Avery and Stripling Diffusion of Social Media...
COURTNEY C. CHILDERS is an Associate Professor of Advertising in the College of Communication and Information at the University of Tennessee, 476 Communications Building, Knoxville, TN 37996- 0343, [email protected]
ELIZABETH J. AVERY is an Associate Professor of Public Relations in the College of Communication and Information at the University of Tennessee, 401-F Student Services Bldg., Knoxville, TN 37996- 0200, [email protected]
CHRISTOPHER T. STRIPLING is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education and Communications at the University of Tennessee, 320B Morgan Hall, 2621 Morgan Circle, Knoxville, TN 37996-4511, [email protected]
Journal of Agricultural Education 99 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Jourl of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 100 – 115 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03100 o Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning Stages in u Agricultural Laboratories r n Catherine W. Shoulders a l University of Arkansas
Brian E. Myers o University of Florida f
Abstract A g Experiential learning in agricultural laboratories has been a foundational component of secondary agri- r cultural education. While inclusion of the four stages of the experiential learning cycle can enhance stu- i dent learning in laboratory settings to help students reach various goals related to scientific literacy and c higher-level thinking, agricultural laboratories have traditionally been sites of psychomotor skill devel- u opment. This exploratory study used a nonexperimental survey design to assess NAAE members’ use of l the stages of Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (1984) during lessons involving agricultural laboratories. t Results indicated that respondents incorporated concrete experience activities and those associated with u grasping information more frequently and for longer durations than they included active experimentation r activities or those associated with transforming information. Further, over half of the respondents re- a ported designing lessons in laboratory settings that engaged students in fewer than all four stages of the l experiential learning cycle. Recommendations include further study in order to gain a more holistic un- derstanding of how experiential learning is used in agricultural laboratories. E
Keywords: experiential learning, agriculture teacher, experiential learning cycle, Kolb d u Experiential learning in various settings has Naaman, 2007; Osborne, 1994b; Phipps et al., c been a foundational component of secondary 2008). a agricultural education since its inception (Cheek, The National Research Council publications t Arrington, Carter, & Randell, 1994; Mabie & pertaining to both agricultural education (1988) i Baker, 1996; Parr & Edwards, 2004; Phipps, and the National Science Education Standards o Osborne, Dyer, & Ball, 2008; Roberts, 2006; (1996) have recommended that education in- n Smith-Hughes Act, 1917). These learning set- clude goals related to scientific literacy: Under- V tings can include classroom instruction, labora- standing Agriculture: New Directions for Edu- o tory work, field trips, and supervised agricultural cation (NRC, 1988) called for agriculture pro- l experience programs among other experiences grams that prepared students for careers beyond u (McCormick, Cox, & Miller, 1989; Osborne, production to include agricultural research and m 1994b; Phipps, et al., 2008). However, experi- sciences, while the National Science Education e ences in these settings do not automatically lead Standards (NRC, 1996) noted that scientifically to learning; as Dewey offered in his publication literate students are better prepared for success- 5 regarding the value of educational experiences, ful scientifically-based careers. Several dimen- 1 “everything depends on the quality of the expe- sions of scientific literacy (Showalter, 1974) , rience which is had” (Dewey, 1938, p. 27). align with principles guiding agriscience educa- When quality experiences are offered, agricul- tion (Phipps et al., 2008). Both Showalter’s N tural laboratories can be utilized to improve stu- (1974) scientific literacy dimensions and the u dent attainment of a variety of goals, including guiding principles of agriscience education high- m critical thinking, scientific inquiry, skill mastery, light the need for students to use scientific pro- and work habits (Abdulwahed & Nagy, 2009; cesses, experimentation, inquiry, critical think- b Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004; Hofstein & Mamlok- ing, and problem solving to engage in scientific e discovery and decision making. The link be- r 1 , 100 p p . Shoulders and Myers Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning tween the goals of laboratory instruction, scien- tion of “experience”, defined as “activity that tific literacy, and agriscience education suggest includes training, observation of practice, and that well-designed experiences in agricultural personal participation” (p. 493). When applying laboratories can be designed to enhance stu- the definitions of “experience” to the process of dents’ scientific literacy. learning, Kolb (1984) described experiential In previous studies, laboratories have been learning as a process of knowledge creation utilized in agricultural education to improve stu- through the transformation of experience. dents’ psychomotor skills (Franklin, 2008; John- Chickering (1976) and the Association of Expe- son, Wardlow, & Franklin, 1997), suggesting riential Education (1994) referred to any chang- that the experiences provided for in these set- es in an individual resulting from a direct expe- tings may not permit attainment of other listed rience as experiential learning. From an educa- goals related to the improvement of scientific tor’s perspective, experiential learning describes literacy (Osborne, 1994b). Many agriculture “a series of pragmatic activities sequenced in teachers have ample opportunity to provide stu- such a way that it is thought to enhance the edu- dents with laboratory experiences that enhance cational experience for the student learner” skills associated with scientific literacy and (Clark, Threeton, & Ewing, 2010, para. 2). agriscience education, as their access to these While the components of definitions of “experi- agricultural laboratories is currently high (Frank- ence” and “experiential learning” may differ, the lin, 2008; McCormick, 1994; Newcomb, notion that learning is the result of interacting in McCracken, Warmbrod, & Whittington, 2004; some manner with an external subject remains a Shoulders & Myers, 2012). Further, the Nation- constant premise of experiential learning. al Research Agenda (Doerfert, 2011) identified According to Zull (2002), the theory of ex- research assessing learning in various environ- periential learning aligns with the structures of ments as a priority area. This study served to the human brain. The senses enable humans to address this priority area by assessing how the internalize experiences with the external envi- contexts of agricultural laboratories are currently ronment through creation and action among neu- used to enhance student learning through mean- ral synapses. As neural networks are altered ingful experiences. through sensory experiences (termed “plasticity” [p. 115]), the brain organizes new knowledge Theoretical/Conceptual Framework with previous knowledge, forming the basis for learning. The development of knowledge The use of agricultural laboratories to en- through experience enables individuals to both hance learning is guided by the theory of experi- enter experiences with different perspectives as ential learning. Previous literature citing the well as gain different types of knowledge from theoretical tenets, uses, and benefits of experien- shared experiences (Kolb, 1984; Steinaker & tial learning and its use in laboratories provided Bell, 1979; Zull, 2002). Because of the constant the framework for this study. shifting of neural networks, an individual’s ex- periences are linked (Joplin, 1981; Roberts, Experiential Learning 2006; Zull, 2002), and “no two thoughts are ever the same, since experience always intervenes” By human nature, learning and development (Kolb, 1984, p. 26). cannot occur without some sort of experience (Beard & Wilson, 2006; Dewey, 1938; Joplin, Experiential Learning in Education 1981; Kolb, 1984; McCormick, Cox, & Miller, 1989; Vygotsky, 1978). Numerous definitions While not all experiential learning occurs in of “experience” have guided experiential learn- a classroom, the theory of experiential learning ing theory. Joplin (1981) referred to experience has its use in formal educational settings (Gib- as “significantly identify[ing] with, seriously bons & Hopkins, 1980). Zull (2002) described interact[ing] with, form[ing] a personal relation- the classroom as a concrete experience, offering ship with, etc.” (p. 17). McCormick, Cox, and numerous sensory inputs to learners. Multiple Miller (1989) utilized Guralnik’s (1982) defini- educational resources have urged teachers to
Journal of Agricultural Education 101 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning provide students with meaningful experiences classrooms. Itin (1999) suggested that teachers for students (Knapp, 2010). In agricultural edu- should present experiences, help students utilize cation, researchers have encouraged teachers to the experiences, establish the learning environ- consider the aspects of experiences that can help ment, place boundaries on objectives, share nec- students learn (McCormick, Cox, & Miller, essary information, support learners, ensure 1989). Science education has given new focus physical and emotional safety, guide reflection, to experiential learning as researchers have and facilitate learning. Dale (1946) posited that adopted a constructivist theoretical model to bet- assisting students in naming objects and ideas is ter understand how learners construct knowledge one of the teacher’s most important tasks. from their experiences (Hofstein & Lunetta, Steinaker and Bell (1979) noted that the teach- 2004). Dale (1946) even went so far as to say it er’s role changes as students progress in their was the “doing” aspect of educational experi- learning through an experience; roles that teach- ences that “prevent[ed] schools from being im- ers assume begin with being a motivator, then practical” (p. 53). Although experiential learn- move through catalyst, moderator, sustainer, and ing has been promoted in education, many edu- critiquor as the student progresses through the cational settings refrain from incorporating the experience. Although not as specific as the roles entire theory, leading theorists to posit that only listed by Steinaker and Bell, Dewey (1938) and partial learning is accomplished (Joplin, 1981; Freire (1973) have supported the notion that the Siegel, 1967; Steinaker & Bell, 1979). While teacher’s role changes as the learner progresses teachers have become well-versed in providing through the learning experience. students with activities, their lessons have fre- Numerous theorists have offered models to quently lacked appropriate time devoted to the explain aspects related to how learners progress overall process of experiential learning, includ- through a learning experience. Gibbons and ing reflection (Clark, Threeton, & Ewing, 2010; Hopkins (1980) offered the scale of experiential- Knapp, 2010; Osborne, 1994b). In his work ad- ity to overcome challenges associated with the dressing the need for experiential learning in selection of appropriate experiences according to today’s schools, Itin (1999) alluded to the un- their outcomes. The scale was developed to dis- wanted impacts of educational programs guided tinguish among the wide variety of experiences by ill-chosen experiences and void of experien- to which learners are exposed. At the first stage, tial learning philosophy, stating that “if we want the learner is a passive audience member; the to develop critically thinking, self-motivated, level of engagement and involvement increases problem-solving individuals who participate ac- through the stages. The final stages become in- tively in their communities, we must have an distinguishable from life’s activities, and from educational system and educational approaches experiences in these stages students’ lives can be that model and support this” (p. 94). impacted indefinitely. Gibbons and Hopkins The struggles of incorporating the philoso- (1980) cautioned that while the scale of experi- phy of experiential learning in educational set- entiality is useful in selecting types of experi- tings are not unwarranted; researchers have re- ences, the students’ ability to respond to the ex- ported the challenges of implementing experien- perience, as well as the quality of the experi- tial learning, one of which is the selection of ence, must be considered as well. appropriate experiences (Townsend & Briers, Steinaker and Bell (1979) developed an ex- 1990). Experiences from which students are to periential learning taxonomy to help teachers learn are most effective when they are direct and guide learners’ responses to experiences. Rang- purposeful, with outcomes upon which students ing from a scale of one to five, the taxonomy can be evaluated (Joplin, 1980; Steinaker & “defines the sequence of activities and feelings Bell, 1979; Townsend & Briers, 1990; Zull, that the learner follows from exposure to the 2002). It is the responsibility of the teacher to dissemination of experience” (p. 19). At level provide well-planned, appropriate experiences one, the student is exposed to the experience. (Itin, 1999). Numerous researchers and theorists Stage two requires participation by the student. have offered further responsibilities for teachers At stage three, the learner begins to identify with when employing experiential learning in their the idea by incorporating the experience into
Journal of Agricultural Education 102 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning specific contexts of value. At stage four, the observation include demonstrations, field trips, experience begins to affect the learner’s life- exhibits, motion pictures, radio, recordings, and style. Finally, learners at stage five disseminate still pictures. Experiences that involve symbol- the idea to others, as they value the experience izing are the most abstract, and include visual and wish for others to experience it as well. and verbal symbols. Each of these categories contains subcategories which further differentiate between types of ex- Experiential Learning Stages periences. Subcategories and further explana- tion can be found in Steinaker and Bell (1979). Regardless of the specific components of the The experiential learning taxonomy views experience, engaging in a more holistic process personally engaged and vicarious experiences as of reflecting, evaluating, refining, and testing one and the same (Steinaker & Bell, 1979). This must occur in order for learning to take place notion may be accurate, as research in cognitive (Clark, Threeton, & Ewing, 2010; Itin, 1999; processes suggests that the same neurons fire Knapp, 2010; Kolb, 1984; Osborne, 1994b; when animals observe an action as when they Stehno, 1986; Steinaker & Bell, 1979; Zull, perform the action (Zull, 2002). However, 2002). Numerous theorists, including Joplin learner engagement in an experience can vary (1981) and Kolb (1984), have created models of greatly, and researchers have stated that direct the experiential learning cycle, all displaying experience is most beneficial to learners (Gib- certain recurring characteristics. Roberts (2006) bons & Hopkins, 1980; Itin, 1999; Townsend & identified the similar traits between these promi- Briers, 1990). Dale (1946) created the Cone of nent models as indication of a cyclical process, Experience to illustrate how experiences range initial focus being on the learner, learner’s direct from direct to abstract. At the bottom of the experience with phenomenon, and the presence cone, the most direct experiences, each involv- of reflection and then development of rules or ing action on the part of the learner, include di- hypotheses. Each of these similarities can be rect experiences, contrived experiences, and observed in Kolb’s Model of the Experiential dramatic participation. Experiences requiring Learning Process (1984) (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Model of the Experiential Learning Process (Kolb, 1984).
Journal of Agricultural Education 103 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning
The cycle involves a learner grasping infor- in career and technical education (Clark, Threet- mation, through either a concrete experience (via on, & Ewing, 2010). Numerous studies in engi- apprehension) or abstract conceptualization (via neering have utilized Kolb’s experiential learn- comprehension). Once information has been ing theory to modify their courses (Abdulwahed grasped, it is transformed through either reflec- & Nagy, 2009; Bender, 2001; David, Wyrick, & tive observation (via intension) or active exper- Hilsen, 2002; Moor & Piergiovanni, 2003). imentation (via extension). The learning cycle Zull’s (2002) work depicted the alignment of can begin at any of the four stages (Kolb & Fry, Kolb’s experiential learning cycle with the struc- 1975), but in order for learning to occur, the tures of the brain, which he claimed offered learner must experience a process involving a great support of Kolb’s cycle, as “neurobiology method of grasping information and then trans- has no educational philosophy” (p. 130). Be- forming that information (Cuffaro, 1995; Kolb, cause of its heavy use in career and technical 1984). Zull’s examination of the brain supports education as a whole and agricultural education the notion that while all of the stages must occur specifically, its high regard in agricultural edu- in order for the learning cycle to be complete, cation research, and its alignment with human the stage at which one begins and the direction cognitive structures, Kolb’s experiential learning in which the cycle is experienced can vary cycle was chosen as the theory utilized for this (2002). While Piaget (1978) posited that certain study. cognitive stages are superior in the learning pro- cess, Kolb (1984) noted that each of the four Experiential Learning in stages is equally important in contributing to Agricultural Education learning (Abdulwahed & Nagy, 2009). The cyclical nature of the experiential In spite of its presence in agricultural educa- learning process allows for experiences to be tion history and philosophy, the theory of expe- repeated in order to enhance learning. Joplin riential learning has not yet been mastered by (1981) posited that a learning experience can agricultural educators. Osborne (1994a) posited take seconds or years to complete, and can con- that when carrying out experiences agricultural sist of anything from a “flash of insight” to a educators rarely provide active experimentation conversation, to a class period, to a unit, or to an or internal reflection opportunities for students. entire course. The duration of a learning experi- Following a literature review, Clark, Threeton, ence may vary, and research as of yet does not & Ewing (2010) found that researchers in career recommend one ideal duration of a learning ex- and technical education frequently focused on perience (Joplin, 1981; Roberts, 2006). concrete experiences rather than on the more Kolb’s theory of experiential learning is not holistic process of experiential learning. The without critics. Seaman (2008) posited that the numerous sites of learning in agricultural educa- historical contexts surrounding the development tion have provided ample opportunities for con- of the experiential learning cycle have changed, crete learning experiences, but teachers can fur- causing a conflict between the theory’s need for ther students’ learning by supplementing these personal, internal reflection and the intervention experiences with opportunities for reflection, of instructors to guide reflection toward what abstract conceptualization, and experimentation. learners should know following an experience. While Seaman’s argument should not be dis- Experiential Learning in missed, the heavy use of Kolb’s experiential Agricultural Laboratories learning theory in agriculture education and in other areas of career and technical education Just as is depicted in Dale’s Cone of Experi- suggest that it is not irrelevant (Abdulwahed & ence (1946), the activities that constitute experi- Nagy, 2009; Osborne, 1994b; Roberts, 2006). ential learning in agricultural education vary Kolb’s experiential learning theory has been greatly (Roberts, 2006) and include classroom touted as “the most established model of experi- and agricultural laboratory-based experiences ential learning” (Cano, 2005, p. 2), and has been (McCormick, Cox, & Miller, 1989). Education- found to be of greatest potential within research al laboratories are loosely defined to encompass
Journal of Agricultural Education 104 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning a variety of settings, but can be summarized as wahed & Nagy, 2009, p. 284) the need to justify “experiences in school settings where students the use of agricultural laboratories is great. interact with materials to observe and under- stand the natural world” (Hofstein & Mamlok- Purpose and Objectives Naaman, 2007, p. 105). Dale (1946) stated that laboratories exuded a sense of adventure, exper- The purpose of this exploratory study was to imentation, and exploration. Hofstein & Lunetta describe how secondary agriculture teachers uti- (2004) recommended laboratories be sites of lize the four stages of Kolb’s experiential learn- scientific inquiry that enable students to investi- ing cycle during laboratory instruction. In order gate phenomena. Osborne (1994b) stated that to achieve this purpose, the following objectives laboratories must include experimentation, and were developed: that the opportunity for experimentation should 1. Determine the frequency with which be just as valuable as the opportunity for direct teachers plan student activities associat- experience. When identifying specific laborato- ed with each stage of the experiential ries as sites for experiential learning, both Ewert learning cycle during laboratory instruc- & Sibthorp (2009) and Hofstein & Mamlok- tion. Naaman (2007) found that reported laboratories 2. Describe the number of experiential have included substantial differences, making a learning stages teachers report incorpo- more specific definition unfeasible. In agricul- rating during a lesson in a laboratory tural education, the term “laboratory” has re- setting. mained ill-defined, but has been inclusive of 3. Describe the type of experiential learn- outdoor areas supporting classroom instruction ing stages (either grasping or transform- (Osborne, 1994b). Shoulders and Myers (2012) ing) teachers report incorporating during identified a list of agricultural laboratories to a lesson in a laboratory setting. which a national sample of secondary agricul- 4. Describe teachers’ intended duration of ture teachers reported having access. These la- student activities associated with each boratories included “mechanics , carpentry, and stage of the experiential learning cycle welding facilities, greenhouses, landscaping are- during laboratory instruction. as, gardens, aquaculture tanks/ponds, live- stock/equine facilities, field crops, biotechnolo- Methods gy/science laboratories, forestry plots, food sci- ence laboratories, nurseries/orchards/groves, turf This exploratory study utilized a descriptive grass management areas, small ani- survey design to gather data relating to the mal/veterinary laboratories, meats laboratories, above objectives. The overall survey population apiaries, and vineyards” (p. 129). for the study was members of the National As- Educational laboratory settings have great sociation of Agricultural Educators (NAAE) (N potential to increase learning as educational pro- = 7650). The NAAE is the national professional grams have shifted to focus more heavily on organization of secondary level agriculture knowledge gained via experience (Abdulwahed teachers, although not all agricultural education & Nagy, 2009). However, many laboratory ex- teachers are NAAE members. The NAAE was periences offer students practice with psychomo- selected as the accessible population because it tor skills and omit opportunities for reflection, contains the largest, most current database of abstraction, and experimentation (Abdulwahed contact information for secondary level agricul- & Nagy, 2009; Franklin, 2008; Gunstone & tural educators when compared with other data- Champagne, 1990; Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004; bases used by researchers in agricultural educa- Johnson, Wardlow, & Franklin, 1997). With tion (Lawrence, Moore, Rayfield, & Outley, increasing research and discussion supporting 2012; Shoulders & Myers, 2012). An appropri- the notion that laboratories “generate poor learn- ate sample size (n = 933) was calculated based ing outcomes compared to the time, effort, and on the population size, a 3% level of precision, costs invested in laboratory education” (Abdul- and 95% confidence interval (Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2009). Thirty-five individuals were
Journal of Agricultural Education 105 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning removed by request, leading to a final sample test-retest reliability with the pilot sample size of 898. (Huck, 2004). A researcher-developed electronic question- The instrument link was sent via email to the naire was utilized to collect participant respons- sample. Multiple contacts, including an initial es. Survey item development followed the invitation and reminders at 7, 14, 18, 24, and 28 guidelines of Dillman, et al. (2009). Respond- days, were utilized to increase response rate ents began the questionnaire by identifying the (Dillman et al., 2009). Reminder dates were set laboratories to which they had access; laborato- based on response trends per day, and accounted ries offered in this item followed the list devel- for weekends and holidays, as teachers’ emails oped by Shoulders and Myers (2012) and con- were associated with schools. Three hundred firmed by a national group of agriculture teach- and eighty-seven responses were recorded, lead- ers during their study. Additional questionnaire ing to a response rate of 43.1%. items consisted of descriptive, closed-ended sur- Nonresponse error can be present in studies vey questions which offered categorical choices with response rates of less than 100% (Miller & in a random order (Dillman, et al., 2009) as- Smith, 1983). In order to address nonresponse sessing teachers’ use of each of the experiential error, a simple random sample of 15% of the learning stages during laboratory instruction. nonrespondents was called in order to “double The term “laboratory” was utilized in each item, dip” and compare these responses to those of but was left to be operationally defined by the initial respondents (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996; respondent, as laboratory settings vary greatly Lindner, Murphy, & Briers, 2001; Miller & among agricultural education programs. Item Smith, 1983). Of the five methods of handling choices aligned with stages of Kolb’s experien- nonresponse error supplied by Miller and Smith tial learning cycle and were reviewed for face (1983), double-dipping was chosen because it and content validity by a panel of five university “would produce the most empirically sound pro- faculty members who were experts in experien- cedure, and would be preferred over the other tial learning and agricultural education. Teach- techniques. Comparing early to late respondents ers were also asked to design a one-class lesson on known characteristics, or comparing re- to be carried out in an agricultural facility by spondents to the population, each necessitate selecting activities they would incorporate, the assumptions that leave the results open to ques- order in which they would incorporate them, and tion” (p. 49). However, of the simple random the duration of each activity. Activity choices sample (n = 83), 52 had incorrect contact infor- were each aligned with a specific stage of expe- mation or were no longer serving as agriculture riential learning. Again, activity choices were teachers at that school, and 30 were unable to be reviewed by a panel of experts for face and con- reached. One individual from the simple ran- tent validity. In order to identify and rectify dom sample of nonrespondents was reached and problems with wording, question order, visual offered responses. design, and navigation, three think-aloud cogni- The poor response rate of nonrespondents tive interviews were conducted with individuals made addressing nonresponse error impossible with classroom teaching experience in agricul- for this study, and the authors caution against tural education (Dillman, et al., 2009; Presser, et generalizing results beyond the respondents; this al., 2004). Questionnaire items were appropri- study is exploratory in nature. While this lack of ately revised according to interview feedback. generalizability is considered a main limitation A pilot test was conducted with 14 current sec- of this study, the absence of a more up-to-date ondary agricultural education teachers in order national database of agriculture teachers made to test implementation procedures on the survey efforts to generalize to the accessible population population (Dillman, et al., 2009). Because of NAAE members impossible. Results reported items were not intended to assess a construct or in this exploratory study can be utilized to gain constructs, they were analyzed individually, insight into respondents’ use of agricultural la- making the calculation of internal consistency boratories, as well as provide a framework to implausible (Huck, 2008; Presser, et al., 2004). assess teachers’ use of experiential learning in Time constraints prevented the calculation of
Journal of Agricultural Education 106 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning more generalizable state-wide studies with more Findings accurate databases of agriculture teachers. Data were collected via Qualtrics and ana- Frequency of Activities Associated with Ex- lyzed using descriptive methods through SPSS. periential Learning Stages Results were reported through frequencies, means, and standard deviations, where appropri- The first objective sought to determine the ate. Some respondents chose to refrain from frequency with which teachers planned student answering one or more individual items. There- activities associated with each stage of the expe- fore, the total number of respondents per item is riential learning cycle during laboratory instruc- included in the results. All reported data reflect tion. As shown in Table 1, over half the teach- percentages from the number of teachers re- ers indicated that they planned activities associ- sponding to the item. ated with each of the first three stages of the ex- periential learning cycle (n = 367).
Table 1
Number of Respondents Planning Activities in Each Stage of Experiential Learning during Laboratory Instruction
Experiential Learning Stage f % Concrete Experience 348 94.8 Reflective Observation 281 76.6 Abstract Conceptualization 308 83.9 Active Experimentation 185 50.4
Activities associated with concrete experi- Number of Experiential Learning Stages In- ence were most frequently planned by teachers corporated into Laboratory Lessons during lessons in agricultural laboratories (n = Objective 2 sought to describe the number 348), while activities associated with active ex- of experiential learning stages teachers claimed perimentation were the least frequently planned to incorporate during a lesson in a laboratory (n = 185). These results also indicate that activi- setting. Table 2 displays the number of teachers ties associated with grasping information that utilized activities that addressed one, two, through concrete experiences and abstract con- three, or all four stages of the experiential learn- ceptualization were planned for by more teach- ing cycle during a lesson in an agricultural la- ers than activities associated with transforming boratory, regardless of which stage(s) they uti- information through reflective observation or lized (n = 367). active experimentation.
Table 2
Number of Experiential Learning Stages Used by Respondents during a Lesson in an Agricultural Labor- atory
Number of Stages Used f % 3 stages 167 45.5 4 stages 115 31.3 2 stages 75 20.4 1 stage 10 2.7
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When planning a hypothetical lesson in an ers did not respond to the item measuring the agricultural laboratory, 68.7% of the teachers number of stages used. did not plan activities that addressed all four The high number of teachers utilizing less stages of the experiential learning cycle (n = than all four stages of the experiential learning 252). The majority of the teachers planned a cycle warranted an examination of the frequency range of activities that addressed three stages of with which respondents omitted active experi- the experiential learning cycle (n = 167), while mentation, reflective observation, abstract con- very few teachers planned activities that ad- ceptualization, and concrete experience, as is dressed only one stage (n = 10). Twenty teach- shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Number of Respondents that Omitted Each Experiential Learning Stage When Planning a Lesson in an Agricultural Laboratory
Stage Omitted f % Active Experimentation 202 55.0 Reflective Observation 106 28.9 Abstract Conceptualization 79 21.5 Concrete Experience 39 10.6
Over half of the teachers did not select activ- ities that were associated with active experimen- Objective 3 sought to describe the type of tation (n = 202), while only 10.6% (n = 39) experiential learning stages (either grasping or omitted activities associated with concrete expe- transforming) teachers claimed to incorporate rience. The higher frequencies of omitted re- during a lesson in a laboratory setting. Table 4 flective observation and active experimentation displays the number of teachers that only includ- activities indicate once again that fewer teachers ed activities associated with either grasping in- included activities that transformed information, formation (including concrete experience or ab- while more included activities that helped stu- stract conceptualization activities) or transform- dents grasp information. ing information (including reflective observation or active experimentation activities). Grasping and Transforming Activities Incor- porated into Laboratory Lessons
Table 4
Number of Respondents Including Only Grasping or Transforming Stages of Experiential Learning dur- ing a Laboratory Lesson
Type of Stage Used f % of Respondents Us- % of Total Item Re- ing 1 or 2 Stages (n = spondents (n = 367) 85) Grasping 40 47.1 10.9 Transforming 5 5.9 1.4
Of the respondents (n = 367), 12.3% (n = stages of the experiential learning cycle, those 45) included activities only associated with ei- two being either both associated with grasping ther grasping information or transforming in- information or transforming information. Al- formation. These teachers omitted at least two most half of the teachers omitting at least two
Journal of Agricultural Education 108 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning experiential learning stages from their laboratory Duration of Activities in Each Experiential lessons (n = 40) included only activities associ- Learning Stage during Laboratory Lessons ated with grasping information through concrete experience and/or abstract conceptualization, Objective 4 sought to describe teachers’ in- while only 5.9% (n = 5) included only activities tended duration of student activities associated associated with transforming information with each stage of the experiential learning cycle through reflective observation and/or active ex- during laboratory instruction. Table 5 displays perimentation. the average percent of a lesson that teachers planned for activities associated with each stage of the experiential learning cycle (n = 367).
Table 5
Percentage of Lesson Associated with Each Stage of Experiential Learning
Stage Mean % of Time in % of Time Range Lesson Concrete Experience 43.4 5 - 100 Abstract Conceptualization 24.3 3 - 100 Reflective Observation 15.4 2 - 100 Active Experimentation 11.8 2 - 100
While the time range for each of the four students by allowing them to apply a set of skills stages indicate that teachers varied greatly in the in a laboratory setting (Franklin, 2008; Johnson, percentage of lesson they allotted for activities Wardlow, & Franklin, 1997). These findings are in each experiential learning stage, the average not limited to agricultural education, as laborato- duration of activities in each stage corresponds ries in science education have been criticized for with the number of teachers incorporating activi- their omission of reflective, abstraction, and ex- ties in each stage. Activities associated with perimentation opportunities (Abdulwahed & concrete experiences were given the greatest Nagy, 2009; Gunstone & Champagne, 1990; amount of time during a lesson, while activities Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004). associated with active experimentation were Regardless of which stages they utilized, re- given the least amount of time. Activities asso- spondents most often planned activities associat- ciated with grasping information were given ed with three out of the four stages of experien- more time than those associated with transform- tial learning during laboratory lessons. Approx- ing information. imately 31% of respondents (n = 115) incorpo- rated activities into their lessons that were asso- Conclusions ciated with all four stages of experiential learn- ing. The most frequently omitted stage was ac- Over half of the respondents of this explora- tive experimentation, which was not included in tory study reported using agricultural laborato- the plans of 55% of respondents (n = 202), while ries to engage students in activities associated concrete experience was only omitted by 10.6% with the first three stages of the experiential of respondents (n = 39). Again, the traditional learning cycle. Activities associated with con- goal of the development of psychomotor skills in crete experience were the most often planned for laboratory settings supports the high frequency by respondents, while those associated with ac- of concrete experience activities and low fre- tive experimentation were planned for least of- quency of higher-level active experimentation ten. These results are supported by previous activities (Abdulwahed & Nagy, 2009; Franklin, research which found that agricultural laborato- 2008; Gunstone & Champagne, 1990; Hofstein ries are most frequently settings of psychomotor & Lunetta, 2004; Johnson, Wardlow, & Frank- development, providing concrete experiences for lin, 1997).
Journal of Agricultural Education 109 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning
Of respondents that omitted at least two lized to provide students with opportunities for stages, more reported using experiential learning experimentation, problem solving, and inquiry stages associated with grasping information (n = associated with scientific literacy, as has been 40) than those associated with transforming in- found in previous science and agricultural edu- formation (n = 5). Psychomotor skill develop- cation research (Abdulwahed & Nagy, 2009; ment common in agricultural laboratories Franklin, 2008; Gunstone & Champagne, 1990; (Franklin, 2008; Johnson, Wardlow, & Franklin, Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004; Johnson, Wardlow, & 1997; Osborne, 1994a) requires the grasping of Franklin, 1997). Because these more complex information in order to perform skills, but does skills are currently prominent goals of agricul- not require transformation of information, as tural education (Phipps, et al., 2008) and labora- was seen by these results. tories are well suited to offer opportunities for On average, respondents allotted the majori- inquiry and experimentation to students Abdul- ty of lesson time (43.4%) to activities associated wahed & Nagy, 2009; Osborne, 1994b), re- with concrete experience. Abstract conceptual- searchers should investigate reasons for re- ization was allotted on average 24.3% of the spondents’ omission of active experimentation lesson time, making these two stages, associated activities in laboratory settings, and then work with grasping information, greater in duration with them to overcome barriers they may have than either of the transforming information stag- toward their incorporation into laboratory les- es. This finding supports Osborne’s (1994a) sons. position that agricultural educators rarely pro- The high frequency of respondents utilizing vide opportunities for knowledge transfor- less than all four of the experiential learning mation. Reflective observation activities were stages during laboratory lessons could imply that allotted on average 15.4% of the lesson time, they may be utilizing their laboratories to pro- while active experimentation was allotted 11.8% vide students with activities that act as compo- of lesson time. The previous results revealing nents of larger learning experiences, which may respondents’ more frequent use of grasping include other experiences outside of the labora- stages support the longer durations found for tory associated with stages of experiential learn- these stages. ing that would complete the entire cycle. Alter- natively, respondents of this study may not be Implications and Recommendations providing students with activities that allow them to engage in all four stages of the experien- While limitations regarding the generaliza- tial learning cycle. The cyclical nature of the bility of this study, as well as its exploratory na- experiential learning cycle suggests that learners ture, reduce the level at which implications can should engage in activities in each of the four be applied, this study provides a foundation stages in order to fully benefit from a learning from which several research recommendations experience (Cuffaro, 1995; Kolb, 1984, Zull, can be made. Experiential learning in agricul- 2002). Researchers and teacher educators tural laboratories can be enhanced by including should further investigate whether agriculture activities that require both grasping information teachers provide students with experiences in all and transforming information, as well as through four experiential learning stages during lessons incorporation of activities that are associated in laboratory settings, and strive to gain a more with each stage of the experiential learning cycle holistic understanding of how the overall agri- (Kolb, 1984). The current exploratory study cultural education program impacts student indicates that respondents continue to utilize learning through experiences. agricultural laboratories to provide students with On the study’s questionnaire, respondents concrete experiences designed to improve psy- more often constructed lessons including only chomotor skills. The relatively low frequency of activities designed to grasp information through respondents incorporating activities associated concrete experience and/or abstract conceptual- with active experimentation and low duration of ization rather than to transform that information these activities when included in lesson plans through reflective observation and/or active ex- imply that these laboratories are not often uti- perimentation. In order for true learning to oc-
Journal of Agricultural Education 110 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning cur, learners must both grasp information and tial learning stages is made, the utility of other then transform that information through reflec- experiential learning theories, including Dale’s tion or experimentation (Kolb, 1984). These cone (1946), Steinaker and Bell’s experiential results imply that students served by the re- taxonomy (1979), and Gibbons and Hopkins’ spondents may not be engaging in an appropriate scale of experientiality (1980), should be ex- range of activities to allow for learning to occur plored further by researchers in agricultural edu- in laboratory settings. Researchers should assess cation. Each of these models of experiential whether teachers perceive barriers to incorporat- learning offers another facet through which re- ing reflective or experimental activities in order searchers can more clearly understand how agri- to help students transform information, and work culture teachers plan meaningful experiences in to help them overcome any perceived barriers, their laboratories. as activities in these stages were least commonly While often included in the theoretical reported by respondents to be included in labora- frameworks of studies in agricultural education tory activities. Alternatively, respondents may experiential learning has rarely been the subject be incorporating transforming activities in other of measurement in agricultural education re- settings either prior to or following laboratory search. This exploratory study sought to de- experiences. Further study should be conducted scribe how NAAE members utilize the stages of to gain a more holistic view of teachers’ lessons the experiential learning cycle during lessons in involving laboratory experiences. While find- agricultural laboratories. The lack of accuracy ings in this exploratory study may not be repre- in the study’s sampling frame from the accessi- sentative of all agriculture teachers, teacher edu- ble population, as well as the study’s exploratory cators should take efforts to ensure that all agri- nature, limits the generalizability of the findings. culture teachers are educated on how to develop It is recommended that similar studies examin- lessons with explicit attention to the stages of ing the use of experiential learning in laboratory the experiential learning cycle so that students settings be conducted at the state-wide level, as are engaging in both grasping and transforming more accurate sampling frames from state teach- experiences. er databases would improve the generalizability Historically, Kolb’s experiential learning of results to that state. Further, studies involving cycle has provided a sound framework upon a range of research methods, including qualita- which agricultural education’s use of laborato- tive methods and/or classroom observation, ries is justified. However, some researchers in could help provide a more holistic description of experiential education claim that Kolb’s experi- how the stages of experiential learning are uti- ential learning cycle no longer applies to today’s lized to enhance student learning experiences in educational environment (Seaman, 2008). While agricultural laboratories. no recommendation to abandon Kolb’s experien-
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Journal of Agricultural Education 114 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Teachers’ Use of Experiential Learning
Smith-Hughes Act, S. 703, 64th Cong. (1917).
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CATHERINE W. SHOULDERS is an Assistant Professor of Agricultural Education in the Department of Agricultural and Extension Education at the University of Arkansas, 205 Agriculture Building, Fayette- ville, AR 72701, [email protected].
BRIAN E. MYERS is an Associate Professor of Agricultural Education in the Department of Agricultural Education and Communication at the University of Florida, PO Box 110540, Gainesville, FL 32601, [email protected].
Journal of Agricultural Education 115 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 116 – 125
DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03116 o u Vocational Programs in the Federal Bureau of Prisons: Ex- r n amining the Potential of Agricultural Education Programs a for Prisoners l
o Ricky H. Coppedge f Robert Strong Texas A&M University A g r Abstract i c The Federal Bureau of Prisons has a long-standing desire to be the pinnacle in corrections and correc- u tional education. In 1891 Congress passed the Three Prisons Act, which established the federal prison l system, prior to this Act federal inmates were housed in state, city, and county jails (Keve, 1991). The Act t not only established the first three prisons, but also allotted $100,000 to each institution to create work- u r shops for the employment of inmates (Fields, 2005). These workshops culminated the early precursors of a Vocational Training; programs that have grown and have become a cornerstone in correctional educa- l tion over the past century. In 1930 Congress passed an Act establishing the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The Act charged the new Bureau with establishing industries and farms with activities to provide for the E proper rehabilitation and reformation of inmates (H.R. 7832). The programs that resulted from this d charge have grown and changed over the century, where they were once agriculture based they have u grown to include a variety of occupational skills to better aid inmates. Through continued research voca- c tional training has proven to be a key implement that aids in reducing recidivism. a t Keywords: history of prison programs, inmate education, vocational training, federal prison i o
n One of the Federal Bureau of Prisons’ core likely to return to crime if the released inmate V ideologies is to provide skills building programs can earn a legitimate living upon release. The o we can afford, to offer inmates the opportunity second assumption is that an ex-offender’s em- l to live crime-free lives (http://www.bop.gov). ployment potential will increase if the person u Part of these “skills building programs” is voca- possesses work skills for which there is a ready m tional training programs offered throughout the demand. The last assumption made is that these e Bureau in an effort to reduce recidivism. In- work skills can be provided through effective mates who participate in vocational training institutional training programs, provided in pris- 5 programs are 33% less likely to recidivate (Fed- ons. 1 , eral Bureau of Prison, 2001). Vocational train- Vocational training has played an important ing is regarded as an essential component of cor- role in the rehabilitation of the inmate popula- N rectional training programs (Carter, McGee, & tion. Agriculture as a vocation has been an inte- u Nelson, 1975). Dailey, Conroy, and Shelley- gral part of this vocational training; it had served m Tolbert (2001) indicate that the core of agricul- as a backbone for the Federal Prison System. b ture education consists of three components: Federal prisons historically have used inmate e classroom instruction, experiential learning, and labor to build the prisons, and provide the popu- r leadership activities. Two of these components lation with necessities. Lumbering, animal pro- 1 can be found in vocational training programs, duction, and crop production have been just a , classroom instruction and experiential learning. few areas where inmates have traditionally p Allen and Simonsen (1975) said the Bureau worked. Keve (1984) indicated that inmate la- p makes three assumptions in the development of bor was used to clear the land around the prison . vocational training programs. The first assump- on McNeil Island, and that logging was a key tion by the Bureau is ex-offenders will be less industry for the institution. He later wrote that 1 1
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2 1 D Coppedge and Strong Vocational Programs… the logging had cleared land that would provide 3. Describe early vocational training pro- for farming use. The Federal Prison System grams in the Federal Bureau of Prisons. have utilized inmate labor in regards to agricul- ture in the Federal Prison Industries from its be- Methods and Procedures ginning in 1934 (Federal Bureau of Prisons, 2009). Historical research methods were used to Priority 5 of the National Research Agenda accomplish the objectives of this study. Histori- for Agricultural Education indicates that suc- cal research involves the systematic search for cessful instructional programs should address documents and other sources of historical facts evolving needs of diverse students regardless of to answer the historian’s question (Borg & Gall, location (Doerfert, 2011). To better understand 1983). the need of not only agriculture as a vocation, Primary and secondary sources were used to but all vocational training programs in the Fed- conduct this study and obtain information. Pri- eral Prison System we need to gain insight of mary sources came from government docu- how these programs got their start. This paper ments, annual reports, and congressional pro- explores the beginnings of vocational training ceedings. Secondary sources were obtained programs in the Federal Prison System and what from articles and journals written regarding vo- these programs entailed. The topic of under- cational training programs in prisons and histor- standing the roots of vocational training pro- ical pieces about the Federal Prison System. grams in the Bureau is imperative to study, be- Literature was found from the Federal Bureau of cause from the reflection of how these programs Prisons Library, the National Criminal Justice came into existence we may better understand Institute, and the Texas A&M University Li- why these programs were important at the time brary. Journal articles were retrieved from the of initiation and the effects of these programs on Journal of Agricultural Education, the Federal the inmate population. In addition to decipher- Probation Journal, and the Federal Prisons Jour- ing the history and need of these programs from nal. The researcher reviewed all documents for a historical perspective we may assimilate this internal and external criticism. Internal criticism need to what is offered today and better under- was established by addressing the worth of the stand the areas these programs may be deficient context of the documents for validity to the in, in regards to the quality of programming for study. External criticism was established by inmates. determination of authenticity and originality of each document. Purpose and Objectives Results and Findings The purpose of this study was to examine how vocational training programs in the Federal Before there was a Federal Prison System Bureau of Prisons were instigated. The study the Government relied on territorial, county, and was focused on the early history of prison voca- state jails to house federal prisoners (Keve, tional training programs before the Bureau was 1991). Congress passed the Three Prisons Act created and through the first few decades of the in 1891, which established the federal prison Bureau’s existence. Specifically the study fo- system. The first three prisons to start the Fed- cuses on answering the following objectives: eral Prison System were placed in Leavenworth, McNeil Island, and Atlanta. The Act not only 1. Describe the types of vocational or oc- established the three prisons, but also allotted cupational training that existed before $100,000 to each institution specifically to cre- the Federal Bureau of Prisons; ate workshops for the employment of inmates 2. Describe how vocational training pro- (Fields, 2005). These workshops would be the grams begun in the Federal Bureau of early precursor for the Federal Prison Industries Prisons; and and vocational training for inmates. This legislation was not the first appearance of vocational training for inmates in American
Journal of Agricultural Education 117 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Coppedge and Strong Vocational Programs… history. The Walnut Street Prison, which had utilized inmate labor to construct. The been established in 1773, had already been in the cellblocks were finished in 1919, shoe shops practice of training inmates in vocational trades were completed in 1926, and a broom factory (Johnston, 2004). The Walnut Street Prison, was completed in 1928 (LaMaster, 2008). These located in Philadelphia, PA, had been known to shops and factories along with the construction offer vocational instruction since the 1830’s. projects and maintenance details alleviated idle The prison was set in the Pennsylvania style sys- time for the inmate population as well as provid- tem. The Pennsylvania style system required ed skills for the inmates (Garret & MacCormick, complete separation of the inmates, allowing for 1929). quite contemplation, reflection, and sometimes The next institution to be constructed was vocational instruction in the individual’s cell the United States Penitentiary in Atlanta, Geor- (Johnston, 2004). This system was created upon gia. USP Atlanta was opened in 1902, the insti- the petition of The Philadelphia Society for Al- tution utilized prisoner labor to complete the leviating the Miseries of Public Prisons. Anoth- task of constructing USP Atlanta. In 1919 USP er system soon appeared, called the Auburn Sys- Atlanta opened a textile mill to alleviate idle- tem. ness. Attorney General, T.W. Gregory, origi- McShane and Williams (1996) remarked nally proposed the cotton duck textile mill and that the Auburn system is one that still denied he requested for the purchase of machinery inmates communication with one another, but (House Documents, 1917). The cotton ducking required inmates to labor together in the indus- was used for US Postal bags, and during World trial workshops during the day and were isolated War II the ducking was used in the war efforts. from one another at night. The uses of these The last institution that was created as a re- workshops were not meant for training purposes, sult of the Three Prisons Act of 1891 was but to offset costs of the prison. McNeil Island. McNeil Island was originally a Though these two systems were popular at territorial prison erected in 1871 and opened in the time, another system was forming. The 1875. The institution was built with the use of Elmira System, or the Reformatory System, federally appropriated money and remained in came into existence after The New York Prison the hands of the federal government, but was a Association tasked Enoch Wines and Theodore territorial prison. In 1907 the institution was Dwight with surveying prisons in the United designated as the third federal penitentiary. States. The two men traveled throughout the McNeil Island was an isolated island in the Pu- United States surveying prisons and compiling get Sound; for this reason the prison had to be an assessment of what they witnessed at each self-reliant utilizing inmate labor in many of the institution. In their assessment Wines and day-to-day tasks, and in efforts to provide re- Dwight reported that silence, flogging, and soli- sources to the institution. Eventually the prison tary confinement were ineffective tools, but in- would have its own gardens, dock, and shipyard stead education should be used as a preventative all utilizing inmate labor in their construction. measure on crime (Wines & Dwight, 1867). In 1924 Warden Finch Archer obtained an old Meskell (1999) wrote that this newer system printing press and the inmates started their own of reform was initiated at the Elmira Reformato- newspaper called the Island Lantern. McNeil ry in New York. The new reformatory empha- Island’s main industry was logging, which was sized education and trade training to encourage used during World War II to build tugboats for positive behavior. Soon after many states the war effort (Keve, 1984). adopted this style of incarceration to utilize in At the time these three institutions were their own prisons, which at this time were hous- erected vocational training along with educa- ing federal inmates. tional programming was not a priority in the ap- With the passing of the Three Prisons Act in propriations that were used to build and run the 1891 two prisons were built, and one was taken institutions. Vocational training was seen as the over and expanded. The first prison built in the work inmates performed in their various occupa- new federal prison system was Leavenworth in tions in the prisons. Rarely were there formal 1895. The prison took two decades to build and classes on the subjects, but more of a journey-
Journal of Agricultural Education 118 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Coppedge and Strong Vocational Programs… man/ apprentice relationship for the inmates to make the women feel that the judge did them a learn by. The general education programs were favor by sending them here, they learn to make typically left up to the chaplains who, with in- an honest living and go out feeling that they are mate teachers, would lead classes in the eve- no longer a liability to the community. By 1929 nings where there was room (Garret & Mac- the reformatory offered classes in sewing, laun- Cormick, 1929). Vocational trades were used as dry, cooking, table service, household econom- a tool to keep inmates from being idle and to ics, stenography, typewriting, and a Red Cross supplement the cost of keeping the men incar- practical nurses training course (Garrett & Mac- cerated. Cormick, 1929). In September of 1923 Mrs. Mabel Walker In 1926 the Federal Industrial Reformatory Willebrandt, Assistant Attorney General, attend- in Chillicothe, Ohio opened. The Reformatory ed a conference called for by the Subcommittee housed around 350 young men from the ages of on Institution Relations of the General Federa- 16-30 who were first time offenders. The re- tion of Women’s Clubs. Mrs. Willebrandt ex- formatory was situated on Camp Sherman, a pressed three concerns for the Federal Depart- training camp from the First World War. By ment of Prisons. There was a need for an insti- 1936 the reformatory created new facilities on tution for federal women prisoners, a need for an the same grounds and had expanded the voca- industrial reformatory for young men serving tional training programs to include: machine, their first sentences, and employment for the carpenter, sheet metal working, plumbing, steam prisoners in the three federal prisons at the time fitting, furniture upholstering, automobile body (Federal Reformatories for Women, 1962). The upholstering, automobile painting and finishing, populations of female federal prisoners were automobile engine and chassis building and re- housed in local and state jails at the time. Mrs. pairing, ignition repairing, vulcanizing, electrical Willebrandt saw a need for a federal prison spe- wiring and supply repairing, typewriter repair- cifically designated for women; she did not want ing, and sign painting (Langeluttig, 1927). a typical prison, but a reformatory. Reformato- A notable fact to include is that prior to the ries were built on the ideas to reform the incar- opening of the Federal Industrial Reformatory in cerated and give them competencies in making a Chillicothe there was already the National Train- living while providing a greater satisfaction in ing School for Boys in Washington, D.C. The life (MacCormick, 1931). school was started in 1908 by an Act in Con- The need for an industrial reformatory for gress; the school was a reformatory for boys ag- young men was due because of the current cus- es 17 and under (Committee on Expenditures in tom of mixing young men and older men togeth- Justice Department, 1915). The school required er. Prisons did not segregate the younger im- the boys to attend school for half a session each pressionable first time offenders from the older day, and offered a variety of vocational training hardened repeat offenders (Tucker, 1934). The programs. The programs included were farm- answer to both dilemmas came one after the oth- ing, carpentry, cabinetmaking, bricklaying, er. In 1924 an Act was passed to establish the plumbing, blacksmithing wheelwrighting, tailor- Federal Industrial Institution for Women in Al- ing, shoemaking, laundry work, baking, and derson, West Virginia. From the initial planning cooking (Committee on Expenditures in Justice of the institution the concept of reforming wom- Department, 1915). The school was transferred en was paramount in all considerations for the to the Bureau of Prisons in 1939 and finally institution. Alderson was planned with the con- closed in 1968 (Roberts, 1990). cept of reforming women. The institution was In 1930 Congress passed an Act establishing headed by a female staff member, Dr. Mary B. the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The Act charged Harris, and was designed on the “Cottage De- the new Bureau with establishing industries and sign,” where instead of cells the women were farms with activities to provide for the proper housed in large cottages, much like a modern rehabilitation and reformation of inmates (H.R. home of the time. The women were treated as 7832). Though the text is broad the 71st Con- humanely as possible. Harris (1936) commented gress was setting a standard for the newly that we (staff at the reformatory) are trying to formed Bureau of Prisons to find ways of creat-
Journal of Agricultural Education 119 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Coppedge and Strong Vocational Programs… ing programs to reform inmates, which at this The classification system that the Bureau time had been found in the current federal pris- had begun to implement was a groundbreaking ons through work programs and vocational train- revolution in corrections. The classification sys- ing programs. tem profiled an individual and housed him in an The Assistant Attorney General appointed institution according to his age, mental status, Sanford Bates as the Director of the Bureau of and type of crime. The camps were a place to Prisons. Mr. Bates created three Assistant Di- house individuals with small sentences who rector positions, one of which was in charge of would be a low risk to escape. Another part of Academic and Vocational Training; the person the classification system was based on the indi- he chose for this position was Austin MacCor- viduals’ educational and vocational needs, mick (Keve, 1991). The creation of the Bureau which took place at the institution he had al- was an attempt to unify the once disorganized ready been designated at (U.S. Department of federal prison system; and to create prisons that Justice, 1933). would serve as an example for others in the During the 1930’s many new institutions treatment and rehabilitation of inmates (Federal and camps were activated, all based on the clas- Prison Industries, 2001). sification system. Education had become a pri- Garrett & MacCormick (1929, p. 47) wrote mary part of the Bureau, but vocational training about the prison of the future stating, “every was still considered part of the maintenance de- phase of the program of the institution will be partments (U.S. Department of Justice, 1933).. related to the educational purpose. Interest will The education department in cooperation with be stimulated in all phases of general and voca- the trades shop from the maintenance depart- tional education and in health education.” Mac- ment offered courses over the various vocations Cormick traveled the country recording all edu- the inmates were working in, this cooperation cational pursuits in each prison that existed in was called Related Trades Instruction. Inmates the United States, except for three. MacCor- who were in a particular vocation would also mick wrote “The Education of Adult Prisoners,” spend two nights a week in an educational class where he reported on the educational and library were the inmate would work on general educa- work in American prisons, as a result of his tion in order to become an individual who could travels. MacCormick established a standing not only work on an engine, but also be able to committee for adult education in prisons under read and write (U.S. Department of Justice, the American Prisons Association. This com- 1933). mittee would eventually develop into the Cor- Prison industries were in existence during rectional Education Association. the creation of the first three prisons. These in- With the new Bureau of Prisons established dustries were seen as inexpensive ways of the agency’s leaders inherited an array of issues providing vocational training, without the high to be tackled. One of which was the problem of cost of an instructor (US Department of Justice, overcrowding. At the time the Bureau was es- 1933).. In 1934, Congress approved an Act that tablished there had come to be 14 federal prisons established the Federal Prison Industries (Feder- in operation and over 13,000 inmates. The Bu- al Bureau of Prisons, 2009). President Franklin reau began to activate camps, which are prisons D. Roosevelt signed the bill that would start an without fences (Carter et al, 1975). The camps industry whose purpose was not personal profit, were effective for two reasons. First camps but would employ inmates during incarceration, could be built quickly and inexpensively and reducing idleness, and give the individuals voca- second the inmates would serve the needs of an tional skills that could be utilized upon release adjoining government facility. For an example (Federal Prison Industries Inc., 1939). the camp in Montgomery, Alabama performed The Federal Prisons Industries (FPI) was de- construction and janitorial services for Maxwell signed to be a stand alone Corporation who’s Air Force Base (US Department of Justice, profits would sustain itself while providing 1938). The camps still included a system of funding to vocational training and job placement classification that the Bureau was quickly im- services (Factories with Fences, 75 Years of plementing at its’ various institutions. Changing Lives, 2009). FPI, which is still in
Journal of Agricultural Education 120 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Coppedge and Strong Vocational Programs… existence today under the trade name UNICOR, have their work assignment changed unless done employs inmates to build different products at so by the classification committee. the institution that the factory is housed at. The Not all of the new institutions were able to products produced at FPI are solely sold and have vocational programs in the sense of formal- used by the US Government. ized classes, due to the nature of the prison. One During the 1930’s the Bureau had also be- such prison of the time was Alcatraz, due to the gun issuing certificates for the courses inmates heightened security of the prison. The Bureau were taking (US Department of Justice, 1939). did consider the maintenance shops as a form of Foreman at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania were being vocational training for the inmates; instructed by instructed in vocational training teaching meth- the foreman of the shops (Bates, 1938). At the ods in a fifteen week course in an effort for the camps inmates built roads and cleared forests, Bureau to strengthen its’ vocational training these skills were considered to be part of voca- program. The programs grew for the Bureau tional training (Bates, 1938). The inmates and to test the inmates’ knowledge on subject would learn to operate tractors, bulldozers, grad- areas a test was administered to the inmates in ers, and trucks. each program to begin gaining insight into how Bennett (1943.) reported that the Federal much they were learning from each program. Prison Industries had intensified their production Bates in his annual report further stated that in- to aid in the War leading to net sales of mates underwent an interview from the classifi- 7,062,017.07 a portion of which went to voca- cation committee to determine the limitation and tional training which had 1,600 inmates enrolled abilities of the inmate, and which vocational Bureau wide. During the 1940’s the U.S. was program or related trades program would best engaged in World War II. This war was unlike suit the need of the inmate. Related trades pro- any other, because it called for a mass uprising grams were classes used in conjunction with a of the nation and its peoples to engage in the war maintenance shop. effort (Wolf & Conners, 2009). The Bureau was In Bates’ Federal Bureau of Prisons Annual not absent from doing its part, and engaging in- Report in 1939, he pointed out that after several mates in productive efforts to aid the war effort. years of experimentation and trials in education By 1945 the Bureau had grown from four and curriculum; the education program as a large overcrowded institutions to 28 smaller whole was being developed around four princi- specialized institutions (Bennett, 1947). The ple units. The units were elementary education, focus at the time was to expand the area of voca- modified form of academic education for in- tional training, primarily to assist with the war mates who were above a fourth grade level, re- effort. Bennett (1947) wrote 35 new vocational lated trades & occupational classes, and special training courses were organized to contribute to classes that met the practical and cultural needs the war program. These new courses that were of inmates. Up till this point in the Bureau’s used in the war effort were called Vocational growth of vocational training programs, mainte- Education for National Defense (VEND); these nance foreman were teaching the classes. In the courses began at a camp at Fort Lewis, but Annual Report of 1937 Bates stated that there quickly spread to other institutions and camps. had developed among the vocational training Bennett (1947) reported that slightly less than instructors a realization that they were teaching 8,000 inmates Bureau wide were enrolled at the men to work and to become skilled craftsmen. time in vocational training courses. Bates further reported that the inmates who Snarr and Wolford (1985) discussed how the worked for these foremen, but were utilizing Post-world War II era saw a dramatic rise in these trades not only as a work assignment in the crime, and vocational training. The emphasis prison, but also as a class were different from was placed on vocational training to better able the other men working in the same trade. The inmates with skills to enter the job market upon men who were utilizing this trade as a class were release. By this time vocational training had required to carry on in a program of related been organized into four major divisions (Ben- schoolwork, and had progress records that were nett, 1947). The four divisions were on-job maintained on them. These men also could not training, trade training, related-trade classes, and
Journal of Agricultural Education 121 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Coppedge and Strong Vocational Programs… vocational agriculture. The division of on-job programs, all while still committed in prison. training gave inmates instruction by their gen- Before President Johnson signed the Act he ap- eral foreman; a manual was completed this year pointed a commission to answer a number of that would standardize the training throughout questions about which programs worked best at the Bureau. Trade training was formal training deterring crime. Part of the Act supported re- for a specific trade, with shops and classrooms cruitment and retention of qualified personnel setup explicitly for that vocation. Related-trade including vocational instructors. classes were created to give inmates the back- Through its first forty years the Federal Bu- ground knowledge necessary for better under- reau of Prisons saw rapid increases in their pop- standing of a trade. Vocational agriculture was ulation. With the increase came more institu- introduced in 1944 to provide instruction suited tions and camps to house and rehabilitate in- for inmates in rural areas, who would return to a mates. By 1978 the Bureau would have over 50 farm upon release. In addition to organizing institutions activated (Keve, 1991). With these vocational training at the institutions the Bureau new institutions came better designs that would began working with local trade boards as well as equip the institution with vocational trades shops state and federal departments to ensure the train- and educational facilities. These 50 institutions ing that was being received by the inmates would seem modest compared to the 113 institu- would be relevant to the trade (Bennett, 1947). tions under the Bureaus’ authority today, which Hershberger (1979) indicated that the 1950’s include over 900 vocational training, Advanced and 1960’s were a period of true change in cor- Occupational Education, and apprenticeship rectional philosophy for the Bureau. The change program. was geared toward a philosophy that rehabilitat- ed the individual offender. Though this philoso- Conclusions and Implications phy was the general thought since the creation of the Bureau, it was during this time period the At the time that the Federal Bureau of Pris- Bureau saw growth that reinforced this philoso- ons were established vocational training was not phy. Congress passed in 1950 the Youth Cor- a new phenomenon, but was a tool to reduce idle rections Act, which would broaden the range of time. When the Federal Government passed The correctional alternatives for younger offenders. Three Prisons Act vocational training was seen Federal facilities opened in Ashland, Kentucky; as necessary to incorporate into prisons, howev- Englewood, Colorado; and Petersburg, Virginia, er this type of occupational skill training was left all of which were created for youth offenders, to the maintenance shops at each institution. As with a heavy emphasis on education, vocational more emphasis was placed on education, in- training, and rehabilitation (Escarcega, 2004). mates found themselves splitting time between The medical model was implemented during the shop and the classroom. Dyer and Williams the 1960’s (Factory With Fences, 1996). This (1997) indicated experiential learning as benefi- model focused attention on crime as an illness cial to occupational skills. The focus to train that could be treated. The treatment of crime these incarcerated men quickly shifted to a larg- came from a focus on the individual, counseling, er focus to include women, children, and young education programs, and classifications based on adults who were incarcerated. When the Bureau the individual’s needs were implemented (Rob- of Prisons was finally established in 1930, Aus- erts, 1990). tin MacCormick sought out the possible training In 1962 the Manpower Demonstration and programs that could be included in the Bureau. Training Act was passed, which provided pro- Before the Bureau was established and grams for released prisoners to aid in skills im- through the Bureau’s early years there were provement for employment (McKean many changes that took place. The skills taught &Ransford, 2004). In 1965 President Lyndon B. in prisons began more in the agriculture sector, Johnson signed the Federal Prisoner Rehabilita- but were greatly widened to include occupations tion Act into law (Long, 1965). Part of the bill that would encompass a wider array of job skills would allow inmates to work in private em- to aid persons being released from prison. The ployment or to participate in community training vocational training programs in the Bureau had a
Journal of Agricultural Education 122 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Coppedge and Strong Vocational Programs… disorganized start; with much of the skills being would be programs that have had great success taught by maintenance foreman. The im- and others that have failed; and the causes of portance of these programs and the positive ef- these outcomes. Additional studies that would fects on inmates’ lives were soon realized. provide great insight into quality programs that These programs were soon developed into bet- work would be research that focuses on the rela- ter-organized classes being taught by industry tionship of existing high growth occupations and professionals. how these occupations relate to programs cur- Directors of the Bureau have continually rently being offered in the Bureau. To narrow emphasized the importance of these programs as down these occupations, a researcher could look a tool to not only combat idle time, but to ensure at occupations that are directly related to agricul- a reduction of recidivism. As the American tural productions. prison population continues to rise so should Future research should reflect the need to more research and focus be placed on these understand why the different vocational training worthwhile programs that will aid in the better- programs were added and to develop a compre- ment of incarcerated individuals. hension regarding the program dynamics. This would help to better understand the goals of the Recommendations different programs and could aid in the determi- nation of what future programs may be added in Recommendations for further studies should the Bureau. Developing future vocational goals be focused on identifying the multitude of voca- should assist program planners in addressing the tional training programs that have come into diverse needs of inmates regardless of peniten- existence in the Bureau. To expand this study tiary system (Doerfert, 2011). other components that are imperative to study
References
Allen, H. E., & Simonsen, C. E. (1975). Corrections in America: An introduction. Beverly Hills, CA: Glencoe Press. Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. D. (1983). Educational research (4th ed.). New York: Longman. Carter, R. M., McGee, R. A., & Nelson, E. K. (1975). Corrections in America. Philadelphia, Pennsylva- nia: J.B. Lippincott Company. Dailey, A. L., Conroy, C. A., & Shelley-Tolbert, C. A. (2001). Using agricultural education as the context to teach life skills. Journal of Agricultural Education, 42(1), 11-20. doi: 10.503/jae.2001.01011 Doerfert, D. L. (Ed.) (2011). National research agenda: American Association for Agricultural Education’s research priority areas for 2011-2015. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University, De- partment of Agricultural Education and Communications.
Dyer, J. E., & Williams, D. L. (1997). Benefits of supervised agricultural experience programs: A synthe- sis of research. Journal of Agricultural Education, 38(4), 50-58. doi: 10.5032/jae.1997.04050 Escarcega, A. (2004). Working collaboratively: addressing the needs of federally sentenced juvenile of- fenders. Corrections Today, 66(1), 20-22. Fields, C. B. (2005). Three prisons act 1891. In M. Bosworth (Ed.), Encyclopedia of prisons and correc- tional facilities (pp. 963-965). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Federal Bureau of Prisons. (2009). Factories with fences: 75 years of changing lives. Washington, DC: Federal Prison Industries, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.unicor. gov/information/ publica- tions/pdfs/corporate/CATMC1101_C.pdf.
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Federal Bureau of Prisons. (1996). Factories with fences: The history of Federal Prison Industries. Wash- ington, DC: Federal Prison Industries, Inc. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/ Publica- tions/abstract.aspx?ID=173540. Federal Bureau of Prisons. (2001). About the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Washington, DC. Federal Prison Industries, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.bop.gov/news/PDFs/ipaabout.pdf. Federal Reformatory for Women School. (1962). Scrapbook, the Alderson saga. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office. Garret, P.W. & MacCormick, A.H. (1929). Handbook of American Prisons and Reformatories. New York, NY: National Society of Penal Information, Inc., Harris, M. B. (1936). I knew them in prison. New York, NY: The Viking Press. Hershberger, G. L. (1979). The development of the Federal Prison System. Washington, DC: U.S. Gov- ernment Printing Office. House Documents. 65th Congress. 2nd session. October 6, 1917. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Retrieved from http://congressional.proquest.com.lib-ezproxy.tamu.edu:2048. House Report 7832. (1929). Federal prisoners and penitentiaries: hearings before the committee on the judiciary. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Johnston, N. (2004). The world’s most influential prison: Success or failure. The Prison Journal, 84(4), 20S-40S. doi: 10.1177/0032885504269393. Keve, P. W. (1991). Prisons and the American conscious. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Keve, P. W. (1984). The McNeil century: The life and times of an island prison. Chicago, Illinois: Nel- son-Hall. LaMaster, K. M. (2008). U.S. Penitentiary Leavenworth. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing. Langeluttig, A. (1927). The Department of Justice of the United States. Baltimore, MD: The Lord Balti- more Press. Long, E. V. (1965). The Prisoner Rehabilitation Act of 1965. Federal Probation Journal, 29(3), 3-7. MacCormick, A. H. (1931). The education of adult prisoners, New York, NY: The National Society of Penal Information. McKean, L., & Ransford, C. (2004). Current strategies for reducing recidivism, Chicago, IL: Center for Impact Research. McShane M. D., & Williams III, F.P. (1996). Encyclopedia of American prisons. New York, NY: Gar- land Publishing, Inc. Meskell, M.W. (1999). An American resolution: The history of prisons in the United States from 1777- 1877. Stanford Law Review, 51(4), 839-865. Retrieved from http://jthomasniu.org/PDF /prisonhistory111.pdf Roberts, J. W. (1990). View from the top. Federal Prisons Journal, 1(4), 27-46. Snarr, R. W. & Wolford, B. I. (1985). Introduction to corrections. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publish- ers. Tucker, R. (1934, December). Prep school, giving society’s problem children a break. Colliers Weekly. 26-27.
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U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Prisons. (1933). Federal Offenders 1931-32. Retrieved from http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015039713881;seq=9;view=1up. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Prisons. (1938). Federal Offenders 1936-37. Retrieved from http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015039713881;seq=9;view=1up. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Prisons. (1939). Federal Offenders 1937-38. Retrieved from http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015039713881;seq=9;view=1up. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Prisons. (1941). Federal Offenders 1939-40. Retrieved from http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015039713881;seq=9;view=1up. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Prisons. (1943). Federal Offenders 1941-42. Retrieved from http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015039713881;seq=9;view=1up. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Prisons. (1947). Federal Offenders 1945-46. Retrieved from http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015039713899;seq=3;view=1up. U.S. House of Representatives, Report of the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Justice. (1915). National Training School for Boys. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Wines, E. C., & Dwight, T. W. (1867). Report on the prisons and reformatories of the United States and Canada. Albany, NY: Van Benthuysen & Sons Steam Printing House. Wolf, K. J., & Conners, J. J. (2009). Winning the war: A historical analysis of the FFA during World War II. Journal of Agricultural Education. 50(2), 112-121. doi: 10.5032/jae.2009.02112
RICKY H. COPPEDGE is a doctoral student in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, & Communications, Texas A&M University, 600 John Kimbrough Boulevard • 2116 TAMU • College Sta- tion, TX 77843-2116.
ROBERT STRONG is an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, & Communications, Texas A&M University, 600 John Kimbrough Boulevard • 2116 TAMU • College Sta- tion, TX 77843-2116.
Journal of Agricultural Education 125 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 126 – 139 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.0126 o What Images Show that Words Do Not: Analysis of Pre- u r service Teachers’ Depictions of Effective Agricultural Edu- n a cation Teachers in the 21st Century l
J. Shane Robinson o Oklahoma State University f
Kathleen D. Kelsey A University of Georgia g Robert Terry, Jr. r i Oklahoma State University c u Abstract l t One of the intended outcomes of agricultural teacher education programs is the progressive development u and refinement of students’ professional identity. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to r a which pre-service agriculture teachers’ mental models, depicting the roles and responsibilities of school- l based agriculture teachers, changed over the course of a semester-long teacher education course. Pre- service teachers were asked to draw images depicting an effective agriculture teacher at three points dur- E ing the semester. Those images served as a mediator for surfacing the idealized agriculture teacher and d were analyzed by three researchers using a variety of methods. Four themes emerged to describe pre- u service teachers’ mental models of effective teaching: instruction, settings, curricular diversity, and en- c gagement. Desired constructs, such as student engagement and curricular diversity, of the ideal agricul- a ture teacher were noted from the beginning to the middle of the semester; however, undesirable con- t structs, such as teacher-directed instruction that focused on traditional topics and lacked STEM integra- i tion, emerged in the drawings from the middle to the end of the semester. It is recommended that the o n study be replicated over teachers’ entire preparation experience to determine how their professional V identity is impacted by various treatments inherent in the pre-service teacher education program. o l Keywords: pre-service teacher beliefs; images of effective teaching u m Teachers who are highly qualified and effec- and becoming a lifelong learner, planning the e tive are needed desperately in school systems comprehensive program, and improving person- today (Feistritzer & Haar, 2008; Good, al traits and qualities. In addition, a study by 5 McCaslin, Tsang, Zhang, Wiley, Bozack, & Jenkins III and Kitchel (2010) identified 37 1 Hester, 2006). As a result, the general percep- quality instruction indicators that effective , tion among the American public is that the teachers should practice. These indicators N teaching profession is of low quality (Akiba, ranged from teachers being able to identify ap- u LeTendre, & Scribner, 2007). propriate class sizes to using student-centered m Roberts and Dyer (2004) identified eight ef- teaching methods. b fectiveness variables for agricultural education Although numerous attributes of effective e teachers. These variables are teaching in the teaching have been identified, individuals take r classroom and laboratory, advising the pro- complex situations that are multifaceted in na- 1 gram’s youth leadership organization – known ture and compress them “into one holistic per- , as the FFA, monitoring students’ supervised ag- ceptual identity” (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999, p. ricultural experiences (SAE), building relation- 9). It is important, therefore, for teacher educa- p p ships within the community, marketing the pro- tors to recognize how students construct the . gram, participating in professional development teaching and learning process in light of known 1 1
126 –
2 1 Robinson, Kelsey and Terry What Images Show... variables for effectiveness (Hofer & Pintrich, Analyzing pre-service teachers’ mental im- 1997). One such method is to analyze pre- ages is one method of determining instructional service teachers’ mental images of effective impact on pre-service teachers’ construction of a teaching in the form of drawings (Calderhead & professional identity (Minogue, 2010). Teacher Robson, 1991; Minogue, 2010; Thomas, Peder- images are based on his or her feelings, former son, & Finson, 2001). experiences, values, perceptions of the role(s) Mental images of effective teaching inform that should be played, needs and concerns of the even the most novice teachers (Wideen, Mayer- situation, and the way they react to unplanned Smith, & Moon, 1998). Creating mental images incidents in a classroom setting (Korthagen & allows individuals to take ownership of their Kessels, 1999). learning by developing their identity and level of According to Korthagen and Kessels (1999), understanding of a certain phenomenon in a way teachers visualize effective teaching by forming that is creative and empowering (Martin, 2008). Gestalts, or images, based on their previous ex- Creating mental images are important for pre- periences (see Figure 1). Once Gestalts have service teachers because they allow for self- been established, authority figures, such as visualization of conducting and accomplishing a teacher educators, supervisors, and principals, task effectively and successfully (Bandura, can challenge teachers at the Gestalt level by 1994; Minogue, 2010). Wubbles (1992) recog- helping them form schemas, “which on one hand nized that pre-service teachers enter teacher is still tied to concrete experiences, but on the preparation programs with “world images” (p. other hand becomes more detached from these 147) of effective teaching. experiences” (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999, p. 10).
Gestalt Schematization Theory for- formation mation Theory (a Schema Experiences logical (network with con- Gestalt ordering of of ele- crete exam- (holistic) the rela- ments and ples tions in the relations) schema) Reflection Reflection
Figure 1. Korthagen’s and Kessel’s (1999) model of levels regarding the process of learning a certain domain.
At Oklahoma State University, pre-service service teachers, it is imperative to determine agricultural education students enroll in AGED how their professional identity is formed, as it 3103 – Foundations and Philosophies of Teach- will influence their behaviors as a teacher. ing Agricultural Education as juniors. This Regarding their views of preparing teachers course is designed to assist students to develop for classroom instruction, Korthagen and Kes- their philosophy of agricultural education and sels (1999) stated, construct a personal identity as an agricultural Teacher development is conceptualized instructor, with special emphasis on pedagogy as an ongoing process of experiencing and specific attention to lesson planning, teach- practical teaching and learning situa- ing methods, and lesson delivery. No research tions, reflecting on them under the guid- has been conducted; however, to determine the ance of an expert, and developing one’s degree to which students’ identity develops or own insights into teaching through the changes throughout the semester. Because this interaction between personal reflection course is the first pre-service course for pre-
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and theoretical notions offered by the deemed similar to themselves adopt, and have expert. (p. 5) success with, new practices related to teaching For teacher conceptualization to occur, (vicarious), and when their beliefs are constantly schemas must be created and organized based on challenged through norms by those around them the individual’s prior knowledge (Santrock, (socio-cultural influences). When these three 2004). This prior knowledge can exist as con- strategies are employed, the opportunity to cepts, knowledge, or information about a variety change teachers’ core beliefs increases (Ertmer, of events that have occurred in the past. Sche- 2005). Feiman-Nemser (2001) stated, mas allow individuals to generate a broad pic- The images and beliefs that prospective ture of whatever event they are being asked to teachers bring to their preservice prepa- recollect in the form of mental models ration serve as filters for making sense (Santrock, 2004). Therefore, the theoretical un- of the knowledge and experiences they derpinnings of this study consisted of mental encounter. The may also function as images and teacher beliefs, as expressed through barriers to change by limiting the ideas drawings (Minogue, 2010; Thomas et al., 2001). that teacher education students are able Mental images are generalizations about and willing to entertain. (p. 1016) what people perceive about a particular situation Therefore, what images and beliefs do pre- or event (Johnson-Laird, 2001). They are devel- service teachers bring to the university setting oped through creative measures and are based on and how do those images change as a result of former experiences of a person (Byrne, 2002). teacher education coursework? As such, it is difficult to deconstruct a person’s mental images of a situation (Byrne, 2002, Doo- Purpose of the Study little, Dodds, & Placek, 1993). For these rea- sons, individuals enter teacher preparation pro- The purpose of the study was to determine grams with strong mental models that consist of the extent to which agricultural education pre- “quite powerful and influential images of teach- service teachers’ beliefs changed as a result of ing” (Calderhead & Robson, 1991, p. 8). Pre- their enrollment in a semester-long course titled, service teachers create mental images as a result Foundations and Philosophies of Agricultural of their beliefs about a phenomenon, such as Education. The following research questions teaching, which can be a powerful influencer on guided the study. their behavior (Pajares, 1982). In fact, “beliefs 1. Interpret agricultural education pre- influence knowledge acquisition and interpreta- service teachers’ images of effective tion, task definition and selection, interpretation teaching of course content, and comprehension monitor- 2. Determine how agricultural education ing (Pajares, 1982, p. 328). pre-service teachers’ images of effective Teacher beliefs are based on a teacher’s teaching change over time. memory of episodes that happened previously. Ertmer (2005) stated that, “early episodes or Methodology events, . . . have the potential to color percep- tions of subsequent events, especially if early Data for this research consisted of one-page experiences are particularly unique or vivid. drawings created by pre-service teachers en- Further, because of their highly personal nature, rolled in a required teacher education class. beliefs are unlikely to be affected by persuasion” Three times during the 16-week fall semester (p. 29). Beliefs can be changed according to (beginning [August], middle [October], and end three experiences: personal, vicarious, and so- [November] of the semester), pre-service teach- cio-cultural (Ertmer, 2005). In general, teachers ers were provided a blank sheet of white paper will be more apt to change their beliefs about and were given the prompt, Draw an image de- teaching whenever they encounter a personal picting an effective teacher in agricultural edu- experience that encourages them to rethink their cation in the 21st Century. Pre-service teachers current strategy and consider adopting a new were allowed roughly five minutes to respond to practice (personal), when they see others the prompt. Drawings were then collected and
Journal of Agricultural Education 128 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Robinson, Kelsey and Terry What Images Show... analyzed by a team of three researchers to de- were collected from the same student. Incom- termine if and how students’ perceptions plete data sets resulted from students being ab- changed throughout the semester. sent on the days in which the drawings were tak- Minogue (2010) stated that, “Drawings rep- en. All 104 original drawings were photocopied, resent a relatively rich source of information. and a set was provided to each of the three re- Drawings allow one to consider the setting, the searchers for analysis. arrangement of objects in physical space, and Doolittle at al. (1993) stated that “capturing interactions in their depiction of a mental image” the essence of beliefs is . . . problematic because (p. 768-769). Analyzing drawings to decon- they are difficult to articulate, and the subtle, struct participants’ mental models has a long indirect evidence that establishes their presence history in educational research. The Draw-A- must be gathered over long period of time to Man-Test was used in the 1920s (Goodenough, show stability or evolution” (p. 356). Therefore, 1926). Since then, this original test has under- data were analyzed in a series of iterations using gone various iterations to fit numerous disci- the constant comparative analysis employed by plines. Most notably was the Draw-A-Science- Doolittle et al. (1993) in a similar study on Teacher-Test Checklist (DASTT-C) (Thomas et teacher beliefs. The three researchers counted, al., 2001). The DASTT-C was designed to named, interpreted, built consensus, and subject- measure perceptions of science students and ed their interpretations to statistical analysis to teachers. After using the DASTT-C test to as- add rigor to the findings and conclusions (Cre- sess pre-service teachers in Turkey, Yilmaz, swell, 2007). Although visual data are interpre- Turkmen, Pedersen, and Huyuguzel Cavas tative, content analysis allows for quantifying (2007) stated, “The DASTT-C is one of the es- images within a frame that can be subjected to sential instruments that can be used to help to statistical tests to measure effect size (Banks, develop techniques and procedures for promot- 2007). The analysis protocol was designed to ing reflection and analysis of pre-service teach- enhance validity, or the degree to which the ers’ thinking” (p. 11). findings are accurate representations of the par- Minogue (2010) utilized the DASTT-C ver- ticipants’ intentions (Creswell, 2012). The re- sion to quantify the data for the purpose of using searchers’ main concern in the analysis was to inferential statistics and determining statistically identify and measure accurately the change, or significant differences in students’ pre-course lack thereof, in teachers’ conceptions of an ef- and post-course drawings. Minogue (2010) fective secondary agricultural education instruc- found that students changed their beliefs about tor over time. teaching science by shifting from a teacher- Analysis progressed through four phases. centered approach to more of a student-centered During the first phase, all three researchers fol- approach. lowed a formalist approach where the drawings Moseley, Desjean-Perrotta, and Utley (2010) were subjected to “distinctive and patterned developed the Draw-An-Environment Test Ru- forms of analysis” of the content (Banks, 2007, bric (DAET-R) to determine how pre-service p. 39), similar to a content analysis. The re- teachers in early childhood developed their men- searchers used a positivist epistemology of lit- tal images of the environment. However, no eral identification of each distinct image in the such test exists for agricultural education. Since drawing. Specifically, the researchers identified, agricultural education is “the world’s oldest sci- named, and counted each component within all ence” (Ricketts, Duncan, & Peake, 2006, p. 48), of the drawings and recorded them on a spread- a modified version of the DASTT-C (Thomas et sheet. Attention focused on components in the al., 2001) was employed for assessing pre- drawings such as the quantity, positions, actions, service teachers’ beliefs in agricultural educa- and emotions of teachers and students. For in- tion. stance, Darling-Hammond and Baratz-Snowden There were 104 drawings total, including 22 (2007) stated, complete data sets where three drawings were Despite the popular image of the teacher collected from the same student, and 22 incom- standing at the front of the room lectur- plete data sets where fewer than three drawings ing from a textbook and giving a quiz at
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the end of the week, we now know that from the researchers’ analysis were normalized teachers whose students demonstrate for each image. The normalized scores were strong achievement do much more. (p. entered into the spreadsheet and subjected to 112) quantitative analyses. Images were considered Teachers should be active and engaging with to represent changes in students’ conceptions of their students and less teacher-centered (Darling- an effective school-based agriculture teacher at Hammon & Baratz-Snowden, 2007). Teacher- three points in time and were measured by as- centered approaches assume that the teacher is in sessing differences in effect size using Cohen’s charge of the learning environment, is centered d estimates (Banks, 2007). physically in the room facing students, and al- In phase four, researchers used a positivist lows only a limited amount of input from the stance by interpreting the statistical effect size as students (Thomas et al., 2001). In contrast, stu- an indication of the magnitude of change be- dent-centered approaches assume that the teach- tween the three data collection points. These er facilitates or guides activities by enabling stu- combined steps allowed researchers to make dents to manage their own learning, is in close assertions regarding pre-service teachers’ con- proximity to the students but not necessarily in ceptions of an effective agricultural education the center of the room, and allows students to instructor over time. discuss and debate concepts openly and freely Analyzing data on teacher beliefs is messy (Thomas et al., 2001). Therefore, the positions (Pajares, 1982); therefore, “researchers need in which teachers were depicted in the drawings agreement on the meaning and conceptualiza- were important because they had implications tions of belief” (Pajares, 1982, p. 326). To meet for whether the teacher was constructed as this need, inter-observer reliability was assumed. teacher-centered or student-centered. Research- Inter-observer reliability is defined as the ers also analyzed all illustrations of classrooms amount of congruence between observers’ and outdoor laboratories; symbols and words; scores (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 2002). The animals and equipment related to their care; researchers analyzed all 104 drawings individu- plants and trees; furniture and fixtures; vehicles, ally by identifying and naming the images that including trucks and tractors; and additional ac- he or she detected in the drawing, using the con- couterments of the teaching and learning process structs identified by Thomas et al. (2001) as a in an agricultural and natural resources setting. guide. Then, throughout the data analysis pro- The second phase of the analysis was con- cess, researchers met to discuss their findings. structivist and interpretative (Creswell, 2012). Whenever discrepancies occurred in the scoring Independently, the researchers used the quantity of drawings, the researchers reanalyzed the data and names of the items in the drawings to con- jointly until consensus was reached. As such, no struct four Gestalt themes of traditional versus inter-rater reliability score was provided because emergent teaching, single versus multiple set- the raters reached 100% agreement through this tings, limited versus diverse curriculum, and low four-phase process. versus high engagement. The themes were in- Researcher bias is present in all social sci- formed by the work of Thomas et al. (2001). ence research (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). How- Each image was rated from 0 (nonexistent) to 10 ever, researchers attempted to mitigate bias by (completely saturated) on the degree to which open reflection on interpretations and negotia- each theme emerged from the data. The scores tion using the team’s strengths in different con- were also entered into a spreadsheet. tent areas. For example, two of the three re- The third phase of the analysis was con- searchers have deep experience in school-based structivist and consisted of confirming the inter- agricultural education and understood the mean- pretation of images to normalize and refine the ing of various images that was not clear to the Gestalt themes among the three researchers. In third researcher, who in return challenged as- this phase, several face-to-face meetings were sumptions among the team. Ultimately, consen- held for negotiations that continued until con- sus was reached after listening to arguments sensus was established among the research ana- supporting differing interpretations of images. lysts. During these negotiation sessions, scores Additional unavoidable bias rests with the dy-
Journal of Agricultural Education 130 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Robinson, Kelsey and Terry What Images Show... namic of the data collection process. It is possi- each other, with math or science symbols on a ble that students drew symbols and images that SMART Board®, and students with idea bub- resonated with what had been taught previously bles or raised hands received higher scores. in class. As such, students might have drawn images to please the instructor rather than to re- flect their beliefs about teaching. Findings Theme 2: Setting
Analysis of the 104 drawing revealed four The type of setting was analyzed by the de- themes of effective teaching as constructed by gree of contrast between the classroom and al- pre-service teachers: Instruction, Settings, Cur- ternative environments. It was clear that in ricular Diversity, and Engagement. A descrip- some drawings teachers and students were inside tion of the elements present in the drawing that a classroom environment whereas in others, they coalesced to form each theme is discussed in were outside the classroom environment. It was detail in the following section. Interpretation of also evident that some drawings included nu- the themes will be discussed in the following merous settings whereas others only included section. one setting. For example, some pre-service teachers drew multiple settings in one scene to Theme 1: Instruction include a classroom, laboratory, school vehicle, and house. Others had only one setting, such as Instruction represented the classroom and the classroom environment or laboratory. Imag- laboratory context. Upon viewing the drawings, es of classrooms, laboratories, outdoor scenes it was clear that the activity of the teacher and with trees or nature, settings depicting activity in students was a theme that should be assessed. or around barns, greenhouses, row crops, career For instance, most all drawings had images of development events, and/or people in vehicles stick figures. It was often evident to the re- were used to score the drawings. Drawings with searchers who was intended to be the teacher only one setting were scored lower, whereas and who was intended to be the student(s). The drawings with several settings were scored positioning and posture of the teacher and stu- higher. dents were also apparent. For instance, in some drawings, the teacher was standing. In others, Theme 3: Curricular Diversity the teacher was sitting or bending down to assist with or demonstrate an action to students. At The type of curriculum teachers depicted times the teacher was positioned at the head of emerged as a key theme of the study. It was ap- the classroom, and at other times the teacher was parent that some drawings included only one in the midst of the students. Some drawings content are, such as animal science, whereas consisted of the teacher using an abundance of other drawings included much more diverse con- visual aids throughout the room. Some draw- tent areas. Therefore, the theme Curricular Di- ings consisted of students in an outdoor setting versity was represented by images regarding the while others depicted a teacher standing in front identification of various content areas in which of a classroom lecturing to students who were teachers were exposing their students. In some sitting in desks arranged in rows with no emo- cases, there was no evidence that any curriculum tion or engagement. Engagement was illustrated was being taught. An example was a teacher by students with idea bubbles over their heads, talking to students in a nondescript room. In hands raised, and arrows going back and forth other cases, no diversity was being offered in the between the teacher and the students. The draw- curriculum by which students was learning. An ings of teachers standing in front of a classroom example was a single image of a teaching lecturing to students as they sat in desks ar- demonstrating how to clip a steer. However, in ranged in rows with no emotion or engagement, some cases, examples of STEM were detected received lower scores. Conversely, drawings along with images on the wall of breeds of hogs. that showed teachers and students talking to For example, if students were drawn preparing
Journal of Agricultural Education 131 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Robinson, Kelsey and Terry What Images Show... an animal for exhibition only, the researchers ing an activity with a student, in relationship to interpreted the curriculum as animal science on- the students’ actions, were rated with higher ly and gave it a lower score. Likewise, if stu- scores. Also, the position of the teacher was dents were practicing for a CDE, as indicated by taken into account. For example, drawings re- individuals assessing animals tied to a fence, it ceived higher scores if the teacher was bending was assumed that the curriculum was associated down to demonstrate a task to students or was with the Agricultural Science I course of this shown walking through the classroom. In con- state’s curriculum, and was viewed as lacking trast, drawings received lower scores if teachers diversity. If, however, students and teachers were shown as a static figure at the front of the were shown outdoors, surrounded by trees and classroom. nature, researchers interpreted that an environ- Generally, for all four themes, scores in- mental science curriculum was being depicted creased as the number and diversity of images and rated those scenes higher. Likewise, if stu- included increased. For example, image 9B (see dents and teachers were in a laboratory setting Figure 2) was scored 8 for instruction, 6 for set- and students were interacting with science tings, 5 for curricular diversity, and 2 for en- equipment, such as ring stands, beakers, and gagement. The rationale for these scores was flasks, those scenes were rated with higher based on the assessment that the drawing repre- scores. Images containing a variety of activities sented several teachers in various forms of in- or scenes also received higher scores. struction, each one doing different things in rela- tion to the type of instruction used. In this draw- Theme 4: Engagement ing, the teacher is depicted demonstrating, lec- turing, using visual aids, and doing an activity The fourth theme that emerged from the data with a student. As such, the type of instruction dealt with the level of engagement of teachers was considered to be varied; thus, receiving a and students. Engagement was represented by more elevated score on the continuum. The set- images of human interaction. In some drawings, ting depicted contained images of students in a students were receiving information passively variety of locations including a laboratory, class- while sitting in their desks facing the teacher. In room, in groups, alone, and outside. Conse- others, students were actively involved with quently, this image was rated in the middle of learning the content. Indicators of this action the continuum. Further, the drawing included an were students with their hands raised or idea image of a CDE, a horse, indicators of STEM, bubbles over their heads. Engagement was also such as a SMART Board®, science laboratory depicted regarding teachers’ proximity to stu- items, and gears, which represented an average dents, the number of idea bubbles or light bulbs amount of curricular diversity. Finally, although depicted over students’ heads, the number of the teacher expressed happiness, with an idea students’ whose hands were raised, the move- bubble over her head, no idea bubbles were ment of teachers throughout the classroom, and drawn over students’ heads, nor were students’ amount and type of emotions drawn on students’ hands raised. Thus, due to the fact that students faces. Drawings that contained images depicting showed little participation, engagement was rat- teachers demonstrating, using visual aids, or do- ed lower on the continuum.
Journal of Agricultural Education 132 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Robinson, Kelsey and Terry What Images Show...
Figure 2. An example of a student’s drawing of effective teaching in agricultural education at the middle of the semester.
The second research question analyzed how lar path. Students’ drawings exhibited little cur- pre-service teachers’ mental images of effective ricular diversity at the beginning of the semester teaching changed throughout the semester. To (M = 1.79; SD = 1.83). The detection of images address this question, researchers collected data relating to curricular diversity increased over images from pre-service teachers at three differ- one and one-half points at the midpoint of the ent times throughout the semester – beginning semester (M = 3.48; SD = 2.93), only to decrease (August), middle (October), and end (Novem- one point at the end of the semester (M = 2.42; ber), according to an 11-point summated scale SD = 1.92). regarding how prevalent the constructs appeared In contrast, scores for depictions related to in the drawings. The range of scores was 0 = the themes Settings and Engagement increased non existent to 10 = completely saturated. Stu- throughout the semester. For instance, images dents’ drawings exhibited limited depictions of relating to settings increased by 1.33 points from instruction at the beginning of the semester (M = beginning (M = 2.42; SD = 1.97) to the end (M = 1.53; SD = 1.50) (see Table 1). The number of 3.75; SD = 2.02) of the semester. Similarly, im- images relating to instruction increased by al- ages relating to engagement of students in- most two full points (M = 3.26; SD = 2.57) at the creased from by 1.23 points at the beginning (M midpoint of the semester, only to taper off at the = 2.63; SD = 2.36) to the end (M = 3.86; SD = end of the semester (M = 2.06; SD = 1.82). The 2.42) of the semester. depiction of curricular diversity followed a simi-
Journal of Agricultural Education 133 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Robinson, Kelsey and Terry What Images Show...
Table 1
The Changes of Pre-service Teachers’ Mental Images throughout the Semester
Beginning Middle End Themes M SD M SD M SD
Type of Instruction 1.53 1.50 3.26 2.57 2.06 1.82 Settings 2.42 1.97 3.63 2.24 3.75 2.02 Curricular Diversity 1.79 1.83 3.48 2.93 2.42 1.92 Engagement 2.63 2.36 3.70 2.95 3.86 2.42 Note. Scale = 0 = Non Existent to 10 = Completely Saturated
Because this study was interpretive in na- the semester in the area of instruction (d = -.82) ture, the scale was used primarily as a means for (see Table 2). Medium effects were detected in normalizing the data between the three research- the amount of images drawn in the themes Set- ers to establish consensus. To that end, it was tings (d = -.57) and Curricular Diversity (d = - valuable for the researchers to determine a way .69) from the beginning to the middle of the se- to assess growth, or lack thereof, of the pre- mester. Few indications of growth were detect- service teachers’ perceptions of effective teach- ed in students’ drawings from the middle to the ing from beginning of the semester to the end. end of the semester in settings and engagement As such, effect sizes were calculated and inter- of students (d = -.06; -.06, respectively). How- preted according to Cohen’s (1988) recommen- ever, large, practical effects occurred from the dations (i.e., small effect size [d = .20], medium beginning to the end of the semester in the effect size [d = .50], and large effect size [d = themes Settings (d = -.67) and Engagement of .80]). Students (d = -.51) (see Table 2). A large, practical effect occurred from the beginning (August) to the middle (November) of
Table 2
The Practical Significance of Pre-service Teachers’ Changes in their Mental Images throughout the Se- mester, as Estimated by Cohen’s d
Cohen’s d Estimates Beginning Middle Beginning Themes to Middle to End to End
Type of Instruction -.82 .54 -.32 Settings -.57 -.06 -.67 Curricular Diversity -.69 .43 -.34 Engagement of Students -.40 -.06 -.51 Note. Cohen’s d estimates ranged from .2 = small; .5 = medium; .8 = large
Conclusions with a limited understanding of, and apprecia- tion for, the vastness of the roles of an effective Based on the scoring of students’ drawings, agriculture teacher in the 21st Century. Using it can be concluded that pre-service teachers in Minogue’s (2010) theory of assessing mental agricultural education at Oklahoma State Uni- images through drawings, students expressed versity enter the teacher preparation program few graphics that depicted any variety of instruc-
Journal of Agricultural Education 134 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Robinson, Kelsey and Terry What Images Show... tion and curricular diversity at the beginning of mester. Further, there was much discussion the semester. In addition, students were con- about the integration of STEM principles in the servative in drawing only a small variety of set- context of agriculture. As such, it is possible tings related to teaching agriculture and images that students drew images that related to most that would be indicative of their appreciation for recent class discussions, and were perceived to engaging students in the content of agriculture. be valued by the instructor, at the mid-semester. At mid semester, however, students expanded Likewise, there is a possible explanation for the their drawings to encompass additional indica- digression of drawings from the midpoint to the tors of instruction, settings, curriculum, and en- end of the semester as well. Toward the end of gagement. This conclusion indicates that stu- the semester, several guest speakers frequent the dents’ constructed identity of effective teaching course. Further, students conduct pre-service in an agricultural context can be modified. field experiences during the second one-half of Somewhat surprisingly, when factoring in the course. It is possible that students receive the third and final set of drawings, conducted at messages from agriculture teachers and guest the end of the semester, students digressed in the speakers that differ from those presented by the number and quality of indicators regarding in- instructor of the university course. Perhaps struction and curricular diversity. This finding these factors led students to digress with their is unsettling and deserves further examination as drawings from the middle to the end of the se- it is counter to findings of Minogue (2010), who mester as it related to instruction – back to their reported that aspiring science teachers became original conceptions of effective teaching in an more student-centered and less teacher-centered agriculture setting, which resulted in mental throughout their preparation. However, the find- models that were well entrenched and difficult to ing appears to be in line with teacher beliefs the- unlock. ory that suggests that students enter teacher A positive result of this study is that the preparation programs with strong images and course had a positive impact on students’ ability beliefs about what effective teaching looks like. to conceptualize effective teaching, as indicated They have been subjected, as recipients, to thou- through their three drawings. As specified by sands of hours of instruction (Lortie, 1975) in the Cohen’s d estimates, students’ drawings which they were exposed to how teaching really ranged from a small to medium effect on the four occurs. As such, the pre-service teachers hold themes, when comparing the drawings produced pre-conceived notions of teaching that are diffi- by students in the beginning of the semester to cult to change (Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Doolittle those at the end. It could be implied that the et al., 1993). Unfortunately, change is slow to pre-service teachers accepted the practices that occur when the new information presented by reflected best their own images of effective teacher preparation faculty does not conform or teaching. is in direct violation with students’ pre- conceived notions (Stipek, Givvin, Salmon, & Limitations to the Study MacGyners, 2001) and because, at times, pre- service teachers think “they know more about This study was limited by agency, or “the teaching than they actually do” (Feiman- capacity of one person to act upon another, or to Nemser, 2001, p. 1016). influence a set of social relations as a result of When factoring in practical effect, it is clear such action” (Banks, 2007, p. 11). Agency is a that the pre-service teachers participating in this concern in that the course instructor asked the study made significant adjustments in their abil- participants to draw their conceptions of an ef- ity to conceptualize the importance of instruc- fective agricultural education instructor in the tion from the beginning to the middle of the se- context of the course lessons at three points in mester. Although encouraging, we offer a pos- time. It is difficult to discern if students were sible explanation for this occurrence. When drawing images that truly reflected their authen- considering the lead instructor’s course syllabus, tic constructions or if they were seeking to a heavy emphasis on pedagogy in formal teach- please their instructor by drawing what they ing was emphasized in the first half of the se- hoped was desired by the instructor regarding
Journal of Agricultural Education 135 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Robinson, Kelsey and Terry What Images Show... effective teaching. In an attempt to offset this 1993). The results of this study will allow for a limitation, the lead instructor informed students more robust instrument to be developed in used that none of their drawings would be graded or in future studies that assess teacher beliefs. assigned a score based on their quality or lack thereof. Yet, it is still possible that this biased Recommendations for Practice students’ drawings throughout the semester. The first set of images may be the most authen- To see long-lasting changes in perceptions, tic of the trio as they were drawn at the start of Korthagen and Kessels (1999) recommended the semester and demonstrate traditional notions that teacher educators begin at the Gestalt level of agricultural education settings, perhaps creat- by adding more experiences for which aspiring ed from the students’ memories of their experi- teachers can form schemata. Feiman-Nemser ences as participants in high school agriculture (2001) stated that, programs. Unless teacher educators engage prospec- The format of the data could have been an tive teachers in a critical examination of additional limitation of the study. Only a simple their entering beliefs in light of compel- prompt was given to the students: Draw your ling alternatives and help them develop idea of an effective agricultural education in- powerful images of good teaching and structor. The resulting images were not uni- strong professional commitments, these form. For example, some drawings had multiple entering beliefs will continue to shape figures and references to a variety of settings their ideas and practices. (p. 1017) within the frame (Banks, 2007), while others Therefore, instructors should consider add- have one figure and one setting. The researchers ing a wider variety of early field-based experi- generally interpreted single figures with singular ences for future pre-service teachers that chal- settings as traditional and exhibiting no change lenge their beliefs about teaching. For instance, in conceptions, while drawings with multiple pre-service teachers should be assessed on their figures and settings were interpreted as being teacher beliefs early in their tenure as under- emergent in nature, having changed over time. graduate students. Once their beliefs have been Perhaps if the prompt had been more specific, identified, instructors should work to provide for example, “Draw one figure in one setting,” cognitive dissonance by encouraging students to then the strength of interpretation and transfera- participate in experiences that challenge their bility would have been stronger. beliefs directly (Calderhead & Robson, 1991; Another limitation to interpreting the draw- Kagan, 1992; Pajares, 1992) so that they can ings was representation, or “the thing seen – the begin to imagine what agricultural education representation – is a thing in its own right, not could be as opposed to what it is. In fact, Kagan merely a substitute for the thing unseen, the (1992) stated, “cognitive dissonance may be thing represented” (Banks, 2007, p. 15). Stu- necessary for novices to confront their own be- dents were given a short time to draw their rep- liefs and images and acknowledge that they need resentation of an effective agricultural education adjustment” (p. 163). For instance, perhaps stu- instructor, and may have been limited by their dents who believe agricultural education is about ability to express themselves in this format, thus, providing FFA experiences and training Career not representing their conceptions fully. Follow- Development Event (CDE) teams, should be up interviews with the students using their draw- required to observe a program that focuses on ings as a basis for the conversation would have helping students secure jobs within the commu- allowed for more clarity regarding students’ nity as part of their placement Supervised Agri- conceptions as represented in the drawings. cultural Experience (SAE). Since changes in Finally, the methods used to analyze the data teachers’ beliefs can be a slow, arduous process, could be viewed as a limitation to the study. providing an array of diverse experiences should Because no instrument existed in agricultural be the goal of all teacher preparation programs. education, the authors chose to use a constant Only then will students be able to compare cer- comparative analysis, as used in a similar study tain ideas against their own beliefs, thus, allow- that assessed teacher beliefs (Doolittle et al.,
Journal of Agricultural Education 136 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Robinson, Kelsey and Terry What Images Show... ing them opportunities to determine which 2001; Korthagen & Kessels, 1999). Therefore, changes, if any, they will make. students should be assessed throughout their ed- ucational careers at Oklahoma State University Recommendations for Future Research to determine the effect that the entire teacher preparation program has on their mental imagery With numerous types of self-reporting anal- processes. For example, how do students’ men- ysis, people tend to overestimate their ability to tal models change from their freshman year to perform tasks regarding how they teach (Wool- their senior year? Likewise, what impact does folk Hoy & Spero, 2005) as well as what they the student teaching experience have on teach- think they can teach (Scales, Terry, & Torres, ers’ mental images? Future research should ex- 2009). As such, it is possible that the pre- plore these phenomena because students’ world service teachers drew images that they believed images have implications for how they will they could perform and not images that they be- teach. Thus, it is teacher educators’ responsibil- lieved were truly characteristics of effective ity to help transfer their world images into effec- teachers. Since each pre-service teacher is re- tive teaching habits and traits (Wubbles, 1992). quired to teach three microlessons that are vide- Finally, can students truly be transformed in otaped, further studies should compare the their way of thinking about effective teaching teachers’ drawings to their actual performance during their teacher preparation in higher educa- while teaching to determine if they are being tion? If so, do they sustain this transformed way effective according to their own criteria. In oth- of thinking, or do they conform once they exit er words, is there a relationship between pre- their teacher preparation program and enter the service teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and their teaching ranks? Future research should be con- performance in the classroom (Ertmer, 2005)? ducted, longitudinally, to track these pre-service These findings would provide rich data, poten- teachers into their first few years in the profes- tially, for aspiring teachers who have a desire to sion. These findings would have implications improve their trade. for the types of teacher professional develop- To detect changes in philosophy, prolonged ment offered and the frequency in which they and sustained interventions are needed so that occurred. schemas can be tied to theory (Feiman-Nemser,
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J. SHANE ROBINSON is an Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural Education, Commu- nications and Leadership at Oklahoma State University, 457 Agriculture Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078- 6032, [email protected]
KATHLEEN D. KELSEY is a Professor in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education and Communication at the University of Georgia, 142 Four Towers, Athens, GA 30602-4355, [email protected]
ROBERT TERRY, Jr. is a Professor and Head of the Department of Agricultural Education, Communica- tions and Leadership at Oklahoma State University, 449 Agriculture Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078-6031, [email protected]
Journal of Agricultural Education 139 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 140 – 156 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03140 o u Socioscientific Issues-based Instruction: An Investigation of r n Agriscience Students’ Content Knowledge based on Student a Variables l
Catherine W. Shoulders o University of Arkansas f
Brian E. Myers A University of Florida g Abstract r i Numerous researchers in science education have reported student improvement in areas of scientific lit- c eracy resulting from socioscientific issues (SSI)-based instruction. The purpose of this study was to de- u scribe student agriscience content knowledge following a six-week SSI-based instructional unit focusing l on the introduction of cultured meat into the nation’s food supply, taking into account students’ grade t level, socioeconomic status (SES), and experiences in agricultural education. Results indicated that stu- u dents improved their content knowledge scores from pretest to posttest both proximally and distally; how- r ever, the degree of improvement varied based on grade level, SES, number of completed agriculture clas- ses, and FFA involvement. a l Keywords: socioscientific issues; agricultural education; content knowledge E The nation has been experiencing a shortage of Public and Land-grant Universities, 2009; d of qualified agricultural science graduates to fill NRC, 2009; Doerfert, 2011; Shelly-Tolbert, et u the estimated 13,000 annual job vacancies in al., 2000). c agricultural, food, and natural resources (AFNR) Much of scientific literacy focuses on stu- a (USDA, 2005). Approximately 40-45% of the dents’ awareness of science in society (NRC, t industry’s applicants have been graduates from 1996). Numerous researchers in science educa- i “allied higher education programs” (USDA, tion have reported student improvement in areas o 2005, p. 3), while just over half of the applicants of scientific literacy resulting from education n who have graduated and pursued careers in through real-world examples and case studies of V AFNR did so from agriculturally-based majors scientifically-based issues, termed socioscien- o (USDA, 2005). The gap between AFNR career tific-issues (SSI)-based instruction (Albe, 2008; l needs and agriculture graduates’ capabilities has Klosterman & Sadler, 2011; Sadler, 2009; Sad- u not been without reason; the agriculture industry ler, 2011; Sadler & Zeidler, 2003). Many of the m has changed drastically over the past century, issues utilized in SSI-based instruction are agri- e altering the skills and qualifications needed to culturally based (Zeidler, Walker, Ackett, & succeed in AFNR careers. Students receiving Simmons, 2002), suggesting that SSI-based in- 5 education in agriculturally-based fields and prin- struction in secondary school agricultural educa- 1 ciples traditionally have prepared for careers in tion classes is a natural fit and may improve stu- , production agriculture, as farming was previous- dents’ scientific literacy. While educators were ly the most prominent agricultural career previously criticized for failing to link educa- (Drache, 1996). Today’s agricultural education tional content with real world events (Conroy & N classroom can provide an appropriate setting for Walker, 2000), the National Research Council u teaching skills and knowledge related to scien- (2009) posited that agricultural education is m tific literacy (NRC, 2009), yet the need for cur- “uniquely positioned to respond to students’ in- b riculum models and educational approaches de- terest in making the world a better place and in e signed to improve student knowledge and skills responding to… important societal needs” (p. r in science and agriculture remains (Association 99). The problem addressed by this study is the 1 ,
140 p p .
Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues... continuing gap between students’ scientific liter- learning experiences by allowing students to acy skills and those needed to succeed in the practice using scientific principles and concepts workplace and society, and the search for in- in situations similar to those they will experience structional methods well-suited for secondary in the future as citizens in a scientific society agricultural education that show evidence of (Sadler, 2011). success for improving student scientific literacy Socioscientific issues (SSI) can encompass a skills (Doerfert, 2011; Harvard Graduate School, variety of concepts and contexts, although all 2011; National Research Council, 1996; 2009). SSIs share two common elements – a connection to science and a level of social significance as Theoretical/Conceptual Frameworks identified by the community (Sadler, 2004; 2009; Sadler & Ziedler, 2003). This social sig- The grand theory supporting this study was nificance lends most SSIs to be controversial in constructivism, which states that all learning is nature, and therefore, the subject of debate and the product of the construction of knowledge concern in everyday life (Sadler, 2009). Modern through experience (Fosnot, 1996). Experiential advances in technology and science, paired with learning, in true constructivist fashion, combines the environmental and economic strains of to- the aspects of concrete experience (CE), reflec- day’s society, “guarantee the prominence of tive observation (RO), abstract conceptualization these kinds of issues in the present and future” (AC), and active experimentation (AE) (Kolb, (Sadler, 2004, p. 513). 1984) to apply knowledge and practice in real Sadler (2011) proposed a framework that situations while modeling appropriate behaviors highlights considerations when designing SSI- and procedures (Randell, Arrington, & Cheek, based instruction (Figure 1). 1993). SSI-based instruction improves student
Figure 1. Framework for SSI-based Education (Sadler, 2011).
Design elements consist of “considerations that Classroom environment consists of factors that practitioners and curriculum authors should in- play a role in the successful implementation of corporate in their efforts to create units of in- SSIs into student learning experiences related to struction based on SSI” (Sadler, 2011, p. 361). the class’s culture, including high expectations Learner experiences pertain to the “kinds of ex- for student participation and a culture of collabo- periences that students should have as they are ration and respect. Teacher attributes also im- engaged in SSI learning” (Sadler, 2011, p. 362). pact successful implementation of SSIs into en-
Journal of Agricultural Education 141 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues... riched student learning, and include realistic theory and Dunkin and Biddle’s (1984) model of views of one’s limitations and knowledge, and the theory of classroom teaching in an effort to willingness to give up teacher-centered control develop a more holistic concept of SSI-based of the classroom. instruction and its impact on student learning This study was guided by the melding of ex- (Figure 2). periential learning and SSI-based instruction
Presage Variables
-Teacher Formative Experiences -Teacher Training Process Variables – Classroom Experiences -Teacher Properties Teacher Attributes
CE Context Variables Product Variables
-Pupil Formative Experiences AE Design Learner Ex- RO -Immediate Pupil Growth -Pupil Properties Elements periences -Long-Term Pupil Effects
-School and Community Contexts AC -Classroom Contexts Classroom Environment
Figure 2. Conceptual Model of SSI-based Instruction.
Presage variables and teacher classroom be- struction (Sadler, 2011), and the model for the havior encompass Sadler’s teacher attributes, theory of classroom teaching (Dunkin & Biddle, while classroom environment is similar to class- 1974), a holistic model for the evaluation of the room attributes. The actions of learning experi- SSI-based instruction can be conceptualized ences in a classroom are accounted for in Dun- (Figure 2). kin and Biddle’s process variables, but can be This study examined how specific context more accurately framed for use in SSI-based variables are related to desired outcomes follow- education through both the stages of Kolb’s ing the implementation of a process variable. (1984) experiential learning cycle and Sadler’s Context variables, which are those that are un- (2011) design elements and learner experiences. controlled by the teacher, are depicted by Dun- Dunkin and Biddle’s model incorporates factors kin and Biddle (1974) as pupil formative experi- and considerations that stem from the communi- ences and properties, school and community ty, which may be especially pertinent to SSI- contexts, and classroom contexts. Students based education due to the societal controversy bring formative experiences with them to the surrounding the issues introduced into the class- classroom, and these can be impacted by aspects room experiences. Finally, the purpose of teach- such as parents’ views and experiences, socioec- ing is expressed through Dunkin and Biddle’s onomic status, and physical attributes. The so- model through product variables, which are cial focus of SSI-based instruction implies that omitted from Sadler’s framework. Through the students have experiences outside of the class- combination of the experiential learning cycle room that impact their learning through SSI con- (Kolb, 1984), the framework for SSI-based in- texts (Sadler, 2011), causing need for research
Journal of Agricultural Education 142 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues... on the impacts of pupil formative experiences on Barab, Sadler, Heiselt, Hickey, and Zuiker SSI-based instruction. Cheek, Arrington, Carter, (2007) reported a significant increase in fourth- and Randell (1994) found that student achieve- graders’ proximal content knowledge, which ment was positively correlated with a number of aligned directly to the concepts taught in an SSI- student experiences, including FFA participation based unit focusing on water quality. The study and years enrolled in agriscience. However, did not find a significant difference in the stu- Ricketts, Duncan, and Peake (2006) found that dents’ distal content knowledge, which utilized students enrolled in agriscience programs dis- released state science achievement tests. played an average score three points lower than Klosterman and Sadler (2011) found statistically college preparation students on the Georgia significant differences in eleventh and twelfth High School Graduation Test. Because of the grade students’ proximal and distal content important role parents and experiences in agri- knowledge following an SSI-based unit focusing culture and agricultural education have on stu- on global warming. The opposing results from dents’ decisions to enroll in secondary school these two and other studies warrants further ex- agricultural education (Reis & Kahler, 1997; amination of how SSI-based instruction may Kotrlik & Harrison, 1987), both of these factors impact proximal and distal content knowledge of may impact how students learn about specific students in agricultural education (Sadler, SSIs in those agricultural education classes. Klosterman, & Topku, 2011; Yager, Lim, & Ya- Pupil properties are commonly measured ger, 2006; Zohar & Nemet, 2002). when examining impacts of teaching. While many studies have discussed the demographic Purpose and Objectives characteristics of students, few have examined how SSI-based instruction impacts students of The purpose of this study was to describe varying properties differently. In agricultural student agriscience content knowledge following education, students of varying grade levels en- a six-week SSI-based instructional unit focusing roll in courses together, necessitating investiga- on the introduction of cultured meat into the na- tion of the impact of SSI-based instruction on tion’s food supply, taking into account students’ students of different grade levels. A previous grade level, socioeconomic status, experiences study by Cheek, et al. (1994) found a positive in agricultural education, and parents’ experi- correlation between agriculture students’ socio- ences in agricultural education. In order to ac- economic status and school achievement. Fur- complish this purpose, the following objectives ther, the role SSIs have in society and in con- were developed: sumer decisions warrants an examination of the 1. Determine students’ proximal and distal impact of SSI-based instruction with regard to content knowledge following an SSI- students of different socioeconomic statuses based instructional unit. (SES) (Mueller & Zeidler, 2010). 2. Determine students’ proximal and distal Context variables can alter the impact of content knowledge following an SSI- process variables, which serve to enable interac- based instructional unit based on enroll- tion between the teacher and students. The out- ment in middle or high school. comes stemming from classroom interaction are 3. Determine students’ proximal and distal titled product variables. SSI-based instruction content knowledge following an SSI- has resulted in impacts on numerous student based instructional unit based on socioec- outcomes in science education, including con- onomic status, operationally defined as en- tent knowledge, scientific reasoning ability, ar- rollment in the school free or reduced gumentation skills, and views of the nature of lunch program. science. This work is a piece of a larger study 4. Determine students’ proximal and distal that examined the impact of SSI-based instruc- content knowledge following an SSI- tion on each of these outcomes; the present work based instructional unit based on number focused on the impact of SSI-based instruction of completed agricultural education clas- on student content knowledge. ses.
Journal of Agricultural Education 143 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues...
5. Determine students’ proximal and distal 2000). Plans were evaluated for content validity content knowledge following an SSI- by a panel of experts in agricultural education, based instructional unit based on member- experiential learning, inquiry-based instruction, ship in the FFA. and SSI-based instruction from the University of Florida. The content was selected based on 22 Methods Student Performance Standards listed for Agriscience Foundations by the Florida Depart- The study’s population was Florida agrisci- ment of Education. The researcher then grouped ence students. The sampling frame consisted of these standards by topic and selected content students of a convenience sample of Florida appropriate for the grade level of the students, agriscience teachers. Teachers had to be teach- the course description, the purposes of agricul- ing at least one Agriscience Foundations class tural education, and the context of a specific during the 2011-2012 year. These classes could SSI. be at the middle or high school level. During the first observation, students were Teachers were recruited via convenience administered pretests that measured their overall sampling methods. Those teachers participating agriscience content knowledge. Their in the Florida Association of Agricultural Edu- knowledge of food safety was also assessed to cators Summer Conference and regional FFA provide baseline content knowledge data prior to Chapter Officer Leadership Conferences were the first treatment unit, Food Safety. Students recruited to attend training sessions related to the then experienced the Food Safety treatment unit. study. The teachers attending the summer con- Following completion of the first treatment unit, ference were offered an in-person training ses- students’ knowledge gains in agriscience content sion, while those attending the leadership con- related to food safety were measured through a ferences attended one of four online training Food Safety posttest. This cycle of pretesting, sessions. treatment, and posttesting was repeated through The theory-building nature of this study each of the study units. The final observation warranted the use of a preexperimental, single consisted of posttests to measure students’ con- group pretest-posttest design (Campbell & Stan- tent knowledge related to environmental impacts ley, 1963), as a true experimental or quasi- and overall agriscience content knowledge. experimental design was not deemed appropri- Researcher-developed instruments were uti- ate. Theory building, “the purposeful pro- lized to evaluate students’ agriscience content cess…by which coherent descriptions, explana- knowledge. Three unit-specific assessments tions, and representations of observed or experi- were developed to align with each of the con- enced phenomena are generated, verified, or re- secutive units taught during the treatment: (a) fined,” (Lynham, 2000, p. 161), is guided in de- Food Safety, (b) Economic Impacts, and (c) En- sign by the nature and development of the theory vironmental Impacts. All tests were similar in rather than by a researcher’s preferred method of design and difficulty. The unit-specific assess- inquiry (Lynham, 2002). The intervention con- ments consisted of items appearing on the Flori- sisted of lessons which taught agriscience con- da Agritechnology Industry Certification Exam tent through an SSI context. The segment was which aligned with the standards utilized for the broken down into three instructional units, each intervention. These were supplemented with examining the SSI (whether cultured meat researcher-developed questions to adequately should be introduced into the nation’s food sup- assess each standard, resulting in a 20-item as- ply) from a different perspective: (a) food safety, sessment for each unit. The distal assessment (b) economic impacts, and (c) environmental was constructed with questions from the unit impacts. Thirty lesson plans were developed to assessments, and consisted of 10 items per unit accommodate 45-minute classes. All instruc- for a total for 30 items. tional plans were developed according to rec- The students were assessed using identical ommended practices of experiential learning pretests and posttests; students did not receive (Kolb, 1984), SSI-based instruction (Sadler, feedback on their performance on the pretests 2011), and inquiry-based instruction (NRC, before taking the posttests. Content and face
Journal of Agricultural Education 144 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues... validity were established through an expert pan- students enrolled with signed consent forms. el of faculty members of the University of Flori- After extensive and repeated communication da. A pilot test was conducted utilizing 15 Uni- with the researcher, seven teachers asked to be versity of Florida juniors in the Department of removed from the study after its start due to Agricultural Education and Communication to complications arising during the school year. establish reliability. Removal of identified ques- Four teachers’ classes participated in the entire tions resulted in the following Kuder-Richardson study; however, after multiple contacts, several 20 scores, which is the appropriate measure for teachers failed to send all of the completed in- dichotomous data (Huck, 2008): a) the Food struments. Therefore, the number of students Safety exam had a score of .77, b) the Economic reported for each assessment varied (Table 1). Impacts exam had a score of .66, and c) the En- Students were included in each data analysis if vironmental Impacts exam had a score of .72. they completed a pretest and posttest for that Data were reported using descriptive statistics, specific instrument; they were not omitted from including frequencies, means, and standard de- all data analysis if they were missing a specific viations. pretest or posttest.
Findings Proximal and Distal Content Knowledge
Approximately 40 teachers attended the The study’s first objective was to determine training sessions, which were provided to inform students’ proximal and distal content knowledge potential participants about the study. Eleven following an SSI-based instructional unit. De- teachers expressed interest in the study and scriptive data for each exam are displayed in signed consent forms, leading to a total of 672 Table 2.
Table 1
Number of Students per Objective Variable Completing Each Assessment
Objective Variable n Overall Distal Food Safety Economic Im- Environmental pacts Impacts All Students 66 32 59 63 61 Grade Level Middle 56 26 52 56 53 High 9 6 8 7 8 Free/Reduced Lunch Status Enrolled 28 17 25 28 27 Not Enrolled 38 15 34 35 34 # of Completed Agriculture Classes 1 6 2 5 5 5 2 43 26 41 42 41 3 9 2 8 9 8 4 5 1 4 5 4 FFA Membership Member 37 25 35 37 35 Nonmember 27 6 23 25 24
Journal of Agricultural Education 145 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues...
Table 2
Overall Student Exam Scores
Pretest Posttest % that increased Assessment n M SD M SD Mean Increase score Distal 32 14.00 4.00 15.41 3.55 1.41 69 Food Safety 59 11.51 2.74 13.81 2.83 2.30 75 Economic Impacts 63 9.92 2.16 11.70 2.67 1.78 63 Environmental Impacts 61 7.56 2.16 9.41 2.82 1.85 64
With regard to the distal exam, students’ scores dents scored higher on the posttest than on the displayed a mean score of less than 50% (n = pretest. Students’ mean pretest and posttest 32). The mean posttest score was slightly over scores on the Environmental Impact unit as- 50%. Sixty-nine percent (n = 22) scored higher sessments displayed knowledge improvement, on the distal posttest than on the pretest. but both mean scores remained below 50% (n = On the proximal assessments measuring stu- 61). Sixty-four percent of the students (n = 39) dent knowledge aligning with the Food Safety displayed increased scores from pretest to post- unit, students displayed a mean score of slightly test. over 50% (n = 59). Posttest scores resulted in a higher mean score than the pretest. Seventy-five Content Knowledge based on Enrollment in percent (n = 44) of the students increased their Middle or High School scores from pretest to posttest. With regard to the pretest and posttest aligning with the Eco- Table 3 displays students’ proximal and dis- nomic Impacts unit (n = 63), students displayed tal content knowledge on each exam following a mean score slightly below 50% on the pretest, an SSI-based instructional unit based on enroll- which increased to slightly over 50% on the ment in middle or high school. posttest. Sixty-three percent (n = 40) of the stu-
Journal of Agricultural Education 146 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues...
Table 3
Student Exam Scores based on Middle or High School Enrollment
Mean % that increased n Pretest Posttest Increase score Assessment & Group M SD M SD Distal Middle 26 14.35 3.60 15.69 3.69 1.34 73 High 6 12.50 4.37 14.17 3.49 1.67 50 Food Safety Middle 50 11.37 2.77 13.83 2.80 2.46 78 High 8 12.25 2.93 13.75 3.09 1.50 88 Economic Impacts Middle 56 9.73 2.78 11.45 2.66 1.72 66 High 6 11.28 2.93 13.83 2.88 2.55 67 Environmental Impacts Middle 52 7.51 2.13 9.13 2.59 1.67 67 High 8 7.75 2.20 11.63 2.90 3.88 75
With regard to the distal exam, middle school played a greater increase in mean score from students (n =26) displayed mean pretest and pretest to posttest. The range of scores of high posttest scores that were above those of high school students on both pretest and posttest were school students (n = 6). All mean scores were narrower than those of middle school students. below 50%, with the exception of the middle Sixty-six percent of the middle school students school students’ distal exam score, which was displayed increased scores from pretest to post- slightly over 50%. High school students dis- test (n = 37), while 67% of the high school stu- played a higher mean score increase than middle dents displayed a similar increase (n= 4). school students. A greater percentage of middle With regard to the Environmental Impacts school students displayed an increase in score exam, middle school students (n = 52) displayed from pretest to posttest (n = 19) than high school mean pretest and posttest scores lower than students (n = 3). those of high school students (n = 8). High With regard to the Food Safety exams, mid- school students also displayed a greater increase dle school students once again displayed higher in mean scores from pretest to posttest. Sixty- mean scores on the pretest and posttest (n = 50) seven percent of middle school students scored than high school students (n =8). High school higher on the posttest than on the pretest (n = students displayed a higher increase in mean 35), while 75% of the high school students dis- score from pretest to posttest. Seventy-eight played a similar score increase (n = 6). percent of middle school students displayed in- creased an increased score from pretest to post- Content Knowledge based on Free/Reduced test (n = 39), while 88% of high school students Lunch Enrollment displayed a similar score increase (n = 7). On the Economic Impacts exam, middle The study’s third objective was to determine school students (n = 56) displayed lower pretest students’ proximal and distal content knowledge and posttest mean scores than high school stu- following an SSI-based instructional unit based dents (n = 6). High school students also dis-
Journal of Agricultural Education 147 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues... on eligibility for the school free or reduced student performance based on enrollment in the lunch program. Descriptive data regarding free or reduced lunch program are displayed in Table 4.
Table 4
Students’ Mean Scores based on Enrollment in the Free/Reduced Lunch Program
% that in- Mean Assessment & Group n Pretest Posttest creased Increase score M SD M SD Distal Enrolled 17 14.18 3.50 16.12 4.28 1.94 76 Not Enrolled 15 13.80 3.10 14.60 3.94 0.80 60 Food Safety Exam
Enrolled 25 11.96 2.70 13.72 2.64 1.69 72 Not Enrolled 35 11.18 2.92 13.88 3.12 2.70 80 Economic Impacts Ex-
am Enrolled 28 10.36 2.53 11.89 2.77 1.53 61 Not Enrolled 35 9.57 2.93 11.54 2.86 1.97 71 Environmental Impacts Exam Enrolled 27 7.59 2.00 9.67 2.72 2.08 78 Not Enrolled 34 7.53 2.23 9.21 2.90 1.68 59
program displayed increased scores from pretest On the distal exam, students enrolled in the to posttest (n = 28). Free or Reduced Lunch Program (n = 17) dis- With regard to the Economic Impacts exam, played higher mean pretest and posttest scores students enrolled in the Free or Reduced Lunch than those not enrolled (n = 15). They also dis- program (n = 28) displayed mean pretest and played a greater increase in scores from pretest posttest scores higher than those of students that to posttest. A greater percentage of enrolled were not enrolled in the program (n = 35). En- students (n = 13) than those not enrolled (n = 9) rolled students displayed a slightly higher in- increased their score from pretest to posttest. crease in mean score from pretest to posttest With regard to the Food Safety unit tests, than those that were not enrolled. Sixty-one students enrolled in the Free or Reduced Lunch percent of students enrolled in a free or reduced program (n = 25) displayed a mean pretest score lunch program displayed a score increase be- higher than that of students not enrolled (n = tween pretest and posttest (n = 17), while 71% 35). However, those that were not enrolled dis- of those not enrolled in a program displayed a played a greater mean score increase, which re- score increase from pretest to posttest (n = 25). sulted in a greater mean score on the posttest Students enrolled in the free or reduced when compared to that of enrolled students. lunch program (n = 27) displayed mean scores Seventy-two percent of those enrolled in the free slightly higher than those of not enrolled stu- or reduced lunch program increased their score dents (n = 34) on the Environmental Impact ex- on the food safety test from pretest to posttest (n am. Enrolled students displayed a greater in- = 18), while 80% of those not enrolled in the crease in mean score from pretest to posttest.
Journal of Agricultural Education 148 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues...
Seventy-eight percent of those enrolled dis- ing an SSI-based instructional unit based on stu- played an increase in test score from pretest to dents’ number of completed agricultural educa- posttest (n = 21), while 59% of those not en- tion classes though Objective 4. Table 5 dis- rolled in a program displayed a similar increase plays descriptive data for each exam by the (n = 20). number of agriculture classes students had com- Content Knowledge based on Number of pleted. Because of the small n in this study, stu- Completed Agricultural Education Classes dents were grouped together as completing one or two classes, or three or four classes. This study sought to determine students’ proximal and distal content knowledge follow-
Table 5
Students’ Mean Scores on Exams based on Number of Completed Agriculture Classes
% that Mean Assessment & # of Classes n Pretest Posttest increased Increase score M SD M SD Distal
1-2 28 14.48 2.85 16.00 4.26 1.52 71 3-4 3 10.00 3.63 11.67 4.85 1.57 33 Food Safety
1-2 45 11.09 2.89 13.73 2.95 2.64 78 3-4 12 12.58 2.98 13.92 3.15 1.38 75 Economic Impacts
1-2 47 9.74 3.10 11.28 2.74 1.54 60 3-4 14 10.64 2.95 13.14 2.87 2.5 93 Environmental Impacts
1-2 46 7.43 2.28 9.33 2.81 1.9 65 3-4 12 7.75 2.23 9.00 2.87 1.25 67
Those who had completed one or two agri- students displayed a greater mean increase from culture classes (n = 28) displayed considerably pretest to posttest. Seventy-eight percent of stu- higher mean pretest and posttest scores on the dents whom had completed one or two classes distal exam than those who had completed 3-4 displayed an increase in scores from pretest to classes (n = 3). However, those with greater posttest (n = 35), while 75% of those with three class experience displayed a slightly greater in- or four completed classes displayed a similar crease in mean score from pretest to posttest. score increase (n = 9). Further, a greater percentage of students with Students with one or two completed agricul- more class experience (n = 1) increased their ture classes (n = 47) displayed mean scores low- exam score from pretest to posttest, as compared er than those with three or four completed clas- to those with less class experience (n = 20). ses (n = 14) on both the pretest and posttest for Students who had completed one or two the Economic Impacts unit. Students with more classes (n = 45) displayed lower mean pretest experience also displayed a greater mean score and posttest scores than those who had complet- increase from pretest to posttest. Sixty percent ed three or four classes (n = 12) on the Food of students who had completed one or two clas- Safety pretest. However, these less experienced ses displayed an increase in scores from pretest
Journal of Agricultural Education 149 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues... to posttest (n = 28), while 93% of the students es from pretest to posttest (n = 30), while 67% who had completed three or four classes dis- of those with three or four completed classes played a similar score increase (n = 13). displayed a score increase from pretest to post- Students who had completed one or two ag- test (n = 8). riculture classes (n = 46) displayed a lower mean Content Knowledge based on FFA Member- pretest score than students who had completed ship three or four classes on the Environmental Im- pact unit assessment. However, these less expe- Objective 5 sought to determine students’ rienced students had a greater mean increase proximal and distal content knowledge follow- from pretest to posttest, and displayed a higher ing an SSI-based instructional unit based on stu- mean posttest score than the more experienced dents’ membership in the FFA. Table 6 displays students. Of the students who had one or two descriptive data regarding FFA members’ and completed classes, 65% displayed score increas- nonmembers’ scores on each exam.
Table 6
Students’ Scores on Exams based on FFA Membership
Mean In- % that increased Assessment & Group n Pretest Posttest crease score M SD M SD Distal
Members 25 14.08 3.24 15.04 4.25 0.96 64
Nonmembers 6 14.17 3.59 17.33 4.37 3.16 83
Food Safety Exam
Members 35 11.03 2.70 13.34 2.94 2.31 74 Nonmembers 23 12.22 2.94 14.18 3.13 2.26 83 Economic Impacts Exam
Members 37 9.65 2.44 11.57 2.73 2.02 78 Nonmembers 25 10.32 2.96 12.00 2.86 1.68 52 Environmental Impacts Exam Members 35 7.26 2.28 8.86 2.95 1.60 66 Nonmembers 24 7.96 2.26 10.04 2.91 2.08 67
On the distal exam, FFA members (n = 25) bers displayed a slightly greater increase in displayed mean pretest and posttest scores lower mean score from pretest to posttest. Seventy- than those of nonmembers (n = 6). Nonmem- four percent of FFA members displayed an in- bers displayed a greater increase in mean score crease in score from pretest to posttest (n = 26), from pretest to posttest. Sixty-four percent of while 83% of nonmembers displayed a score FFA members displayed a score increase from increase from pretest to posttest (n = 19). pretest to posttest (n = 16), while 83% of non- On the Economic Impacts exam, FFA mem- members displayed a similar increase (n = 5). bers (n = 37) displayed mean pretest and posttest With regard to the Food Safety unit, FFA scores lower than nonmembers (n = 25). How- members (n = 35) again displayed mean scores ever, members displayed a greater increase in lower than those of nonmembers (n = 23) on mean score from pretest to posttest. Seventy- both the pretest and posttest. However, mem- eight percent of FFA members displayed a score
Journal of Agricultural Education 150 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues... increase from pretest to posttest (n = 29), while ing in agricultural education. While this in- 52% of nonmembers displayed a similar score creased performance may display the potential increase (n = 13). for SSI-based instruction to positively impact With regard to the Environmental Impacts student learning, student scores on pretests and unit tests, FFA members (n = 35) once again posttests were less optimistic. Students dis- displayed mean pretest and posttest scores lower played mean scores below 50% on each pretest, than their nonmember classmates (n = 24). and while these mean scores increased, they on- Nonmembers displayed a greater increase in ly did so marginally; students’ mean posttest mean score from pretest to posttest. Similar per- scores were only slightly over 50% on three of centages of students from both groups displayed the exams, and remained slightly under 50% on score increases from pretest to posttest. Sixty- one exam. Further, the standard deviations did six percent of FFA members displayed score not consistently decrease among exams, indicat- increases from pretest to posttest (n = 23), while ing that the variance between student scores on 67% of nonmembers displayed a similar score specific exams increased. This increase in score increase (n = 16). variance implies that student learning was not consistent in certain units. These findings are Conclusions and Implications supported by Ricketts, Duncan, and Peake (2006), who found that students enrolled in The above findings yield numerous conclu- agriscience programs achieved to a lesser degree sions regarding the effectiveness of SSI-based than college preparation students on a gradua- instruction in impacting student learning. While tion test. Low student scores both before and these conclusions and accompanying implica- after experiencing SSI-based instruction may be tions and recommendations may prove useful in the result of external factors that impact student designing future studies and considering practic- learning; these external factors may be presage es in SSI-based instruction, the limitations of variables that impact teacher actions or context this study prevent any meaningful or accurate variables that impact student performance, as generalizations to the broader population. Limi- have been identified by Dunkin and Biddle tations of this study included the low number of (1974). teachers and students participating, the low Students displayed the lowest mean score number of teachers and students completing the increase on the distal exam. This result contra- study, inconsistent group sizes within each ob- dicts Klosterman and Sadler’s (2011) findings jective, confounding variables, such as student which displayed a significant positive impact on and teacher fatigue from a lengthy study, and distal content knowledge following an SSI-based potential strong relationships between variables, instructional unit. However, Barab, et al.’s such as number of completed classes and grade (2007) findings align with those of this study, level. concluding that SSI-based instruction was more Objective 1 examined all students’ perfor- impactful on proximal than on distal content mance on each of the exams. Students displayed knowledge. Students’ knowledge gains were an increase in mean score from pretest to post- varied according to the content topic on which test on each of the exams. Further, each exam they were assessed. The greatest increase was resulted in over half of the students increasing displayed on the Food Safety exam, both on the their score from pretest to posttest. The maxi- pretest and posttest. The Food Safety exam also mum score earned on each exam increased as yielded the greatest mean increase and greatest well. These findings provide confirmation of percentage of students with an increased score. existing evidence supporting the use of SSI- Students displayed the lowest pretest and post- based instruction in secondary education, as has test mean scores on the Environmental Impacts been found in numerous studies conducted in exam, but displayed the lowest mean score in- science classrooms (Barab, et al., 2007; crease on the Economic Impacts exam. Dunkin Klosterman & Sadler, 2011). These score in- & Biddle’s model for the theory of classroom creases imply that SSI-based instruction may be teaching (1974) cites student formative experi- utilized as a method of increasing student learn- ences as a factor impacting student knowledge
Journal of Agricultural Education 151 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues... acquisition, which may provide some explana- may further impact how background knowledge tion for why students displayed varying levels of associated with SES influences student achievement on the three content areas in this achievement. study. Objective 4 sought to examine the impact of Objective 2 examined students’ performance SSI-based instruction on students’ achievement on each exam based on grade level. Both mid- based on the number of agriculture classes they dle school and high school students displayed had completed. Students in both groups (one or mean score increases from pretest to posttest on two, or three or four completed agriculture clas- every exam, implying that SSI-based instruction ses) displayed mean score increases on all ex- can have a positive impact on student learning ams, implying that SSI-based instruction can be regardless of grade level. This finding is en- useful in teaching students with differing levels couraging for agriculture teachers, as courses agricultural knowledge. Students who had com- can have student rosters which combine many pleted one or two agriculture classes performed grade levels into one class. However, this study higher on the distal pretest and posttest, as well displayed how grade level may impact the de- displayed a higher mean score increase, and gree to which students learn; high school stu- greater percentage of students displaying a score dents displayed a higher mean score increase increase from pretest to posttest. This finding is than middle school students on each exam, and inconsistent with those of Cheek, et al. (1994), the amount of improvement on each proximal who concluded that student achievement and posttest increased with each exam. Middle number of experiences were positively correlat- school students did not display this same contin- ed. However, students with three of four com- ual increase, implying that high school students pleted agriculture classes displayed higher pre- may benefit from a longer duration of SSI-based test and posttest scores, a higher increased mean instruction than middle school students. Both score, and a greater percentage increasing their Sadler’s (2011) framework for SSI-based in- score on the Economic Impacts exam. This struction and the tenets of experiential learning finding may imply that certain topics are better (Kolb, 1984) include the duration of an experi- grasped by students with more agricultural ence as a factor impacting a learning setting; the background knowledge, which could be sup- difference between middle and high school stu- ported by Cheek, et al. (1994). dents’ performance on subsequent examinations Objective 5 examined student performance found in this study may provide evidence of the before and after an SSI-based instructional unit impact on the duration of SSI-based instruction- based on FFA membership. Findings showed al units on student learning at various levels. that both members and nonmembers increased Objective 3 assessed students’ scores fol- mean scores from pretest to posttest on all ex- lowing the unit based on their enrollment in the ams, implying that SSI-based instruction can be free or reduced lunch program. Both groups useful both in conjunction with and in the ab- displayed mean score increases on every exam, sence of the influence of FFA. However, non- implying that SSI-based instruction may be use- members displayed higher mean pretest and ful in increasing learning regardless of student posttest scores than members, which contrast the SES. Students enrolled in the program dis- findings of Cheek, et al. (1994). These differing played higher mean scores on all pretests, a find- scores may imply that nonmembers are higher ing that stands in contrast to those of Cheek, et achieving students than members. However, the al. (1994). Students’ performance also varied by benefit of FFA involvement may warrant addi- group; those enrolled in the program displayed a tional FFA recruitment; members displayed a higher mean score on the distal exam and the higher increase in mean score on the Economic Environmental Impacts exam, while those not Impacts exam, implying that FFA experiences enrolled displayed higher mean scores on the may help students learn specific topics. Food Safety and Economic Impacts exam. Dunkin & Biddle (1974) cite pupil properties, Recommendations such as SES, as factors that impact student learn- ing, and the role of SSIs in consumer decisions
Journal of Agricultural Education 152 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues...
SSI-based instruction has been well- cultural educators. Both this study and others established as a useful instructional method in (Barab et al., 2007) concluded that student increasing student content knowledge in science achievement can vary based on the distance be- education. As this study was the first cited eval- tween content introduction and assessment, both uation of SSI-based instruction in agricultural conceptually and during the school year. Agri- education, the results of this study supporting its cultural educators should work with preservice use further confirms previous research and pro- and inservice teachers to incorporate methods of vides an opportunity for agricultural educators to transferring knowledge from short-term acquisi- enhance their teaching methods. As with any tion to more long-term acquisition. Further, introductory study, further research addressing these findings support Sadler’s (2011) recom- the study’s limitations and exploring its findings mendation of the selection of an appropriate SSI, is recommended. The findings displayed here but clarify that recommendation to include the imply that teachers should continue to seek selection of appropriate aspects of SSIs as well, methods of improving student learning in order since students learned at varying degrees accord- to help them reach a level of mastery. SSI-based ing to the Food Safety, Economic Impacts, and instruction may provide an opportunity to im- Environmental Impacts aspects of cultured meat. prove student learning, but the results of this Also to be considered when selecting appropri- study imply that alteration of current practices in ate SSI aspects on which to focus are student SSI-based instruction may be warranted. Follow factors, such as SES, experience and knowledge up studies can help agricultural educators gain a in agricultural education, and involvement in better understanding of how teacher variables, FFA, as student scores varied for each SES as- student variables, and factors of SSIs and their pect according to these factors. While further associated learning experiences can impact stu- study should be conducted in this area before dent learning during SSI-based instruction in prescriptive recommendations can be made, the agricultural education. Teacher variables such findings of this study support careful considera- as previous education, training in SSI-based in- tion of student backgrounds and experiences struction and associated teaching methods, and when selecting appropriate SSIs and accompa- experience with the SSI should be examined as nying SSI aspects. factors that could influence the impact of SSI- Finally, this study led to recommendations based instruction on student learning. This regarding FFA recruitment. The benefits of study also warrants further examination of stu- FFA involvement in learning specific aspects of dent variables, including SES, experience in ag- SSI-based units found in this study warrant the ricultural education, and FFA involvement. Du- incorporation of FFA into SSI-based instruction ration of the SSI unit, number and order of les- in agricultural education. In order to maximize sons, specific SSIs, and activities included in the its benefits, additional recruitment efforts should lesson can also impact student exam scores, and be directed toward higher achieving students in should therefore be subject to further study. agriculture classes, as nonmembers in this study The findings presented in this study also displayed higher mean scores in every area. yield some tentative recommendations to agri-
Journal of Agricultural Education 153 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Shoulders and Myers Socioscientific issues...
References
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CATHERINE W. SHOULDERS is an Assistant Professor of Agricultural Education in the Department of Agricultural and Extension Education at the University of Arkansas, 205 Agriculture Building, Fayetteville, AR 72703, [email protected].
BRIAN E. MYERS is an Associate Professor of Agricultural Education in the Department of Agricultural Education and Communication at the University of Florida, PO Box 110540, Gainesville, FL 32611, [email protected].
Journal of Agricultural Education 156 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 157 – 170 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03157 o Intrapersonal Factors Affecting Technological Pedagogical u r Content Knowledge of Agricultural Education Teachers n a Jessica Stewart l Oklahoma State University Pavlo D. Antonenko o University of Florida f
J. Shane Robinson A Oklahoma State University g Mwarumba Mwavita r Oklahoma State University i c Abstract u l The focus of this exploratory study was to examine levels of technology integration, self-efficacy, and t Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) in preservice and inservice agricultural educa- u tion teachers in Oklahoma. The findings of this study suggest that intrapersonal factors, such as self- r efficacy, outcome expectations, and interest, interact with teacher motivation to integrate technology and a influence their TPACK. Further, the results suggest that experienced inservice teachers view technology l tools as a mechanism to engage students and achieve instructional gains, whereas novice and preservice teachers tend to perceive technology tools primarily as a mechanism for improving classroom manage- E ment. Implications include continuing to support and enact a shift in preservice teacher education from d direct lecture and modeling-based instruction to more hands-on, constructivist methods of teaching that u incorporate a variety of mastery experiences. c a Keywords: self-efficacy; outcome expectations; technology; inservice; preservice t i The agricultural education classroom today As educational researchers study effective o features not only the traditional experiential applications of emerging educational technolo- n learning situations and skills learned in livestock gies, K-12 teachers are being challenged to em- V fitting and showing, FFA, and mechanical agri- ploy educational technology products and pro- o cultural practices, but also 21st-century learning cesses in their practice. At the forefront of this experiences involving interactive white boards, movement is a goal to engage students in learn- l Web 2.0 and mobile applications, and video- and ing experiences that make use of technologies in u computer-based livestock judging simulation which today’s learners are comfortable. At the m games. New technologies, practices, and prod- same time, a new generation of educators is e ucts are emerging continually; as a result, an beginning to enter the teaching profession. increased demand exists for information and Marc Prensky’s digital native dichotomy sug- 5 technology processing and analysis. Technolo- gests this generation, known as digital natives, is 1 gies, tools, and practices comprise the second of more effective at using technology than their , six priorities of the American Association for older counterparts, known as digital immigrants Agricultural Education National Research (Prensky, 2001). Further, Prensky (2001) N Agenda, which is designed to provide a frame- claimed that when digital natives dominate the u work for defining the research priorities in agri- teaching profession, integrating technology in m cultural education and promoting sound research the classroom will no longer be an issue due to b within and across the human dimensions of the natives’ innovation abilities and familiarity with e food and agricultural systems (Doerfert, 2011). the digital world. r 1 ,
157 p p .
Stewart, Antonenko, Robinson and Mwavita Intrapersonal Factors...
Recent research has examined some of these agriculture teachers became older and more claims empirically and suggests that the dividing experienced, their level of innovativeness re- line between digital natives and digital immi- garding the use and adoption of IWBs decreased grants may not be as distinct as initially thought (Bunch, Whisenhunt, Robinson, & Edwards, (Guo, Dobson, & Petrina, 2008). For example, 2012). some studies have indicated that no statistically In 2006 Mishra and Koehler introduced the significant differences exist between natives and notion of Technological Pedagogical Content immigrants in regard to their use of information Knowledge (TPACK), which provides a useful and communication technologies. Rather, a gap framework for understanding teacher percep- exists, regardless of the generation of the teach- tions and practices of technology integration into er, in understanding how to use technologies for curriculum and pedagogy. To integrate technol- teaching and learning (Chen, Lim, & Tan, 2010). ogy into their pedagogy and curriculum success- Thus, the need for teachers to be technologically fully, teachers must develop confidence in their fit is imperative (Brown, Baker, Edwards, & abilities to integrate technology in the classroom Robinson, 2011). because the integration of technology affects Technology plays an important role in edu- how much students learn in the classroom cation if the teacher believes he or she is capable (Bunch et al., 2012b). However, at present, the of teaching in a technology-enhanced learning relationships between intrapersonal factors like environment. Preservice teacher education pro- general teacher self-efficacy, technology integra- grams have spent a considerable amount of time tion self-efficacy, and externalization of these focused on preparing future educators to use factors through TPACK are not fully under- technology in their classrooms (Anderson & stood. Therefore, this study focused on as- Maninger, 2007) and agricultural education is no sessing preservice and inservice agricultural exception. Inservice professional development education teacher TPACK, examining the in- training has also held technology in its spotlight, trapersonal factors of self-efficacy, interest, and attempting to diffuse the confusion that sur- outcome expectations, and determining whether rounds instructional technology tools while also intrapersonal factors predicted levels of TPACK stressing its relevance to state standards. How- in preservice and inservice agricultural educa- ever, by Prensky’s theory, instructional technol- tion teachers in Oklahoma. ogy training and education programs should become increasingly rare as digital natives enter Theoretical Framework the workforce. What the Prensky (2001) dichotomy fails to The constructs used within this study are take into account is the complexity of non- based largely on Bandura’s social cognitive generational factors that influence whether a theory (1977), which deviated from traditional teacher implements technology. Teacher deci- cognitive theories and integrated cognitive de- sion to integrate technology has been shown to velopment into a social structure of influences. be influenced by a host of intrapersonal con- The social cognitive view of motivation suggests structs, such as self-efficacy beliefs, interest, and a complex interactive system of self-efficacy outcome expectations (Tschannen-Moran, (SE) beliefs, achievement goals, interests, and Woolfolk Hoy & Hoy, 1998; Niederhauser & attributions of success or failure (Schunk, Pin- Perkmen, 2008). For example, a recent study of trich, & Meece, 2008). agriculture teachers’ self-efficacy, outcome ex- Teacher SE and SE beliefs toward technolo- pectation, and interest using Interactive White- gy are essential variables when examining in- boards (IWBs) demonstrated that those who structional technology integration and teachers’ used IWBs more frequently had higher levels of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge. self-efficacy and outcome expectations (Bunch, Tschannen-Moran and colleagues (1998) de- Robinson, & Edwards, 2012). However, interest fined teacher SE as “the teacher’s belief in his or in using IWBs was not related to whether teach- her capability to organize and execute courses of ers were digital immigrants or natives (Bunch et action required to successfully accomplish a al., 2012a). Yet, a similar study found that as
Journal of Agricultural Education 158 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Stewart, Antonenko, Robinson and Mwavita Intrapersonal Factors... specific teaching task in a particular context” (p. men, 2008), and Technological Pedagogical 233). Content Knowledge (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) Niederhauser and Perkmen (2008) suggested informed this study. More specifically, this that internal factors including personal traits of study was designed to address the following self-confidence and willingness to change, social research questions. cognitive characteristics of SE, outcome expec- 1. What are agricultural education teach- tations, and interest affect teachers’ attitude ers’ perceptions of Technological Peda- toward using technology within instructional gogical Content Knowledge? practice. Teacher technology integration and 2. What intrapersonal factors influence efficacy beliefs are intertwined with personal Technological Pedagogical Content teacher beliefs about instruction style and previ- Knowledge? ous instruction experiences (Niederhauser & 3. Is there a difference between preservice Perkmen, 2008). The simple response to strong- and inservice teacher self-efficacy be- er efficacy beliefs toward technology may be to liefs toward technology use? prepare teachers how to use technology. Howev- 4. Do relationships exist between self- er, this premise makes the assumption teachers efficacy beliefs toward technology use will take the leap from understanding how to use and general teacher self-efficacy be- a technology post-training and integrate it into liefs? their instruction and curriculum, which are two separate tasks (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). It is Method within that leap where TPACK may offer insight into teacher knowledge of technology integra- Participants and Sampling Procedures tion. The TPACK framework focuses on the An online link for the questionnaire was complexities of technology knowledge, high- emailed to 426 secondary agricultural education lighting “connections, interactions, affordances, inservice teachers in Oklahoma and was distrib- and constraints between and among content, uted as a web link, through email, and as a paper pedagogy, and technology” (Mishra & Koehler, copy to approximately 130 preservice agricul- 2006, p. 1025). The model does not treat tech- tural education preservice teachers in the Okla- nology knowledge as an individual construct, homa State University agricultural education but rather emphasizes how the three are inter- program. Specifically, the web link for preserv- twined. As such, the framework looks at each ice teachers was submitted through the Oklaho- construct individually as well as in pairs, sug- ma State University Agricultural Education gesting Content Knowledge (CK), Pedagogical listserv, which is sent to all undergraduate Agri- Knowledge (PK), Pedagogical Content cultural Education majors at OSU. A total of 10 Knowledge (PCK), Technology Knowledge inservice teachers had incorrect or otherwise (TK), Technological Content Knowledge unreliable electronic mail addresses; thus, they (TCK), and Technological Pedagogical were removed from the study. As a result, the Knowledge (TPK) result in TPACK (Mishra & original sample of 556 preservice and inservice Koehler, 2006). teachers was adjusted to an accessible sample of 546 teachers. The researcher received a total of Purpose and Objectives 131 responses. After examining responses for incom- The purpose of this study was to examine plete answers, the resulting sample size used in the Technological Pedagogical Content this research study was (N = 103). To address Knowledge and intrapersonal characteristics non-response error, a method of comparing of towards technology use reported by preservice early to late respondents was performed. Lind- and inservice teachers in Oklahoma. The con- ner, Murphy, and Briers (2001) defined late ceptual frameworks of social cognitive theory respondent as “those who respond in the last (Lent et al., 1994, 2002), intrapersonal factors wave of respondents in successive follow-ups to toward technology use (Niederhauser & Perk- a questionnaire” (p. 52). The researcher con-
Journal of Agricultural Education 159 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Stewart, Antonenko, Robinson and Mwavita Intrapersonal Factors... ducted t-tests on early and late respondents on els of efficacy toward factors in a teach- primary variables of interest. No differences er/classroom setting. The long form, 24- were found, either practically or statistically; as question version of the instrument, was selected such, results may be generalized to the target by recommendation from Tschannen-Moran and population (Lindner et al., 2001). Non- Woolfolk Hoy (2001), who noted that with pre- probability, or non-random, sampling was used service teachers, the long form is suggested due in this study, which involved non-random selec- to factor structure being less distinct within the tion. The preservice and inservice teachers vol- preservice group. Tschannen-Moran and Wool- unteered to participate in this study; as such, the folk Hoy (2001) found a Cronbach’s alpha of .94 selection process was a matter of convenience. for the overall instrument using the long form; As with most research conducted in education, subscale Engagement indicated an alpha of .87; this study relied on a non-random sample and subscale Instruction indicated an alpha of .91; used inferential statistics to explore the data. and subscale Management indicated an alpha of Inferential statistical tests were used as an addi- .90. tional level of analysis that was not permitted The Technological Pedagogical Content through descriptive statistics. The reader should Knowledge (TPACK) instrument, developed and interpret the results relative to the characteristics validated by Schmidt, Baran, Thompson, Mish- of the study’s sample and should refrain from ra, Koehler and Shin (2009) provided items in generalizing our findings to larger populations. the study to measure teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge and its associ- Instrumentation ated components. These components included technological knowledge, content knowledge, This exploratory study (Babbie, 1989) em- pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical content ployed a combination of three instruments to knowledge, technological content knowledge, collect data. The Intrapersonal Technology and technological pedagogical knowledge. In- Integration Scale (ITIS) instrument, developed ternal consistency for the TPACK instrument and validated by Niederhauser and Perkmen ranged from Cronbach’s alpha of .78 to .93. (2008) provided items to measure teacher levels of intrapersonal factors in technology integra- Data Analysis tion. All items from the ITIS were used to measure the intrapersonal factors of preservice All data were imported and coded in PASW and inservice teachers in this study. Niederhau- 19™, a statistical analysis software package. ser and Perkmen (2008) established factorial The data collected were analyzed using descrip- validity to ensure subscales developed in the tive statistics and correlational analyses. De- ITIS formed distinct constructs. They found scriptive statistics were used to summarize and factor loadings ranged from 0.73 to 0.85 for the categorize the data. As Miller (1994) indicated, SE subscale, 0.71 to .075 for the Interest sub- “correlations are an important tool to help us scale, and .071 to 0.93 for the OE subscale (Nie- understand whether or not two (or more) varia- derhauser & Perkmen, 2008, p. 106). Further, bles vary, together, i.e., they help us describe confirmatory factor analysis indices indicated and explain” (p. 7). In this study, correlational acceptable fit. Cronbach’s alpha was .90 for the analyses were used to describe and explain agri- SE subscale, 0.93 for the OE subscale, and 0.89 cultural beliefs relative to technology integration for the INT subscale (Niederhauser & Perkmen, beyond what the descriptive measures of central 2008). Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale was tendency and dispersion may suggest. One-way 0.96, indicating high internal consistency for analysis of variance was used to compare pre- each of the subscales and for the total scale service and inservice teachers’ self-efficacy (Cronbach, 1951). beliefs toward using technology. A stepwise The Teachers’ Sense of Teacher Efficacy multiple regression was performed to examine Scale (TSTES) instrument, developed and vali- intrapersonal predictors of the participants’ dated by Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy TPACK, and a two-tailed Pearson correlation (1998) provided items to measure teachers’ lev- was computed to assess the relationship between
Journal of Agricultural Education 160 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Stewart, Antonenko, Robinson and Mwavita Intrapersonal Factors... participants’ technology integration self-efficacy Findings and general teacher self-efficacy. Although non- random sampling is an obvious limitation, sur- Preservice agricultural education teachers com- vey researchers also note that conclusions de- posed 40.8% of the sample (n = 42), while in- rived from survey data tested with inferential service agricultural education teachers com- statistics are still more likely to be accurate in posed 59.2% of the sample (n = 61). Inservice reflecting the characteristics of the entire sample teachers were predominantly male (87%), population than those not tested, even when the whereas preservice teacher gender exhibited a sample is not random (Hightower & Scott, more even ratio of males to females (57% male). 2012). Of the 61 inservice teachers, 82% taught in rural schools, 16.4% taught in suburban schools, and 1.6% taught in urban or mixed-classification schools. Table 1 summarizes the sample’s per- sonal and professional characteristics.
Table 1
Descriptive Profile of Participants
Preservice (n = 42) Inservice (n = 61) Mean Age 20.4 37.5 Gender Male 57.1% 86.9% Female 42.9% 13.1% Education Level Bachelor’s Degree - 73.8% Master’s Degree - 26.2% Teaching Experience < 1 year 12.4 years School Characteristics Rural - 82% Suburban - 16.4% Urban - 1.6%
Perceived Knowledge of Technological Peda- agreed they could teach lessons that appropriate- gogical Content Knowledge ly combined instructional technologies and teaching approaches in mathematics, science, To answer research question one, descriptive social studies, and literacy, as it related to agri- statistical analysis was performed using total cultural education. Preservice teacher respond- TPACK score of each group. Individual ents also reported higher levels of TPACK in the TPACK items were also examined. The results areas of mathematics, literacy, and social studies indicated 71% of preservice agricultural educa- as compared to inservice teacher respondents. tion teachers (n = 42) perceived themselves as Table 2 provides responses received from pre- knowledgeable in teaching lessons that com- service and inservice groups regarding their self- bined technologies and teaching approaches in reported technological pedagogical content social studies, science, mathematics, and literacy knowledge as it relates to teaching lessons that in agricultural education. Of the inservice agri- combine content area with technologies and cultural education teachers 63.9% (n = 61) teaching approaches in agricultural education.
Journal of Agricultural Education 161 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Stewart, Antonenko, Robinson and Mwavita Intrapersonal Factors...
Table 2
Perceived Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Preservice (n = 42) Inservice (n = 61)
Mathematics Strongly Agree 23.8% 13.1% Agree 57.1% 72.1% Neither Agree nor Disagree 14.3% 9.8% Disagree 4.8% 4.9% Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0.0% Literacy Strongly Agree 26.2% 14.8% Agree 47.6% 57.4% Neither Agree nor Disagree 21.4% 23.0% Disagree 4.8% 4.9% Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0.0% Science Strongly Agree 23.8% 24.6% Agree 57.1% 65.6% Neither Agree nor Disagree 14.3% 8.2% Disagree 4.8% 1.6% Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0.0% Social Studies Strongly Agree 26.2% 13.1% Agree 57.1% 57.4% Neither Agree nor Disagree 14.3% 24.6% Disagree 2.4% 4.9% Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0.0%
Technological Knowledge indicated stronger agreement in the areas of technology troubleshooting, ability to learn Another variable of interest within technology, knowledge about different technol- TPACK was Technological Knowledge (TK). ogies, and technical skill ability. Although the Mishra and Koehler (2008) suggested TK is in a majority of preservice teachers indicated they continual state of flux, especially as compared to could learn technology easily and had the tech- pedagogy and content. Further, their view on nical skills necessary to use technology, less TK is that it requires a deeper understanding of than half agreed they knew about different tech- information processing, communication, and nologies. It is important to note the inservice problem solving than the traditional definition of group sample average age was 37.5 and average computer literacy (Mishra & Koehler, 2008). years of teaching experience were 12.4. The TK The inservice group had a greater percentage of results may differ significantly within different respondents indicating they strongly agreed with age groups and years of experience. Table 3 the TK-related statements as compared to the indicates TK responses for preservice and in- preservice group. Further, inservice teachers service groups.
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Table 3
Technology Knowledge Responses
Preservice (n = 42) Inservice (n = 61) Statement I know how to solve my own technical problems. Strongly Agree 4.8% 11.5% Agree 50.0% 47.5% Neither Agree nor Disagree 28.6% 27.9% Disagree 11.9% 13.1% Strongly Disagree 4.8% 0.0% I can learn technology easily. Strongly Agree 9.5% 19.7% Agree 69.0% 57.4% Neither Agree nor Disagree 16.7% 19.7% Disagree 4.8% 3.3% Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0.0% I keep up with important new technologies. Strongly Agree 4.8% 13.1% Agree 64.3% 44.3% Neither Agree nor Disagree 23.8% 31.1% Disagree 7.1% 11.5% Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0.0% I frequently play around with technology. Strongly Agree 7.1% 21.3% Agree 54.8% 55.7% Neither Agree nor Disagree 21.4% 19.7% Disagree 16.7% 3.3% Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0.0% I know about a lot of different technologies. Strongly Agree 7.1% 13.1% Agree 40.5% 42.6% Neither Agree Nor Disagree 33.3% 34.4% Disagree 14.3% 9.8% Strongly Disagree 4.8% 0.0% I have the technical skills I need to use technolo-
gy. Strongly Agree 9.5% 11.5% Agree 64.3% 59.0% Neither Agree nor Disagree 23.8% 19.7% Disagree 2.4% 9.8% Strongly Disagree 0.0% 0.0%
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Predictors of Technological Pedagogical Con- Statistically significant variables included Self- tent Knowledge Efficacy in Instructional Strategy (B = .233, p = .000) and Self-Efficacy Toward Technology (B Research question two sought to determine = .244, p = .014). Cohen’s effect size value (d = what intrapersonal factors were predictors of 1.53) suggested high practical significance. Sta- TPACK score. Stepwise multiple regression tistically significant variables included Self- was performed using total TPACK score as the Efficacy in Instructional Strategy (B = .233, p = dependent variable and the independent varia- .000) and Self-Efficacy Toward Technology (B bles of efficacy in student engagement, efficacy = .244, p = .014). in instructional strategies, efficacy in classroom management from the Teachers’ Sense of Effi- Self-Efficacy Beliefs Toward Technology Use cacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, in Pre and Inservice Groups & Hoy, 1998). Self-efficacy, performance out- come expectations, self-evaluative outcome Research question three sought to explore expectations, social outcome expectations and differences in self-efficacy beliefs toward tech- interest from the Intrapersonal Technology Inte- nology in both groups. A one-way analysis of gration Scale (Niederhauser & Perkmen, 2008) variance of variable ITIS SE, or self-efficacy were also independent variables of interest. belief toward technology use, yielded no statisti- Multiple regression models for preservice cally significant differences between preservice teachers revealed a best-fit model of Adjusted R2 (N = 42) and inservice (N = 61) teachers in re- = .094, F(1, 40) = 5.234, p = .028, d = .629, gard to perceived efficacy, F(1,101) = p > .05. using the stepwise method and a statistically Individual ITIS variables were further exam- significant variable of Social Outcome Expecta- ined using ANOVAs due to variations in means tions (B = .377, p = .028). Cohen’s effect size between the two groups. However, subsequent value (d = .629) suggested a moderate to high ANOVA tests revealed no significant differ- practical significance. Multiple regression mod- ences between preservice and inservice groups. els for inservice teachers revealed a best-fit The means and standard deviations of the tech- 2 model of Adjusted R = .374; F(2, 58) = 18.937, nology integration self-efficacy scores are indi- p = .000, d = 1.53, using the stepwise method. cated in Table 5.
Journal of Agricultural Education 164 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Stewart, Antonenko, Robinson and Mwavita Intrapersonal Factors...
Table 5
Preservice and Inservice Technology Integration Scale Mean Scores
Statement Preservice Inservice (n = 42) (n = 61) M SD M SD I feel confident that I have the necessary skills to use instructional 4.05 .73 4.21 .64 technology for instruction. Using instructional technology in the classroom will make it easier 4.12 .77 4.02 .83 for me to teach. I have an interest in reading articles or books about instructional 3.02 .90 3.21 1.00 technology. Using instructional technology in the classroom will increase my 3.86 .81 3.97 .77 effectiveness as a teacher. I am interested in working with instructional technology tools. 4.00 .73 4.20 .68 Using instructional technology in the classroom will make my 4.19 .77 4.20 .75 teaching more exciting. I feel confident that I can effectively use instructional technology in 4.02 .60 4.20 .65 my teaching. Effectively using instructional technology in the classroom will 3.62 .91 3.59 .97 increase my sense of accomplishment. Using instructional technology in the classroom will make my 3.71 .89 3.59 .92 teaching more satisfying. I feel confident that I can regularly incorporate appropriate instruc- 4.00 .66 4.13 .59 tional technologies into my lessons to enhance student learning. Effectively using instructional technology in the classroom will 3.52 1.04 3.36 .90 increase my colleagues’ respect of my teaching ability. My colleagues will see me as competent if I effectively use instruc- 3.55 .83 3.43 .81 tional technology in the classroom. I feel confident that I can select appropriate instructional technology 3.90 .62 3.82 .72 for instruction-based or curriculum standards-based pedagogy. I have an interest in working on a project involving instructional 3.62 .62 3.57 .94 technology concepts. Using instructional technology in the classroom will increase my 3.74 .77 3.89 .82 productivity. I feel confident that I can teach relevant subject matter with appro- 3.93 .60 4.03 .60 priate use of instructional technology. I am interested in learning about new educational software. 4.00 .66 4.03 .71 I feel confident that I can help students when they have difficulty 3.81 .74 3.92 .61 with instructional technology. I have an interest in listening to a famous instructional technologist 3.21 .81 3.15 .98 speaking about effective use of instructional technology in the classroom. Effectively using instructional technology in the classroom will 3.31 .90 3.13 .92 increase my status among my colleagues. I have an interest in attending instructional technology workshops 3.50 .74 3.75 .83 during my teaching career. Note: 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neither agree nor disagree; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree
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Relationship Between General Teacher Self- Mastery or vicarious experiences are influ- Efficacy and Self-Efficacy Belief Toward ential upon self-perception of teaching compe- Technology tence (Tschannen-Moran, et. al., 1998). Re- searchers suggested mastery experiences as the Research question four sought to find most direct influence (Tschannen-Moran et al., whether a relationship existed between general 1998). Inservice teacher technology self- teacher self-efficacy and self-efficacy belief efficacy (SE) is posited to be a result of actual toward technology. A two-tailed Pearson corre- teaching experience and the strengths and weak- lation was computed to assess the level and di- nesses each teacher experienced as they man- rectionality of the association between technolo- aged and instructed a group of students. Based gy integration self-efficacy and general teacher on responses, this particular inservice teacher self-efficacy. Variables of total self-efficacy group has experienced not only increased tech- score and technology integration self-efficacy nology SE beliefs, but also increased instruc- score were used to complete the correlation. A tional strategy SE beliefs, as a result of actual positive correlation existed between the varia- teaching situations and mastery of the teaching bles ITIS SE and general teacher SE within the task. preservice teacher group, r = 0.499, n = 42, p = Conversely, preservice teachers may devel- 0.001. The inservice teacher group also indicat- op technology integration SE as a result of vicar- ed a positive correlation of r = 0.499, n = 61, p = ious experiences, which leads to positive or neg- 0.001 between variables ITIS SE and general ative efficacy belief. Tschannen-Moran et al. teacher SE. Both r values of 0.499 indicate (1998) proposed that vicarious experience– moderate correlation between the two variables watching others teach–provides information and in each teacher group, suggesting general self- impressions regarding the teaching task. These efficacy beliefs may move positively or nega- vicarious experiences, whether experienced tively depending on self-efficacy belief toward during teacher education, from professional technology and vice versa. The Pearson r value literature, or from peers, influence preservice (.499) indicates moderate to high practical sig- and novice teacher decisions regarding learning nificance (Cohen, 1988). ability, responsibility, and teacher influence. Beginning teachers tend to base their SE and Conclusions competence beliefs on those whom they observe. Observation of successful teachers using tech- Preservice and inservice teachers’ self- nology is critical in developing future agricul- reported Technological Pedagogical Content tural education teachers who are comfortable Knowledge suggests that both groups perceive and competent in using technology in the class- themselves as knowledgeable in combining cur- room (Bandura, 1997; Tschannen-Moran et al., riculum areas with technologies and teaching 1998). Although it may be assumed that observ- approaches. However, in the areas of mathemat- ing teacher failure regarding technology integra- ics, literacy, and social studies, a greater per- tion may provide a learning opportunity for pre- centage of preservice teachers indicated that service or beginning teachers, Tschannen-Moran they strongly agreed they were capable of teach- et al. (1998) posited that observing failure, com- ing lessons that appropriately combined content bined with perceived strong effort of the ob- with teaching approaches and technologies. served teacher, will reduce efficacy belief, as the This could be explained by student preparation conclusion is made that the task is unmanagea- programs that expose students to better integra- ble. tion of content areas within agricultural educa- Self-efficacy, particularly in the case of tion. This is consistent with research suggesting teacher efficacy, tends to be context-specific agricultural programs are becoming more inter- (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). This is evident disciplinary, combining both academic and vo- with results suggesting SE in instructional strat- cational curriculum using a variety of models egy and in student engagement influence (Roberson, Flowers, & Moore, 2000). TPACK positively for inservice teachers. Those
Journal of Agricultural Education 166 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Stewart, Antonenko, Robinson and Mwavita Intrapersonal Factors... who are highly efficacious as it relates to in- percent of the total variance) most strongly, structional strategy may be more comfortable which is constituted by feedback from others with technology integration in the classroom. and perceived competence as viewed by col- High instructional strategy SE is indicative of leagues. This finding supports previous research ability and willingness to innovate teaching by Niederhauser and Perkmen (2008). strategy and experiment with instruction. High student engagement SE is indicative of teacher Recommendations for Practice enthusiasm and motivation for teaching, which may influence teacher openness to technology Addressing faulty philosophical foundations integration in the classroom and experimentation of instructional technology use is a challenge with instructional technology tools to further that continues to exist (Littrell, Zagumny, & active learning. Zagumny, 2005). Technology is presented as an Inservice teacher technology SE has a end-goal, rather than as a tool to improve the stronger relationship with student engagement emotional, metacognitive, and behavioral en- SE. Teachers who attribute student engagement gagement in students (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & to implementation of instructional technology Paris, 2004). As a result, instructional technolo- will increase both areas of SE through their mas- gy is not infused into the curricula, as Littrel and tery experiences, and further development of SE colleagues (2005) recommended. SE plays a will continue in both areas. strong role in technology integration in the class- Preservice teacher classroom management room, and this study suggests that TPACK and and instructional strategy SE were noted as hav- technology integration may be stronger within ing the most direct relationship with technology those who perceive high instructional strategy integration SE. Research (Tschannen-Moran et efficacy and student engagement efficacy. This al., 1998) has suggested efficacy beliefs of pre- implies that professional development in tech- service teachers are linked to attitudes toward nology use in the classroom may need to incor- children and control. Classroom management porate more of an emphasis on technology inte- SE therefore may affect technology integration gration through those two channels of SE, build- SE. As the preservice or novice teacher be- ing on the competency beliefs of inservice comes satisfied with his or her classroom man- teachers and providing additional modeling and agement competence, perceived ability to vicarious experience situations to continue effi- change instructional strategies rises, and it is cacy development and foster technology integra- perceived that technology integration can exist tion. with positive social outcome expectation results. Preservice teacher education should contin- Low correlation of student engagement SE to ue its track toward hands-on, constructivist technology integration SE may indicate preserv- teaching that incorporates a variety of mastery ice teachers do not consider instructional tech- experiences (Bunch et al., 2012b). Bandura nology tools to contribute to student engagement (1997) suggested mastery experiences were the in the classroom. most influential on perceived self-confidence. Analysis of the TPACK data suggests a rela- Increased mastery experiences with instructional tionship exists between preservice and inservice technology would allow preservice teachers to technology integration intrapersonal factors and not only perceive themselves as self-confident TPACK, and predictor variables vary for each but also as self-competent, resulting in success- group. Although TPACK total scores were ful integration into the professional classroom. similar in both preservice and inservice groups, different constructs predicted TPACK in each Recommendations for Future Research group. Whereas preservice TPACK total score was predicted by social outcome expectations While this study suggests preservice and in- (OE), inservice TPACK total score was predict- service teacher technology knowledge and effi- ed by instructional strategy self-efficacy SE and cacy beliefs are similar, additional studies with technology integration SE. Preservice teacher larger sample sizes are needed to validate and TPACK was predicted by social OE (about 10 potentially expand on the research findings pre-
Journal of Agricultural Education 167 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Stewart, Antonenko, Robinson and Mwavita Intrapersonal Factors... sented here. Further, current research could ben- bles contributes to technology integration and efit from an in-depth, qualitative examination of TPACK. Although external factors such as the preservice group and the inservice group to funding, lack of IT support, and lack of technol- explore the characteristics of vicarious and mas- ogy skills training continue to be external barri- tery experiences on targeted groups and technol- ers to technology integration in agricultural edu- ogy integration SE. Stability of technology SE cation classrooms (Bunch et al., 2012a; Bunch et perceptions and TPACK in both groups may al., 2012b), this study suggests the intrapersonal also reveal important indicators to assist in an- factors of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, swering questions related to technology integra- and interest not only have a relationship with tion and infusion. technology integration self-efficacy, but may The differences that exist in TPACK predic- also serve as predictors of TPACK. tors between preservice and inservice teacher The importance of teacher beliefs and values groups suggest further examination of age cannot be ignored in the research of instructional groups is detrimental in understanding when in technology decision-making. Further study the teacher’s career the SE factor becomes more regarding the formation and dynamics of teacher influential to TPACK than OE, and what factors beliefs toward technology integration and moti- make a contribution to that transition. Further vation to integrate is crucial in determining best study on the number of perceived mastery expe- practices for education and professional devel- riences and TPACK score may also be beneficial opment programs for preservice and inservice in understanding the role of SE belief in tech- teachers. Differences in predictors for TPACK nology integration. Mastery experiences are in the preservice and inservice groups suggest purported as the most significant experiences approaches to education regarding technology influencing SE beliefs (Bandura, 1986), which use must be differentiated to be effective in en- in turn affect motivation not only of the teacher gaging teachers to implement technology. but also the students in addition to influencing The research presented here suggests expe- engagement and technology integration. rienced inservice teachers view technology tools Lastly, a longitudinal study of preservice as a mechanism to engage students and achieve and inservice teacher levels of technology inte- instructional gains, whereas novice and preserv- gration SE and TPACK could be beneficial in ice teachers tend to see technology tools as a isolating occurrences and experiences that both mechanism for improving classroom manage- hinder and encourage technology integration ment. Viewing technology only as a classroom into the agricultural education classroom. management tool, and as one that distracts and provides temporary student pacification within Discussion the learning environment will not result in in- structional technology infusion into content and The results of this study contribute to the curriculum (Koehler & Mishra, 2008; Littrell, et growing area of research indicating that a com- al., 2005). Rather, technology tools will be seen plex system of interrelated intrapersonal varia- as novelties to satiate an uninterested classroom.
References
Anderson, S., Maninger, R. (2007). Preservice teachers’ abilities, beliefs, and intentions regarding tech- nology integration. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 37(2), 151-172. Retrieved from http://baywood.metapress.com/media/6a86qplhqm5w8clrrvv3/ contributions/h/1/m/8/h1m8562w18j1634p.pdf Babbie, E. (1989). The practice of social research. Belmont CA: Wadsworth. Bandura, A., (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Re- view, 84, 191-215.
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Bandura, A., (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman and Company. Brown, N. R., Baker, M. A., Edwards, M. C., & Robinson, J. S. (2011). Becoming technologically FIT: Enabling pre-service teachers to become fluent with informational technology as part of the teacher preparation experience. Proceedings of the American Association for Agricultural Educa- tion (AAAE) Research Conference. Coeur d’Alene, ID. Retrieved from http://aaaeonline.org/uploads/allconferences/5-10- 2011_132_AAAE_2011_Poster_Session_Proceedings.pdf Bunch, J. C., Robinson, J. S., & Edwards, M. C. (2012a). Measuring the relationship between agriculture teachers’ self-efficacy, outcome expectation, interest, and their use of interactive whiteboards. Journal of Agricultural Education, 53(1), 67-80. doi: 10.5032/jae.2012.01067 Bunch, J. C., Whisenhunt, J. H., Robinson, J. S., & Edwards, M. C. (2012b). Oklahoma teachers’ use of interactive whiteboards (IWBs) in the secondary agricultural education classroom: Measures of teacher innovativeness. Proceedings of the 2012 Southern Region AAAE Conference. Birmingham, AL. Retrieved from http://aaaeonline.org/uploads/allconferences/1-31- 2012_857_2012_Southern_Region_Conference_Proceedings_FINAL.pdf] Chen, W., Lim, C., & Tan, A. (2010). Pre-service teachers’ ICT experiences and competencies: New general of teachers in digital age. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Comput- ers in Education. Putrajaya, Malaysia: 631-638. Retrieved from http://www.apsce.net/ICCE2010/papers/c6/full%20paper/C6FP202.pdf Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York, NY: Academic Press. Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297-334. Doerfert, D. L. (Ed.) (2011). National research agenda: American Association for Agricultural Educa- tion’s research priority areas for 2011-2015. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University, Department of Agricultural Education and Communications. Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59–109. doi: 10.3102/003465543074001059 Guo, R. X., Dobson, T., Petrina, S. (2008). Digital natives, digital immigrants: An analysis of age and ICT competency in teacher education. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 38(3), 235- 254. Hightower, C., & Scott, K. (2012). Infer more, describe less: More powerful survey conclusions through easy inferential tests. Issues in Science and Technology Librarianship, 69. doi: 10.5062/F45H7D64 Lindner, J.R., Murphy, T. H., & Briers, G. E. (2001). Handling nonresponse in social science research. Journal of Agricultural Education, 42(4), 43-53. doi: 10.5032/jae.2001.04043. Lent, R., Brown, S., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and aca- demic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-121. doi: 10.1006/jvbe.1994.1027 Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (2002). Social cognitive career theory. In D. Brown (Ed.), Ca- reer Choice and Development (pp. 255-311). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Littrell, A. B., Zagumny, M. J., & Zagumny, L. L. (2005). Contextual and psychological predictors of instructional technology use in rural classrooms. Educational Research Quarterly, 29(2), 37-47.
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Miller, L. E. (1994). Correlations: Description or Inference? Journal of Agricultural Education, 35(1), 5- 7. doi: 10.5032/jae.1994.01005. Koehler, M.J., & Mishra, P. (2008). Introducing tpck. AACTE Committee on Innovation and Technology (Ed.), The handbook of technological pedagogical content knowledge (tpck) for educators (pp. 3- 29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054. doi: 10.1.91.7990 Niederhauser, D. S., & Perkmen, S. (2008). Validation of the intrapersonal technology integration scale: Assessing the influence of intrapersonal factors that influence technology integration. Computers in the Schools, 25(1), 98-111. doi: 10.1080/07380560802157956 Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1-6. Roberson, D. L., Flowers, J., & Moore, G. E. (2000). The status of integration of academic and agricul- tural education in North Carolina. Journal of Career and Technical Education, 17(1), 31–45. Re- trieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JCTE/ Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P.R., & Meece, J. L. (2008). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research and Applications (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill–Prentice Hall Schmidt, D. A., Baran, E., Thompson, A. D., Mishra, P., Koehler, M. J., & Shin, T. S. (2009). Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK): The development and valida- tion of an assessment instrument for preservice teachers. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42(2), 123-149. Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, 202-248. doi: 10.3102/00346543068002202 Tschannen-Moran, M. & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783-805.
JESSICA STEWART is a Grant Coordinator in the New Product Development Center, College of Engi- neering, Architecture, and Technology, Oklahoma State University, 111 Engineering North, Stillwater, OK 74078, [email protected].
PAVLO D. ANTONENKO is an Assistant Professor of Educational Technology in the School of Learn- ing and Teaching at the University of Florida, G-518B Norman Hall, PO Box 117048, Gainesville, FL 32611, [email protected].
J. SHANE ROBINSON is an Associate Professor of Agricultural Education in the Department of Agri- cultural Education, Communications and Leadership and the Associate Director of the Institute for Teach- ing and Learning Excellence at Oklahoma State University, 100 ITLE, Stillwater, OK 74078, [email protected].
MWARUMBA MWAVITA is an Assistant Professor of Educational Studies in the College of Education at Oklahoma State University, 302 Willard Hall, Stillwater, OK 74078, [email protected].
Journal of Agricultural Education 170 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 171 – 185 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03171 o Student and Faculty Perceptions of ICT Use in Undergradu- u r ate Agriculture Courses n a l Donald M. Johnson Leslie D. Edgar o f Casandra K. Cox University of Arkansas A g
r Abstract i c Students and faculty in a land-grant college of agriculture were surveyed to determine their perceptions u of current and future Information and Communication Technology (ICT) use in undergraduate agricul- l ture courses. There was a large, positive relationship (r = .83) between student and faculty perceptions t of the extent to which 40 specific ICT tasks were required in undergraduate courses. Students and faculty u ranked the same five ICT tasks (receive email, send email, search the Internet, submit assignments as r email attachments, and use Blackboard© to acquire course information) as being the most frequently re- a quired. Students and faculty agreed that all database tasks and many of the intermediate to advanced l spreadsheet, word processing, graphics, Internet, and miscellaneous tasks were seldom required in un- E dergraduate agriculture courses. While a majority of students and faculty indicated that future ICT use d should be maintained at the current level in each of seven broad ICT areas, there were significant (p < u .05) differences between faculty plans and student recommendations for future use of the Internet, data- c bases, computer graphics, and specialized applications. Students were undecided to moderately positive a about their course-related ICT experiences. These results indicate a need to better integrate intermediate t and advanced ICT tasks into undergraduate courses. i o Keywords: ICT use; university agriculture faculty; undergraduate agriculture students n V o This project was funded through a Scholarship of Teaching and Learning Grant from the Wally Cordes l Teaching and Faculty Support Center, University of Arkansas. u m Claro et al. (2012) defined literacy in Infor- gan, 2007). Bresnahan, Brynjolfsson, and Hitt e mation and Communication Technology (ICT) (2002) found that ICT skills played a large and as “the capacity to solve problems of infor- widespread role in shifting relative wages 5 mation, communication and knowledge in digi- among U.S. workers since 1980, with higher pay 1 tal environments” (p. 1043) and indicated that going to individuals with greater ICT skill lev- , ICT literacy requires both functional skills (mas- els. Both Graham (2001) and Shrestha (2009) tery of ICT applications) and higher-order (syn- noted that most college of agriculture graduates N u thesis and evaluation) cognitive skills. Accord- needed ICT skills to enter and advance in their m ing to these researchers, mastery of functional professional careers. Pouratashi and Rezvanfar b skills is a prerequisite for ICT literacy since (2010) noted that higher education will continue e these serve as problem solving tools in digital to feel the pressure of educating graduates with r environments. Thus, according to Claro et al. appropriate ICT skills for the workforce. Their 1 (2012), ICT literacy is not possible without research also found that as students become fa- , functional ICT skills. miliar with specific ICT tasks they are more Researchers have noted that proficiency willing to use them. p with ICT is a requirement for success in most Many in higher education believe students p well-paying careers (Grant, Malloy, & Murphy, enter college already proficient in ICT skills and .
2009; Levy & Murnane, 2004; Stone & Madi- use (Kaminski, Switzer, & Gloeckner 2009). 1 1
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2 1 D Johnson, Edgar and Cox Student and Faculty...
However, research does not support this belief lege. Kaminski et al. (2009) found that Colora- (Cox, Munise, Edgar, & Johnson., 2011; Edgar, do State University students’ perceived ICT Johnson, & Cox, 2012; Grant et al., 2009; Ka- competency actually decreased over their col- minski et al., 2009; Lee, 2003; Palaigeorgiou, lege careers. Shrestha (2009) found that while Siozos, Konstantakis, & Tsoukalas, 2005; graduating seniors in the College of Agriculture Pouratashi & Rezvanfar, 2010; Tesch, Murphy, and Natural Resources at Michigan State Uni- & Crable, 2006; Van Braak, 2004; Verhoeven versity believed their academic majors had Heerwegh, & De Wit, 2010; Wallace & Clari- helped them develop technical skills required in ana, 2005). These and other researchers have their anticipated careers, they felt their programs found that, while students perceived themselves had not been effective in developing their ICT to be ICT literate, most could not successfully skills. complete fairly basic ICT tasks. Ratliff (2009) Summers and Vlosky (2001) indicated both posited that many students have the “wrong” agriculture students and faculty agreed that type of ICT skills for academic purposes. Ac- course-related ICT use was “very important” to cording to Ratliff, “students may be experts with students’ future competitiveness in the job mar- chatting, Twittering, or social networking, but ket” (p. 84). Graham (2001) found that agricul- inexperienced in attaching a document to an tural employers rated word processing, Internet, email or creating an essay with word processing spreadsheet, database, graphics, accounting sys- software” (p. 1). Other researchers have sup- tems, and computer-assisted drafting (CAD) as ported this finding (Settle, Telg, Baker, Irani, important ICT skills. More recently, Alston, Rutherford, & Rhoades, 2011; Rhoades, Irani, Cromartie, Wakefield, and English (2009) found Telg, & Myers, 2008). that agricultural employers rated spreadsheets, Several recent studies support Ratliff’s word processing, Internet, accounting systems, (2009) conclusions concerning student ICT and presentation graphics as “very important” skills. Verhoeven et al. (2010) discovered stu- ICT skills and database use and CAD as “some- dents’ use of basic ICT skills changed little once what important” ICT skills. Although desired they started at the university. The researchers ICT skills were not evaluated at specific task noted that many students still did not know how levels, these studies provide faculty with im- to make graphs or do simple calculations in portant information on broad areas of ICT use spreadsheets, automatically create a table of con- that should be emphasized in undergraduate ag- tents for a report, or make a presentation with riculture courses. PowerPoint or similar program. Tesch et al. Selwyn (2007) noted that “despite huge ef- (2006) found that 10% or fewer entering busi- forts to position computer technology as a cen- ness students at Xavier University could correct- tral tenet of university education, the fact [re- ly use absolute cell addresses in Excel® or mains] that many students and faculty make only properly insert a clip art image into a Word® limited formal academic use of ICT during their document. Students at Northwest Missouri State teaching and learning” (p. 84). Kaminski et al. University scored a mean of 53% correct on a (2009) concluded, “We [Colorado State Univer- basic competency assessment designed to allow sity faculty] are not engaging our learners in ad- them to test out of a required ICT literacy course vanced uses of technology for communication, (Hardy, Heeler, & Brooks, 2006). Of 164 stu- sharing information, and problem solving” (p. dents completing the exam, only three students 232). (1.8%) achieved a score of 80% or higher and Kuth and Vesper (2001) studied 125,000 were able to test out of the course. The re- graduates from 205 institutions and concluded searchers concluded that “a majority of the stu- that students making larger gains in ICT skills dents have not mastered computer concepts, during college scored higher on each of 27 aca- word processing skills, spreadsheet skills, demic and social outcome measures when con- presentation skills, or database skills” (Hardy et trolling for socioeconomic status. Based on al., 2006, p. 59). these results, researchers recommended that all The lack of ICT knowledge, competencies, entering students become proficient in ICT early and skills is not limited to students entering col- in their college careers and that universities ex-
Journal of Agricultural Education 172 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Johnson, Edgar and Cox Student and Faculty... amine how students use computers in their specific behavior. The TAM extended the courses. Although Kaminski et al. (2009) noted TORA model by looking at two specific atti- an overall decline in self-perceived ICT skills tudes important in technology adoption – per- from freshman to senior year, the researchers ceived usefulness and perceived ease of use noted an increase in perceived skills in the two (Davis, 1993). ICT areas most frequently required in courses: Davis (1993) viewed computer usage as be- presentation software (PowerPoint©) and Inter- ing extrinsically motivated by gains in perfor- net use. This reinforces a common-sense notion mance and associated rewards. Yi and Hwang that both initial learning and continued, periodic (2003) contended that an individual who has a use of ICT skills are required in order to develop strong sense of capability in dealing with com- ICT skills necessary for career success. Sarkar puters is more likely to accept new technology. (2012) called for a renewed focus on ICT skills The TAM framework has been used extensively in higher education to improve the competency to examine how technology systems are being of both faculty and students. perceived and used. Davis (1993), in a study of 112 users of two systems, found that “TAM ful- Theoretical Framework ly meditated the effects of system characteristics on usage behavior” (p. 475) and that perceived The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) “usefulness” was 50% more influential than is a theoretical framework that can be used to “ease of use” in determining usage. assess how classroom teachers are integrating Venkatesh and Davis (2000) proposed an ICT into their curriculum (Davis, 1986). TAM extension of the TAM to include seven addition- posits that acceptance and use of ICT depends al factors affecting technology acceptance on an individual’s perceptions of the usefulness through their impact on either perceived useful- and ease of use of the technology (Davis, 1986). ness or intention to use technology (Figure 1). The theory of reasoned action (TORA) (Fishbein Venkatesh and Davis successfully validated their & Ajzen, 1975) provides the rationale for many extended TAM in longitudinal studies of tech- assumptions seen in the TAM (Davis, 1993). nology adoption in four businesses. Across or- Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) noted that attitudes ganizations, the seven additional factors ex- are a function of beliefs, and those beliefs lead plained 40-60% of the variance in perceived use- to behavioral intentions. If the intention is not fulness and 34-52% of the variance in intentions changed, by some external factor, it will lead to to use new technologies.
Journal of Agricultural Education 173 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Johnson, Edgar and Cox Student and Faculty...
Figure 1. Extension of the Technology Acceptance Model (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000, p. 194)
For the current study, the Job Relevance agriculture graduates at this university and pro- (JR) factor in the extended TAM was of particu- moting similar efforts at other universities. lar interest. Venkatesh and Davis (2000) found that JR acting alone explained 40% of the vari- Purpose and Objectives ance in intention to use technology. Given that guiding student learning through the completion The purpose of this study was to examine of required curricular activities is the primary ICT tasks required in undergraduate agriculture “job” of teaching faculty, the perceived rele- courses at a land-grant university. Specific ob- vance of ICT should be manifested in ICT tasks jectives were to: required in undergraduate agriculture courses as 1. Determine and compare the perceptions perceived by both faculty and students. of students and faculty concerning ICT The National Research Agenda (Doerfert, tasks required in undergraduate agricul- 2011), developed by the American Association ture courses; for Agricultural Education, calls upon agricul- 2. Determine and compare student and tural education and communication faculty to faculty perceptions of future ICT use in “create programs that develop skills and compe- undergraduate agriculture courses; and tencies necessary . . . in the agriculture-related 3. Determine student perceptions of factors workforces in society” (para. 3). Through this related to ICT use in undergraduate ag- charge and via the idea that postsecondary edu- riculture courses. cation programs should be producing students able and adept in ICT use, it is critical for educa- Methods tors to determine effective ways to increase ICT skills in college students before they enter pro- The student population consisted of all un- fessional careers. This study provides important dergraduate agriculture majors enrolled in jun- data documenting the perspectives of both stu- ior- or senior-level agriculture courses (N = dents and faculty concerning ICT use in under- 1,914) at the University of Arkansas during the graduate agriculture courses at one land-grant spring 2012 academic semester. Students en- university. This information can serve as a rolled in a stratified (by academic department), framework both for improving the ICT skills of random sample of 12 upper-division courses were selected to participate in the survey. Up-
Journal of Agricultural Education 174 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Johnson, Edgar and Cox Student and Faculty... per-level courses were selected to ensure that perspectives on ICT use in undergraduate agri- respondents would be primarily juniors and sen- culture courses at this land-grant university. iors and would have completed a number of un- dergraduate agriculture courses prior to partici- Instrumentation pating in the research. The researchers adminis- tered the instrument during the first two weeks The faculty instrument was administered on- of the spring semester. Prior to distributing the line in January 2010 and assessed required ICT instruments in each course, the researchers ex- use in a specifically identified course taught by plained the purpose of the study and informed each instructor during the fall 2009 semester. students that participation was voluntary and The instrument consisted of three parts. Part I that all responses would be anonymous. In order listed 40 specific ICT tasks (divided into seven to eliminate unqualified and duplicate respond- ICT areas) and asked respondents to indicate ents the following were instructed to not com- (“Yes” or “No”) whether students enrolled in the plete the instrument: (a) new transfer students, identified course were required to complete each (b) first-semester agriculture majors, and (c) stu- task. Part II listed seven broad areas of ICT use dents who had already completed the instrument and asked faculty about their plans for required in another class. The 12 selected courses had a student use over the next two to three years with total duplicated enrollment of 398 students and response options of decrease use, maintain cur- 235 students provided usable responses, result- rent level of use, or increase use. Part III con- ing in a nominal, unadjusted response rate of tained four items concerning respondents’ aca- 59%. Due to the anonymous nature of student demic rank, teaching experience and appoint- responses, no follow-up of non-respondents was ment, and self-perceived ICT skills relative to possible. other agriculture faculty. The population of faculty consisted of all in- A panel of nine faculty members (one from structors (N = 64) teaching one or more under- each department in the college), including three graduate agriculture course at the University of faculty teaching the college ICT literacy course, Arkansas during the fall 2009 semester as identi- examined the instrument and judged it to possess fied by official university records. The entire face and content validity. Five agriculture facul- population of instructors was surveyed during ty at two land-grant universities completed paper the spring 2010 semester and 57 (89.1%) pro- versions of the instrument (at two to seven week vided usable responses. intervals) to determine instrument stability (reli- Although data were collected at different ability). Part I and Part II had test-retest agree- times for faculty (spring 2010) and students ment percentages of 95% and 86%, respectively. (spring 2012), meaningful comparisons were The reliability of Part III was not assessed, possible for two reasons. First, a longitudinal since, according to Salant and Dillman (1994), study (Edgar, Johnson, & Cox, 2012) of faculty responses to non-sensitive demographic items in this college found minimal changes in re- “are subject to little measurement error” (p. 87). quired ICT use in courses between 1999 and The student instrument, based on the faculty 2009 and a majority of faculty did not foresee instrument, was formatted as a printed booklet changing their course ICT requirements during and contained four parts. Part I listed the same the next two to three years. Second, while facul- 40 specific ICT tasks (divided into seven ICT ty responses were based on required ICT use in areas) as in the faculty instrument and asked re- specific courses taught during a specific semes- spondents to indicate the extent to which each ter, students were asked to respond based on the task was required in undergraduate agriculture extent to which specific ICT tasks had been re- courses (using a 1 to 5 Likert-type scale where 1 quired in all agriculture courses completed over = “Never” and 5 = “Always”) they had complet- their academic careers. Given the relative stabil- ed. Part II listed the same seven broad areas of ity of faculty course-specific ICT requirements ICT use and asked respondents to indicate, for and students’ more global assessment of re- each, whether future course ICT task use should quired course ICT use across courses, the two decrease, maintain at the current level, or in- groups provided unique, but complementary, crease. Part III contained 15 statements con-
Journal of Agricultural Education 175 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Johnson, Edgar and Cox Student and Faculty... cerning factors related to student ICT use in un- (31.6%), freshmen (15.8%), and sophomore dergraduate agriculture courses that students (12.3%) levels. The typical faculty respondent evaluated on a 1 to 7 Likert-type scale (1 = held the rank of professor (61.2%), had 10 or “Strongly Disagree” and 7 = “Strongly Agree”). more years of university teaching experience Part IV consisted of four demographic items (69.4%), and held a teaching appointment of concerning respondent’s age, transfer status, 33% or less (67.4%). When faculty compared major, and self-perceived ICT skills relative to their own ICT skills to their colleagues, 65.3% other agriculture majors. rated themselves as average, 34.7% rated them- The student instrument, based on the previ- selves as above average, and 8.2% rated them- ously validated faculty instrument, was evaluat- selves as below average. ed by a panel of experts (N = 3) in survey re- search and ICT instruction and was judged to Required ICT Use possess face and content validity. The student instrument was pilot-tested with five undergrad- Faculty reported requiring about 8 (M = uate agriculture students not participating in the 8.46; SD = 6.20) different ICT tasks in under- main study; these students successfully complet- graduate agriculture courses. The six tasks fac- ed the instrument and indicated they had no dif- ulty reported requiring in more than one-half of ficulty in understanding the instructions, items, all courses (Table 1) were receive email or response options. To assess instrument stabil- (80.7%), send email (73.7%), search the Internet ity (reliability), the instrument was administered (64.9%), submit assignments as email attach- a second time (14 to 21 days later) to the same ments (57.9%), use Blackboard© to acquire five students and the following reliability coeffi- course information (54.4%), and type a lab or cients were obtained: Part I (r = .65), Part II (r = project report (52.6%). Faculty indicated that 28 .90), and Part III (r = .71). Although the relia- of the 40 ICT tasks were required in fewer than bility coefficients for Parts I and III were lower 25% of classes, while 18 were required in fewer than anticipated, McDowell (2006) indicated than 10% of classes. The less frequently re- reliabilities of r > .50 are acceptable when the quired ICT tasks included all database tasks and purpose of the research is to make group rather many intermediate to advanced spreadsheet, than individual comparisons. The reliability of word processing, graphics, Internet, and miscel- the demographic items in Part IV was not as- laneous tasks. sessed (Salant & Dillman, 1994). Student means for four specific ICT tasks were above 4.0, indicating that students per- Results ceived these tasks as being required “very often” to “always” in the undergraduate courses they The typical student was a junior (37.3%) or had completed. These tasks were receive email senior (39.1%) majoring in animal science (M = 4.70; SD = 0.55), send email (M = 4.49; (33.6%), agricultural business (22.3%), or agri- SD = 0.74), use Blackboard© to acquire course cultural education, communication, and technol- information (M = 4.33; SD = 0.77), and search ogy (17.6%). Almost two-thirds (62.2%) had the Internet (M = 4.11; SD = 0.87). Mean stu- begun their academic careers at the University of dent ratings for 31 of the 40 ICT tasks were less Arkansas. When comparing their own ICT than 3.0, indicating students used them “some- skills to their classmates, 6.9% rated themselves times” or less in undergraduate agriculture as below average, 59.5% rated themselves as courses; 14 of the 41 tasks received mean rating average, and 33.6% rated themselves as above of less than 2.0 indicating they were “rarely” or average. “never” required. The least frequently required Faculty responses were received from in- tasks as perceived by students included all data- structors teaching courses in all nine academic base tasks and many of the intermediate to ad- departments in the college. The largest percent- vanced spreadsheet, word processing, graphics, age of courses represented was at the junior lev- Internet, and miscellaneous tasks. el (40.4%), followed by courses at the senior
Journal of Agricultural Education 176 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Johnson, Edgar and Cox Student and Faculty...
Table 1
Frequency and Ranking of Required ICT Tasks as Reported by Faculty and Students
Faculty (n = 57) Students (n = 235) ICT Task (ICT Area) % Requiring Rank Ma SD Rank Receive electronic mail from instructor (Email) 80.7 1 4.70 0.55 1 Send electronic mail to instructor (Email) 73.7 2 4.49 0.74 2 Search Internet for information on a specific topic 64.9 3 4.11 0.87 4 (Internet) Submit course assignments as electronic mail at- 57.9 4 3.73 1.12 5 tachments (Email) Use Blackboard to acquire course information (In- 54.4 5 4.33 0.77 3 ternet) Type a lab or project report (Word Processing) 52.6 6 3.26 1.12 7 Download data to disk or hard-drive from the Inter- 40.4 7 2.88 1.27 11.5T net (Internet) Create materials using presentation graphics soft- 33.3 8 3.23 1.11 8 ware (e.g. PowerPoint) (Graphics) Access a course web site (Internet) 31.6 9 3.28 1.17 6 Enter data into an existing spreadsheet (Spread- 29.8 10 2.74 1.11 14 sheet) Type a formal research paper (Word Processing) 28.1 11.5T 2.88 1.19 11.5T Conduct a literature search using Agricola, ERIC, 28.1 11.5T 1.19 1.10 39 FirstSearch or similar database (Miscellaneous) Create charts and/or graphs using a spreadsheet 22.8 13 2.57 1.10 16 (Spreadsheet) Create a new spreadsheet (Spreadsheet) 22.3 14 2.67 1.15 15 Use spreadsheet functions (e.g. IF, MAX, MIN, etc.) 17.5 15 2.40 1.11 17.5T (Spreadsheet) Write a single spreadsheet formula that performs a 15.8 16 2.28 1.12 19 series of mathematical operations (Spreadsheet) Write a spreadsheet formula that performs a single 15.4 17 2.40 1.13 17.5T mathematical operation (Spreadsheet) Use Blackboard to submit assignments (Internet) 14.0 18 3.05 1.18 9 Use Internet-based communications to contact your 12.3 19 2.99 1.30 10 instructor and/or classmates (e.g. IM, Facebook, Wiki, Blog) (Internet) Participate in an email course discussion group or 10.5 20.5T 2.86 1.23 13 list serve (Email) Participate in an Internet-based threaded discussion 10.5 20.5T 2.08 0.97 23T group for class (Internet) Type a business letter (Word Processing) 8.8 23T 2.19 1.18 20.5T Download freeware (Internet) 8.8 23T 2.02 1.02 26 Use spreadsheet database functions (e.g. sort, query, 8.8 23T 2.08 0.99 23T etc.) (Spreadsheet) Make drawings using computer-assisted drafting 8.8 23T 1.53 0.84 34 program (e.g. AutoCAD, TurboCAD, AutoSketch, etc.) (Graphics) Table 1 Continues
Journal of Agricultural Education 177 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Johnson, Edgar and Cox Student and Faculty...
Table 1 Continued Faculty (n = 57) Students (n = 235) ICT Task (ICT Area) % Requiring Rank Ma SD Rank Create visual illustrations using graphic-design pro- 8.8 23T 1.98 1.12 27 grams (e.g. Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop, etc.) (Graphics) Use a computer simulation program (Miscellaneous) 7.0 27 1.30 0.59 38 Prepare a brochure or newsletter using word pro- 3.5 30.5T 2.19 1.18 20.5T cessing software (Word Processing) Create a web page (Internet) 3.5 30.5T 2.08 0.97 23T Enter data into an existing database 3.5 30.5T 2.04 1.01 25 Create a new database (Database) 3.5 30.5T 1.66 0.89 32 Sort and/or query a database (Database) 3.5 30.5T 1.68 0.88 31 Create a database report (Database) 3.5 30.5T 1.57 0.83 33 Write a computer program (Miscellaneous) 3.5 30.5T 1.17 0.53 40 Create a spreadsheet macro (Spreadsheet) 1.8 37.5T 1.97 1.00 28 Create PivotTables (Spreadsheet) 1.8 37.5T 1.52 0.81 35 Prepare a brochure or newsletter using layout pro- 1.8 37.5T 1.85 0.99 29 gram (Adobe In-Design) (Graphics) Transfer files from a personal computer to a main- 1.8 37.5T 1.71 0.97 30 frame computer (or vice versa) using file transfer software (e.g. Telnet or Ftp SshClient) (Miscella- neous) Use a financial management program such as 1.8 37.5T 1.39 0.72 37 Quicken (Miscellaneous) Do database programming (Database) 0.0 40 1.49 0.76 36 aMeans are based on a Likert-type scale where 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = very often, and 5 = always.
Students and faculty tended to agree on the for changes in required student ICT use in seven relative extent to which the 40 ICT tasks were ICT areas during the next two to three years; required in undergraduate agriculture courses. students were asked to recommend changes in Although rank-orders differed slightly, both the same seven areas of ICT use. For each groups identified the same five ICT tasks (send group, the response options were “decrease use,” email, receive email, search the Internet, submit “maintain current level of use,” or “increase assignments as email attachments, and use use.” Because of the small expected cell sizes, Blackboard© to acquire course information) as Fisher’s exact test was used to determine if fac- being the most frequently required. Likewise, ulty and students differed significantly (p < .05) there was agreement between students and facul- in their plans (faculty) and recommendations ty on 10 of the 13 least frequently required ICT (students) for future ICT course use. Since tasks. The Spearman rank-order rho correlation Fisher’s exact test calculates p directly, without coefficient indicated a large, positive relation- reliance on the χ2 distribution, only p values are ship (r = .83) between faculty and student per- reported for the tests of significance in Table 2 ceptions of the relative frequency with which (Darlington & Carlson, 1987). these ICT tasks were required. A majority of faculty and students respond- ed with plans (faculty) or recommendations Future ICT Use (students) to maintain the current level of course use in each ICT area. There were no significant Both faculty and students were asked about differences between faculty plans and student future ICT use in undergraduate agriculture recommendations for use of word processing, courses. Faculty were asked about their plans electronic mail, or spreadsheets. However, there
Journal of Agricultural Education 178 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Johnson, Edgar and Cox Student and Faculty... were significant differences between faculty databases, computer graphics, and specialized plans and student recommendations for use of applications was significantly higher than the the Internet, databases, computer graphics, and percentage of students making this recommenda- specialized applications. The percentage of fac- tion. For databases, this difference consisted of ulty planning to increase Internet use (32.6%) students recommending both decreased use was significantly higher than the percentage of (14.4%) and increased use (29.2%). For com- students recommending increased use (17.2%). puter graphics and specialized applications the Conversely, the percentage of faculty planning difference consisted of students wanting to de- to maintain the current level of required use of crease use, 10.3% and 12.0%, respectively.
Table 2
Faculty Plans and Student Recommendations for Changes in ICT Use in Undergraduate Agriculture Courses
Faculty (n = 57) Students (n = 235) Decrease Maintain Increase Decrease Maintain Increase Fisher’s ICT Area (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) exact p Word pro- 0.0 77.6 22.4 0.9 85.0 14.2 .310 cessing Electronic mail 0.0 82.0 18.0 1.7 81.6 16.7 .926 Internet 2.0 62.0 36.0 0.4 82.4 17.2 .002 Spreadsheets 4.1 63.3 32.6 11.6 56.5 31.9 .289 Databases 2.1 85.4 12.5 14.2 56.6 29.2 <.0001 Computer 0.0 70.8 29.2 10.3 57.5 32.2 .023 graphics Specialized 0.0 75.0 25.0 12.0 60.5 27.5 .012 applications
Student Perceptions of ICT Use Students agreed they personally had the computer skills necessary for success in under- Students agreed that computer assignments graduate agriculture courses. Interestingly, the were appropriate in undergraduate agriculture item, “I have excellent computer skills,” re- courses and moderately agreed that requiring ceived a somewhat lower mean rating than the student computer use should be a priority; how- statement, “I have the computer skills necessary ever, they were undecided if faculty made stu- to be successful in agriculture courses,” with dent computer use a priority or encouraged stu- means of 5.10 (SD = 1.42) and 5.75 (SD = 1.06), dents to use computers (Table 3). Students respectively. Students also rated their peers’ agreed that the computer skills required in un- computer skills (M = 4.53; SD = 1.14) lower dergraduate agriculture courses would adequate- than their own. Students moderately agreed that ly prepare them for the workforce; however, every agriculture student should own a laptop they had only neutral to moderate agreement computer and complete a computer applications with the statement, “Agriculture courses well- course early in their academic career. prepare students in computer and information technology” (M = 4.52, SD = 1.36).
Journal of Agricultural Education 179 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Johnson, Edgar and Cox Student and Faculty...
Table 3
Student Perceptions of Factors Related to ICT Use in Undergraduate Agriculture Courses
Statement n Ma SD I have the computer skills necessary to be successful in agriculture courses. 235 5.75 1.06 I believe the computer skills required in agriculture coursework will adequately 235 5.21 1.29 prepare me for the workforce. Agriculture students should complete a computer applications course early in 233 5.17 1.74 their college career. I have excellent computer skills. 234 5.10 1.42 I believe every agriculture student should own a laptop computer. 232 5.10 1.71 Most other students in my agriculture courses have excellent computer skills. 232 4.53 1.14 Agriculture courses prepare students well in computer and information 233 4.52 1.36 technology. My agriculture instructors make it a priority to include computer tasks in 233 4.25 1.40 courses. My agriculture instructors encourage me and other students to use personal 233 4.25 1.44 computers in courses. Requiring student computer use in agriculture courses should not be a priority. 232 3.13 1.74 Computer assignments are not appropriate in agriculture courses. 235 2.20 1.34 aBased on a scale where 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = moderately disagree, 4 = undecided, 5 = moderately agree, 6 = agree, and 7 = strongly agree.
courses required high levels of ICT use, overall, Discussion, Conclusions, and undergraduate agriculture courses at this Recommendations university tended to require limited student ICT use with most required tasks being drawn from a This study assessed ICT skills – email, In- narrow range of fairly low-level ICT skills. ternet, word processing, computer graphics, Students reported the most frequently re- spreadsheets, and databases – required in under- quired ICT skills were receive email, send email, graduate agriculture courses at a land-grant uni- use Blackboard© to acquire course information, versity. As reported by faculty, the typical un- search the Internet, and submit course assign- dergraduate agriculture course required students ments as electronic mail attachments. These to complete a mean of 8.46 (SD = 6.20) unique five ICT tasks were also ranked as the top five ICT tasks in fall 2009, with six specific tasks skills by faculty. being required in 50% or more of all courses. The major finding of this study is that both These six ICT tasks were receive email, send faculty and students at this land-grant university email, search the Internet, submit course as- agreed that intermediate and advanced ICT tasks signments as attached email files, use Black- were seldom required in undergraduate agricul- board© to acquire course information, and type ture courses. This is especially noteworthy giv- a lab or project report. Less than one-half of en the innovative educational uses of ICT in dis- courses required students to complete any tasks ciplines as diverse as agricultural communica- related to spreadsheets, computer graphics, mis- tions (Leggette, Rutherford, Sudduth, & Mur- cellaneous use, or databases. By and large, stu- phrey, 2012), agricultural economics (Leonard dents were not required to complete ICT tasks & Patterson, 2004; Schurle, Stroade, & designed to extend class discussion and partici- Grunewald, 2004), agricultural technology pation beyond the classroom, such as (a) use of (Johnson, 2004), animal and poultry science course listserves, (b) discussion groups, or (c) (Bagley & Johnson, 2007; Kloepper, Zweiacher, wikis, blogs, and Facebook©. Although some Curtis, & Evert, 2010), horticulture (Rhoades, Irani, Tignor, Wilson, Kubota, Giacomelli, &
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McMahon., 2009), landscape architecture (Lee, (e.g. send and receive email, search the Internet, 2009), and plant science (Maixner, Noyd, & use Blackboard©) rather than to extend the Krueger, 2010). In addition to these discipline- course or enrich course content. Significantly, specific examples of ICT use, opportunities exist those technologies that extend the classroom in for the educational use of technologies such as both time and space, such as listserves, threaded social media (Settle et al., 2011), podcasting discussion groups, and Internet-based social (Lee, 2009), and simulations (Leggette et al., networking, were among the least commonly 2012). Yet, few agriculture faculty or under- required ICT tasks. graduate students in this land-grant university Nationally, institutions should ensure / enact reported more than basic levels of ICT use. policy regarding teacher and student competen- By and large, faculty members planned to cies in ICT. ICT skills of importance and value maintain their current levels of required ICT use should be integrated into course syllabi and in- in these courses during the next two to three struction in an effort to create successful out- years. Few faculty members planned to de- comes in teaching and learning that are content crease use in any ICT area, while moderate in- specific and can better prepare students for the creases were anticipated in each area. Thus, in workforce. Additionally, ICT tasks should be the near future, required student use of ICT is selected based on teaching and learning strate- likely to increase at a fairly slow rate. Opportu- gies appropriate for each course. Integration of nities for faculty development should be provid- ICT skills can be simple. In many courses stu- ed in areas of ICT interest where competencies dents may already be completing assignments and skills are lacking in an effort to increase that can be logically connected to needed ICT adoption of course-relevant ICT tasks. skills. Postsecondary education efforts should Less than half (47.4%) of students enrolled focus on identifying potential ICT skills in each in agricultural courses during the spring of 2012 course and creating a strategy to increase neces- believed their ICT skills prepared them for the sary tasks in agriculture curriculum to improve workforce. Additionally, only 51% of students students’ ICT competencies. believed that agriculture courses promoted pro- The extended TAM theorizes that an indi- fessional ICT skills. Findings from this study vidual’s actual system usage is determined by support the need for University administrators behavioral intention, which, in turn, is jointly and faculty to value and implement ICT skill determined by perceived usefulness and per- development beyond the basics. Research indi- ceived ease of use (Yi & Hwang, 2003). Thus, cates that students are entering college with ICT an important next step is to study employers’ skills most suited for social networking (Ratliff, perceptions of ICT skills to determine their level 2009). If agriculture students are to gain the of need and competency for each task. Accord- level of ICT proficiency desired by graduates ing to Sarkar (2012), development of ICT skills (Shrestha, 2009) and employers (Graham, 2001), will become a greater need and focus in higher it seems reasonable that students must first learn education in the future. In an effort to prepare these skills and then be required to practice their for those changes, employers should be assessed use in appropriate courses throughout their un- and college courses should integrate necessary dergraduate careers (Kuth & Vesper, 2001). ICT skills accordingly. According to the extended TAM (Venkatesh While all instructors should be encouraged & Davis, 2000) that provided the theoretical and assisted in integrating appropriate ICT re- framework for this study, the ICT tasks required quirements into their courses, required “ICT in- in courses should, in large measure, be deter- tensive” courses should be developed at either mined by faculty perceptions of the relevance the department or college level. Assignments in (Job Relevancy) of these tasks in preparing stu- these courses should be designed to require a dents for success in the course and ultimately the variety of higher-level ICT tasks appropriate for workforce. However, examination of the most the subject matter. The details of this or similar commonly required tasks (as reported by faculty plans should be determined by the faculty, pos- and students) indicated required ICT tasks pri- sibly through an ad hoc committee established marily serve to facilitate course transactions for this purpose or by the college curriculum
Journal of Agricultural Education 181 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Johnson, Edgar and Cox Student and Faculty... committee. If necessary, instructors should be Mathieson’s (1991) research that integrated the trained on the importance of these skills in the Technology Acceptance Model, the theory of workplace. planned behavior “ease of use” with technology Instructors determine how, if, and when ICT played a large factor in acceptance and adoption. skills will be integrated into their coursework. Therefore, it is critical that ICT training include Additionally, instructors influence their peers. easy, how-to guides for skill building and com- Therefore, future ICT skill development and petency enhancement in the classroom. competency success may be maximized when Additional research should be conducted to information and communication technology in- determine if the extended TAM (Venkatesh & structor “experts” are targeted to showcase how Davis, 2000) can serve as a predictor of ICT use and when they integrated these skills into the in colleges of agriculture. Research should as- classroom. Additionally, ICT insight and suc- sess instructors’ perceptions regarding job rele- cess may be found when ICT experts educate vance and social norms in terms of ICT use in their peers on strategies for building personal courses. Also, research should focus on output competencies and skills in specific areas to be quality and result demonstrability in terms of integrated into the classroom. Based on student performance.
References
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Yi, M. Y., & Hwang, Y. (2003). Predicting the use of web-based information systems: Self efficacy, en- joyment, learning goal orientation, and the technology acceptance model. International Journal Human-Computer Studies, 59, 431-449. DONALD M. JOHNSON is a Professor in the Department of Agricultural Education, Communications and Technology at the University of Arkansas, 205 Agriculture Building, Fayetteville, AR 72701, [email protected].
LESLIE D. EDGAR is an Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural Education, Communica- tions and Technology at the University of Arkansas, 205 Agriculture Building, Fayetteville, AR 72701, [email protected].
CASANDRA K. COX is an Instructor in the Department of Agricultural Education, Communications and Technology at the University of Arkansas, 205 Agriculture Building, Fayetteville, AR 72701, ccrum- [email protected].
Journal of Agricultural Education 185 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 186 – 197 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03186 Impacts of a Faculty Abroad Experience on Teaching Style and Technology Use in a College of Agriculture and Life Sci- ences
M’Randa R. Sandlin Theresa Pesl Murphrey James R. Lindner Kim E. Dooley Texas A&M University
Abstract
Faculty abroad programs are becoming a popular method to provide faculty in colleges of agriculture with international experiences so they may internationalize their curricula. These programs also serve to provide experiential faculty development opportunities. Eight faculty members from Texas A&M Univer- sity participated in a faculty abroad experience in Trinidad and Tobago and developed instructional ma- terials using technology. Pre-reflective and reflective interview responses were qualitatively analyzed to determine the impact of this experience on participants’ teaching style and technology usage. The com- parison of the pre-reflective and reflective data sets indicated participants perceived impact on teaching style, specifically in relation to their curriculum content and use of global connections as it pertained to their discipline and global relationships with native counterparts. Many participants were already using technology in the classroom prior to the international experience. As a result of the experience, the level of their technology usage increased as they incorporated media, such as audio and video, to communicate their experiences and create context for their lessons. It was concluded that teaching style, technology usage, and excitement for teaching were renewed as a result of an international experience. Future stud- ies should be conducted to compare these findings with similar faculty abroad experiences.
Keywords: reusable learning objects, faculty abroad, teaching style, technology use
International experiences have become an related issues” (p. 22). integral component of high impact educational Acker and Taylor (2000) wrote, “The inter- practices (Kuh, 2008). Higher education institu- national experience of faculty is an important tions are encouraging professors to international- cornerstone of globalized student learning envi- ize their curricula and provide study abroad op- ronments” (p. 18). While it would be ideal for portunities for their students so they will be every faculty member to have an international more knowledgeable and marketable when en- experience to aid in the globalization of the stu- tering the workforce (NAFSA: Association of dent learning environment, that is not possible in International Educators, 2011). Zhai and Scheer many situations. In fact, Navarro and Edwards (2004) found a “strong relationship between (2008) found that “faculty view internationaliza- global perspectives and attitudes toward diversi- tion as a mutually exclusive alternative to other ty” (p. 49) and stressed the importance of the efforts” (p. 79) and, “because of this, it is im- incorporation of these aspects into student de- portant to present internationalization as…a pro- velopment. Moore, Ingram, and Dhital (1996) cess embedded in all programs and a necessary conducted a study with both agriculture and non- ingredient in everything faculty do…” (p. 79). agriculture students regarding knowledge of in- Faculty abroad experiences prepare faculty to ternational agriculture; they concluded that “fu- share their experiences with students and various ture curriculum internationalizing thrusts should audiences; they provide a means for the discov- give greater attention to world agriculture and ery of multicultural and content-related issues
186 Sandlin, Murphrey, Lindner and Dooley Impacts of a Faculty… that can be incorporated into their curriculum members have no pedagogy or instructional (Dooley & Rouse, 2009). technology training. Traditional teaching meth- In addition to globalizing curricula, Hand, ods (e.g., lecture using the chalk board) are still Ricketts, and Bruening (2007) indicated that prevalent approaches (Borich, 1980; Kirby, faculty abroad experiences are an increasingly Waldvogel, & Overton, 1998; Rocca, 2010), and common option for faculty professional devel- Rocca (2010) found that there are developmental opment. Faculty abroad experiences are de- strides that can be taken with faculty members in signed to “improve professional development both instructional activities and educational and increase international perspectives of facul- technology. Areas for improvement included: ty” (Hand et al., 2007, p. 399). These experi- (a) using alternative teaching methods, (b) creat- ences also provide a means for transnational col- ing and editing digital videos, (c) using interac- laboration and relationship building for research tive teaching tools, (d) using multimedia tools, projects (Dooley, Dooley, & Carranza, 2008). (e) using Internet discussion groups, and (f) uti- While some faculty abroad experiences have lizing video conferencing technology. Profes- been specifically targeted toward new faculty sionals in andragogy advocate experiential learn- members, others have provided opportunities for ing techniques to acquire such knowledge. distinguished faculty members. Knowles (1994), an andragogy professional, Research has been conducted to identify the identified four main principles in knowledge characteristics of distinguished faculty members; acquisition: (a) adults need to be active partici- for the purpose of this study, the following stud- pants in all aspects of their learning activities, ies were used to identify and characterize the (b) experience is the best teacher for adults, (c) participating faculty members. Wilson, Dienst, immediate relevance is the key driving force for and Watson (1973) completed a quantitative an adult’s need to know, and (d) adults are more study on colleague perceptions of effective fac- interested in problem-based education rather ulty members based on five scales: (a) research than traditional, content-based education. activity and recognition, (b) participation in the Faculty members teach and advise students academic community, (c) intellectual breadth, while conducting research and seeking funding (d) relations with students, and (e) concern for for their programs. In addition to these, there teaching. Students were also polled based on are other identified intellectual and personal five components that centered on the faculty characteristics that may impede a faculty mem- member’s teaching and interpersonal relation ber’s participation in professional development skills. Similar studies have been conducted to programs, such as “reluctance and/or active re- identify the characteristics of distinguished fac- sistance to change,” and “feelings of exhaustion ulty (Skelton, 2009; Stephenson, 2001; Subkov- or burnout” (Caffarella & Zinn, 1999, p. 248). iak & Levin, 1974), and a consensus was found, Seldin (2008) discussed the epidemic of “tired” in varying degrees, in exemplary research, faculty, faculty that have lost motivation due to teaching, and service to the university. Skelton redundancy and complacency. He found that, (2009) argued that exemplary teaching also in- among other things, successful institutions teach cludes the educator’s ability to execute educa- faculty new skills, facilitate classroom innova- tional values in the face of adversity, recast ex- tion, stimulate interdisciplinary or team teach- cellence, generate an open culture, and integrate ing, and support faculty exchanges to combat different aspects of academic practice. Regard- complacency and promote classroom and per- less of the definition used to define distinguished sonal invigoration. In combining the aspects of faculty or the characteristics that are associated faculty development needs and adult education, with that definition, concern for developing stu- a seemingly perfect faculty development pro- dents and continuous improvement in teaching gram is an international experience in the form was reported. of a faculty abroad. Excellent teachers are often also excellent Dooley et al. (2008) found that faculty who learners. Participation in professional develop- participated in a faculty abroad experience in ment workshops provides opportunities for re- Mexico believed that transnational collaboration newal and innovation. Most university faculty was much easier, personal relationships make
Journal of Agricultural Education 187 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Sandlin, Murphrey, Lindner and Dooley Impacts of a Faculty… research collaboration and future abroad pro- knowledge gain and their creation of globalized grams less difficult, and a greater sense of ap- course materials allowed for the identification of preciation was gained for diversity and culture strategies for educators to create meaningful, as a result of the international experience. The integrated, and global learning environments so faculty participating in the abroad experience in that agricultural education programs may be Mexico noted that they found “personal growth made more efficient and effective. These strate- and renewal” and “use their international experi- gies will allow educators to create a workforce ences to expand their curriculum through incor- that can address global challenges. porating their own stories and experiences into their lessons” (Dooley & Rouse, 2009, p. 55). Background for the Study and Participants also reported impact of their inter- Theoretical Framework national experience on their research; they were much more open in their funding searches, grant The international experience under investi- writing, collaboration choices, publishing oppor- gation in this study was made possible through a tunities, and efforts to involve graduate students USDA Higher Education Challenge Grant that in international experiences. was awarded to faculty at the University of Flor- Professional development for distinguished ida, the University of Georgia, and Texas A&M faculty that participate in international experi- University. Three faculty abroad experiences ences may also be seen through the use of tech- were funded as a part of this grant and each was nologies and teaching methods that they may not led by a separate university. The purpose of the typically use to prepare a lecture to communi- grant was to allow the participating faculty to cate their experiences with students and peers develop reusable learning objects (RLOs) to in- (Dooley & Rouse, 2009; Gouldthorpe, Harder, ternationalize their undergraduate curricula. An Roberts, & Stedman, 2012). Participants on a open access repository for the RLOs was created faculty abroad program in Ecuador were found and the materials were then added. The purpose to be interested in incorporating their experience of the repository for the RLOs was to allow the into the classroom by creating case studies and material collected to be used by any educator RLOs (Gouldthorpe et al., 2012). By definition, that felt the content was applicable to their in- reusable learning objects (RLOs) are self- struction. contained, digital learning activities that contain The project under investigation purposely a learning objective, media, and an assessment included distinguished faculty who are known (Laverde, Cifuentes, & Rodriguez, 2007; for their contributions to their respective content Gouldthorpe et al., 2012). Media may include area, dedication to their students, and effort to “text, web sites, charts, maps, models, Power- stay current with teaching methods. Faculty par- Point presentations, photos, case studies, simula- ticipants were exposed to their own areas of ex- tions, video clips, and audio clips” (Gouldthorpe pertise and similar experts in Trinidad and To- et al., 2012, p. 18). The use of international ex- bago during their visit. Participants were able to periences to create classroom content provides observe classes, discuss research, participate in many opportunities for faculty members to use field trips, and experience the local culture. new and unique technologies and teaching The theoretical framework for this study was methods. based upon Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model This study supports three research priorities (1984). The notion that university faculty mem- of the National Research Agenda for the Ameri- bers are part of a learning community was an can Association for Agricultural Education (Do- important dimension. Each faculty participant erfert, 2011): “Priority 3: Sufficient Scientific has expertise in a particular discipline, but may and Professional Workforce That Addresses the not personally take the time for reflection and Challenges of the 21st Century” (p. 9); “Priority metacognition within a learning community. An 4: Meaningful, Engaged Learning in All Envi- experiential activity (Lamm et al., 2011) in ronments” (p. 9); and “Priority 5: Efficient and which faculty are provided a structured learning Effective Agricultural Education Programs” experience away from their daily schedule can (p.10). Studying the distinguished faculty’s encourage reflection and metacognition. Faculty
Journal of Agricultural Education 188 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Sandlin, Murphrey, Lindner and Dooley Impacts of a Faculty… participants in the Trinidad and Tobago Faculty the international experience based on differences Abroad Program were provided concrete experi- in pre-reflective and reflective responses. ences with reflective observation in a new and diverse setting. Agricultural field trips and in- Methodology teraction with faculty at a foreign university al- lowed for active experimentation. As a result, The methodology that facilitated this study audio, video, graphic, and textual information was qualitative and utilized the reflection pro- was gathered. After this experience, the faculty cess as an integral part of data collection. Pre- created instructional materials using technology reflection, or preflection, as indicated by Jones to create stand-alone lessons that were contextu- and Bjelland (2004), is the process by which ally and culturally rich to bring back to the class- individuals critically think about an experience room (abstract conceptualization). they are to have, thereby increasing their aware- Knobloch (2003) further described that in ness to the expectations of the experience and authentic learning, disciplined inquiry (i.e., the their ability to critically reflect on the experience engagement in a prior knowledge base through After the experience there occurs a pro- substantive conversation) may be attained cessing phase: this is the area of reflec- through experiential learning techniques. These tion. Reflection is an important human techniques could include “learning in context, activity in which people recapture their learning by doing, learning through projects, and experience, think about it, mull it over learning by using knowledge through solving and evaluate it. Reflection in the con- problems and explaining the knowledge” (p. 30). text of learning is a generic term for The faculty participants were provided the op- those intellectual and affective activities portunity to be engaged with their prior in which individuals engage to explore knowledge base of information from their disci- their experiences in order to lead to pline area; they were also able to learn interna- new understandings and appreciations. tional and cross-cultural aspects of their disci- (Boud, Keogh, & Walker, 1985, p. 19) pline area by engaging with the faculty in Trini- dad and Tobago, working with them on field A qualitative interview protocol was de- trips, and explaining differences in discipline signed to guide the researchers in the collection practices to both faculty and students at Univer- of the perceptions and opinions of distinguished sity of the West Indies, St. Augustine. In turn, faculty regarding their teaching style and tech- faculty were able to learn teaching techniques nology usage. It was used to collect data in the and technology use techniques from University pre-reflection interview, before the faculty par- of the West Indies, St. Augustine faculty and ticipated in the experience, and in the reflection from other participating faculty during the Trin- interview when they returned. The questions idad and Tobago Faculty Abroad Program. This were framed from information found in the liter- variety of observation, experience, reflection, ature review. The interview protocol developed and conceptualization opportunities culminated for this design was based on a semistructured in a rich, experientially-based program for the interview model (Merriam, 2009). This model faculty participants. indicated that there are a guided set of questions and issues to be explored, but the exact wording Purpose and Objectives and the order of the questions were not prede- termined. The interview protocol consisted of The purpose of this study was to gain an un- open-ended questions about reusable learning derstanding of how distinguished faculty inter- objects, teaching, global impact, technology us- preted their knowledge gain during an experien- age, and teamwork. This paper was focused on tially-based faculty abroad program where they the findings related to teaching and technology created globalized course materials in the form usage. Data were compiled into respective do- of reusable learning objects. The research ob- mains and subareas were created as they jective was to identify changes in the partici- emerged from the data. Due to the naturalistic pants’ teaching style and technology use after nature of this study, the researchers were al-
Journal of Agricultural Education 189 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Sandlin, Murphrey, Lindner and Dooley Impacts of a Faculty… lowed to ask follow-up and probing questions to study, the data were analyzed using the constant clarify information that was provided by the par- comparative method. Glaser and Strauss (1967) ticipants; time was allowed for participants to described the constant comparative method in make additional comments in order to record four stages: (a) comparing incidents applicable thoughts each participant viewed as important to each category, (b) integrating categories and that may not have been asked directly. The du- their properties, (c) delimiting the theory, and ration of each interview was dependent on the (d) writing the theory. In accordance with this length and depth of each participant’s responses; theory, we explored the data and discovered in general, the duration was between 45 minutes common themes among the transcriptions. The and 90 minutes. data were unitized into meaningful words and/or The respondents represented a criterion-type phrases. As the units created common ideas and purposive sample. A criterion-type purposive concepts emerged as major themes, they were sample is attained by selecting individuals that categorized and reported as the impacts of the meet an indicated criterion (Patton, 2002). The international experience on the teaching style participants were selected based upon five of the and technology usage of distinguished faculty identified characteristics of distinguished faculty members. identified in the literature: participants utilized The rigor of qualitative inquiry is estab- inquiry-based teaching approaches, were active lished through trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba, participants in their students’ educational en- 1985). Trustworthiness of the findings is creat- deavors, were active researchers, attended work- ed through the concepts of credibility, transfera- shops to become better educators, and were rec- bility, dependability, and confirmability. To ognized as excellent educators by their peers. ensure trustworthiness, credibility was estab- These criterions were documented in each facul- lished through persistent observation, referential ty participant through teaching and advising adequacy, and peer debriefing by the researchers recognition, attendance and participation at con- (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper & Allen, 1993); ferences in their respective fields, involvement transferability was established through the use of in cross-disciplinary research and/or confer- purposive sampling and participant quotes (Er- ences, and reputation with students and faculty. landson et al., 1993); and dependability was es- Participants were initially approached to tablished through the use of a dependability au- participate in the study during one of the partici- dit and a reflexive journal (Erlandson et al., pant pre-departure meetings. All eight individu- 1993). The data were coded before the reporting als were contacted and chose to participate. The process began and the codes were included in pre-reflective interviews were conducted in per- parentheses after their respective quotations in son; field notes were taken by two researchers. an effort to ensure dependability and confirma- In an effort to ensure confidentiality, participants bility as part of an audit trail. were coded as R2-R9. One of the researchers accompanied the faculty participants to Trinidad Results and Tobago. The researcher traveled with the faculty, assisted them with information/media Pre-reflective categories collection, and kept a daily observation and re- flexive journal. Reflective interviews were con- Three themes emerged from the pre- ducted by the researchers one week after the re- reflective question regarding participants’ self- turn of the participants. The researchers con- perceived teaching styles. The themes included ducted a debriefing session following each pre- traditional style, interactive style, and a hybrid reflection and reflection interview to compare style. Half of the respondents acknowledged notes, thoughts, and ideas and verify the accura- that their teaching style was currently centered cy of the original data. Interview notes were in a traditional lecture-type presentation (R2, then combined by the researchers into one work- R3, R4, R8). The respondents indicated that the ing set of data, removing any duplicate notes to course content, many times, dictates what style create a final data set. will be used. “I am basically more of a lecturer To meet the specified objectives of the because most my courses are based on infor-
Journal of Agricultural Education 190 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Sandlin, Murphrey, Lindner and Dooley Impacts of a Faculty… mation delivery. [My style is] traditional, even erPoint, Camtasia, and Adobe to facilitate their though I know it is not the best” (R3). The level course lectures, or even to provide supplemental and maturity of the students is a factor in the instructional materials for difficult tasks. “I teaching style that may be used. “I use lectures have the teaching assistant use Camtasia to with my undergraduates and discussion with my voiceover a computer display to explain how to graduates” (R6). Lack of familiarity and lack of use our lab software” (R4). The incorporation of experience with a course are also reasons that a media (R2, R3, R5, R6, R7, R9), such as audio, more traditional teaching style may be used. video, and pictures, was reported as a popular Respondents expressed that familiarity and ex- option to exemplify a subject matter, and/or pro- perience with a course “helps in the anticipation vide a topic of discussion to a classroom. “My of students’ needs and questions” (R8) and has teaching style is dynamic because I use pictures resulted in “progressively removing text from and videos” (R2). Although it is “hard to create PowerPoint” (R2) and utilizing more interactive your own video” (R3), media can “put things styles of teaching. into context” (R6) for the intended audience. Some participants reported that they were in The use of the Internet (R2, R3, R5, R6, R7, the process of changing to an interactive style of R8, R9) and the available informational websites teaching, a style that is more discussion-based and social media tools was reported as “abso- and allows the students to have a voice and opin- lutely powerful, and engaging students in ions in the course content. Some respondents searching for their questions is powerful” (R8). reported already consistently utilizing it in the Many classes were reported to have individual classroom (R5, R6, R7). Traditional presenta- websites for their students. “Even for a face-to- tion software was reported as leaving “students face class, you need a comprehensive website; it uninspired” (R8). Through the use of discus- is a place for the archival of photos, ePortfolios, sions, “provoking” (R6), and the Socratic Meth- etc.” (R3). Five of the respondents (R2, R5, R6, od, the respondents shared that they are becom- R7, R9) directly mentioned the use of the Inter- ing more creative in the classroom to get the net to tap into social media sites, such as students to process information at a higher level. YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, and Second Life. “I like discussion and I like arguing with my YouTube was reported to be used for its wealth students. It is challenging to the students and to of video clips of movies and television shows, me” (R7). This type of teaching style allows the and instructional and educational videos. Twit- students to “share various views and opinions ter and Facebook were reported to be useful for and receive formative feedback” (R5). the ability to communicate with the students. The third teaching style that emerged was a Second Life was reported to be useful for the hybrid style of teaching (R2-R9). This style was ability to have a virtual classroom and/or virtual identified as a combination of the traditional and experience. The social media aspect of the In- interactive styles and included teaching concepts ternet was shared as being extremely popular such as gaming, activities, and Internet usage for and growing in use, making it an easy means to both educational platforms and media sources. engage students. The responses in this style indicated engagement Another aspect of technology usage shared in a multitude of learning styles in the learning related to distance education platforms and con- process. All of the respondents revealed signs of ferencing techniques, such as learning manage- inclusion of this style and some even indicated a ment systems (i. e., Blackboard and Moodle) dominant migration to this style. “I hope my and Centra. “I have designed and taught web teaching style is for a multitude of learning based or web assisted classes and have routinely styles. I use lecture, collaborative learning, ac- stuck with it” (R3). Six of the respondents (R2, tive learning, reading, writing, kinesthetic, and R3, R4, R5, R7, R8) reported using some type of visual aspects” (R9). distance education platform “to deliver content, Seven themes emerged regarding the partic- turn in papers, return grades,” (R5) “administer ipants’ use of technology in the classroom. Each quizzes, and hold discussions” (R7). of the participants use, or have used, a presenta- Additional technologies that were reported tion software (R2-R9), such as elements of Pow- as being used by respondents included student
Journal of Agricultural Education 191 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Sandlin, Murphrey, Lindner and Dooley Impacts of a Faculty… response clickers (R2, R3, R7), eTextbooks change to address the topic” (R9). Respondent (R5), and, depending on the nature of the course R5 indicated that media will now play a larger being taught, technical lab technologies (R4). role when teaching. “[The experience] will im- Student response clickers were shared as an easy pact my teaching style. I will have more pic- way for professors to get an immediate assess- tures, videos, and audio. Action speaks louder ment of the students’ understanding or opinions than words” (R5). One major theme that on a subject, while providing the students with emerged was that, as a result of this experience, some level of anonymity. “Clickers in the ethics five of the respondents (R2, R4, R6, R7, R8) class were very powerful” (R3). However, they were going to make an effort to make global were reported as not being used regularly by the connections when teaching. “I am always trying respondents because they are “labor intensive to to bring my [international] experiences to my get into the classroom and get set up” (R7). One classes” (R6). Respondent R7 further explained, respondent reported recently moving to an “It will provide students with a different percep- eTextbook this year, and another respondent tion” (R7). Respondent R7 also spoke to mak- shared that they instruct technical labs where ing global connections by showing students the discipline related technologies are used. impact that a policy could have in the United States versus another nation. Global connec- Reflective categories tions were further described by respondent R4 in terms of involving graduate students in research. Once the participants returned from the ex- “A graduate student is interested in mangrove periential international experience, they were forests in Texas; she is now [after we discussed asked if and how the experience had impacted my experience] interested in doing a comparison their teaching style. Four themes emerged: no of biomass research project” (R4). direct change, change in their curriculum con- In review of the responses related to the per- tent, direct change, and study-related global ceived impact of the international experience on connections. Respondents R2, R3, R5, R6, R7, the participants’ technology usage, two themes and R8 indicated that the experience made no emerged. Participants indicated that they will direct change to their teaching style. Respond- more readily use media as context and use media ents R3 elaborated that the international experi- in a more formal and intentional manner. The ence and RLO creation process did not change incorporation of media as context into lessons their teaching style, but their teaching style was was indicated by every respondent. “I keep evident in their RLO materials. “My teaching coming back to the idea of context; video clips style will not be affected, but my teaching style and pictures provide context. [RLOs] bring some is reflected in my RLO” (R3). Although no di- salience, vividness, context, and a frame of ref- rect change may have been made to their teach- erence for the learner” (R6). All of the respond- ing styles, R2, R4, and R7 indicated that the ex- ents were using various media options before the perience made a direct impact on their curricu- international experience, but after the experi- lum content. “I am going to incorporate a new ence, the respondents indicated an intention to section on immigrant issues into my curriculum” use more advanced or a combination of multiple (R6). Respondent R2 stated, “It would be ideal media options in order to provide their students if I could use more RLOs with my [regular] con- with the context of their lessons in Trinidad and tent.” Although the RLOs were found to be Tobago. Respondent R4 interviewed profes- beneficial by the respondents, the role of the sionals in remote sensing, forest ecology, life RLO (as the lesson versus a lesson enhance- sciences, and a graduate student studying life ment) in course content is uncertain. “If I were sciences. He intends to “combine concept slides to use it cold, I don’t know how it would help in with images and the video interviews” to pro- my class. Is it the cake or the icing?” (R6). vide context for the students. Respondent R7 In contrast, respondents R5 and R9 said that communicated that interviews could come from the experience had changed their teaching style. multiple sources and the RLO could contain a “When I try to convey what I learned about in variety of media types (i.e., video, audio, and Trinidad and Tobago, my teaching style will photographs) to engage the students in critical
Journal of Agricultural Education 192 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Sandlin, Murphrey, Lindner and Dooley Impacts of a Faculty… thinking. the remaining six felt that it had not. The partic- The second theme that emerged in response ipants indicated the experience impacted their to technology usage was the idea that the usage curricula content and their desire to make global of their acquired media would be more formal connections in their discipline areas; the faculty and intentional (R2-R9) than the media they members engaged in the four learning styles as used before. Each of the respondents spoke described by Kolb (1984) to process their expe- about sharing their experiences with their classes riences. and how “the students will appreciate that it is Considering the results of the data, it can be something that I experienced” (R2). It was concluded that, although distinguished faculty shared that many times, pictures and videos clips may need training with educational technology that are used in classes are found on websites or (Borich, 1980; Kirby et al., 1998; Rocca, 2010), borrowed from someone else; there is no per- they continue to have a desire to engage the in- sonal experience or passion associated with the creasingly technologically savvy students (Skel- content. “I will be more organized and inten- ton, 2009; Stephenson, 2001). The participants’ tional in the use of the examples. I feel more technology usage in the classroom included comfortable presenting the information to stu- presentation software, media, the Internet and dents because it is a genuine experience” (R5). social media, distance education programs, stu- “The impacts [the RLOs] have will be largely dent assessment clickers, and more technical dictated by the passion I show. Now that I have technologies, such as discipline-dependent la- seen it and been there, it will be better” (R3). boratory technologies and eTextbooks. The very Sharing personal experiences “makes stories nature and expectations of this experientially- come alive; it adds the adrenaline and the color based program had an impact on the technology to the stories” (R6). Respondent R2 elaborated usage of the participants. In an effort to improve that this experience provided “an awareness of global connections, the participants reflected the the [RLO creation] process and what else I could four stages of Kolb’s (1984) experiential learn- gain out of international trips. It will change the ing model as they reported using their acquired way I collect materials when I travel.” media from the international experience to cre- ate context in their lessons (abstract conceptual- Conclusions, Recommendations, ization and active experimentation), and also and Implications using it in a more formal and intentional way as to share their experiences and passions from the Faculty participants engaged in the Trinidad program (concrete experience, reflective obser- and Tobago Faculty Abroad experience were vation, abstract conceptualization, and active asked to describe their teaching style and tech- experimentation). nology usage before the experience. They were Due to the purposive sampling criteria, one observed by a researcher during the experience would expect distinguished faculty to be accom- and when they returned, they were asked to plished in their teaching methods (Wilson et al., identify the impacts the experience made on 1973; Subkoviak & Levin, 1974; Skelton, 2009; both their teaching style and technology usage. Stephenson, 2001) and thus not have a major The participants initially identified themselves change in teaching style. However, the results as having one of three styles: a traditional, lec- of this study indicate that the faculty abroad ex- ture-based style; an interactive, discussion-based perience did cause faculty to reflect about their style; or a combination of the two styles. The teaching (abstract conceptualization; Kolb, faculty that identified with the traditional style 1984). It can be concluded that the Trinidad and acknowledged that this style was not the best, Tobago Faculty Abroad experience, due to the and indicated they were either progressively experiential nature of the program and the dis- changing to a more interactive style, or were tinguished level of the faculty, had an impact on more inclined to use it as a result of the nature of the overall quality of the participants’ curricula the content they deliver. After the international with the inclusion of global dimensions and the experience, two of the participants felt that the quality of technology usage in the classroom. experience impacted their teaching style while It is critical that professional development
Journal of Agricultural Education 193 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Sandlin, Murphrey, Lindner and Dooley Impacts of a Faculty… programs target the needs of specific faculty ence, faculty participants created interactive groups (Bland & Risbey, 2006). As a result of teaching tools and increased their skills in creat- this faculty abroad experience, it is recommend- ing and editing of digital videos, and using mul- ed that distinguished faculty be sought out as a timedia tools. It is suggested that follow-up dis- specific faculty group (Bland & Risbey, 2006) cussions with the international faculty and stu- and included in faculty abroad and similar pro- dents be held using Internet discussion groups grams to rejuvenate and globalize their class- and video conferencing technology to fulfill the room curricula (Dooley et al., 2008; Dooley & last of the five educational technology areas for Rouse, 2009). Distinguished faculty are usually improvement identified by Rocca (2010). Insti- tenured and promoted and thus have different tutions and programs that support activities for demands on their time. This group may also more experienced faculty, such as this faculty resist change (Caffarella & Zinn, 1999) in pro- abroad experience, can generate a positive im- fessional development because it is assumed that pact on the curricula that is being presented to they are already accomplished in teaching and students while simultaneously decreasing faculty research (Skelton, 2009; Stephenson, 2001; complacency. Subkoviak & Levin, 1974; Wilson et al., 1973). Considering the results of this study, there Results of this research revealed that an interna- are implications for agricultural education in the tional experience that is captured using technol- context of the broad area of professional devel- ogy can allow distinguished faculty to use a new opment and curricula development. Professional lens for their content delivery, a global lens. development programs for faculty can be unor- This type of experience also provides partici- thodox and rich in nature, but should also be pants with more meaningful and relevant tech- intentional in their programming. Programs for nology opportunities for their content delivery. the faculty were identified based on their indi- The impact of an international experience on vidual fields of study, networking within their the teaching style and technology usage of dis- fields of study, and interest areas. Thus, indi- tinguished faculty in agriculture has implications viduation of programming efforts is critical to for faculty development techniques and faculty bring about the results articulated in this study. abroad programs. The findings of Seldin (2008) Another implication revealed by one respondent suggested that successful institutions support combined professional development programs faculty exchanges to combat complacency and (or even personal travel) with curricula devel- promote classroom and personal invigoration. opment. One of the respondents expanded on The findings of this study suggested the same in the idea that this experience gave him/her ideas that the faculty participants gained technological as to how to better collect educational content skills, ideas for content delivery in the class- for his/her curricula during travels. Educational room, and were excited about the information content can be gathered in most any context and and context they are now able to provide to their RLOs are merely a method to organize and de- students. The findings of this study also aligned liver a lesson and an experience to others; there with the findings of Dooley et al. (2008) and may be other ways to take advantage of travel Dooley and Rouse (2009) as the faculty were opportunities to incorporate relevant issues into excited to share their experience with their stu- course curricula. dents, and made intra-institutional and interna- This study was limited to the Texas A&M tional connections for future research collabora- University participants engaged in the 2011 tion. In the area of educational technology, the Trinidad and Tobago Faculty Abroad experi- five areas that need to be targeted, as per Rocca ence. Given that this experience was part of a (2010), were: (a) creating and editing digital larger grant project; a comparison of all three videos, (b) using interactive teaching tools, (c) international experiences supported by the grant using multimedia tools, (d) using Internet dis- would be beneficial in order to provide further cussion groups, and (e) utilizing video confer- evidence in regard to impact on teaching style encing technology. As a result of the experi- and technology usage among participants.
Journal of Agricultural Education 194 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Sandlin, Murphrey, Lindner and Dooley Impacts of a Faculty…
References
Acker, D., & Taylor, S. (2000). Globalization of the learning environment: Results of a baseline study of selected indicators of globalization at north central colleges of agriculture. North American Col- leges and Teachers of Agriculture, 44(1), 17-22. Bland, C. J., & Risbey, K. R. (2006). Faculty development programs. Effective Practices for Academic Leaders, 1(7), 1–16. Borich, G. (1980). A needs assessment model for conducting follow-up studies. Journal of Teacher Edu- cation, 31(3), 39-42. doi: 10.1177/002248718003100310 Boud, D., Keogh, R., & Walker, D. (1985). Promoting reflection in learning: A model. In D. Boud, R. Keogh, & D. Walker (Eds.), Reflection: Turning experience into learning (pp. 18-40). New York, NY: Nichols Publishing Company. Caffarella, R. S., & Zinn, L. F. (1999). Professional development for faculty: A conceptual framework of barriers and supports. Innovative Higher Education, 23(4), 241-254. doi: 10.1023/A:1022978806131 Doerfert, D. L. (Ed.). 2011. National Research Agenda: America Association for Agricultural Education’s research priority areas for 2011-2015. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University, Department of Agri- cultural Education and Communications. Retrieved from http://aaaeonline.org/files/research_agenda/AAAE_National_Research_Agenda_(2011-15).pdf Dooley, K. E., Dooley, L. M., & Carranza, G. (2008). Beliefs, barriers, and benefits of a faculty abroad experience in Mexico. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 15(3), 29- 38. Dooley, K. E., & Rouse, L. A. (2009). Longitudinal impacts of a faculty abroad program: 1994-2007. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 16(3), 47-57. Erlandson, D. A., Harris, E. L., Skipper, B. L., & Allen, S. D. (1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry: A guide to methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago, IL: Aldine. Gouldthorpe, J. L., Harder, A. M., Roberts, T. G., & Stedman, N. L. P. (2012). Understanding perceived short-term outcomes from a faculty travel abroad experience in Ecuador. North American Colleg- es and Teachers of Agriculture Journal, 56(3), 17-23. Hand, E., Ricketts, K. G., & Bruening, T. H. (2007). Internationalization of the curriculum through facul- ty professional development. Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Conference, Association for Interna- tional Agricultural and Extension Education, Polson, Montana, 398-399. Retrieved from http://www.aiaee.org/attachments/article/776/398.pdf Jones, L., & Bjelland, D. (2004). International experiential learning in agriculture. Proceedings of the 20th Annual Conference, Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education, Dublin, Ireland, 963-964. Retrieved from http://www.aiaee.org/attachments /article/1052/jones- carousel.pdf Kirby, B. M., Waldvogel, M., & Overton, C. (1998). Instructional technology literacy levels and educa- tional needs of College of Agricultural and Life Sciences (CALS) faculty. Proceedings of the An- nual National Agricultural Education Research Conference, 48, 233-244. Knobloch, N. A. (2003). Is experiential learning authentic? Journal of Agricultural Education, 44(4), 22- 34. doi: 10.5032/jae.2003.04022
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Knowles, M. S. (1994). A history of the adult education movement in the United States. Melbourne, FL: Krieger Publishing. Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Eng- lewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kuh, G. D. (2008). High-impact educational practices: What they are, who has access to them, and why they matter. Association of American Colleges and Universities. Retrieved from http://www.neasc.org/downloads/aacu_high_impact_2008_final.pdf Lamm, A. J., Cannon, K. J., Roberts, T. G., Irani, T. A., Unruh Snyder, L. J., Brendemuhl, J., & Rodri- guez, M. T. (2011). An exploration of reflection: Expression of learning style in an international experiential learning context. Journal of Agricultural Education, 52(3), 122-135. doi: 10.5032/jae.2011.03122 Laverde, A. C., Cifuentes, Y. S., & Rodriguez, H. Y. R. (2007). Toward an instructional design model based on learning objects. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(6), 671-681. doi: 10.1077/s11423-007-9059-0 Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Merriam, S. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Moore, E. A., Ingram, P. D., & Dhital, P. (1996). College of agriculture and non-college of agriculture students’ knowledge about international agriculture and related factors. Journal of Agricultural Education, 37(4), 14-22. doi: 10.5032/jae.1996.04014 NAFSA: Association of International Educators. (2011). Strategic plan 2012-2014. Retrieved from http://www.nafsa.org/_/File/_ /stratplan_12-14.pdf Navarro, M., & Edwards, M. C. (2008). Priorities for undergraduate education and the inclusion of inter- nationalized curriculum in colleges of agriculture: Interpreting the “comparison dilemma”. Jour- nal of Agricultural Education, 49(4), 72-82. doi: 10.5032/jae.2008.04072 Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rocca, S. J. (2010). Determining the professional development needs of faculty in a college of agricul- ture. North American Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture Journal, 54(1), 69-75. Seldin, P. (2008). ‘Tired’ professors can be rejuvenated. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 54(26), A.36-38. Skelton, A. M. (2009). A ‘teaching excellence’ for the times we live in? Teaching in Higher Education, 14(1), 107-112. Stephenson, F. (2001). Extraordinary teachers: The essence of excellent teaching. Kanas City, MO: An- drews McMeel Publishing. Subkoviak, M. J., & Levin, J. R. (1974). Determining the characteristics of the ideal professor: An alter- native approach. Journal of Educational Measurement, 11(4), 269-276. Wilson, R. C., Dienst, E. R., & Watson, N. L. (1973). Characteristics of effective college teachers as per- ceived by their colleagues. Journal of Educational Measurement, 10(1), 31-37. Zhai, L., & Scheer, S. D. (2004). Global perspectives and attitudes toward cultural diversity among sum- mer agriculture students at The Ohio State University. Journal of Agricultural Education, 45(2), 39-51. doi: 10.5032/jae.2004.02039
Journal of Agricultural Education 196 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Sandlin, Murphrey, Lindner and Dooley Impacts of a Faculty…
M’RANDA R. SANDLIN is a Doctoral Candidate in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Educa- tion, and Communications at Texas A&M University, 600 John Kimbrough Blvd., Rm. 235, 2116 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, [email protected]
THERESA PESL MURPHREY is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications at Texas A&M University, 600 John Kimbrough Blvd., Rm. 236, 2116 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, [email protected]
JAMES R. LINDNER is a Professor in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Com- munications at Texas A&M University, 600 John Kimbrough Blvd., Rm. 234, 2116 TAMU, College Sta- tion, TX 77843, [email protected]
KIM E. DOOLEY is a Professor and the Associate Dean for Academic Operations in the College of Agri- culture and Life Sciences at Texas A&M University, 600 John Kimbrough Blvd., Ste. 515, 2116 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, [email protected]
Note: This project was supported by Higher Education Challenge Grant no. 00561696 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture.
Journal of Agricultural Education 197 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 198 – 208 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03198 o u r The Effect of Vee Maps and Laboratory Reports on High- n a and Low-Order Content–Knowledge Achievement in l
Agriscience Education o f Andrew C. Thoron Eric D. Rubenstein A University of Florida g Abstract r i Instruction in the laboratory is essential to the success of a total agricultural education program. The c development of students’ critical thinking, argumentation skills, technical skills, reasoning ability, and u engagement are all found within the agriscience laboratory. Yet, utilizing the laboratory setting to its l maximum potential is challenging for the instructor. The development of sound research-based assess- t ment tools that enhance high-order thinking and are easily incorporated are needed in secondary u agriscience education. This quasi-experimental study investigated the effect of two formative assessment r tools on student high- and low-order content knowledge achievement. The Vee map was compared to the a standard laboratory report in six different secondary schools across the state of Illinois. Utilizing student l pretest score as a covariate, there was a statistically significant difference between groups on the high- order thinking posttest. Further, the study indicated that nine weeks later students who utilized the Vee E map retained more low- and high-order knowledge than those who utilized the standard laboratory re- d port. This study recommends the use of the Vee map as an effective formative assessment tool that should u be utilized in agriscience education. c
a Keywords: Inquiry-Based Instruction; Vee Maps; Science Achievement; Laboratory Instruction; Assess- ment t i According to The Nation’s Report Card Currently, most science laboratories are iso- o (NCES, 2011), 68% of eleventh grade students lated from classroom instruction (NRC, 2006). n scored below the proficient level when adminis- In America’s Lab Report (2006), the NRC ar- V tered the National Assessment of Education gued that laboratory experiences and assessment o Progress science assessment. The National Re- of those experiences increase students’ critical l search Council (NRC) (2000) posited that thinking, argumentation skills, technical skills, u hands-on laboratory activities should be incorpo- reasoning ability, and engagement. Each of m rated in the science curriculum to increase stu- these abilities can be increased by integrating e dent skill and content knowledge in science. laboratory activities with other science teaching Because agriculture is considered a science methods. Further, laboratory experiences must 5 (Thoron & Myers, 2010a), and because an es- emphasize the student–learning outcomes rather 1 sential component of science education is the than the procedures (NRC, 2006). The science , inclusion of laboratory exercises (NRC, 2000; skills that are developed can be enhanced and NRC, 2006; Roth, 1990), then laboratory in- transferred to new content areas. N struction is necessary for a quality agricultural Teachers struggle to assess student–learning u education program (Baker, Thoron, Myers, & outcomes during laboratory exercises (Roth, m Cody, 2008). Therefore, it could be purported 1990). Teachers indicated that assessments of b that agricultural education could help to increase student learning in laboratory exercises take an e science achievement through the integration of excessive amount of time to complete (Le- r laboratory instruction and assessment. bowitz, 1998; Thoron, Swindle, & Myers, 1 ,
198 p p .
Thoron and Rubenstein The Effect of Vee Maps…
2008). Moreover, agriscience teachers struggle dents to comprehend adequately the science with assessing student learning during laboratory within the agriculture curriculum (Phipps et. al, investigations. Consequently teachers “end up 2008). Laboratory settings should be integrated reducing or even omitting lab performance when in instructional units that are learner-centered, they determine students’ grades” (Phipps, Os- knowledge-centered, assessed through the pro- borne, Dyer, & Ball, 2008, p 346). motion of learning, and community-centered Teachers should consider using proven as- (NRC, 2006). sessments when evaluating laboratory experi- A review of literature revealed little research ences. A variety of assessments can be used: that examines the use of laboratory activities in concept maps, Vee maps, portfolios, written lab agricultural education. However, previous re- reports, or science fair projects (Phipps et al., search stated that the use of Vee maps in agricul- 2008; Warner & Myers, 2006). Further, forma- tural education classes as a substitute for tradi- tive assessments could be developed to increase tional laboratory reports increased science con- student performance and scientific knowledge. tent knowledge (Thoron & Myers, 2010b; Tho- The NRC (2000) described a change in not only ron, Swindle, & Myers, 2008). Thoron and My- assessing in the laboratory, but also a need for ers (2011) found that the success of a Vee map greater frequency in the utilization of the labora- is not influenced by a student’s gender, ethnici- tory. The teaching method that brings laborato- ty, or grade level. Moreover, the time commit- ry investigations and formative assessment to- ted to grading a Vee map is between 10 and 15 gether is inquiry-based instruction (Thoron, minutes, reducing the overall time teachers must 2010). commit to evaluating laboratory assessments Thoron and Myers (2011) reported that stu- (Thoron & Myers, 2010b; Thoron, Swindle, & dents taught through inquiry-based instruction Myers, 2008). Thoron, Swindle, and Myers achieved higher content knowledge scores when (2008) presented anecdotal findings that students compared to students taught through the subject participating in the study favored being assessed matter approach. In addition to greater content by a Vee map over a traditional laboratory re- knowledge scores, students have also been re- port. Thoron and Myers (2010b) found Vee ported to increase argumentation and scientific maps to be a successful assessment tool in la- reasoning skills when taught through inquiry- boratory settings. However, further investigation based instruction (Thoron, 2010). Further, in- is needed of the Vee map as a formal assessment quiry-based instruction has been found to be an of laboratory exercises (Thoron & Myers, effective teaching strategy for special needs stu- 2010b; Thoron & Myers, 2011; Thoron, Swin- dents (Easterly & Myers, 2011; Scruggs, dle, & Myers, 2008). Mastropieri, Bakken, & Brigham, 1993). How- The NRC (2006) argued that an assessment ever, inquiry-based instruction requires teacher during laboratory instruction must increase the preparation when being utilized as a teaching quality of a student’s thinking and provide doc- strategy (Easterly & Myers, 2011; Grady, Dolan, umentation for the teacher to view student pro- & Glasson, 2010; Shoulders & Myers, 2011; gress. The NRC (2000) reported that when as- Thoron & Myers, 2011; Thoron & Myers, 2012; sessing inquiry-based instruction, assessment Thoron, Myers, & Abrams, 2011; Washburn & techniques should incorporate a broader perspec- Myers, 2010). tive and gather higher ordered evidence that is Parr and Edwards (2004) stated that the use embedded within inquiry-based lessons. In- of inquiry-based learning opportunities that in- quiry-based instruction enhances high-order corporate hands-on, active, and concrete experi- thinking skills, because students are required to ences increased student achievement in agricul- utilize the top three levels of Bloom’s (1956) tural education. Therefore, laboratory exercises taxonomy (synthesize, analyze, and evaluate) should incorporate activities that promote active (Lebowitz, 1998). Further, students have been student interaction with real-life situations that found to develop higher order thinking when allow students to gather data and develop skills their assessment incorporated graphic organizers (NRC, 2006; Phipps et. al, 2008). Furthermore, (Ivie, 1998; Thoron & Myers, 2010b). There- laboratory exercises should be utilized for stu- fore, Vee maps should be examined as a form of
Journal of Agricultural Education 199 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Thoron and Rubenstein The Effect of Vee Maps… assessment for inquiry-based instruction in the This study incorporated Ausubel’s (1963a) laboratory setting. Vee maps could aid in devel- work through the use of the Gowin’s (1979) Vee oping high-order thinking skills when enhanced map. The Vee map is a tool specially designed through the use of inquiry-based instruction. to develop the scientific thinking skills of the Studies have found that both inquiry-based learners (Gowin, 1979). Furthermore, the Vee instruction (Thoron, 2010) and the Vee map map quantifies student experience through the have significantly increased student science con- use of graphic organizers and forces organiza- tent knowledge when compared to subject mat- tion of information into an integrated system to ter and a standard laboratory report respectively better incorporate empirical data to form sound (Thoron & Myers, 2010b). Ivie (1998) argued conclusions and recommendations. A full de- that high-order thinking skills assist in construct- scription of the Vee map is beyond the scope of ing schemas that are retained longer. The Na- this paper, for further understanding of the Vee tional Research Agenda (Doerfert, 2011) called map in detail please refer to Thoron and Myers for research that evaluated the assessment of (2010b). learning environments to prepare students to become productive citizens. Therefore, this Purpose and Objectives study aimed to utilize the Vee map and a stand- ard laboratory report as a formative assessment The purpose of this study was to determine tool in coordination with inquiry-based instruc- the effect of two formative assessment tools on tion to determine the effects on student low- and student low- and high-order thinking (Bloom, high-order thinking. 1956) through a researcher–developed assess- ment. Low- and high-order thinking is defined Theoretical Framework as students’ performance on the researcher– developed assessment. All null hypotheses were Ausubel’s (1963a) assimilation theory of tested at the .05 level of significance. The spe- meaningful learning acted as a guide for this cific objectives guiding the study were to: study. First, Ausubel (1960) believed that the 1. Ascertain the effects of the Vee map on learner has prior knowledge and utilizes this low-order content knowledge thinking knowledge to influence meaningful learning. skills of high school agriscience students Ausubel emphasized that learners must build a following (posttest) laboratory investi- new cognitive structure in the acquisition of new gation on an assessment. information. Ausubel (1963b) argued that learn- The null hypothesis, Ho: There is no signifi- ers need to reflect three distinct criteria to create cant difference in student low-order thinking on meaningful learning and exhibit high-order a posttest based on the formative assessment tool thinking: 1) utilize abstract structures; 2) organ- used (laboratory reports or Vee Map lab assess- ize information into an integrated system; and 3) ments) during laboratory instruction, when apply sound rules and logic. taught through inquiry-based instruction. Further, Ausubel (1963a) advocated for 2. Ascertain the effects of the Vee map on the use of advance organizers to develop mean- low-order content knowledge thinking ingful learning and extend high-order thinking to skills of high school agriscience students other contexts. Ausubel stated that organizers nine weeks following (post-posttest) la- are not simple introductory remarks or over- boratory investigation on an assessment. views of the learning in context. Finally, Au- The null hypothesis, H1: There is no signifi- subel (1960) contended this organizational struc- cant difference in student low-order thinking on ture will facilitate “relevant subsuming con- a post-posttest based on the formative assess- cepts” (p. 267). Ivie (1998) stated that using ment tool used (laboratory reports or Vee Map advance organizers that encourage students to lab assessments) during laboratory instruction, operate at higher levels of abstraction will when taught through inquiry-based instruction. strengthen cognitive structures and learners will 3. Ascertain the effects of the Vee map on retain information longer. high-order content knowledge thinking skills of high school agriscience students
Journal of Agricultural Education 200 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Thoron and Rubenstein The Effect of Vee Maps…
following (posttest) laboratory investi- cal Applications in Agricultural Education or gation on an assessment. the Vee map created by Gowin (1979). Both The null hypothesis, H2: There is no signifi- groups were taught the same material in an in- cant difference in student high-order thinking on quiry-based instructional approach. The de- a posttest based on the formative assessment tool pendent variable in this study was high- and used (laboratory reports or Vee Map lab assess- low-order thinking skills (Bloom, 1956) through ments) during laboratory instruction, when student content knowledge assessments. Co- taught through inquiry-based instruction. variates were used to adjust group means in or- 4. Ascertain the effects of the Vee map on der to compensate for previous knowledge in the high-order content knowledge thinking subject matter. These covariate measures in- skills of high school agriscience students cluded a pretest for the unit of instruction. This nine weeks following (post-posttest) la- study utilized a quasi-experimental design be- boratory investigation on an assessment. cause of the purposefully selected instructors to The null hypothesis, H3: There is no signifi- deliver content. Students within intact groups cant difference in student high-order thinking on were randomly assigned a Vee map or a stand- a post-posttest based on the formative assess- ard laboratory report (Campbell & Stanley, ment tool used (laboratory reports or Vee Map 1963). lab assessments) during laboratory instruction, Campbell and Stanley (1963) noted regres- when taught through inquiry-based instruction. sion as a concern but explained that the risk of regression during a pretest-posttest procedure Methods can be minimized if learners are not selected on extreme scores. To address this concern the Population and Sample formative assessment was randomly assigned to the learner. The greatest threat of interaction in The population of this quasi-experimental, this design type is that the differences found in pre, post, post-post design study was composed the posttest and post-posttest are due to preexist- of learners at six Illinois high schools offering ing group differences, rather than due to the agriscience education (N = 154) Each partici- treatment (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996). The use of pating high school agriscience program was re- multiple sites in this study reduced the risk of quired to have received professional develop- interaction of subjects, and the use of covariates ment in the curriculum materials, teaching of content–knowledge achievement pretest methodology (Inquiry-based instruction), web- scores were used to statistically adjust the means based assessment tracker, and the formative as- on the posttest and post-posttest. Further, ques- sessment tool utilized during the investigation. tions on the pre, post, and post-post tests were Upon meeting these criteria, schools were pur- randomized to address the interaction concern. posefully selected on the ability to deliver con- Learners in the agriscience classrooms were tent and facilities to enable online assessments. all taught through inquiry-based instruction. Learners were randomly selected to receive the Thoron and Myers (2011) found that students formative treatment (Vee map or laboratory re- taught through inquiry-based instruction outper- port). Researchers determined (Thoron & My- formed their counterparts when taught through ers, 2010) a priori that the intervention was not this method. Learners completed the pretest as- fully administered if a student missed 25% or sessment for the content that followed over the more of instructional time. next fifteen days of classroom and laboratory instruction. Each learner completed a posttest Research Design immediately following the instruction, followed by a post-posttest nine weeks later. The independent variable in this study was the formative assessment used during laboratory Unit of Instruction Plans instruction of the agricultural education classes. Treatment groups utilized a laboratory report Content selection was based on the units of outlined by Osborne (1994) in his text Biologi- instruction and the curriculum maps of the pro-
Journal of Agricultural Education 201 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Thoron and Rubenstein The Effect of Vee Maps… grams participating in the study. The content Fidelity of treatment and context of the lessons were deemed appro- priate for an earlier study conducted by Thoron Audio recordings of class sessions were ana- (2010) and were utilized unaltered for the pur- lyzed to ensure delivery of the content, per the poses of this study. The study utilized National recommendations of Boone (1988). Profession- Agriscience Content Standards and lessons al development was also delivered to the instruc- adapted to inquiry-based instruction from the tors through a one-day professional development Center for Agricultural and Environmental Re- workshop. Teachers were provided lesson search and Training, Inc. (CAERT). plans, handouts, assessment instruments, work- sheets, and supplemental items so they could Instrumentation effectively deliver the treatment. Findings This study utilized pre and posttest for the unit of instruction based on work by Thoron The results addressed the objectives and hy- (2010). Thoron (2010) reported a reliability co- potheses of the study in determining the influ- efficient for the content–knowledge achievement ence of inquiry-based instruction and the Vee instrument using Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR20) map, as an assessment tool, on students’ high- for dichotomous data at the coefficient alpha of and low-order thinking. The sample included .91. The questions on the pretest, posttest, and 154 students from six Illinois high schools. A post-posttest were given in a randomized order. total of 23 students were removed from the The posttest followed the pretest 15 instructional study due to absences above the 25% threshold days (21 calendar days) after instruction began. previously set by the researchers. This reduced The post-posttest followed the posttest 9 weeks the sample to 131 students. The Vee-Map (63 calendar days) after completion of instruc- treatment group had slightly more students (n = tion. 70) due to the number of students in the selected classes (See Table 1).
Table 1
Treatment Group Participant Totals, Six Illinois High School Agriscience Programs (n=131)
Treatment Groups n (students) Vee-Map 70 Laboratory Report 61 Total 131
The majority of the participants in the study (71.4%). A majority of participants were in the were male (61.8%), not eligible for free and re- tenth grade of high school (88.5%), followed by duced lunch (75.7%), and were not identified eleventh grade (24.3%) (See Table 2). with an Individual Education Plan (IEP)
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Table 2
Demographics of the Treatment Groups & Total Study of Six Illinois High School Agriscience Pro- grams (n = 131)
Vee-Map Laboratory Re- Total (n =70) port (n = 131) (n = 61) n % n % n % Gender Male 47 67.1 34 55.7 81 61.8 Female 23 32.9 27 44.3 50 38.2 SES Eligibility Eligible 17 24.3 20 32.8 37 28.2 Not Eligible 53 75.7 41 67.2 94 71.8 IEP Identified IEP 20 28.6 13 21.3 33 25.2 No IEP 50 71.4 48 78.7 98 74.8 Grade Level 10th Grade 63 90.0 53 86.9 116 88.5 11th Grade 7 10.0 8 13.1 15 11.5 Note. Each student self-identified gender and grade level.
A pretest that included high- and low-order that each treatment group was balanced and to questions was administered to each participant measure students’ prior knowledge of the sub- prior to the onset of instruction. Pretest data ject material. Based on the results of the pretest, were collected from 131 participants to ensure the groups were deemed similar (See Table 3).
Table 3
Participant Mean Pretest Scores of Six Illinois High School Agriscience Programs (n = 131)
Vee-Map Laboratory Total (n = 70) Report (n = 61) (n = 131) Instrument M SD M SD M SD High-Order Questions 29.73 8.75 30.95 10.41 30.30 9.54 Low-Order Questions 36.09 9.00 37.43 10.93 36.71 9.93
High- and low-order questions were includ- The first objective sought to determine the ed on a posttest and post-posttest administered to effect that the treatment had on the students’ participants. The post-posttest was administered high-order thinking skills on a posttest assess- nine weeks after the completion of the study. A ment. The analysis of the data for this objective covariate analysis technique was utilized to ana- was guided by the null hypothesis that there is lyze the data. The pretest score was used as the no significant difference in students’ high-order covariate to control for knowledge gained prior content knowledge skills following laboratory to the treatment. Correlational statistics were instruction. When examining high-order ques- conducted but are not reported in the manu- tions on the posttest, Vee map students reported script. a mean score of 83.03 (SD = 10.01) and tradi-
Journal of Agricultural Education 203 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Thoron and Rubenstein The Effect of Vee Maps… tional lab report students reported a posttest =.04 (See Table 4). A statistically significant score of 78.28 (SD = 12.06). The difference in difference was found due to the treatment effect, posttest scores of high-order questions was sta- thus the null hypothesis was rejected. 2 tistically significant, F(1, 127) = 6.10, p = .015, r
Table 4
Participant High-Order Mean Posttest Scores of Six Illinois High School Agriscience Programs (n = 131)
Vee-Map Laboratory Re- Total (n = 70) port (n = 61) (n = 131) Instrument M SD M SD M SD Posttest 83.03 10.01 78.28 12.06 80.82 11.22 2 Note: F(1, 127) = 6.10, p = .015, r =.04.
The second objective sought to determine students were 76.56 (SD = 10.17) and the con- the effect that the treatment had on the students trol group reported a mean score of 56.84 (SD = high-order thinking skills on a post-posttest as- 13.27). The difference in post-posttest scores of sessment. The analysis of the data for this ob- high-order questions was statistically significant, 2 jective was guided by the null hypothesis that F(1, 127) = 90.72, p = <.001, r =.42 (See Table 5). there is no significant difference in students’ A statistically significant difference was found high-order content knowledge skills nine weeks due to the treatment effect, thus the null hypoth- following laboratory instruction. The post- esis was rejected. posttest high-order question scores of Vee Map
Table 5
Participant High-Order Mean Post-posttest Scores of Six Illinois High School Agriscience Programs (n = 131)
Vee-Map Laboratory Total (n = 70) Report (n = 61) (n = 131) Instrument M SD M SD M SD Post-posttest 76.56 10.17 56.84 13.27 67.37 15.29 2 Note: F(1, 127) = 90.72, p = <.001, r =.42.
The third objective sought to determine the test mean score of 78.36 (SD = 12.74). The dif- effect that the treatment had on the students’ ference in posttest scores of low-order questions low-order thinking skills on a posttest assess- was not statistically significant, F(1, 127) = 2.62, p ment. The analysis of the data for this objective = .11, r2 =.04 (See Table 6). No statistically was guided by the null hypothesis that there is significant differences were found in the posttest no significant difference in students’ low-order assessment scores, thus the null hypothesis content knowledge skills following laboratory failed to be rejected. instruction. When examining low-order ques- tions on the posttest, Vee map students reported a mean score of 82.07 (SD = 12.11) and tradi- tional laboratory report students reported a post-
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Table 6
Participant Low-Order Mean Posttest and Post-posttest Scores of Six Illinois High School Agriscience Programs (n = 131)
Vee-Map Laboratory Total (n = 70) Report (n = 61) (n = 131) Instrument M SD M SD M SD Posttest 82.07 12.11 78.36 12.74 80.34 12.50 2 Note: F(1, 127) = 2.62, p = .11, r =.04.
The fourth objective sought to determine the students reported a mean score of 76.16 (SD = effect that the treatment had on the students low- 10.01) while traditional laboratory report stu- order thinking skills on a post-posttest assess- dents reported a post-posttest score of 64.93 (SD ment. The analysis of the data for this objective = 11.77). A statistically significant difference was guided by the null hypothesis that there is was found between post-posttest scores on low- 2 no significant difference in students’ low-order order question, F(1, 127) =29.28, p = <.001, r = content knowledge skills nine weeks following .19 (See Table 7). A statistically significant dif- laboratory instruction. When examining low- ference was found due to the treatment effect, order questions on the post-posttest, Vee Map thus the null hypothesis was rejected.
Table 7
Participant Low-Order Mean Post-posttest Scores of Six Illinois High School Agriscience Programs (n = 131) Vee-Map Laboratory Total (n = 70) Report (n = 61) (n = 131) Instrument M SD M SD M SD Post-posttest 76.16 11.62 64.93 11.77 70.93 12.93 2 Note: F(1, 127) =29.28, p = <.001, r = .19.
Conclusions Discussion and Implications
Based on the findings of this study the fol- This study presented findings which indicat- lowing conclusions can be made: ed that the Vee map is a more effective assess- 1. When coupled with inquiry-based in- ment tool that leads to higher student achieve- struction, the Vee map is a more effec- ment in the agriscience classroom. These results tive formative assessment tool when are consistent with the findings of Thoron and compared to the standard laboratory re- Myers (2010b). Ivie (1998) stated that high- port based on Bloom’s (1956) high- order thinking skills are enhanced through the order thinking; use of graphic organizers as a formative assess- 2. When coupled with inquiry-based in- ment tool. The graphic component of the Vee struction, the Vee map is a more effec- map aids in the development of student thinking tive formative assessment tool when skills. compared to the standard laboratory re- The findings suggest that the utilization of port based on student retention of formative assessment enhances student content knowledge. knowledge through agriscience laboratories.
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This study supports the argument made by the finding that the Vee map was more effective in NRC (2006) that laboratory experiences and as- developing high-order thinking skills the Vee sessment increases students’ critical thinking map should be considered as an effective forma- and technical skills. Warner and Myers (2006) tive assessment in preparation of student devel- presented the Vee map as an assessment tool opment of such skills; (b) teacher educators that could be utilized in the laboratory setting. should provide professional development on the This study provides empirical data that support effective use of Vee maps and other graphic or- the use of Vee maps as a formative assessment ganizers to be used during laboratory instruction tool in laboratory settings. to help students attain high-order thinking; (c) The findings of this study support Ausubel’s further investigations of the Vee map as a (1963a) belief that meaningful learning is indi- formative and summative assessment tool in var- vidually constructed by the learner and enhanced ious settings and contexts in the agricultural ed- through the use of graphic organizers. The utili- ucation profession should be examined to de- zation of the Vee map as a formative assessment termine the effectiveness across learning styles, tool allows the learner to receive feedback grade levels, and ability levels; and (d) continue (formative) from their instructor to create mean- to investigate, through quasi-experimental re- ingful learning. The feedback provided by the search, teaching methodologies and assessment instructor incorporated Ausubel’s three distinct tools that develop empirical evidence for use in criteria of 1) utilizing an abstract structure (la- the agriscience classroom and laboratory. boratories incorporating inquiry-based instruc- Based on the findings of this study, two rec- tion); 2) organize information into an integrated ommendations were made for practitioners of system (Vee map); and 3) apply sound rules and agriscience education: (a) laboratory investiga- logic (assessment). tions that incorporate the Vee map enhances stu- dent high-order thinking skills on a standardized Recommendations assessment; and (b) inquiry-based instruction and Vee maps when utilized together can lead to Based on the findings of this study, four meaningful learning for students as they create recommendations were made for teacher educa- their own graphic organizer to help them con- tors and curriculum developers in secondary ceptualize information. school agriscience education: (a) based on the
References
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Doerfert, D. L. (Ed.) (2011). National research agenda: American Association for Agricultural Educa- tion’s research priority areas for 2011-2015. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University, Department of Agricultural Education and Communications. Easterly III, G. R., & Myers, B. E. (2011). Inquiry-based instruction for students with special needs in school based agricultural education. Journal of Agricultural Education, 52(2), 36-46. doi:10.5032/jae.2011.02058 Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational research: An introduction. White Plains, NY: Longman. Gowin, D. B. (1979). The structure of knowledge. Educational Theory, 20(4), 319–328. Grady, J. R., Dolan, E. L., & Glasson, G. E. (2010). Agriscience student engagement in scientific inquiry: Representations of scientific processes and nature of science. Journal of Agricultural Education, 51(4), 10-19. doi:10.5032/jae.2010.04010 Ivie, S. D. (1998). Ausubel’s learning theory: An approach to teaching higher order thinking skills. (edu- cational psychologist David Paul Ausubel). High School Journal, 82(1), 35-44. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40364708 Lebowitz, S. J. (1998). Use of Vee maps in a college science laboratory. Paper presented at the 1998 an- nual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, San Diego, CA. National Center for Educational Statistics, U.S. Department of Education. (2011). The Nation’s Report Card: Science 2011. Retrieved from http://nationsreportcard.gov/science_2011/g8_nat.asp?tab_id=tab2&subtab_id=Tab_1# National Research Council. (2000). Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards: A guide for teaching and learning. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. National Research Council. (2006). America’s lab report: Investigations in high school science. Washing- ton, DC: National Academies Press. Osborne, E. W. (1994). Biological science applications in agriculture. Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers. Parr, B., & Edwards, M. C. (2004). Inquiry-based instruction in secondary agricultural education: Prob- lem-solving – an old friend revisited. Journal of Agricultural Education, 45(4), 106-117. doi:10.5032/jae.2004.04106 Phipps, L. J., Osborne, E. W., Dyer, J. A., & Ball A. L. (2008). Handbook on agricultural education in public schools. (7th ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar. Roth, W. M. (1990). Map your way to a better lab. The Science Teacher, 57(4), 30–34. Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., Bakken, J. P., & Brigham, F. J. (1993). Reading versus doing: The relative effects of textbook–based and inquiry–oriented approaches to science learning in special education classrooms. The Journal of Special Education, 27(1), 1–15. doi:10.1177/002246699302700101 Shoulders, C. W., & Myers, B. E. (2011). An analysis of national agriscience teacher ambassadors’ stages of concern regarding inquiry-based instruction. Journal of Agricultural Education, 52(2), 58-70. doi:10.5032/jae.2011.02058 Thoron, A. C. (2010). Effects of inquiry-based agriscience instruction on student argumentation skills, scientific reasoning, and student achievement (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0041468/thoron_a.pdf
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Thoron, A. C., & Myers, B. E. (2010a). Perceptions of preservice teachers toward integrating science into school-based agricultural education curriculum. Journal of Agricultural Education, 51(2), 70-80. doi:10.5032/jae.2010.02070 Thoron, A. C., & Myers, B. E. (2010b). The effect of using vee maps verses standard laboratory reports on achieving content knowledge. Journal of Agricultural Education, 51(3), 12-22. doi:10.5032/jae.2010.03012 Thoron, A. C., & Myers, B. E. (2011). Effect of inquiry-based agriscience instruction on student achievement. Journal of Agricultural Education, 52(4), 175-187. doi:10.5032/jae.2011.04175 Thoron, A. C., & Myers, B. E. (2012). Effect of inquiry-based agriscience instruction and subject matter- based instruction on student argumentation skills. Journal of Agricultural Education, 53(2), 58- 69. doi:10.5032/jae.2011.04175 Thoron, A. C., Myers, B. E., & Abrams, K. (2011). Inquiry-based instruction: How is it utilized, accepted, and assessed in schools with national agriscience teacher ambassadors? Journal of Agricultural Education, 52(1), 96-106. doi:10.5032/jae.2011.01096 Thoron, A. C., Swindle, M. A., & Myers, B. E. (2008). Vee map and standard laboratory reports impact on content knowledge achievement. Proceedings of the 2008 AAAE Research Conference, 1209– 1212. Warner, W. J., & Myers, B. E. (2006). Evaluating learning in laboratory settings. Retrieved from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/WC/WC06000.pdf Washburn, S. G., & Myers, B. E. (2010). Agriculture teacher perceptions of preparation to integrate sci- ence and their current use of inquiry based learning. Journal of Agricultural Education, 51(1), 88- 98. doi:10.5032/jae.2010.01088
ANDREW C. THORON is an Assistant Professor of Agricultural Education in the Department of Agri- cultural Education and Communication at the University of Florida, 307C Rolfs Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611, [email protected]
ERIC D. RUBENSTEIN is a Graduate Student of Agricultural Education in the Department of Agricul- tural Education and Communication at the University of Florida, 310 Rolfs Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611, [email protected]
Journal of Agricultural Education 208 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 209 – 223 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03209 o u Embracing Alter-Identities: Socio-Cultural Development for r n Graduate Education a l Bryan J. Hains o Jonathan Tubbs f Stacy K. Vincent A University of Kentucky g r Abstract i c This qualitative case study examines one faculty member’s approach toward instilling culturally immer- u sive experiences into graduate curriculum. Participants completed course assignments designed to en- l hance their multicultural understanding and competence. Course assignments culminated in an immer- t sive experience where students embodied an alter-identity representative of a culture, sub-culture, or u r group either foreign to the student or opposite themselves. Results indicated that the designed cultural a immersion did assist students in transitioning their cultural knowledge from a basic understanding to a l greater cultural competence. E Keywords: culture, identity, graduate education d u The cultural gap between teachers and stu- Additionally, the extent to which secondary ag- c dents in secondary education is vast (Sleeter, riculture teachers’ incorporated cultural diversity a 2001). While this is true for all public educa- was often limited. Within the same study, he t tion, it is particularly relevant for agricultural established the means by which teachers were i o education. In fact, Schmitt and Bender identi- prepared to work with culturally diverse stu- n fied a professional cultural gap as early as 1971. dents. Only 33% of participants reported having V In their article, Teacher Preparation for the Cul- multicultural education integrated into multiple o turally Different, they proposed eight premises university courses. The remaining two-thirds l for which teacher education programs could pre- professed having one course or one in-service u pare future teachers to better serve minority workshop focusing on multicultural education. m populations. Their proposal stipulated teacher Results from Luft’s (1996) study begged the e education institutions provide unique experienc- question, “How effective were the pre- es, activities and preparation for teachers of mi- service/in-service programs at providing multi- 5 nority populations (Schmitt & Bender, 1971). cultural understanding and culturally relevant 1 , Yet, in the four decades since, agricultural edu- pedagogy for future educators?” Luft’s results cation has continued to be a relatively homoge- provide a foundation for Brown’s (2005) asser- N nous profession (Luft, 1996; Sleeter, 2001; tion that often times, individuals who complete a u Webster & Hoover, 2006). stand-alone cultural diversity course leave un- m Researchers in agricultural education have changed; many have their cultural stereotypes b examined diversity issues within the profession and perceptions reinforced. e for decades (Alston, English, Graham, Wake- Warren and Alston (2007) examined agricul- r field & Farbotko, 2010; Jones, & Bowen, 1998; tural educators’ perceptions of cultural under- 1 Talbert & Larke, 1995; Woods, 2004). Several standing and student inclusion in North Caroli- , sought to determine the extent to which cultural na. Study participants confirmed, secondary p diversity was addressed at both the secondary agricultural educators should strengthen rela- p and post-secondary level. Luft (1996) examined tionships with all students by gaining an under- . this topic with secondary educators in Nevada. standing of their respective cultures and learning Luft found agriculture teachers made little effort styles. Respondents also agreed that student 1 to recruit minority students into their programs. diversity broadens the perspectives of teachers 1
– 209 2 1 D O Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities… and students alike and viewed multicultural edu- professional identities. Brown (2005) affirms cation training as a possible solution to increase that it is important for educators to gain an un- student inclusion within the classroom. Multi- derstanding of factors that shape their moral and cultural education is defined as a process of pre- ethical belief systems prior to examining their paring teachers for social, political, economic relationship with other cultures. Therefore, re- certainties they will encounter within a culturally searchers used Chickering’s (1969) theory of diverse society (Warren & Alston, 2007). Re- identity development as a basis for the study. sults from Warren and Alston’s (2007) study Chickering (1969) proposed seven vectors of support Luft’s (1996) claim that agriculture identity development, intertwining such social teachers are not adequately prepared to teach cognitive factors as intellectual and interpersonal diverse audiences, maintaining teachers can do competence, emotional regulation, cultural toler- much better at meeting the needs of diverse stu- ance, individual purpose and integrity; key char- dents within their current schools. acteristics associated with multicultural devel- It is evident that agriculture teachers need opment (Banks, 2008; Chickering, 1969; Chick- multicultural exposure and culturally relevant ering & Reisser, 1993; Evans, Forney, & Guido- training to be effective in culturally pluralistic DiBrito, 1998). It is important to note that classrooms reflective of our diverse society Chickering’s vectors are not sequential in nature; (Woods, 2004). This includes embracing broad- rather they intertwine with one another at vari- er definitions of diversity. Within this study we ous developmental stages. Chickering’s (1969) incorporated Talbert and Edwin’s (2008) asser- work focused extensively on post-secondary tion that embracing broader definitions of diver- student identity development, specifically the sity moves teachers past mere knowledge of cul- time frame between late adolescence (ages 18- tural variety and into the realm of application, 24) and early adulthood (ages 22-34), making it valuing students of different gender, ethnicity, germane to this study. religion, lifestyle, and sexual orientation (Talbert The second theory focused specifically on & Edwin, 2008). Once teachers understand and multicultural development, particularly the pro- embrace diverse students they must be able to cess of understanding and interacting with di- adapt their pedagogy to meet student needs. verse cultures. Helms (1990) posited that as in- This includes the ability to recognize cultural dividuals interact with diverse cultures, they ne- transitions and adapt teaching practices to reach gotiate a five-step process, known as Helms’ broader audiences (Talbert & Edwin, 2008). (1990) Racial Identity Model. She speculated Teacher educators can offer pre-service and that an individual’s first encounter with race be- in-service students opportunities to expand their gins with a lack of knowledge and understand- multicultural scope as well as pedagogical appli- ing, resulting in issues of color-blindness, or dis- cation by challenging them with creative and regard for racial intricacies. They then exhibit engaging immersive experiences (Webster & bouts of defensiveness, denial, and contradiction Hoover, 2006). To become culturally compe- as a result of personal beliefs being challenged tent, pre-service and in-service teachers must not by concrete experiences. It is not until, what only be exposed to different cultures, but also Helms (1995) identified as the pseudo- immersed into cultural life, gaining a deep un- independence stage, that an individual has a de- derstanding of cultural practice and meaning fining experience that brings prior naïve behav- (Brown, 2005). These experiences are needed to iors to light. Once pseudo-independence has address the increasingly diverse and constantly been achieved, the individual reflects, sets per- changing demographics of the student popula- sonal goals, and redefines their personal beliefs tion (Banks, 2008; Brown, 2004, Webster & and attitudes (Helms, 1990). While Chicker- Hoover, 2006; Woods, 2004). ing’s (1969) vectors intertwine with one another during multiple stages, Helms (1995) process is Conceptual Framework quite sequential. As both theories directly inform graduate Two developmental theories inform this student cultural and identity development, it was study. The first relates to teachers personal and imperative that a conceptual model be developed
Journal of Agricultural Education 210 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities… that crosswalks the primary tenets of both pro- cesses. See Figure 1.
Figure 1. Model for Cultural Identity Development and Practice
The Model for Cultural Identity Develop- titled, Developing Intercultural Understanding, ment and Practice is a conceptual representation cultivate a basic understanding of cultures within of both individual student identity and cultural society (Helms, 1995). This knowledge is de- development processes. However, analogous to rived from individual perception and is suscepti- both foundational theoretical models, it is com- ble to embedded bias and social conditioning. plex. The developmental stages Exposure, Im- The phase titled, Recognizing Cultural Inde- mersion, and Emersion are intended to be linear pendence and/or Interdependence, includes stu- in nature; similar to Helms’ (1990) model. dents recognizing their own unique culture and However, the sub-phases within each stage are the characteristics that define them (Chickering not successive; rather individuals travel within & Reisser, 1993). Concurrently, the individual and between each phase at different rates, allow- recognizes the interconnection between them- ing both self and others to be discovered simul- selves and other cultures. The third phase, De- taneously (Chickering & Reisser, 1993; Damon veloping Intercultural Relations, depicts stu- & Hart, 1982). dents seeking out relationships with those differ- Exposure. The first developmental stage, ent from them (Helms, 1995). However, em- Exposure, encompasses pre-service and in- bedded bias and social conditioning often hin- service educators who have limited exposure to ders students as they develop these relationships. one or more diverse populations. As students Lastly, students learn to Manage their Emotions, are introduced to diverse populations, they nego- as they interact with diverse cultures (Chickering tiate between four experiential phases in no par- & Reisser, 1993). Within this phase, students ticular order. Students experiencing the phase identify and manage their own emotions as well
Journal of Agricultural Education 211 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities… as develop empathy toward the cultures they Finally, educators Develop Intercultural Pur- seek to understand. It is important to note that pose as they evaluate their purpose in relation to while most students experience some aspect of cultural inclusion and interaction. The devel- cultural awareness, they may never progress to- opmental model is intended to allow educators ward becoming culturally competent (Spring, to “emerge” from their experience with and en- 2007). hanced cultural efficacy. This model is meant to Cultural Immersion. Researchers recom- be re-entered, at various stages and phases, as an mend pre-service and in-service educators be individual encounters new cultures. immersed in cultural settings to enhance their cultural development (Banks, 2008; Chizhik & Purpose/Objectives Chizhik, 2005; Wiest, 1998). However, the rec- ommended length of the experience is being de- Researchers in education recommend stu- bated and is often dependent upon the individu- dents be immersed into diverse cultures to deep- al’s prior experiences (Ishii, Gilbride, & en their multicultural understanding, empathy, Stensrud, 2009; Nieto, 2006). Throughout the and educational practice (Banks, 2008; Talbert cultural immersion stage, students utilize their & Edwin, 2008). This qualitative case study basic cultural knowledge as they become im- examined one faculty member’s approach to- mersed into one or more cultures, enhancing ward instilling culturally immersive experiences their cultural competence. As students experi- into an advanced teaching methods graduate ence more and more cultural nuances they often course. The case study was framed using the begin to think and react as part of the chosen research question, “How do students, participat- culture (Nieto, 2006). ing in a graduate level advanced teaching meth- It is imperative to understand that the overall ods course, respond to course assignments de- quality of the immersive experience may be dic- rived from the Model for Cultural Identity De- tated by both the student’s openness to the ex- velopment and Practice?” In order to better ex- plored culture and their perceived intensity of plore the proposed question, researchers’ exam- each cultural experience. In other words, stu- ined the educational process and its influence on dent embedded cultural bias could lead to nega- student multicultural competence. Lastly, re- tive experiences. Conversely, negative reactions searchers examined the personal and profession- from the identified culture can also influence the al impact of the experience one year after com- immersive experience. The experience could be pletion. the catalyst to propel an individual into the cul- turally competent phase, or send students back to Methods and Procedures the cultural awareness phase (Banks, 2008; Brown, 2005). Therefore, it is critical that stu- Research Context dents engage in quality immersive experiences, This qualitative case study examined one that are both challenging yet educational. faculty member’s approach toward infusing cul- Emersion. The final developmental stage, turally based practices into an advanced teaching Cultural Competence, includes pre-service and methods graduate course. More specifically, the in-service students who embraced or had a posi- instructor/researcher, co-researcher and graduate tive immersive experience and moved beyond a research assistant examined a six-phase educa- basic understanding of cultural awareness (Sue, tional process titled Cognitive Cultural Compe- 2001). Within this stage, students experience tency (CCC), derived from the Model for Cul- three sub-phases both individually and simulta- tural Identity Development and Practice. The neously. As students traverse the phase titled, CCC process was an attempt to infuse the cul- Developing Intercultural Integrity, they transi- tural model into educational practice. tion from a rigid understanding of culture and begin incorporating others’ interests. They may Cognitive Cultural Competency Process also begin to Re-establish their Identity. Within (CCC). As part of the course, students were this phase the individual becomes comfortable given several assignments informed by the re- with themselves both intra and interpersonally. searchers conceptual model. While educational
Journal of Agricultural Education 212 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities… researchers’ suggested students be fully im- alter-identities within a broad context, allowing mersed into a cultural setting for an extended for individual ownership of the experience. period of time (Brown, 2005); it is understood Alter-identity research. Next, students that several barriers exist when implementing were given four weeks to research their selected this process at the post-secondary level. Some role. Students were given time to examine the of these barriers include course scheduling, stu- cultural nuances of their chosen roles in an at- dent credit hours and courses covering multiple tempt to accurately portray their new identity. student learning objectives. Therefore, the CCC They accomplished this task by conducting per- was infused within established course assign- sonal interviews; shadowing individuals who ments. The primary purpose was to assist in- embodied their identity of interest; reviewing service professionals and graduate students in literature pertinent to their new identity and so- transitioning from a basic cultural understanding cial observation. to implementing culturally competent pedagogy. Alter-identity development. Lastly, stu- Assignments were designed to scaffold student dents enacted their alter-identity in a social set- multicultural development using the Model for ting of their choice. This “practice” phase lim- Cultural Identity Development and Practice. ited one’s tendency to proliferate cultural stereo- The six-phase CCC process is outlined below: types as they obtained feedback within a chosen environment. Furthermore, this step allowed Identity Confirmation And students to become more comfortable with their Cultural Exposure alter-identity, enhancing their identity transfor- mation. Understanding of self. Educators must first Cultural immersion. Once students ob- understand themselves before they can begin to tained a clear understanding of their new identity understand others, and more importantly their and had practiced embodying their new role, relationship with others (Chickering, 2008; Ev- they were immersed into a public mall setting. ans, Forney, & Guido-DiBrito, 1998). The first The mall was chosen as it allows students to in- cultural assignment included reflective questions teract with diverse cultures across the communi- that assisted in defining one’s identity (i.e. citi- ty. For two hours, students personified a cultural zenship, culture, race, class, religion, sexual ori- identity that was either foreign or opposite their entation) as it relates to societal norms, self and own. As part of their assignment students were others. This assignment lasted two weeks and encouraged not to break character when interact- allowed students to identify and reflect on im- ing with others, and embrace the cultural interac- bedded biases. Finally, students presented their tion associated with the public setting. The reflections to the professor and each other using length of the immersive experience is much de- a media of their choice. bated (Ishii, Gilbride, & Stensrud, 2009; Nieto, Alter-identity selection. Students were 2006), therefore, the two-hour time frame was challenged to create an alter-identity once they chosen as it fit within the time constraints of the clearly articulated their individual identity and course. embedded biases. Identifying ones embedded Reflection. Immediately following the im- cultural bias was critical as it provided a rubric mersion, students gathered with the instruc- for alter-identity development. For example, a tor/researcher to orally reflect on their experi- student may have religious values that promote ence and re-establish their personal identity. modesty and valuing of the human body. This This reflection period, lasting an hour and a half, individual may choose a social subculture that is allowed students to reflect on their experience identified by tattoos, piercings, and revealing and compare their stories with their peers. It clothing to serve as their alter-identity. Alter- also allowed the instructor/researcher the oppor- identities represented a culture, sub-culture, or tunity to interact informally with his students, group of people that was either foreign to the enhancing his understanding of their process student or opposed tenets of their true identity. experience. Finally, a written reflection was due It is important to note that students selected their one week after the experience, allowing for deeper analysis.
Journal of Agricultural Education 213 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities…
sociated with multicultural education and diver- Research Design sity awareness. The coding analyst used holistic coding as a While the research incorporated a graduate first cycle technique. Saldaña (2009) described level advanced teaching methods course, the holistic coding as method of coding which looks primary unit of analysis was the individual grad- at a set of data and records or grasps emerging uate student. Therefore, a layered case study and basic themes based upon the entire selection analysis was deemed most appropriate (Gall, as a whole; holistic coding does not transcribe Gall & Borg, 2003). Layered case studies are line by line. small individual cases (individual graduate stu- Next, the coding analyst used developmental dents) that provide insight and/or explain the stages and sub-phases associated with the Model larger case (all student responses to the CCC) for Cultural Identity Development and Practice (Patton, 2002). as a rubric to categorize first cycle themes, com- Eight students within an Advanced Teaching pleting the second cycle analysis. The coding Methods in Career and Technical Education analyst triangulated first cycle and second cycle course participated in the study. All participants data from such sources as 1) student journals 2) received prior academic training in one of three instructor’s journal 3) course assignments and 4) areas: agricultural education, extension educa- post experience phone interviews; confirming tion, or leadership education. Six participants thematic categories associated with the Model were practicing professionals; two were full time for Cultural Identity Development and Practice. graduate students. Participants were studied Participant quotes, representing thematic catego- over a 15-week spring semester. ries, were referenced back to student participants as a form of member checking; establishing Data Collection and Analysis credibility (Patton, 2002). Finally, the analyst met with their co-researchers, who were partici- Students maintained course journals pant observers throughout the study, to further throughout the CCC process. Within their jour- clarify and discuss both first and second cycle nals students were asked by the instructor to re- codes, enhancing the comfirmability of the data. flect on each phase. Additionally, non-formal conversations with both the instructor and stu- Limitations to the study dents were documented in an instructor journal. Furthermore, course assignments associated with This study represented eight participant re- the CCC were collected for analysis. Upon sponses toward a culturally based educational course completion, data were collectively gath- process. One primary limitation includes the ered for analysis. Finally, a co-researcher inter- students’ ability to choose their alter-identity. viewed study participants, by phone, after a year While students are encouraged to stretch their had passed to examine the long-term impact of cultural capacity during this process, they may the process. Phone interviews were recorded and choose roles that are familiar to them or even transcribed for analysis. support established biases. Another limitation Data analysis consisted of both first cycle may include the time frame students were given (open) and second cycle (axial) coding tech- to embrace their alter-identity. Yet, the research niques (Patton, 2002). One member of the re- surrounding time for immersion is still inconclu- search team, trained in qualitative analysis, cod- sive. Additionally, the length of experience is ed student data. The analyst was chosen based often dependent on the intensity of the individu- on their limited exposure to the educational pro- al experience. Moreover, the CCC is tied to a cess and research design; this was purposeful as course grade; students may embellish their expe- it assisted in reducing bias associated with par- rience if they perceived it would enhance their ticipant observation and/or course instruction. grade. Furthermore, results only pertain to the Additionally, the analyst had a substantial inter- participant’s chosen alter-identity and cannot be est and background in researching processes as- generalized to other cultures or subcultures. Lastly, while the analysts substantiated back-
Journal of Agricultural Education 214 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities… ground in multicultural education and diversity cultural educational process. The following re- was viewed as a strength during the coding pro- sults are presented using the participant’s voice. cess, his passion toward the topic could have It is important to note that the presented quotes influenced the coding process. This was coun- are representative of a larger data set categorized tered through member checking and peer de- by the CCC process. In some cases, thematic briefing. categories, identified within each stage, are pre- sented as subheadings. In order to maintain ano- Results and Findings nymity, all students are identified by their alter- identity (Table 1). Researchers’ sought to evaluate graduate Table 1 student responses toward a faculty developed
Student alter-identities Autistic Adult Abusive Wife
Victorian Goth Goth
Pregnant Teenager Lesbian
Homeless person Adult with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Understanding of Self first time, the assignment highlighted cultural bias and/or unfamiliarity; “Being a little bit of Researchers’ emphasize the importance for an extrovert, I enjoy meeting with people and students to understand themselves before they socializing. I don’t know what it would be like comprehend their relationship with others to not be able to communicate with others” (Au- (Chickering, 2008; Evans, Forney, & Guido- tistic Adult). This was also the case with the stu- DiBrito, 1998). The first CCC assignment dent who embraced a gothic identity, “I’m usual- prompted students to clarify their adult identity ly a very happy person that likes to smile, I love and examine their relationship with others, set- bright colors, and I’m pretty plain. I don’t nor- ting a foundation for their cultural journey. This mally like to stand out or do things that draw self-identifying process allowed students to in- attention to myself” (Victorian Goth). During an ternally reflect on personal morals, ethics and informal discussion she stated that she had never embedded biases. thought about what it was like to live what she The following outlines student responses to considered to be a “darker” lifestyle. the self-identification process. This process best represents the sub-phase Recognizing Cultural Pre-determined bias: Religious base. Independence and/or Interdependence within the Model for Cultural Identity Development and Other students were openly able to Practice as students began to recognize their acknowledge their cultural biases, leading the unique culture and characteristics that define researchers to believe there had been prior re- them. flection regarding cultural dealings. Many stu- dents credited their religious beliefs as a catalyst Cultural bias: Initial recognition. for their cultural viewpoints, “As a devout Cath- olic, I am opposed to homosexual relationships While all students were able to sufficiently and don’t understand their choices.” (Lesbian). articulate their adult identities, a few used the “I have grown up with a grounded family life assignment as a first step toward examining their and the Christian belief. Therefore, among the relationships with others. In fact, as if for the many morals instilled in me is saving sex for
Journal of Agricultural Education 215 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities… marriage” (Pregnant Teenager). “I am also a de- ize that many folks do not view sexual relation- voted Christian who teaches the teen Sunday ships the same way, I am hoping for some hate- school class… Stating this, I know that it is ful glances or concerned looks because without wrong to be judgmental towards others no mat- these reactions I will fear that teen pregnancies ter what the reason” (Homeless Person). During have become an accepted norm in our society.” the self-identification process, most students It was interesting to find that each student chose identified their family, friends and/or church as his or her role for completely different reasons. having great influence on their cultural percep- The Autistic student used the opportunity to en- tions. These entities helped shape their moral hance his professional aptitude and student rela- and ethical values. However, upon entering their tions. Yet, the Abusive Wife chose her role to profession, they interacted with individuals who gain deeper insight into her family. Finally, the often challenged their personal values. This was Pregnant Teenager chose her role in hopes of specifically the case of the Homeless person confirming her moral and ethical beliefs. These who identified himself as a Christian, yet admit- examples highlight the sub-phase Developing tedly passed judgment on the homeless popula- Intercultural Understanding, as students varied tion. regarding their basic understanding of cultures within society. Alter-identity Selection Alter-identity Research Individual motivation. Once students were able to articulate their identity, they were asked Next, students were encouraged to research to choose an alter-identity representing a culture, their newly established identities. The methods sub-culture, or group of people that was either by which they researched their roles also varied foreign to the student or opposed tenets of their from individual to individual. true identity. One participant chose to explore an alter-identity associated with autism as he had Social observation and individual discus- difficulty relating to an autistic student he had in sion. Several students honed their alter- his classroom, “I want to gather the view point identities by observing cultures within a natural of what it is like for autistic individuals to focus setting, “I have taken a two-fold approach, one and live out their day to day lives” (Autistic being observation and discussion and two being Adult). Another student expressed difficulty un- the study of autism on a small scale” (Autistic derstanding family members who were either Adult). One student did not have to externally seen as verbally abusive or verbally abused, “I observe her identity as many of her family don’t understand how people can have complete members exhibited characteristics of her chosen disregard for the feelings of others… I would identity, “In order to prepare for this role, I have like to see what that really must be like” (Abu- watched my peers, family and continued to read” sive Wife). However, there was hesitation to- (Abusive Wife). Others requested interviews ward immersion into subcultures: with cultural members, “I went to the (county) I’ve never really had sympathy for County Health Department and spoke with a Goths when they complain about the ste- health educator who deals with pregnant teens” reotypes they receive and the looks and (Pregnant Teenager). “We [participant and an comments because I feel like they bring open lesbian] met to break the ice and get to it upon themselves…. I was not the least know each other better. We talked a lot about bit excited about this activity. I was con- our background … and aligned our date night” fused and most of all, worried that I (Lesbian). could not pull off someone who was not Literary research. Others used written me. (Victorian Goth) sources such as internet sites, books and pam- In direct contrast, the student who per- phlets to become culturally informed. “To re- sonified the Pregnant Teenager hoped the expe- search for this role, I spent quite a bit of time on- rience would solidify her moral beliefs and ex- line. I looked up informational sites…as well as pectations through social reaction, “While I real- sites specific to religious tolerance and the Goth
Journal of Agricultural Education 216 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities… lifestyle” (Victorian Goth). “In preparation for cult social communication could be for autistic the social role play night, I have read articles individuals. from medical research journals, as well as publi- Other students found it difficult to embrace cations from the International OCD Foundation their new identity even in a familiar social set- to learn more about the condition” (Obsessive ting such as church: Compulsive Disorder). I tried to practice maintaining a solemn Within the course, students were given attitude on the Sunday afternoon before latitude regarding research development. This the role play. It was fairly easy for me allowed students to tailor their research toward to do when I was home alone, but I their alter-identity. It also allowed them to ex- wasn’t very good at keeping it up plore multiple social perspectives, establishing a around people at church. It just didn’t more comprehensive understanding of their al- come natural for me. (Victorian Goth) ter-identity. Variance in student research mirrors Participants who committed to practic- the sub-phase Developing Intercultural Rela- ing their alter-identity professed frustration, ex- tions, as students sought out relationships with pressing emotions associated with identity tran- or observed cultural groups different from them- sition and social reactions toward their alter- selves. identity. Student emotions exemplified the sub- phase Developing Intercultural Understanding Alter-identity Development and Managing Emotions within the Model for Cultural Identity Development and Practice. The continuum of comfort. Once students adequately researched their roles and were con- Cultural Immersion fident in their cultural knowledge, they began to enact their alter-identity in a setting of their Once students had a clear understanding choice. Students who were more comfortable of their new identity, had researched their role with their alter-identity pilot-tested their role, and had practiced their identity, they were im- experiencing cultural immersion for the first mersed into a public mall setting. time. The Goth student’s cultural eyes opened as she saw firsthand how members of society Emotional reactions to public perception. perceived her newly formed identity: The immersion experience struck an emotional When I finally got out of the car, the chord with student participants. Specifically, it salesmen who were huddled outside the was the lack of social interaction that seemed to building like vultures nodded to each disturb the Autistic Adult, “Tonight was intense. other and started laughing hysterically For an hour I did not have a person say a single as they turned away… I wish now that I word to me. I got a lot of stares and glances, but had pranced back through the mechan- zero interaction from the public.” The Goth stu- ics’ bay and into the customer service dent also professed being angry, as she per- department to glare one last time at the ceived discrepancies associated with the way the inconsiderate, closed-minded men who public interacted with social subgroups, “It was worked in ‘customer service’, but were surprising to me how blatant people were with hesitant to wait on me. me. People will turn their heads to abusive The Autistic Adult also perceived a differ- spouses or homosexuals, but look at a Goth ence in social communication when enacting his chick like she does not deserve to live. Why? I new identity, “At the checkout counter it was do not understand.” one word responses to the point it made the cashier uncomfortable and although she wanted Amplified social perception. Many stu- to carry on a conversation, she was unsure how dents professed feelings of being socially evalu- to do so.” While the cashier may not have identi- ated or judged. And while all students enacted fied the student as autistic, his limited communi- their roles prior to the mall, the larger public cation assisted him in understanding how diffi- setting seemed to enhance feelings of social scrutiny, “Those high class ladies kept an eye on
Journal of Agricultural Education 217 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities… me; I assume for shoplifting” (Pregnant Teenag- their course readings. Analysis revealed three er). This was also the case with the student por- developmental themes. traying a Homeless individual, “There was a Social discrimination. As part of their re- period where the parking security drove by, cir- flection students acknowledged a deeper under- cled around back in front of me, stopped to look, standing of covert social discrimination and its and then continued on.” The perception of social impact on individuals with limited social skills: scrutiny seemed to enhance student understand- Incredible, how we discriminate ing of being different, however, it may also have unwittingly, those who are different. I been a catalyst for individual cultural assump- do not know if the individuals in stores tions associated with “high class ladies” and and kiosks who decided not to help me “teenage shoplifting”. However, one student were purposeful in their ignoring me, was cognizant that her chosen role was the rea- but it gave me a very isolated and lonely son for heightened public perception: feeling that was uncomfortable for me The mindset that you take on with ob- … I can never fully comprehend his [au- sessive compulsive disorder almost in- tistic student’s] reality, but I do realize creases your sensory perception … I now where the anxiousness and discom- found myself more aware of what peo- fort come for him… The knowledge I ple were doing, wondering if they were have gained from this allows me to form watching me and if I was really noticea- better ways to communicate with people ble at all. (Obsessive Compulsive Disor- of all ability. (Autistic Adult) der) This was also true of social identities. One In direct contrast, the Victorian Goth student student began to understand the complexities of found members of society to have greater toler- individual identity. She was also able to experi- ance for socially diverse identities, “I was sur- ence first hand social reactions associated with prised when I walked by an older woman and the general unfamiliarity of Goth identity in so- she asked me if I liked the dress she was looking ciety. at. I really didn’t think anyone would ask me for We really should be more open-minded my opinion on style, seeing as how I was to others’ individuality and not so quick dressed a little out of the norm” (Victorian to judge. I’ve also come to realize that a Goth). person’s outward appearance may be a The public immersion assignment sur- reflection of how they feel inside, so prised students, both positively and negatively, maybe what the person needs is not as they evaluated public perception. Several stu- judgment, but rather compassion and dents experienced an array of emotions while understanding. (Victorian Goth) enacting their alter-identity, supporting the sub- Cultural empathy. In addition to social phase Managing Emotions. Moreover, one stu- perception, students began to gain a deeper ap- dent affirmed very few differences in social per- preciation of social groups associated with their ception, “One woman looked us up and alter-identities: down…we had a lot of interesting conversations At the end of the experience, I felt ex- on our date which was great” (Lesbian). This hausted, both mentally and physically. I example later led students to pose the questions, do not understand how people with “Do behaviors differ between heterosexual and OCD can carry on with normal, every- homosexual couples in a public setting?” day activities and deal with their obses- sions… It makes it even harder to imag- Reflection ine how students with OCD can manage to focus and do well in school without After the immersion experience students re- some kind of help. (Obsessive Compul- flected on their experience for one week. This sive Disorder) allowed for a metacognitive process in which The Homeless Person viewed the experience participants aligned their experiences with their as a first step toward remitting his bias toward initial personal identities and biases as well as homeless people, “I have definitely seen a per-
Journal of Agricultural Education 218 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities… spective that is not common for most people and irritated with people because they did have hopefully created an experience that will not do things the way that I would. help ease initial communication between some- Similarly, the student with Obsessive Com- one who appears homeless or of lower income in pulsive Disorder addressed the general comfort- the future.” ableness associated with ones identity and taking it for granted: Professional enhancement. Others viewed the You often don’t realize what you have experience as an opportunity to enhance their or how much you have until you try to professional skills. Especially those pertaining to experience things from another person’s social populations challenging their moral and shoes. I think we often take things for ethical values, “Experiences like the role play, granted and assume that we know what and the research done prior to that night, will people feel … but you can’t ever really only help broaden my way of thinking when pre- know unless you experience the same senting information, counseling, and advising” kinds of situations as they do. You have (Pregnant Teenager). to go to that next level. After a week of reflection, students seemed Many students viewed their experience to value their immersive experience. Most stu- with the CCC as being a catalyst for enhancing dents Developed Intercultural Integrity as they their cultural competence. However, two stu- transitioned from a rigid understanding of cul- dents conveyed limited cultural growth, “Per- ture (self-identification) and began to incorpo- sonally, I have not had intense social or profes- rate the interests of others. Moreover, students sional contact with a GLBT person since the Re-established their Identity as they became lesbian “date”]. While I have nothing against comfortable with themselves both intra and in- gay people, I just don’t have much social contact terpersonally. Finally, participants Developed with them” (Lesbian). Relatedly, the Pregnant Intercultural Purpose as they examined their Teenager perceived the CCC as a method to purpose in relation to cultural inclusion and in- broaden her cultural exposure, but professed dif- teraction. ficulty in embracing her role: The idea of seeing and living a different Participant Reflections: A Year Later viewpoint was a great way to think out- side the box and offer new perspective Results indicated participants generally val- on situations. I will admit that it was ued the CCC educational experience shortly af- very difficult to break through the awk- ter its completion. However, researchers fol- wardness of the assignment and really lowed up with the participants to see if they con- act the part to truly gain the beneficial tinued to value the experience after a year had effects that the project had to offer. passed. During a follow up interview, partici- Results indicated some students allowed pants were asked two questions. The first ques- their internal bias and/or inability to embrace the tion, “After a year of reflection, do you find last assignment limited their experience. Their lack year’s cultural immersion experience to be bene- of buy-in or strong imbedded bias kept them in a ficial?” received several positive responses. The state of Cultural Exposure and Awareness, rather Autistic Adult spoke of his challenges toward than motivating them to continue onto Cultural understanding individuals and students who Emergence and Competence. were not like him: The second question, “Did the experience Yes, one of the biggest professional influence your personal and professional life?” struggles I had up till the course was un- provoked a wide array of responses. The Home- derstanding people's decision making. I less Person indicated the process enhanced his had a firm belief that most everybody ability to provide quality educational program- was like me, thought like me and most ming for people from all socio-economic back- importantly learned as I did. Personally, grounds: I had never placed myself in other peo- It has definitely helped me to not be ples positions and would genuinely be judgmental or quick to assume things
Journal of Agricultural Education 219 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities…
when seeing people that are in a tough Conclusions/Recommendations/Implications position. Conducting programming within the public school allows me to All students enhanced their understanding of work with kids from all different finan- their chosen culture. While there was variance cial and personal backgrounds. It has in cultural development, participants who com- helped me not overlook those that seem mitted to the CCC process seemed to move be- less financially supported. yond basic cultural knowledge and proceeded to Others viewed the process as setting a foun- the realm of application (Talbert & Edwin, dation for their professional practice, “I try to be 2008). Not only did these students deepen their more accepting of others and less quick to judge. cultural knowledge but often-professed feelings I haven't got to put this into action yet, but I of cultural empathy. Furthermore, participants would like to think that I will be accepting of expressed a need to adapt their educational prac- Goth in my future profession” (Goth). In con- tice to better suit individual needs (Banks, 2008; trast, the experience not only helped the Abusive Brown, 2004, Webster & Hoover, 2006; Woods, Wife relate to coworkers, it enhanced her rela- 2004). tionship with her husband: Results indicated the CCC, informed by This experience influenced my personal the Model for Cultural Identity Development life in that my now husband and I had and Practice, varied in its application toward some eye opening experiences to what developing student cultural competency. In fact, could have been. I do think the fact that a few students retracted to the Exposure – Cul- we both reflected on the experience very tural Awareness stage as a result of the experi- deeply impacted us beyond the actual ence. While not every student progressed to the experience. One of the issues in mine Culturally Competent stage, most exhibited was having an emotionally abusive fam- characteristics associated with its’ sub-phases. ily and how to control emotions enough The researchers’ believe this is due to the CCC’s so that I do not become that in the future scaffolded process. out of habit. I do think that if others Student results both support and challenge would consider these experiences they Brown’s (2005) assertion that individuals who too could connect to those people in complete a stand-alone cultural development their workplace of a different gender, course may leave unchanged, or with stereotypes even sexual orientation. being reinforced. The process was intertwined After a year to reflect, student responses within an Advanced Teaching Methods of Ca- ranged from strictly professional to quite per- reer and Technical Education course; showcas- sonal. Their development aligned with several ing that culturally based assignments can be im- aspects of the Model for Cultural Identity De- plemented within a particular course. Overall, velopment and Practice. While some students students who committed to the experience were still developing Intercultural Relationships seemed to enhance their cultural development (Goth), others were Developing Intercultural challenging Brown’s assertion. However, a few Integrity (Abusive Wife). Finally, it is important participants chose identities that seemed to to note that even those who professed strong deepen their cultural bias. One individual held imbedded bias toward their alter-identity (Lesbi- true to her own identity so much that it seemed an) professed attitudinal change, “I have more of to hinder the individual’s development. an attitude that how people live their lives is The results from this study are limited to its their own business. I think people cannot participants and the alter-identities they chose. choose their sexual preference, so you can’t ex- While most participants enhanced their cultural pect them to change just to conform to societal awareness and/or competence regarding their norms” (Lesbian). experience, it is important to note that cultural understanding may not transfer to other cultures. Therefore, it is recommended that the CCC pro- cess be replicated with other agricultural educa- tion in-service and pre-service teachers and be
Journal of Agricultural Education 220 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Hains, Tubbs, and Vincent Embracing Alter-Identities… tested in various cultural venues. It is further process. It is therefore recommended that facul- recommended that the Model for Cultural Identi- ty experience the process themselves, prior to ty Development and Practice and correlating their course implementation. Additionally, fac- Cognitive Cultural Competency educational pro- ulty should pre-flect with participating students cess be further examined regarding its applica- about the process prior to their experience. tion of cultural development within agricultural Upon implementation, it is recommended education. that the focus remain on the six-phase CCC pro- Researchers caution that there are ethnic cess itself rather than the developmental out- limitations associated with the CCC. The pro- come. Participants in this study varied in their cess is limited in its application toward ethnic commitment to the process and maturity toward and racial diversity as a student may not be able cultural diversity. By focusing on the process, to alter their skin pigment to portray an alternate students are able to better understand each race effectively. Therefore, it is recommended phase, allowing them to replicate the process that social diversity be looked at as a means for with other cultural groups in the future. In doing immersion in addition to ethnic diversity. As so, pre-service and in-service teachers will have was evidenced, social diversity played a large the tools needed to enhance their cultural com- role with participants in this study. petence in multiple cultural settings. Instructors wanting to implement the CCC may be hesitant due to limited exposure to the
References
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Helms, J. E. (1995). An update of Helms’s white and people of color racial identity models. In J. G. Pon- terotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counsel- ing (pp. 181-198). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Helms, J. E. (1990). Toward a model of white racial identity development. In J. E. Helms (Ed.), Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 49-66). New York: Greenwood Press. Ishii, H., Gilbride, D. D., & Stensrud, R. (2009). Students’ internal reactions to a one-week cultural im- mersion trip: A qualitative analysis of student journals. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 31(1), 15-28. Jones, K. R., & Bowen, B. E. (1998). Influence of student and school factors on African American en- rollment in agricultural science courses. Journal of Agricultural Education, 39(2), 39-49. doi: 10.5032/jae.1998.02019 Luft, V. D. (1996). Extent to which cultural diversity is addressed in secondary agricultural education. Journal of Agricultural Education, 37(3), 67-75. doi:10.5032/jae.1996.03067 Nieto, J. (2006). The cultural plunge: Cultural immersion as a means of promoting selfawareness and cul- tural sensitivity among student teachers. Teacher Education Quarterly, 33(1), 75-84. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods. (3 ed., pp. 447-452). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Saldaña, J. (2009). The coding manual for qualitative researcher. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Schmitt, H. E., & Bender, R. E. (1971, May). Teacher preparation for the culturally different: Does the profession believe the cause is worth the effort? The Agricultural Education Magazine, 282-283. Sleeter, C. E. (2001). Preparing teachers for culturally diverse schools: Research and the overwhelming presence of whitness. Journal of Teacher Education, 52(2), 94-106. Spring, J. (2007). Deculturalization and the struggle for equality: A brief history of the education of dom- inated cultures in the United States, (5th Ed.) New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Sue, D. W. (2001). Multidimensional facets of cultural competence. The Counseling Psychologist, 29(6), 790-821. doi: 10.1177/0011000001296002 Talbert, B. A., & Edwin, J. (2008). Preparation of agricultural education students to work with diverse populations. Journal of Agricultural Education, 49(1), 51-60. doi:10.5032/jae.2008.01051 Talbert, B. A., & Larke Jr., A. (1995). Factors influencing minority and non-minority students to enroll in an introductory agriscience course in Texas. Journal of Agricultural Education, 36(1), 38-45. doi: 10.5032/jae.1995.01038 Warren, C. K. & Alston, A. J. (2007). An analysis of diversity inclusion in North Carolina secondary ag- ricultural education programs. Journal of Agricultural Education, 48(2), 66-78. doi: 10.5032/jae.2007.02066 Webster, N., & Hoover, T. (2006). Impact of an urban service learning experience on agricultural educa- tion students. Journal of Agricultural Education, 47(4), 91-101. doi: 10.5032/jae.2006.04091 Wiest, L. R. (1998). Using immersion experiences to shake up preservice teachers’ views about cultural differences. Journal of Teacher Education, 49(5), 358-365. Woods, M. D. (2004). Cultivating cultural competence in agricultural education through community- based service-learning. Journal of Agricultural Education, 45(1), 10-20. doi:10.5032/jae.2004.01010
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BRYAN J. HAINS is an Assistant Professor of Agricultural Education in the Department of Community and Leadership Development at the University of Kentucky, 507 Garrigus, Lexington, KY. 40543, bry- [email protected]
JONATHAN TUBBS is a graduate teaching assistant in the Department of Community and Leadership Development at the University of Kentucky, 301 Garrigus, Lexington, KY. 40543, jona- [email protected]
STACY K. VINCENT is an Assistant Professor of Agricultural Education in the Department of Commu- nity and Leadership Development at the University of Kentucky, 505 Garrigus, Lexington, KY. 40543, [email protected]
Journal of Agricultural Education 223 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Journal of Agricultural Education Volume 54, Number 3, pp. 224 – 237 DOI: 10.5032/jae.2013.03224 o Corn Clubs: Building the Foundation for Agricultural and u r Extension Education n a Cassandra Uricchio l
University of Massachusetts o Gary Moore f North Carolina State University A Michael Coley g Tennessee State University r i Abstract c u
l Corn clubs played an important role in improving agriculture at the turn of the 20th century. Corn clubs t were local organizations consisting of boys who cultivated corn on one acre of land under the supervision u of a local club leader. The purpose of this historical research study was to document the organization, r operation, and outcomes of corn clubs. The corn-club movement was cooperatively promoted by various a groups such as universities, public schools, agricultural societies, state departments of agriculture, the l United States Department of Agriculture, and various philanthropic groups. Corn clubs operated in both the white and Negro schools. The corn club movement increased the demand for agricultural education in E public schools and influenced the development of the National FFA Organization and 4-H Youth Devel- d opment Organization. Strategies and procedures from corn clubs can be adapted and utilized in agricul- u c tural and extension education today. a t Keywords: Youth, Corn Clubs, Historical, Agricultural Education i o Many professionals in agricultural and ex- tion in improved farming methods, kept records n tension education are aware of the existence of on their yields, and exhibited at local, regional, V corn clubs and the professional literature of the and state corn contests. Two major factors led to o field has numerous references to corn clubs. the development of corn clubs in the early l Yet, if one were pressed to provide detailed in- 1900s: 1) The fact that many farmers were most u formation about the purposes and organization easily interested in better methods of corn grow- m e of corn clubs, it might be a difficult task. The ing through their sons, and 2) The desire of the profession may be aware of the existence of corn Department of Agriculture to educate future 5 clubs but may not know their purposes or how farmers in better agricultural practices (Clark, 1 they were organized. 1984). As corn clubs developed, the success led , Corn clubs were local organizations consist- to development of a variety of other boys’ and ing of boys who cultivated corn on one acre of girls’ clubs including potato clubs, poultry clubs, N land (generally on their father’s farm) under the and tomato clubs. Corn clubs continued to hold u supervision of a local club leader. At the end of the largest membership of any youth agricultural m the season, both yield per acre and production club through 1920 (Clark, 1984). b cost per bushel were calculated and compared. There are several reasons why professionals e r This experiential learning method greatly bene- in agricultural and extension education should 1 fited the boy and encouraged him to improve his possess more than a cursory knowledge of corn , agricultural knowledge and skills from year to clubs. A better understanding of corn clubs will year (Benson, 1912; Cosby, 1904; Davis 1911). give the profession a greater insight into the p Leaders were often school teachers, pedagogy involved in the corn-club movement p county extension agents, and eventually, agricul- which could be useful in education today. It is . ture teachers. Boys received practical instruc- possible that some of the procedures and tech- 1 1
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2 1 D Uricchio, Moore, and Coley Corn Clubs… niques involved in corn clubs could be replicated 2. What were the stated purpose(s) of corn today. Also, having an understanding of the past clubs? tends to give one a greater appreciation for the 3. How did corn clubs operate? evolution of the profession. 4. What were the outcomes (benefits) of corn clubs? Conceptual Framework Methods The conceptual framework for this research is embedded in the concept of agricultural litera- Historical research methods were used in cy. In Understanding Agriculture: New Direc- this study. According to Fraenkel & Wallen tions for Education (National Research Council, (2006, p. 545-546), there are five reasons for 1988), the Committee on Agricultural Education conducting historical research: in Secondary Schools stated “…that an agricul- 1. To make people aware of what has hap- turally literate person’s understanding of the pened in the past so they may learn from food and fiber system would include its history past failures and successes. and its current economic, social and environ- 2. To learn how things were done in the mental significance to all Americans” (p. 8-9). past to see if they might be applicable to The need for agricultural literacy was further present day problems and concerns. emphasized in the Reinventing Agricultural Ed- 3. To assist in prediction. ucation for the Year 2020 project (The National 4. To test hypotheses concerning relation- Council for Agricultural Education, 2000). Goal ships or trends. 3 stated that all students would achieve “conver- 5. To understand present educational prac- sational literacy” of agriculture, food, fiber, and tices and policies more fully. natural resources systems in the future. Historical research involves the systematic These agricultural literacy recommendations search for documents, artifacts, and other could be extended to professionals in the field of sources of information related to the objectives agricultural and extension education as well. of the study (Borg & Gall, 1983). The research- Members of the profession need to have a ers focused mostly on primary sources such as knowledge of their professional history; which original United States Department of Agriculture includes the corn-club movement. documents, General Education Board reports, This study also addressed Priority 4 – Mean- state corn club documents, and related materials. ingful, Engaged Learning in All Environments Secondary sources such as articles in journals of the National Research Agenda (Doerfert, and book chapters were also used. Original 2011). The key outcome of this priority states, documents were obtained from the U. S. Gov- “Learners in all agricultural education learning ernment depository of the [State] University li- environments will be actively and emotionally brary and through inter-library loan. engaged in learning, leading to high levels of All sources were subjected to both external achievement, life and career readiness, and pro- and internal criticism. To establish external crit- fessional success.” (p. 21). An examination of icism, the researchers carefully examined each boys’ corn clubs can provide valuable insight document to ascertain if it were an original doc- into the design and development of meaningful ument and was written by the person or group learning environments. who claimed to write the document. Internal criticism was determined by examining the accu- Purpose and Objectives of the Study racy of the information presented and the truth- fulness of the writers. The overall purpose of this study was to document the organization, operation, and out- According to Lincoln and Guba (1985, p. comes of corn clubs. The specific objectives of 290), historical and other qualitative research should be “worth paying attention to” which the study were to answer the following ques- tions: they refer to as trustworthiness. The four criteria 1. Who was responsible for organizing identified by Lincoln and Guba (1985) as com- prising trustworthiness are credibility, transfera- corn clubs?
Journal of Agricultural Education 225 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Uricchio, Moore, and Coley Corn Clubs… bility, dependability, and confirmability. Trian- able. It is no coincidence that the ear of corn is a gulation was used to establish credibility; multi- key element in the FFA emblem. ple sources were used to validate the information presented. Sufficient detail (often identified as Question 1 - Who was responsible for organ- thick descriptions) was used to satisfy the trans- izing corn clubs? ferability criterion. This allows the reader to determine the extent to which the conclusions To single out one specific group as starting made are transferable to other times, settings, corn-club work would be difficult. A variety of and situations. Dependability was established organizations including land grant colleges, ag- by conducting an external audit. An external ricultural societies, public schools, state depart- audit involves having an outside researcher not ments of agriculture, the United States Depart- involved in the study evaluate both the process ment of Agriculture, and the General Education and product of the research study. The purpose Board were all involved in establishing corn of this audit was to evaluate accuracy and de- clubs. termine whether or not the findings, interpreta- The first documented corn club that the re- tions, and conclusions were supported by the searchers could locate was organized by W. B. data. A former historian of the American Asso- Otwell in 1900 as an attempt to improve attend- ciation for Agricultural Education conducted this ance at farmers’ institutes in Macoupin County, audit. All data collected were retained and are Illinois (Reck, 1951; True, 1929). Otwell, a suc- on file for purposes of confirmability. cessful businessman and president of the county farmers’ institute, distributed corn to 500 boys Results which they cultivated and exhibited at a corn contest during the next institute. The event was Corn has been an important agricultural so successful that corn was distributed to 1,500 commodity in the United States for hundreds of boys in the county the following year and 50,000 years. If it were not for corn, the colonists at youth by 1904 (True, 1929). The endeavor had Jamestown and Plymouth would not have sur- both educational benefits for the participants and vived (Wessel, 1976). In the Annual Reports of profitable advantages for seed companies. In a the Department of Agriculture for the year 1850, biography of A. B. Graham, one of the founders corn’s role as a principal crop was emphasized, of 4-H, it was reported that “…his [Otwell’s] “…no other crop, not even cotton, has equal correspondence with Graham clearly identifies commercial importance” (United States Depart- him as a business man interested in selling farm- ment of Agriculture, 1851, p. 24). Thus, the es- ers better quality seed corn. Boys who won tablishment of corn clubs arose from the im- prizes for their accomplishments were excellent portance of this crop to the growth and vigor of advertisements.” (McCormick & McCormick, the nation’s economy. 1984, p. 154). The corn clubs were started around 1900 and It was not long before the idea of having reached their zenith in the 1910-1920 era. There corn clubs as part of the school curriculum took were corn clubs all across the country and thou- root. In 1902 A. B. Graham, School superinten- sands of boys were involved in them. The clubs dent in Springfield, Ohio and O. J. Kern, School were organized and supported by a variety of Superintendent in Winebago, Illinois started organizations and groups. The impact of the corn clubs in the schools they administered corn clubs was obvious in increased corn yields (Reck, 1951). Both school leaders saw corn and in reinvigorating an insipid curriculum in clubs as way to revitalize the school curriculum. the public schools that often had no connection However, it should be noted that the clubs in to the real world. After the passage of the Ohio were called “school agricultural clubs” and Smith-Lever Act (1914) and the Smith-Hughes not corn clubs (Reck, 1951, p. 15) In explaining Act (1917) the need for corn clubs started to his actions, Kern wrote (1903, p. 39), “Why not wane because of the work of the extension agent a course of training in the country school for the and agriculture teacher. However, the influence country boy which shall teach him more about of the corn clubs on both 4-H and FFA is notice- the country life about him? Along with his
Journal of Agricultural Education 226 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Uricchio, Moore, and Coley Corn Clubs… study of the kangaroo, the bamboo and cocka- established in other states for some years before too, why not study the animals of the farm and a this change, Knapp’s efforts resulted in the suc- proper feeding standard for them?” The clubs cessful systematic organization of the corn-club met with great success as they were a welcome movement. The first government report on relief from the rote memorization and decidedly boys’ corn clubs appeared in the Annual Reports classical curriculum of the day. of the Department of Agriculture for the year Similar corn clubs began sprouting up in 1909. The southern states boasted a membership other counties around Illinois with much success of 10,543 boys in corn clubs across the region (Reck, 1951). These local clubs were united into (United States Department of Agriculture, a county corn club association cooperatively 1910). directed by the Illinois Farmers’ Institute, state F. W. Howe, a former instructor in agricul- college of agriculture, county institute secretar- ture at Michigan Agricultural College, was ap- ies, and county superintendents of schools. pointed the new director of educational work of In Ohio, the “school agricultural club” the Office of Experiment Stations under A. C. movement was so successful that Graham was True, Director (United States Department of Ag- brought to Ohio State in 1905 to be the first su- riculture, 1910). Howe had organized boys’ perintendent of Extension. By 1906 there were corn clubs in Michigan and his plans for 1909- 60 such clubs with an enrollment of 3,000 stu- 1910 included a specific objective of promoting dents. The “clubs” were gradually replaced by boys’ agricultural clubs in different parts of the the formal introduction of agriculture into the country. During his first year, corn club mem- rural school curriculum (Reck, `1951). bership in the south increased more than four- The Office of Experiment Stations in the fold to 46,225 members in 1910 and corn clubs United States Department of Agriculture added a were established in both the northern and west- Farmers’ Institute Specialist to organize insti- ern regions of the country (United States De- tutes for the diffusion of agricultural knowledge partment of Agriculture, 1910). In addition, the to local farmers in 1903. By 1906, all states and Office of Experiment Stations cooperated with territories except Alaska conducted Farmers’ the Bureau of Plant Industry’s foreign seed and Institutes and the scope of this work expanded to plant introductions program to send certain for- include boys’ and girls’ clubs (United States eign introductions to boys for testing (United Department of Agriculture, 1907). These clubs States Department of Agriculture, 1910). Goals not only stimulated interest in Farmers’ Insti- of this project were to increase interest in both tutes, but ultimately replace the need for adult competitive crop growing and the Department of farm demonstration work (True, 1929; General Agriculture’s efforts to introduce new agricul- Education Board, 1915). Corn was selected as tural plants. the focus of many boys’ clubs due to its eco- The boys’ corn-club movement was an im- nomic importance, adaptability to different portant part of Farmers’ Cooperative Demon- growing conditions, increasing demand for pro- stration Work. Knapp (1910) stressed the value duction, and physical traits which made corn of corn clubs in “The Mission of Cooperative easier to measure and select (United States De- Demonstration Work in the South” extension partment of Agriculture, 1913; General Educa- circular: tion Board, 1915). We want to reach the home through the Numerous states established corn clubs in boys and the teaching of agricul- the early part of the century and in 1907, the ture...Thus we have devised these boys’ United States Department of Agriculture report- corn clubs so that the boys may become ed that boys’ corn clubs were rapidly growing in interested in doing things [in agricul- favor (United States Department of Agriculture, ture]. The club does more than that. It 1908). In 1908, Seaman A. Knapp began to or- teaches him to do one thing and do it ganize southern boys’ corn clubs under the well…Let the boy do, even if he makes Farmers’ Cooperative Demonstration Work divi- mistakes…My ideal of education is that sion of the United States Department of Agricul- of practical sense, leadership. Get that ture (True, 1929). Although corn clubs had been sense into a boy and he will take up
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farming, and if he knows a few funda- What group was credited for the corn-club mental principles he will apply the rest work was not always clear. An example is I. O. (p. 5-6). Schaub of North Carolina, who was the state Interest in boys’ corn clubs continued to in- leader for corn-club work between 1909 and crease and in 1911, Farmer’s Cooperative 1916. His salary was paid by the General Edu- Demonstration Work included boys’ corn-club cation Board and USDA ($1), he was officially a work in North Carolina, South Carolina, Geor- member of the Department of Extension at gia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Ar- North Carolina Agricultural and Mechanical kansas (United States Department of Agricul- College, but he was listed as an employee of the ture, 1912). In 1912, membership in the south state department of education and provided an- rose to 67,179 boys (United States Department nual reports to the state school superintendent of Agriculture, 1913). Twenty corn-club agents regarding corn-club activities (Armstrong, were employed and the corn-club movement 1929). continued to expand into northern and western states: “…cooperative arrangements for corn- Question 2 - What were the stated purpose(s) club work have already been made with 8 states, of corn clubs? with an approximate enrollment of 20,000 boys” (United States Department of Agriculture, 1913, In 1913, the Bureau of Plant Industry pub- p. 442). As a result, corn clubs grew to be “…by lished a circular on “Organization and Instruc- far the most widespread and numerous organiza- tion in Boys’ Corn-Club Work” for the 33 north- tion of this character…” (True, 1915, p. 6). ern and western states. The objectives of corn The supervision of boys’ corn-club work clubs were outlined in detail (Benson, 1912, p. was overseen by different offices of the Bureau 2-3): of Plant Industry in different regions. The Of- 1. To encourage more intensive farming fice of Farmers’ Cooperative Demonstration by using the best known methods of Work supervised work in the southern states, soil building, selection of seed, seed while the Office of Farm Management super- testing, cultivation of corn, etc. vised work in the northern and western states 2. To offer a medium through which vo- (Knapp & Martin, 1913). cational guidance inspiration, infor- Many of the corn clubs emerged from mation, and careful direction can be Farmer’s Institutes, but the institutes were spon- given to the average boy now in rural sored by various entities. In 1909, Farmer’s In- life. stitutes were operated by land grant colleges in 3. To adapt the boy to his agricultural 19 states and state departments of agriculture or environments and make him capable state agricultural societies in 17 other states of self-expression within those envi- (True, 1929). At the same time, the General Ed- ronments. ucation Board was hiring farm-demonstration 4. To teach the value of intellectual agents to work in the southern states and their guidance, careful observation, cultural responsibilities included establishing corn clubs. comparison and investigation, and the The USDA was publishing bulletins and actively need of a broader education for the promoting corn clubs (Crosby, 1904). In addi- farming population. tion to the General Education Board and USDA 5. To teach the boy the proper adaptation efforts, some school teachers and superinten- of plant life to local and climatic and dents were also establishing corn clubs in soil conditions. schools (Duncan, 1911; Nolan & Greene, 1917). 6. To assist the teacher and the public At times, this was in conjunction with other schools to find an easy approach, edu- groups, and at times, it was independent of other cationally, to all the interests of rural groups (Davis, 1911; Graham, 1941). The Ala- and village life. bama Department of Education (1910) even pub- lished a manual for schools on how to organize In the same year, the Bureau of Plant Indus- corn clubs. try published a circular on “Boys’ Demonstra-
Journal of Agricultural Education 228 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Uricchio, Moore, and Coley Corn Clubs… tion Work. The Corn Club.” for the 15 southern ral districts and a more contented and states. The objectives of corn clubs were also happy people (Duncan, 1911, p. 2). presented (Knapp & Martin, 1913, p. 1-2): Boys’ successes roused more interest and 1. To place before the boy, the family, enthusiasm from citizens of the county than any and the community in general an ex- demonstration work with adult farmers and ample of crop production under mod- “turned attention to the farm” (United States ern scientific methods. Department of Agriculture, 1911, p. 83). In 2. To prove to the boy, his father, and the 1909, over $10,000 in prizes were contributed community generally that there is by the public to encourage boys’ corn clubs in more in the soil than the farmer has the southern states; by 1910, the contributions ever gotten out of it; to inspire the boy rose to over $40,000 (United States Department with the love of the land by showing of Agriculture, 1910, 1911). These contribu- him how he can get wealth out if it by tions included both monetary donations and tilling it in a better way and keeping practical items. The corn-club movement at- an expense account of this undertak- tracted much attention, fueling public interest in ing. better agriculture and the country’s agricultural 3. To give the boys definite, worthy pur- resources (United States Department of Agricul- poses at an important period in their ture, 1912). lives and to simulate a friendly rivalry The corn-club movement also focused on among them. improving rural public education. Corn clubs 4. To furnish an actual field example in were meant to assist the agriculture teacher by crop production that will be useful to providing real examples that complemented rural school teachers in vitalizing the classroom instruction. These hands-on experi- work of the school and correlating the ences aimed to “vitalize” agricultural education teaching of agriculture with actual in public schools. practice. From these objectives, it was apparent that Question 3- How did corn clubs operate? the purpose of corn clubs was not just improving corn production, but also the building of charac- In order to accomplish the stated purposes of ter. Yet, the boy was not the only target of these the corn-club movement, cooperation among said objectives. The overall purpose of the corn- departments, agricultural colleges, county super- club movement was much further reaching: intendents, county agents, and teachers was cru- The objects of organizing the boys, un- cial. Corn-club work was conducted in coopera- der twenty-one years old, in Alabama tion with school officials and teachers in rural into Corn Clubs are to increase the pro- communities and supervised by state agents in duction of corn, to improve the seed, to agricultural colleges who represented both the aid the young farmers in better methods United States Department of Agriculture and the of cultivation and a more intelligent use college (True, 1915). Some states had a separate of fertilizers, to increase the interest of state leader for boys’ and girls’ club work, while the farm boys in agriculture, and to en- in other states, the state leader for county agent courage them to get an education along work also directed the club work (True, 1915). agricultural lines and remain on the In 1912, there were 20 boys’ clubs county agents farm. Of course arousing interest in one in the south (United States Department of Agri- crop will lead to similar lines of work culture, 1913); by 1919, the number rose to 31 with other crops and will ultimately re- (United States Department of Agriculture, sult in a more careful study of methods 1920). County agents organized and maintained with all lines of farming. This will lead club work in each county (True, 1915). to increased production on the farm and The work of the state leaders and county will lay the foundations for better agents was heavily supplemented by that of vol- schools, better roads, better churches, unteers trained as local leaders of boys’ clubs. improvement of the social life in the ru- In the northern and western states, 11,478 local
Journal of Agricultural Education 229 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Uricchio, Moore, and Coley Corn Clubs… volunteers served as club leaders in 1916, and education was the leader and central figure of this number rose steadily each year to over the corn club. If the school was very large, local 50,000 volunteers in 1927 (United States De- corn clubs were allowed to be organized under partment of Agriculture, 1917, 1919, 1928). the county club by providing the superintendent These volunteers not only served as club leaders, with a constitution and by-laws, list of elected but they also held community meetings, visited officers, and teacher advisor. It was the superin- club members’ plots, and worked to recruit new tendent’s role to interest all teachers in the corn- members (United States Department of Agricul- club movement and reach all boys in all sections ture, 1917). It should be noted that although of the county, even if they did not live on a farm corn clubs were exclusively open to boys until but were willing to rent land. Once a list of all the 1920s, women were employed as leaders of interested boys was complied, the superintendent corn clubs throughout the club history (Knapp, would hold a meeting in the fall (allowing for 1910; United States Department of Agriculture ample soil preparation time) to clarify the objec- 1923). Seaman Knapp wrote in 1910, “Get the tives and purposes of the corn club, adopt a con- teacher to organize the club…if the teacher is a stitution and by-laws, elect officers, and hold a woman, show her the general principles and ex- discussion about better methods of corn growing plain to her; any woman in the country could be led by the county agent. trained in twenty-four hours how to conduct A sample constitution for a county corn boys’ corn clubs” (p. 5). As the corn-club club, excerpted from “Program of County Or- movement progressed, more clubs were estab- ganization Day for Boy’s Corn Clubs” is shown lished in public schools and teachers were re- below (Duncan & Kerlin, 1914, p.120 - 121): cruited as leaders: "Whenever possible, clubs are Article I - Name. This organization shall organized in connection with rural schools; and be known as the ______County the teacher acts as local leader" (Duncan, 1970, Boys’ Corn Club. p. 10). Article II - Purposes. The purposes shall The Office of Extension Work outlined the be to make farm life more attractive and procedure used in conducting boys’ club work the profession of farming more profita- and stressed the importance of cooperation ble; to assist the public schools in teach- among extension, state agricultural colleges, ing the fundamental principles of agri- other agricultural organizations, school officials, culture in a more practical way; to aid and teachers (United States Department of Agri- the State College of Agriculture and the culture, 1919). The work of boys’ clubs started United States Department of Agricul- at the local level with the enrollment and organi- ture, through the Farmers’ Cooperative zation of members into local groups based on the Demonstration Club Work, in carrying agricultural project and proceeded with selecting information directly to the farms. a local leader, either volunteer or paid. The Article III - Members. Boys only be- county extension agent was responsible for tween the ages of ten and eighteen, on providing training materials, visiting club groups January the first of any given year, shall and plots, holding field meetings and instruc- be reported as members. tional demonstrations, and coordinating club Article IV - Officers and Committees. work with public school work. The club mem- The club shall have a president, vice- bers were responsible for keeping accurate rec- president, secretary-treasurer, and a ords, exhibiting their products, studying im- committee on prizes, of which commit- proved methods of farming, promoting conser- tee the county superintendent and the vation, attending club fairs and festivals, and county demonstration agent shall be submitting award applications. members. The relation of the county superintendent of Although this sample constitution stated the education to corn-club work was described in a maximum age for corn club members was 18, circular published by the Alabama Agricultural other clubs allowed members to be involved Experiment Station in 1911 (Duncan, 1911). At through age 21 (Duncan, 1911). In addition, the the county level, the county superintendent of Office of Extension Work encouraged older
Journal of Agricultural Education 230 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Uricchio, Moore, and Coley Corn Clubs… boys up to the age of 25 to take part in corn of the corn-club program (Duncan & Kerlin, clubs in 1922 and reported that this change 1914) and was indicative of the practical and raised the standard of work (United States De- educational value of the project (United States partment of Agriculture, 1923). Department of Agriculture, 1911). The suggested by-laws outlined specific African-Americans were also an important rules governing corn-club contests, including group of corn-club members. In 1916, with the instructions on creating a plan of work, qualifi- official designation of the Office of Extension cations for prizes and exhibits, and organizing Work in the south, “Negro demonstration work, meetings (Duncan & Kerlin, 1914). Specific including boys’ and girls’ clubs for negroes,” methods of calculating yield and profit were also was specified as one of the five distinct lines of provided (Duncan & Kerlin, 1914, p. 120-122): extension work (United States Department of By-law 9. In estimating profits, five dol- Agriculture, 1917). African-American corn lars per acre shall be charged as rent of clubs were systematized as separate projects in land. The work of each boy shall be es- “Farm Maker’s Clubs” and efforts greatly en- timated at ten cents per hour, and the larged enrollments in 1918 (United States De- work of each horse at five cents per partment of Agriculture, 1917, 1919). The pur- hour. Manure shall be charged at the pose of Farm Maker’s Clubs was to revolution- rate of $2.00 for each two-horse wagon ize farming practices among African-Americans load. Commercial fertilizers shall be (Clark, 1984). In addition, African-American charged at their market value. No agents were hired throughout the southern states charge shall be made for leaves or muck for demonstration and club work with a total of hauled to the boy’s acre by himself for 272 African-American agents employed by 1922 the purpose of adding humus to the soil. (United States Department of Agriculture, Corn-club members not only needed to in- 1923). crease their yield per acre in order to be success- ful, but they also needed to minimize production Question 4 – What were the outcomes (bene- costs. In addition, the boys were to exhibit their fits) of corn clubs? corn at farmer’s institutes and keep accurate rec- ords of their projects. All this was taken into Boys’ and girls’ club work was considered account as part of the specified judging criteria the “most effective way” to cultivate the agricul- for corn competitions (Duncan & Kerlin, 1914, tural interests of young people, advance better p. 122): agricultural practices, foster a sense of commu- By-law 12. In awarding prizes, the fol- nity, increase school attendance and perfor- lowing basis shall be used: mance, develop thrift and work ethic, promote (a) Greatest yield per acre team work, encourage healthy living, and in- 30 points crease enrollment in agricultural colleges (Unit- (b) Best exhibit of ten ears ed States Department of Agriculture, 1917, p. 20 points 324). Boys’ corn clubs developed personal (c) Best written account of crop leadership, community responsibility, good citi- 20 points zenship, and advanced farming principles more (d) Best showing of profit on investment rapidly than any other method. 30 points Corn-club members’ thorough study of corn ------led to improved success with other crops, such TOTAL as cotton and potatoes (United States Depart- 100 points ment of Agriculture, 1911). These plots also Prizes consisted of practical items, trophies, served as valuable lessons for the boys’ fathers scholarships, diplomas of merit, and trips to and other farmers in the community; the average Washington D.C. (United States Department of yield of corn on a boy’s plot was generally many Agriculture, 1910, 1913, 1914). This method of awarding prizes, along with personal visits to the boys’ plots, were considered the keys to success
Journal of Agricultural Education 231 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Uricchio, Moore, and Coley Corn Clubs… times greater than the average yield of the farm land, the differences were convincing to produc- (General Education Board, 1915). When yields ers, as illustrated in Table 1. were compared between corn clubs and other
Table 1
Average Corn Yields (Bushels/Acre) Between Corn-Club Plots and Similar Land
State Average Yield on Boy’s Acre Average Yield on Similar Lands Alabama 62.3 17.2 Georgia 56.4 14.0 Louisiana 55.3 20.2 Mississippi 66.3 18.0 North Carolina 62.8 20.0 Oklahoma 48.0 22.6 Tennessee 91.5 35.5 Virginia 59.5 20.0 Note. Adapted from The General Education Board: An Account of Its Activities, 1902-1914 by the Gen- eral Education Board, 1915, p.60.
G. Harold Powell, Director of the Bureau of the boys, their fathers, their community, and ag- Plant Industry in 1910, recounted that only one riculture in general. Corn clubs helped young year of experience in a corn club was needed to farmers realize the advantages of farming as an motivate a boy’s father to accept improved farm- occupation, convinced older farmers to under- ing methods, even if the father had previously stand and accept better methods of production, declined to follow improved farming methods in and benefited the public school system by vital- the past (United States Department of Agricul- izing rural education (United States Department ture, 1911). Powell stated, “It is also noteworthy of Agriculture, 1914). Agricultural literacy was that in many places where the farmer cannot be increased on all levels, through public interest in reached primarily the Department has been able corn clubs, better attendance at farmer’s insti- to reach him by enlisting his boy in the boys’ tutes, and dissemination of agricultural research corn clubs” (p. 82). For some farmers, corn to farmers through their boys. An anonymous clubs were the only convincing argument for teacher from Dorchester County, South Carolina change. explained the effect of corn clubs on agricultural However, the success of the boy in growing literacy and the demand for agricultural educa- corn sometimes backfired. One of the reviewers tion in schools in a letter entitled “What the corn of this manuscript shared the following, “My club has done for my school”: wife's father was a member of a corn club in Il- This movement has been of great benefit linois about 1921. His corn production was so to both school and community...It has much greater than his father's that his father de- helped to awaken boys to a greater in- stroyed the one-acre corn crop so as not to be terest in farming...The Corn Club was embarrassed in the eyes of the neighbors. But, the beginning of what will be an agricul- the next year, he did some of the things on his tural school, which we have created a own corn fields that his son had done the year desire for, to contain about three acres of before.” land to be used for demonstration pur- Boys’ corn clubs undoubtedly spurred the poses. It has also enabled us to have six improvement of corn production by testing new good lectures on farms problems, and in seeds and experimenting with farming methods this way has broadened the minds of the that increased yields while minimizing expendi- people in this community by introducing tures. Yet, the benefits of crop production seem new thoughts and teaching something of insignificant compared to the outcomes seen by what the world beyond their horizon is
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doing...and now they insist that a class only better educate students, but also to better in agriculture be taught in the school educate farmers who were less likely to accept (Haddon, 1912, n.p.). new ideas without first seeing the benefits them- Furthermore, the knowledge, skills, and selves. Today in agricultural and extension edu- training received from participation in corn clubs cation, this method of experiential learning can often influenced boys to further their education still be utilized effectively for many of the same (United States Department of Agriculture, purposes. Collaboration between public schools 1914). In one state, 218 club members entered and extension offices could correlate the teach- the agricultural college in 1917 (United States ing of agriculture with actual practice, especially Department of Agriculture, 1919). Not only did in schools that have limited access to land. Part- corn-club participation increase a boy’s desire to nerships with area farms could assist the agricul- pursue a college education, it also provided a ture teacher and 4-H agent by providing real ex- means to do so by awarding scholarships to state amples that complement classroom instruction. agricultural colleges to top members (Clark, Such work would ultimately result in a more 1984). The influence of corn clubs was truly careful study of methods by both students and seen in the personal and career success of the farmers, and also improve dissemination of re- boys as adults. In fact, many county agents and search from agricultural experiment stations by extension specialists received their first training carrying information directly to the farms. in agriculture through participation in corn clubs Most corn clubs had a formal structure that (United States Department of Agriculture, included a constitution, by-laws, and officers. 1918). Record keeping was emphasized and document- ed the practical and educational value of corn Conclusions and Implications clubs. In addition, boys entered their corn into competitions and filled out award and scholar- Corn clubs were organized through the co- ship applications. The organization of corn operation of various groups, including land grant clubs influenced the development of 4-H and colleges, public schools, state departments of FFA and similarities in the structure of corn agriculture, the USDA, agricultural societies, clubs and other youth agricultural organizations and philanthropic groups. These groups often are apparent. Examples include corn-club con- worked together to promote corn clubs and these tests and FFA Proficiency Awards, corn-club partnerships were crucial for the movement’s record keeping and the 4-H record book compet- success. By coordinating club work with public itive system, and the All-Star Corn Club and school work, corn clubs could operate most ef- FFA’s Star Awards. fectively and reach all boys, even if they did not Corn clubs undoubtedly played an important live on a farm. Today in agricultural and exten- role in improving agriculture at the turn of the sion education, partnerships must continue to be 20th century. Boys’ clubs were the most effec- a key strategy in order to effectively deliver high tive way of convincing farmers of the value of quality programming to all of the nation’s youth. new agricultural practices, while also educating Discussions among 4-H, FFA, and other agricul- the future generation of farmers. As a result tural organizations may lead to innovative ideas crop yields increased and so did profits. How- and new collaborations that will help improve ever, the ancillary educational benefits may have and expand agriculture programs. been even more important. Corn clubs increased Although the original motive for establish- the demand for agricultural education in public ing corn clubs may have been to sell better schools and greatly influenced the development quality seed corn, the purpose of corn clubs of the home project method, which has evolved quickly expanded to more than just cultivating into today’s Supervised Agricultural Experience corn. Objectives included a need to provide vo- component of the agricultural education program cational training for boys, encourage more scien- model. Through supervised projects, the boys tific farming methods, vitalize public education learned to think critically, gained entrepreneur- in rural areas, and stimulate public interest in ship skills, and applied science and mathematics. agriculture. Corn clubs were designed to not Personal visits by local leaders to each boy’s
Journal of Agricultural Education 233 Volume 54, Issue 3, 2013 Uricchio, Moore, and Coley Corn Clubs… plot provided crucial guidance and encourage- displays and demonstration work, just as corn ment. The success of this movement illustrated clubs improved the agricultural literacy of rural the value of integrated, practical education that communities. Furthermore, this work may in- is still highly relevant today. crease students’ interest in pursuing a college The competitive nature of corn clubs could education and choosing a career in an agricultur- be utilized today by agriculture teachers. There al field. could be competition among students with The history and success of the corn-club square foot gardens, with flats in the greenhouse, movement emphasized the importance of a re- or even on school land laboratories where they newed commitment to the integrated approach exist. In addition, conducting school agricultural for agricultural education that includes formal fairs to exhibit student projects for the communi- instruction, supervised experience, and student ty could be used to share the agricultural competitions and recognition. This integrated knowledge with other students and adults and approach was the key to success of the corn-club help fuel public interest in the country’s agricul- movement and continues to be the key to suc- ture and natural resources. Agricultural literacy cessful agricultural education programming to- could be increased on all levels through student day.
References
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Armstrong, L. O. (1929). The history of agricultural education in North Carolina. Unpublished Master’s thesis, North Carolina State University, Raleigh.
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Duncan, L. N. & Kerlin, I. B. (1914). Program of county organization day for boys’ corn clubs (Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Circular No. 30), Opelika, AL: Post Publishing Company.
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CASSANDRA URICCHIO is a Lecturer and Director of Equine Management in the Stockbridge School of Agriculture at the University of Massachusetts – Amherst. 121 Stockbridge Hall, Amherst, MA 01003- 9246. [email protected].
GARY MOORE is a Professor and Director of Graduate Studies in the Department of Agricultural Edu- cation at North Carolina State University, Box 7607, Raleigh, NC 27695. [email protected].
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MICHAEL COLEY is a half-time Educational Technology Specialist at Tennessee State University and a half-time agriculture teacher at Siegel High School in Murfreesboro, TN. [email protected]
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