The 2003 Kyoto Prize Laureates
BACKGROUND
June 20, 2003
THE INAMORI FOUNDATION KYOTO JAPAN Laureates of the 2003 Kyoto Prizes
Advanced Technology Category Fields Selected : Materials Science and Engineering
Professor George McClelland Whitesides (U.S.A., b. 1939) Chemist, Professor, Harvard University
“Pioneering a Technique of Organic Molecular Self-assembly and its Application to Nanomaterials Science” By developing technologies that combine organic, bio- and inorganic molecules using self-assembled organic monolayers, Professor Whitesides has succeeded in patterning and joining of organic materials, which is indispensable for organic nanotechnologies. Through his broad perspective from fundamental chemistry to applied technologies, he has made a major contribution to the development of new horizons in materials science.
Basic Sciences Category Fields Selected : Earth and Planetary Sciences, Astronomy and Astrophysics
Professor Eugene Newman Parker (U.S.A., b. 1927) Physicist, Professor Emeritus, The University of Chicago
“Elucidation of the of the Solar Wind and Cosmical Magnetohydrodynamic Phenomena” Through his research on terrestrial, solar and cosmical magnetohydrodynamic phenomena, Professor Parker has produced numerous seminal physical concepts, not least among them the theory of the solar wind, opening new dimensions in earth and space sciences. His discoveries have made a significant contribution to the elucidation of various phenomena involving fixed stars, interstellar space and the galaxy, giving birth to a new perspective on space physics.
Arts and Philosophy Category Fields Selected : Theater, Cinema
Mr. Tamao Yoshida (Japan, b. 1919) Bunraku Puppeteer
“The Foremost Master Puppeteer of Bunraku, a Major Classical Performance Art of Japan” Mr. Tamao Yoshida is at the summit of Bunraku puppet theater, one of Japan’s classical stage arts. Going beyond the mere transmission of puppetry techniques, he has added original and creative insight in puppet movement, with a virtuosity cultivated over the course of many years and a deep knowledge of the stories and essence of the roles. Capable of emotional depictions that surpass the abilities of human actors, Tamao has contributed to Bunraku’s current status as the world’s most highly developed and refined form of puppet theater. BIOGRAPHY OF THE 2003 KYOTO PRIZE LAUREATE IN ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY
Fields Selected: Materials Science and Engineering
NAME: Professor George McClelland Whitesides
DATE OF BIRTH: August 3, 1939
NATIONALITY: U. S. A.
BRIEF BIOGRAPHY:
1939 Born in Louisville, Kentucky 1960 A.B., Harvard University 1964 Ph.D., California Institute of Technology 1963-1982 Member of the faculty, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1982 Department of Chemistry, Harvard University 1986-1989 Department Chairman, Harvard University Present Mallinckrodt Professor of Chemistry, Harvard University
AWARDS AND HONORS:
1989 Arthur C. Cope Scholar Award, American Chemical Society 1995 Arthur C. Cope Award, American Chemical Society 1998 United States National Medal of Science 2000 The Von Hippel Award, Materials Research Society 2001 World Technology Award for Materials, World Technology Network
Honorary Memberships:
National Academy of Sciences, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, American Philosophical Society, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
MAJOR WORKS: 1990 Wet Chemical Approaches to the Characterization of Organic-Surfaces- Self- Assembled Monolayers, Wetting, and the Physical Organic-Chemistry of the Solid Liquid Interface, Langmuir 6(1):87-96 (with P. E. Laibinis). 1991 Molecular Self-Assembly and Nanochemistry: A Chemical Strategy for the Synthesis of Nanostructures, Science 254(5036):1312-1319 (with J. P. Mathias and C. T. Seto). 1991 Comparison of the Structures and Wetting Properties of Self-Assembled Monolayers of Normal-Alkanethiols on the Coinage Metal-Surfaces, CU, AG, AU, J. American Chemical Society 113(19):7152-7167 (with P. E. Laibinis and others). 1994 Patterning Self-Assembled Monolayers-Applications in Materials Science, Langmuir 10(5):1498-1511 (with A. Kumar and others). 1997 Geometric Control of Cell Life and Death, Science 276(5317):1425- 1428_(with C. S. Chen and others). ACHIEVEMENTS OF PROFESSOR GEORGE MCCLELLAND WHITESIDES THE 2003 KYOTO PRIZE LAUREATE IN ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY Fields Selected: Materials Science and Engineering
“Pioneering a Technique of Organic Molecular Self-assembly and its Application to Nanomaterials Science”
Professor Whitesides has made major contributions to pioneering of organic molecular nanomaterial fabrications and advancement of new horizons in materials science. He focused on specific interaction between molecules or atoms and molecular self-assembled function, on purpose for searching the new possibility on material functions of organic molecules and metals. Also, He has systematically investigated the method of arraying, bonding and manipulating organic molecules on the inorganic materials at a molecular layer level. Then, he established the technique of fabricating self-assembled monolayer. In addition, through these unique studies, he has showed that the technique can be applicable as a new strategy fabricating nanoscopic structure.
The computers in use every day contain a large number of LSI (large scale integrated circuit) chips. The nano-processing technology has been continually studied for downsizing and higher performance of computers. Such processing technology has been not only required to the LSI, but also the development of organic functional devices and DNA chips, where the technique of manipulating and bonding organic materials in nano scales is integral for advanced nanomaterials.
Professor Whitesides has researched into the molecular interactions between organic and inorganic materials using organic molecules, bio-molecules, inorganic substances and metals. Noting the fact that organic thiolates (alkanethiolates), hydrocarbon molecules with sulfur atom at one end, adsorb well to gold and silver substrates, he developed the technique to fabricate the self-assembled monolayers(SAM). These monolayers are capable of self-assembly as a stable layer and possess a high degree of order. The layer is an indispensable material as a protecting layer of inorganic material and for arraying and manipulating several organic molecules and bio-molecules on the layer. Therefore, this ultra-thin SAM, only 1 to 2 nm thick, occupies a very important place among the materials currently employed in organic nanotechnology.
In the lithography for LSI production, photo resist, an organic substance, is coated on silicon used as a semiconductor. It had been thought that it would be difficult to use other organic substances in this process, until Professor Whitesides advanced SAM technology and proposed his Micro-Contact Printing Method (µ-CP method) that employed an organic substance as a fine stamp. This method, known as soft lithography, involves exploiting self-assembled layer techniques during semiconductor processing to create complex circuit patterning at scales of less than a micron. In addition, the method can be utilized for patterning organic molecules and bio-molecules, which exhibit a diverse range of properties, and it can also be considered a sort of molecular printing, to opens the way to innumerable potential applications.
Today, the method discovered by Professor Whitesides has been further miniaturized, and is garnering the attention of the molecular device field. A broad spectrum of applications for this technology is likewise unfolding in the field of bio-devices. To date there have been particular developments in the application to optical devices and sensors using manipulation of the two-dimensional configuration and patterning of bio-molecules like proteins, to DNA hybridization, and to DNA chips using a combination of micro fluid circuits and the interaction between proteins, among other avenues, creating expectations for rapid future growth in the field.
As can be seen from the above, Professor Whitesides’ activities cover a wide spectrum, from fundamental chemistry to its related applications and technologies. He has made significant contribution to establish the concept for the broad application of self-assembly, through exhaustive investigations of the variety of chemical combinations and physicochemical characterization of the specific self-assembly in organic molecules.
Nanotechnology and Self-Assembled Layers
The computers we use contain large numbers of integrated circuits (ICs). On the surface of these very small ICs, which have a width of 100nm, are placed the more than one billion semiconductor elements, such as transistors and capacitors, that electronic circuits require. Furthermore, the IC manufacturing process is very complex, involving 300 to 500 steps to produce one chip.
The IC manufacturing process requires repeating the processes of (1) forming a thin layer on the silicon wafer, a thin semiconductor substrate to be finished as an IC, and (2) patterning using lithography and etching to form shapes in the thin layers. Nearly all microelectronic circuits are currently formed using photolithographic technology, but, as the requirements of mass-production become increasingly advanced, more efficient and economical methods are being sought.
Photolithography is basically an extension of photographic technology. A master – what would be termed a “negative” in photography – of the desired microchip circuits is created. This master is then used to transfer the circuit pattern to the microchip metal or semiconductor. This so-called printing process allows a master to be used to produce multiple copies of the same circuit. The smallest structure possible using current photolithographic technology, however, is around 100 nm; the creation of nanostructures using a “top-down” technique that makes large objects smaller to create finer structures did not use to be considered promising. Structures finer than 100 nm could theoretically be produced by improving the resolution in photolithographic technology, but the huge cost involved makes this impractical. A “bottom- up” method, however, where atoms and molecules of 0.1 nm are used to build up larger objects, is being studied for the manufacture of IC transistors, etc. Nevertheless, neither of these methods has been used for the mesoscopic range, which is on the order of 10 to 100 nm, so the development of nanotechnology depends on the ability to efficiently create structures smaller than 100 nm.
Bio-structures, however, are a collection of tiny elements in that mesoscopic to microscopic range. Furthermore, the proteins and membrane structures of the cell comprise many of the systems that are being pursued by current electronics technology. Among these systems, there is great interest in self-assembly and self-aggregation. For electronics, self-assembly refers to device and materials manufacturing processes in which randomly diffused substances and energy aggregate on their own, without human intervention, to create the elements that make up devices and materials, forming particular structures which then proceed on their own to compose patterns. The technology for mimicking the functions possessed by these bio-structures is called biomimetics. Focusing on the self-assembled monolayer (SAM), Professor Whitesides systematically investigated its surface properties and indicated its possible broad development as a nano functional material. The self- assembled monolayer he developed, an example of a bottom-up method, is useful in creating three- dimensional structures several tens of nanometers in size, something that is difficult to accomplish using a top-down method. If the molecule is suitably designed, an accurate three-dimensional structure can be produced with a minimum of energy. This is expected to reduce the time and energy required to generate nanostructures. The soft lithography method also developed by Professor Whitesides to transfer the pattern is a top-down method, and applying it to the self-assembly of organic substances is understood as a synthesis of the top-down and bottom-up methods.
Major Achievements of Professor Whitesides
1. Development of Self-Assembled Monolayer (SAM) Fabrication Technique Professor Whitesides succeeded in establishing the technology to fabricate a self-assembled monolayer (SAM), using a specific interaction and self-assembling function. Specifically, alkanethiolate (R-SH) was adsorbed to the single crystal surface of gold in an aqueous solution or a very high vacuum to create the unique bond Au-S-R, forming a dense, regular monolayer. Alkanethiolate is a long-chain molecule with a mercapto group (SH) attached to the end of the hydrocarbon chain. This end sulfur (S) adsorbs well to gold, so that a thin layer of alkanethiolate molecules forms on the gold substrate. Since the establishment of its technique by Professor Whitesides , it has garnered a great deal of attention as a model of self-assembled membranes in organisms. Molecules that self-assemble, such as alkanethiolate, are also long and thin, with one end firmly attached to the gold surface and the other end attached to a grouping of other atoms. Therefore, the properties of the end group can give a specific function by varying the degree of adhesion, bonding, and lubrication.
2. Development of Soft Lithography Technology and its Application to Organic Functional Materials and Biological Materials (1) Invention of Microfabrication by Micro-Contact Printing Method (µ-CP Method) making use of SAM The µ-CP method employs the following process to perform patterning (copying/transfer). First, as with current semiconductor processing technology, photolithography or an electron beam is used to incise the circuit pattern as concavity and convexity on the hard material. Next, polydimthylsiloxane (PDMS), a liquid polymer is flowed into it and solidified. The removed PDMS is a soft silicon rubber to be a complementary stamp (a raised pattern). Alkanethiolate is applied to this stamp like ink, and then this is pressed against a gold surface that has been vapor deposited on a silicon substrate. Excess thiolate remaining after the organic thiolate has formed a pattern on the gold surface is washed away, leaving only a stable monolayer formed by the self-assembly of the thiolate compound on the gold surface to reveal the pattern. This method can be used to create structures approximately 50 nm wide. Because the circuit that has been formed is made up of an organic molecule, it is flexible, so it is expected to find applications in organic EL displays and drive circuits for electronic paper.
(2) Applications of Micro-Contact Printing Method (µ-CP Method) in Biotechnology The nanostructure manufacturing technology created by Professor Whitesides is finding increasing application not only in electronics but also in biotechnology, such as in the separation of substances like DNA fragments. Specifically, when an amino silane solution is applied to a stamp, the surface becomes positively charged, so the negatively charged DNA adheres to it. Thus when a DNA solution is applied to such a surface, the DNA only adheres to the amino silane layer, creating a pattern.
(3) Capillary Micro-Molding Technology As with the µ-CP method, photolithography or others is used to create a raised pattern on the surface of a soft polymer, and then a two-part hardening resin (liquid polymer) is flowed into the sunken part of the pattern. The liquid polymer hardens to form a rigid pattern on the surface. This method makes it possible to transfer patterns with structures 10 nm wide, so it is optimal for optical devices, waveguides, and optical polarizers that require structures smaller than the wavelength. It is an innovative combination of lithography and molding technology, and is expected to have applications in various circuit manufacturing technologies, in optical fiber networks, and, in the future, in optical computers.
Selected Bibliography *Whitesides, G. M. and J. C. Love “New Technology for Creating Nanostructures.” Nikkei Science, December 2001: 30-41. *Whitesides, G. M. “Self-Assembled Materials.” Nikkei Science, November 1995: 134-143. BIOGRAPHY OF THE 2003 KYOTO PRIZE LAUREATE IN BASIC SCIENCES
Fields Selected: Earth and Planetary Sciences, Astronomy and Astrophysics
NAME: Professor Eugene Newman Parker
DATE OF BIRTH: June 10, 1927
NATIONALITY: U. S. A.
BRIEF BIOGRAPHY:
1927 Born in Houghton, Michigan 1951 Ph.D., California Institute of Technology 1953-1955 Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, University of Utah 1967 Professor, Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago 1973-1987 Distinguished Service Professor, Department of Physics, Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago 1983-1986 Chairman, Astronomy Section, National Academy of Sciences 1987-1995 S. Chandrasekhar Distinguished Service Professor, Department of Physics, Department of Astronomy, Enrico Fermi Institute, University of Chicago 1995-present Professor Emeritus, University of Chicago
AWARDS AND HONORS:
1969 Henryk Arctowski Medal, National Academy of Sciences 1979 Sydney Chapman Medal, Royal Astronomical Society 1989 United States National Medal of Science 1990 William Bowie Medal, American Geophysical Union 1992 Gold Medal, Royal Astronomical Society 1997 Bruce Medal, Astronomical Society of the Pacific
MAJOR WORKS:
1958 Dynamics of the Interplanetary Gas and Magnetic Fields, Astrophysical Journal 128:664-676. 1963 Interplanetary Dynamical Processes, Interscience Division, John Wiley and Sons, New York. 1965 The Passage of Energetic Charged Particles through Interplanetary Space, Planetary and Space Science 13:9-49. 1979 Cosmical Magnetic Fields: Their Origin and Their Activity, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1987 Magnetic Monopole Plasma Oscillations and the Survival of Galactic Magnetic Fields, Astrophysical Journal 321:349-354. 1998 The Sun: The Ultimate Challenge to Astrophysics, Advances in Space Research 21,1-2:267-274. ACHIEVEMENTS OF PROFESSOR EUGENE NEWMAN PARKER THE 2003 KYOTO PRIZE LAUREATE IN BASIC SCIENCES Fields Selected: Earth and Planetary Sciences, Astronomy and Astrophysics “Elucidation of the Solar Wind and Cosmical magnetohydrodynamic Phenomena”
Throughout his half-century engaged in research on solar and cosmical magnetohydrodynamic phenomena, Professor Eugene Newman Parker has discovered numerous basic physical concepts, not least among them the solar wind, opening new dimensions in earth and space sciences. His discoveries have not only thrown light upon basic mechanisms of diverse solar-terrestrial phenomena – such as geomagnetic phenomena including radio storms and auroras, the origin of the solar magnetic field, changes in corona activity and the solar wind, the magnetic field in the interplanetary space, comet tails, and variations of cosmic ray intensity – but have also led to research on magnetohydrodynamic phenomena involving fixed stars, interstellar space and the Galaxy, giving a birth to a completely new physical perspective of our universe.
Among Professor Parker’s many scholarly achievements, his theoretical prediction of the solar wind in 1958 deserves special mention. Based on the findings of research on radio storms and other geomagnetic phenomena, it had already been inferred that eruptions in the solar corona emitted clouds of ionized gas (plasmas), but Professor Parker provided a theoretical proof of the continuous outward flow of supersonic plasmas even in the absence of eruptions. Several years later, the existence of the solar wind was proven through direct observations by artificial satellites. Having elucidated that space is not a vacuum, but rather filled with this supersonic solar wind, which causes a variety of solar-terrestrial phenomena, Professor Parker’s theory triggered drastic changes in the perception of outer space.
The solar wind follows out accompanying the solar magnetic field, to create a magnetic field that is wound in a spiral due to the rotation of the sun. The solar wind also reaches the earth, but, blocked by the terrestrial magnetic field, makes a detour, creating a magnetic field around the planet. The solar wind theory has succeeded in proving that fluctuations in the solar wind create a ring current within the magnetic field, which then causes a geomagnetic storm, and completed a theoretical framework with which to expound the creation of shock waves and the mechanisms of auroras and radiation zones.
The solar wind travels far beyond the planetary system, but is eventually blocked by interstellar matter, where it accumulates. The transfer of cosmic rays and matter into and out of the heliosphere – the region of space in which the solar magnetic field is dominant – is important in the research on long-term climatic changes on the earth. It was known that there was a correlation between the intensity of cosmic rays and the eleven-year cycle of solar activity like sunspots. The solar wind theory has provided a clear explanation for this phenomenon, describing how it was caused by a mechanism whereby the solar wind controls the intensity of cosmic rays coming from the Galaxy. Nowdays, artificial satellites have been part of technological infrastructure of our society. To protect the equipment from the storm of the solar wind in space, it is even needed to have a ‘space weather forcast.’ This will lead us to become more familiar with the solar wind.
Professor Parker’s achievements go beyond his predication of the solar wind. He has received high praise for his energetic studies of magnetohydrodynamic phenomena that presented a new vision of outer space. His theory of the solar wind has been applied to a broader range of phenomena, including ‘stellar wind’ and ‘galactic wind,’ revealing that the flow of matter from fixed stars and the Galaxy plays a key role in the evolution of a celestial body. He also made an important contribution to the dynamo theory of planetary magnetic fields, which had remained a difficult question for many years. In addition to these achievements, many terminologies bear Professor Parker’s name: the Sweet-Parker model of magnetic reconnection, the Parker instability in the interstellar medium, and the Parker limit on the magnetic monopoles. His book Cosmical Magnetic Fields – Their Origin and Activity (1979) is regarded as the Bible of cosmic magnetohydrodynamics and related fields. He has authored over 300 scientific papers, most of which he produced alone. His insatiable pursuit of scholarship has contributed to the advancement of learning.
Besides his scholarly contributions, Professor Parker has literally taken the lead in guiding the world through his chairing of many committees of the U.S. Academy of Sciences, thereby making a significant contribution to the formulation of their policies on space development and basic sciences.
The History of the Cosmical Magnetohydrodynamics
The mechanism of the universe was first disclosed through gravity (universal gravitation). Adding the magnetic field to the investigations made it possible to explain a broader range of new terrestrial and cosmical phenomena. Universal gravitation was discovered in 1666 by Isaac Newton, who revealed that the fall of an apple follows the same laws as the movement of a celestial body. That awakened interest in the elucidation of natural phenomena that universal gravitation alone could not resolve.
That the earth has a magnetic field had already been known for centuries. In 1600, the British physician William Gilbert wrote in his book De Magnete that the terrestrial magnetic field is primarily dipolar. Later, the 19th century saw a series of discoveries. Electric current and electromagnetic induction were confirmed by André Marie Ampère and Michael Faraday, respectively. A basic equation describing the behavior of electrical and magnetic fields was established by James Clerk Maxwell in 1861 in a move to unify the complicated empirical axioms of current and magnetism, completing the theory of electromagnetism.
Electromagnetic phenomena were adapted extensively to technologies for the electric industry as early as the second half of the 19th century, but it was not until the 20th century that attention was paid to electromagnetic phenomena of the earth, sun and space. Although they didn’t appear interrelated, geomagnetism, auroras, lightning and the ionosphere, which was discovered in relation to radio communication, were all electromagnetic phenomena. Previously, it was believed that no traveling matter other than the solid masses of varying sizes, from planets to meteorites, existed in space – the space above the atmospheric region of the earth and the space above the solar corona, to be precise – and that electromagnetic waves circulated in a vacuum. In the early 20th century, however, it became known that the flow of charged particles that is emitted with eruptions on the solar surface causes disturbances in terrestrial magnetism, and is related in some way to the auroras that occur at the higher latitudes. In 1930, the British physicians Sydney Chapman and V. C. A. Ferraro presented physical evidence that occasional emissions of an ionized gas cloud from the sun compress the terrestrial magnetic field. In 1951, Ludwig Biermann, a former West German astronomer, insisted that plasma emissions are continuously flowing outward from the sun, based on his observation that most comets have two tails.
In 1958, Professor Parker dramatically altered man’s understanding of interplanetary space with a report in which he predicted a plasma flow from the sun. His prediction of a supersonic solar wind (average velocity, 450 km/sec.; average density, 10 pcs/cm3), in particular, overthrew the standing consensus of a subsonic flow (20 km/sec.). Because of this, his theory was spurned by academic authorities. In fact, a paper he contributed to the Astrophysical Journal was rejected by two referees, but was saved thanks to a personal decision by the then editor Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (recipient of the 1983 Nobel Prize in physics). When, in the 1960s, it became possible to investigate outer space, his theory was demonstrated through observations by artificial satellites.
Since the solar wind is a conductive ionized fluid (plasma), it causes a diverse range of phenomena both in terms of hydrodynamics and electromagnetism. The cosmical Magnetohydrodynamics focuses on these complex and rich phenomena. The foundation for the scholarship was created by Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén (recipient of the 1970 Nobel Prize in physics). His book entitled Cosmically Electro Dynamics was highly influential. The concept of ‘collisionless plasma,’ in particular, was extremely convincing, since the frequency of particles colliding with each other is quite low in such a thin plasma as exists in outer space. Professor Parker went on to apply magnetohydrodynamics in studying a broad range of objects, including the sun, space, fixed stars and the galactic system, bringing about advances in the discipline.
The debut of artificial satellites as vehicles for research in the 1960s has accelerated the elucidation of solar activity, the solar wind and magnetic fields, producing measurable results. These investigations are making a great contribution to research in plasma physics in conjunction with plasma experiments and computer simulations at laboratories.
Detailed Account of Achievements
1. The Solar Wind The solar wind is a flow of ionized gas (plasma) emitted from the solar surface into space at over 300 km/sec., which is more than 9 times the sonic velocity in the gas. In 1957, the year before Professor Parker published his theory on the solar wind, Sydney Chapman suggested a static model, which posits a spread of static gas that extends from the solar atmosphere on the solar surface. But this model left one issue unresolved: for it to be correct, the pressure between solar system space and interstellar space should drop by seven digits at the boundary (from 10-5 dyne/cm2 to 10-12 dyne/cm2). Professor Parker discovered a mathematical solution to a constant state of the solar surface with a steady flow, and devised a dynamic model, which posits a steadily blowing solar wind. His solar wind theory not only resolved the issue of the pressure gap of Sydney Chapman’s model, but also showed that the solar wind blows from the solar gravity sphere at supersonic velocity.
The source of the solar wind is high-temperature gas (solar corona) surrounding the sun that reaches a temperature of over one million degrees centigrade. Although the corona is attracted by solar gravity, its thermal energy is freely discharged into space, since the gravity weakens as the distance from the sun increases. Owing to high thermal conductivity, however, the corona’s temperature remains near a specific level, even at a distance from the solar surface. On top of that, the solar gravity functions like the ‘throat’ of a Laval nozzle in a rocket. Part of the section of the nozzle tube through which gases flow narrows suddenly. After this narrow section (the nozzle’s throat), the tube expands into a cone shape. When gas passes through the nozzle tube, its velocity increases as the diameter of the section decreases, approaching sonic velocity. Since the pressure in the tube declines once the gas has passed through the nozzle’s throat, the gas is propelled outward, where it reaches supersonic velocity. The solar wind occurs under this same type of mechanism. In other words, the flow of plasma emitted from the solar corona is at a subsonic velocity (approx. 20 km/sec.) at the solar surface, but Professor Parker provided theoretical proof for a solution that says, when applying an equation that takes into account the action of solar gravity on the steady flow, the plasma flow could turn supersonic (over 300 km/sec.) at a critical point along the way. Conditions at the critical point determine the speed and flux of the solar wind in an almost one-to-one correspondence, and this solar wind theory could be applied to stellar wind and galaxy wind as well. The chief component of the solar wind’s gas is hydrogen, which is negatively or positively charged due to the high temperature of the solar surface. Since ionized gas is highly conductive, it moves en masse with the magnetic field (Alfvén’s theorem of frozen-in magnetic field lines), carrying the solar magnetic field into space along with the solar wind. Professor Parker also showed that the solar magnetic field that is drawn out by the solar wind extends as it is carried into space by the solar wind, wound in a spiral due to the rotation of the sun.
2. Development of Theories of Magnetohydrodynamics
Professor Parker applied his knowledge of magnetohydrodynamics to the elucidation of a number of phenomena in space. The following are a few of his theories.
(1) Parker Instability The Parker instability is created when the magnetic line of flux runs in a direction inclined toward gravity, and is a mechanism that turns gravitational energy into kinetic energy and magnetic energy. When condensation of matter occurs in a part of interstellar space where the magnetic field runs almost parallel with the plane of the galactic disc, the condensed section sinks into the galactic plane. The neighboring magnetic field then becomes relatively lighter and rises, which further accelerates the condensation of matter at the section. This mechanism is believed to have played an important role in the formation of a giant molecular cloud in the Galaxy before the stars were formed. The theory is also applied to elucidating the process of a magnetic flux rising to the surface from within a star.
(2) Dynamo Theory Professor Parker has carried on research into the solar dynamo mechanism since the 1950s, and his is one of the most influential theories to explain the origin of the solar magnetic field. When electrically conductive matter moves within a magnetic field, an electric field is created (law of electromagnetic induction), an electric current flows, and a magnetic field appears. This is called the dynamo theory. Professor Parker explained that the sun’s rotation and intertwined convections create a process similar to that caused by a dynamo, which results in the creation of the solar magnetic field. In more concrete terms, it is a mechanism in which a Coriolis force generated by the floating of the magnetic flux twists the magnetic field in the ascending flow, which is then fed back to the poloidal field when there is no mechanism for feeding back from the troidal field to the poloidal field which is intensified by the rotation of the celestial body. This is called the alpha effect, a key process in subsequent research on the dynamo mechanism.
(3) Parker Limit At present, the earth has a magnetic field of about 0.5 Gauss (indicating the number of magnetic lines of flux per square centimeter). A weak magnetic field of micro Gauss is also observed in the interstellar space of the Galaxy, indicating that a steady magnetic field exists in space, but no electric field. This is because the electric field disappears as soon as it is shorted out by ‘electric monopoles (ordinary charged particles).’ Therefore, no steady magnetic field can exist in the space if the amount of magnetic monopoles is too large. This makes it possible to estimate an upper limit to the cosmic abundance of the magnetic monopoles, below which the galactic magnetic field won’t disappear. This is called the Parker limit. Following this calculation, the number of monopoles corresponding to the Parker limit equals approximately one monopole per second passing through an area of 100 km2.
(4) Sweet-Parker Model of Magnetic Reconnection Rapid magnetic reconnection is generated in the terrestrial magnetic field and solar corona, discharging rapid bursts of magnetic energy. This causes solar flares (eruptions), which are accompanied by the superheating of high temperature gas and the acceleration of high-energy particles. Magnetic reconnection refers to a phenomenon in which electrical resistance causes magnetic lines of flux to recombine, discharging rapid bursts of magnetic energy. Sweet and Parker have each provided a quantitative description of magnetic reconnection. BIOGRAPHY OF THE 2003 KYOTO PRIZE LAUREATE IN ARTS AND PHILOSOPHY Fields Selected: Theater, Cinema
NAME: Mr. Tamao Yoshida (Personal name: Sueichi Ueda)
DATE OF BIRTH: January 7, 1919
NATIONALITY: Japan
BRIEF BIOGRAPHY: 1919 Born in Osaka, Japan. 1933 Begins Bungaku puppeteer training at age 14 under Tamajirô Yoshida. Receives stage name of “Tamao Yoshida.” 1934 Appears in first Bunraku performance at Osaka’s Yotsuyabashi Bunraku Theater. 1940-1944 Leaves Bunraku when drafted into military service; remains in service for total of five years, five months. 1946 Returns to Bunraku as a head puppeteer. 1955 Head puppeteer for the role of Tokubei in the revival of Sonezaki Shinjû (Love Suicides at Sonezaki). 1962 Performs Bunraku abroad, at the World’s Fair in Seattle, Washington, U.S.A. 1968 Performs Bunraku in Europe. 2002 1111th performance of role of Tokubei in Sonezaki Shinjû (Love Suicides at Sonezaki).
AWARDS AND HONORS: 1977 Holder of Intangible Cultural Properties (Living National Treasure) , Government of Japan 1978 Purple Ribbon Medal, Government of Japan 1985, 1995 Special Bunraku Prize, 4th and 14th National Theater Bunraku Awards 1989 Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Rosette, Government of Japan 1998 1997 Asahi Prize 2000 Person of Cultural Merit, Government of Japan
MAJOR ROLES:
PLAY ROLE(S) Sonezaki Shinjû (Love Suicides at Sonezaki) Tokubei Shinjû Ten no Amijima (Love Suicides at Amijima) Jihei Matsuômaru, Sugawara Denju Tenarai Kagami (Sugawara and the Secrets of Calligraphy) Kanshôjô Heike Nyogo no Shima (Shunkan on Devil Island) Shunkan Yoshitsune Senbon Zakura (Yoshitsune and the Thousand Cherry Trees) Gonta, Tomomori Kanadehon Chûshingura (The Treasury of Loyal Retainers) Yuranosuke Ichinotani Futaba Gunki (Chronicle of the Battle of Ichinotani) Kumagai ACHIEVEMENTS OF MR. TAMAO YOSHIDA THE 2003 KYOTO PRIZE LAUREATE IN ARTS AND PHILOSOPHY
Fields Selected: Theater, Cinema
“The Foremost Master Puppeteer in Bunraku, a Major Classical Performance Art of Japan”
Mr. Tamao Yoshida is a master puppeteer in the performance of the Bunraku puppet theater, one of Japan’s most venerated traditional stage arts. Going beyond the mere transmission of puppetry techniques, he has succeeded in adding original and creative insight in puppet movement, with a virtuosity and rich sensibility that have been cultivated over the course of many years and through a deep knowledge of the stories. Capable of emotional depictions that surpass the abilities of human actors, Tamao is a great stage artist who has helped Bunraku achieve its current status as the world’s most highly developed and refined form of puppet theater.
Bunraku requires the combined artistry of three types of performer: gidayû chanters, shamisen (three- stringed Japanese lute) players, and puppeteers. Accompanied by the shamisen, the chanter expressively intones every word of the text, as each puppet is manipulated by three puppeteers. These three types of performer must be completely in tune with each other to achieve the wonderful emotional expressiveness that transcends what human actors can convey.
Along with the theatrical traditions of Nô and Kabuki, Bunraku is one of Japan’s three major classical stage arts. Its origins can be traced back to the 17th century, when the famous chanter Takemoto Gidayû established his own ningyô jôruri (puppet plays accompanied by musical narratives) troupe, the Takemoto-za, and welcomed the great playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon, the preeminent dramatic author of the time, as their company writer. Nearly all puppet theater genres throughout the world have gained popularity by taking advantage of the special characteristics of puppets to present fairy tales and fantasies that would be impossible for human actors to perform. Chikamatsu and Takemoto, in contrast, set their sights on manipulating puppets to depict human emotions that go beyond what can be expressed by a human being.
Many of the masterpieces written by Chikamatsu, who is known as Japan’s counterpart to Shakespeare, are familiar to audiences as Kabuki plays. However, most of his works were originally written for the Bunraku stage, with a high standard of quality as literature that boasts a richness of content surpassing live drama.
Although the essence of the Bunraku art lies in using puppets to express human emotions, the puppets have their own special beauty and movement which, in the hands of skilled puppeteers, can be incorporated into their presentation with remarkable effectiveness. Although some puppeteers play to the crowd through a showy display of movements and set poses, Tamao has always been primarily concerned with exploring the expression of the human condition described in the jôruri (musical narrative) texts. Even in scenes that have traditionally been used as flamboyant show-stoppers, he has removed anything that rings false in terms of human expression. This is why Tamao’s art has gained a reputation for a special kind of refinement. The high acclaim he has won for his sensitive portrayal of the Heian-period courtier Sugawara Michizane (Kanshôjô) in Sugawara Denju Tenarai Kagami (Sugawara and the Secrets of Calligraphy), which is noted for its lack of movement, is due in part to his modest refusal to pander to the crowd, coupled with his earnest dedication to his art.
The audience for Bunraku declined after World War II, at which time labor disputes led to the temporary break-up of the Bunraku performers into two separate troupes. These unfavorable conditions persisted for many years, plunging the art into repeated crises as master performers grew old and passed away. Through it all, Tamao remained a central member of the Bunraku community, bringing a rich sensibility to the art and engaging in constant innovation. Under the discerning eyes of his audience, he modestly polished his artistry, touching the hearts of many and surmounting all crises.
In 1997, Mr. Tamao Yoshida was designated a Living National Treasure by the Japanese government. Now, at the age of 84, he continues to lead the way as the ultimate master of Bunraku puppeteering, with a technique that, far from withering away, grows ever more succinct and sharply defined. His excellence on stage has also earned enthusiastic accolades in the many performances he has given abroad. Through Bunraku, Mr. Tamao Yoshida has brought the expression of the human spirit to new heights, and has earned a place among the world’s greatest artists.
The Art of Tamao Yoshida
It takes three puppeteers to operate one full-sized Bunraku puppet. The head puppeteer (omozukai) uses his left hand to support the torso of the puppet and operate its head, and his right hand to move the puppet’s right arm; the first assistant (hidarizukai) operates the puppet’s left arm; and the second assistant (ashizukai) operates the puppet’s feet. Working together, the three puppeteers can make the puppet move in complex ways and depict subtle psychological states, making Bunraku the most emotionally charged form of puppet theater in the world.
Tamao Yoshida’s art is the fruit of an earnest lifestyle and many years of training and refinement. In 1933, at the age of 14, he became an apprentice to the Bunraku master Tamajirô Yoshida and assumed the stage name Tamao. A Bunraku apprenticeship starts with a period of menial labor and errand-running, during which students are expected to learn the content of jôruri plays through repeated hearing of the narratives. From this they progress to the status of second assistant puppeteer and receive instruction from the head puppeteer on the character of each of the roles. Over the course of many years of difficult training, apprentices gradually acquire the skills needed to operate the puppets.
“The first three years require great perseverance,” comments Tamao. “If you can make it through those three years, you can make it through ten. And if you can make it through ten years, you can make it through thirty.” At two different times in his life, he himself found he couldn’t stand the hardship and left the troupe. Still, he always came back. “I’m not much of a talker by nature,” he says, explaining his motives. “When you operate a puppet, there’s no need to talk. Also, I gradually grew very fond of the puppets.” During his younger years, he would listen in when others were being scolded and apply the admonitions to himself to improve his own work. He also liked to arrive at the theater earlier than anyone else, hang up the feet from a puppet, and practice puppeteering, hoping that his elders would notice and give him some pointers. Then, just as he got the chance to study with one of his heroes, the famous puppeteer Eiza Yoshida, and began to appreciate the true fascination of Bunraku, he was drafted. It was 1939, and he was 21 years old. It was a painful blow to have five-and-a-half years taken away at that critical juncture in his career, but after the war he took up again as the first assistant to Yoshida Tamasuke, and eventually began to perform as a head puppeteer.
Tamao is best known for his roles with male puppets, including powerful warriors and historical figures, however the role thought to best display his genuine talents is that of the young soy sauce shop employee Tokubei in Sonezaki Shinjû (Love Suicides at Sonezaki). Though considered to be Chikamatsu’s greatest domestic play, this work had not been performed on stage for almost 250 years when it was revived in 1955, and it thus needed numerous modifications to bridge the differences in stage size and music between the Chikamatsu’s time and today, as well as to compensate for the lack of defined gestures for the puppets. The Tenmaya scene between Tokubei and his lover Ohatsu in particular evidences the kind of innovative interpretations Tamao brought to this play. Chikamatsu’s script reads that when Ohatsu—seated on a veranda beneath which her lover is hiding—questions Tokubei’s resolve with her foot, he “nods and, taking her ankle, passes it across his throat to let her know that he is bent on suicide.” However, in Bunraku, female puppets have no legs, as they would always be hidden under the folds of their kimonos. Showing bare feet was even more inconceivable. For a scene such as this, when a man clings to the hem of his lover’s kimono and vows to commit double suicide with her, the traditional approach would have been to manipulate the folds the kimono to the right and left in such a way as to suggest legs and feet. But at the first performance of Sonezaki Shinjû in 1955, an exception was made for this one scene, and the long- forbidden bare “white feet” were extended from Ohatsu’s kimono, an extraordinarily erotic gesture that created, as noted scholar Donald Keene recalls, “a terrifying moment.” It was the 36-year-old Tamao who proposed this new treatment of the scene for the first revival performance of Sonezaki Shinjû. Forty-seven years later, in 2002, Tamao performed the Tokubei role for the 1111th time, a prodigious record.
“The essence of a traditional art like Bunraku or Kabuki is to learn the forms and movements and pass them on to the following generations,” says Tamao. “But if you really look closely at the patterns, you discover many instances where the interpretation is strained, or where a certain method was adopted simply because it’s convenient or easy to perform. I believe that part of being a traditional performer involves correcting things like that and devising your own approach. Bunraku has a history of more than 300 years. It’s important to preserve the traditions that have been passed down by the many artists who have gone before us, but I also think it’s necessary to devise creative performance methods and develop new plays that are easy for contemporary audiences to understand. In the past, the focus was on the main characters, and peripheral characters were not depicted with as much care. But I’ve changed that. Bunraku is supposed to express the essence of what it means to be human, and unless you show all of the complexity in the heart of the character, the spirit of the art will not be conveyed to the audience. It’s not just about technique—it’s about heart. To plumb the depths of the human heart, I had the entire repertory of plays sent to me on the battlefield during the war and read them with complete absorption. Even now I study every day. And through performance, I learn things from the audience, too. There’s no end point, no completion to the art of puppetry.”
History of Bunraku
The term ningyô jôruri generally denotes a Japanese theatrical genre that combines puppetry with narrative chanting. In a narrower sense, however, it refers to a particular kind of chanting called gidayû bushi, combined with puppets that require three operators. Today, there is only one surviving tradition, called Bunraku, that specializes in this particular type of puppet theater. Over the years, the name of the Bunraku tradition has come to be used generically to denote the genre itself.
Since antiquity, Japan has had oral traditions of chanted narrative (katarimono) that feature texts set to music (called fushi). Perhaps the oldest of these is the genre known as heikyoku, which was originally performed by blind monks called biwa hôshi and relates stories from the medieval war epic Heike Monogatari (Tale of the Heike) to biwa (lute) accompaniment. With the development of other vocal traditions such as Nô chant, kôwaka (ballad dramas) and sekkyô bushi (early puppet plays with moralistic Buddhist themes), heikyoku lost some of its popularity. Practitioners of the art responded by incorporating improvements and expanding the types of stories they presented. One of the texts added to the repertory—called Jôruri Jûnidan Zôshi (The Tale in Twelve Episodes of Jôruri), or alternately Jôrurihime Monogatari (Tale of the Lady Jôruri)—became very popular, and its music, called jôruri bushi, was then applied to other texts. Initially, jôruri pieces continued to use the biwa as accompaniment, or singers would simply beat the rhythm out with their fans. Then, in the middle of the 16th century, a new three- stringed instrument made its way to Japan via the Ryukyu Islands in the south. The Japanese made improvements to this instrument to create the shamisen, which soon became the instrument of choice in the performance of jôruri. With the introduction of the shamisen, the vocal component took another great leap forward, and jôruri entered a new era as one of Japan’s major performance genres.
Ningyô jôruri, the combination of jôruri with puppetry, caught on like wildfire, so that by the beginning of the 17th century it was performed not only in Kyoto and Edo (present-day Tokyo), but throughout Japan. At that time, however, the venues were temporary, poorly constructed shacks, and the puppets were very simple, being operated by just one person. The chanting, too, was still quite monotonous, and the stories tended to be unsophisticated tales about the miraculous doings of Buddhas and gods.
As time went on, the number of performers increased, and they began to set up troupes that competed with each other, each troupe trying out different innovations to attract audiences. It was in this context that Takemoto Gidayû established the Takemoto-za troupe in the Dotonbori district of Osaka in 1684. Taking the best aspects of all the different jôruri troupes that had developed up to that time, and adding innovations of his own, he gathered together some master hands, including playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon, shamisen player Takezawa Gonemon, and puppeteer Tatsumatsu Hachirobei, and rapidly gained the highest popularity throughout Osaka. Gradually, the other forms of jôruri declined, and the term gidayû bushi (the “music of Gidayû”) became synonymous with jôruri.
With the unparalleled talent of Chikamatsu, the value of the plays as literature increased considerably, and the emphasis shifted from unsophisticated tales about supernatural beings and martial heroics to a gorgeously romantic and intimate portrayal of human emotions. Also, through the creation of a new “real- life” genre called sewamono (domestic plays), as typified by Sonezaki Shinjû (Love Suicides at Sonezaki), the content grew more in tune with the lives of the audience. Meanwhile, puppeteers such as Yoshida Bunzaburô worked hard at making improvements in the puppets themselves, incorporating sleight-of-hand techniques, and constructing movable eyes, eyebrows, mouths, hands, and feet. Finally, for the role of Yakanbei in the play Ashiya Dôman Ôuchi Kagami (The White Fox of Shinoda) performed in 1734, Bunzaburô proposed for the first time that three puppeteers operate a single puppet, thus putting the finishing touch on the art of Bunraku as we know it today.
With the freer movement made possible by the development of more sophisticated puppets, the plays written in later years increasingly emphasized surface effects at the expense of content. This, along with the fact that Kabuki, which had temporarily been depressed by the popularity of jôruri, immediately began to incorporate elements of jôruri’s popular comical numbers into its repertory and managed to revive its flagging fortunes, contributed to the eventual decline in the popularity of jôruri.
After World War II, the Bunraku-za Theater was rebuilt by the production company Shochiku at Yotsuyabashi in Osaka, but labor disputes resulted in the break-up of the Bunraku performers into two separate troupes in May 1948: the Chinami-kai and the Mitsuwa-kai, which both struggled to survive. In 1963, the Bunraku Society was founded with grants provided by the national government, Osaka Prefecture, Osaka City, and the Hôsô Bunka Foundation (originally NHK), and the two troupes were merged. The first performance at the Dotonbori Bunraku-za theater was presented that same year.
In 1966, the National Theater opened in Hayabusa-cho, Chiyoda ward in Tokyo. It contains a small hall (630 seats) that is ideally designed for Bunraku, which is performed there regularly four times a year. The theater has succeeded in drawing a younger audience and has initiated a training program for Bunraku artists who can carry on the tradition. Successive performances in Europe, North America, and other places overseas have also earned unexpected accolades, further cementing Bunraku’s reputation as the world’s greatest puppet theater. With all of this success, it was only natural for people to begin talking about constructing a theater devoted solely to Bunraku in its home region of Osaka. In 1984, their heartfelt dream was realized with the opening of the National Bunraku Theater in Nipponbashi, Osaka, with a seating capacity of 753. The locus of the training program for young Bunraku artists has been shifted there. Today, in 2003, Bunraku has embarked on a new golden age, led by five living national treasures: puppeteers Tamao Yoshida, Minosuke Yoshida III, and Bunjaku Yoshida; chanter Sumidayû Takemoto VII, and shamisen player Kanji Tsuruzawa VII. With these masters at the helm, Bunraku has once again claimed its rightful place as one of the most refined and polished theatrical traditions in the world. EVENTS SCHEDULE OF THE 2003 KYOTO PRIZES
1. WELCOME RECEPTION DATE : November 9 (Sun.), 2003 PLACE: A Hotel in Kyoto, Japan A Welcome reception hosted by the Governor of Kyoto and Mayor of Kyoto will be held for the honorable laureates.
2. PRIZES PRESENTATION CEREMONY DATE : November 10 (Mon.), 2003 PLACE: Main Conference Hall, Kyoto International Conference Hall Awarding of the Prizes.
3. PRESS CONFERENCE DATE : November 10 (Mon.), 2003 PLACE: Kyoto International Conference Hall A joint press conference by the laureates.
4. BANQUET DATE : November 10 (Mon.), 2003 PLACE: Takaragaike Prince Hotel A dinner party in honor of the laureates with distinguished guests.
5. COMMEMORATIVE LECTURES DATE : November 11 (Tue.), 2003 PLACE: Main Conference Hall, Kyoto International Conference Hall Laureates will discourse about their lives and work in lectures geared to a general audience. Lectures are free and open to the public. (1,700 persons approximate capacity)
6. COMMEMORATIVE WORKSHOPS DATE : November 12 (Wed.), 2003 PLACE: Kyoto International Conference Hall Three workshops (one for each category) will be held in separate rooms. The workshop is free and open to the public. (100 - 300 persons approximate capacity for each category)
7. KYOTO LAUREATE SYMPOSIUM DATE : March 3-5, 2004 PLACE: Joan Kroc Institute for Peace and Justice, University of San Diego. FOR FURTHER INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT
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