Trends in the Domain of Rapid Rototyping: a Review

Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

TRENDS IN THE DOMAIN OF RAPID ROTOTYPING: A REVIEW

Manu Srivastava*1, Utkarsh Singh1 and Ramkrishna Yashaswi2

*Corresponding Author: Manu Srivastava [email protected]

RP answers the need of green manufacturing which is the need of hour in the manufacturing sector. A large number of commercially viable RP techniques are available in the market today. This paper attempts to introduce and review the newer RP technologies. It summarizes the applications of different commercial RP technologies available. It finally recognizes the current challenges in this field and suggests probable solutions based on extensive literature survey.

Keywords: RP, SLS, SLA, 3DP, SDM, LENS, FDM, RP classification, RP applications

INTRODUCTION green manufacturing which are different In product design, prototyping is an impera- names for this automatic prototyping tive final step. Prototyping requires design, (Debasish Dutta et al., 2001). Advent of RP fabrication and testing of final product design. is a watershed event similar to advent of CNC This practice started with manual prototyping tools almost 3 decades ago (John Michael then extended to prototyping with soft curves and presently prototyping is done with the Brock et al., 2012).This marks an era of aid of computers and is called rapid introduction of flexible automation. This prototyping. RP/LM is accomplished by layer- process tremendously reduces the design on-layer material deposition. This started cycle time especially for intricate and during early 1980s with massive complicated jobs. improvement in CAD/CAM technologies. Despite this tremendous growth in this The current trend is the direct manufacturing of physical objects starting field, there are numerous challenges to be from 3D CAD models without any classical dealt in this field. While outlining the problems tools. This is termed rapid prototyping, solid in RP applications; this paper also highlights freeform fabrication, layered manufacturing, the applications.

1 Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, New Delhi. 2 Institute of Management Technology, Ghaziabad.

747 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

WORKING STEPS REQUIREMENTS 4. Merging 1. Geometric modeling 5. Building the model 2. Data transfer and CAD interface 6. Starting the machine 3. Slicing 7. Final post curing and finishing works

CONVENTIONAL CLASSIFICATION

Figure 1: Conventional Classification of RP Processes

Layered Manufacturing Processes (On basis of raw material state in compliance with Kruth Classification)

Gaseous Solid Liquid Paste Foil Chemical Wire Reaction LCVD Paste Lamp Solid Multi Polymerizatio Ground Componen n Process Curing Layered Heat Fused Layer t Powder Laminate Thermal Modelling & d Polymerizati Ballistic Part Solid Foil Light of on Manufacturing Polymerizati One on frequency 3D Printing Selective (Topograph Laser y Sintering Holographic interference Laser Beam solidification Stereo lithography

An alternative approach to classification is suggested by D.T. Pham, R.S. Gault

Figure 2: Alternative Classification of RP Processes

Rapid Prototyping

Addition of Removal of Material Material Liquid

Discrete Particles Fusing of Solid particles using Sheet Laser Solidification of Molten Material Bonding of Solidification of sheets using Solidification a Liquid light of Electro set Polymer Bonding of Fluid sheets using Layer Joining of Point adhesives by Particles Layer by using Binder Point Holographic Surface Point by Layer by Point Layer

748 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

RAPID PROTOTYPING conventional machining processes (H S Cho TECHNIQUES et al., 2000). SLA fabricates parts without Stereo Lithography intermediate tooling, directly from a CAD It is a rapid prototyping technique that model, in the opposite direction to gravity. involves photo polymerization that draws or Support structure is required to hold the prints on a photo curable resin, the cross stacked layer and resin during the fabrication section of a model. This is a recent technique process. The stair -stepping effect occurs by that attracted much attention because of its staking layers when fabrication on an inclined ability to make wide range of products with surface (Ho-Chan Kima and Seok-Hee Lee, high accuracy. However, the dimensional 2005). accuracy produced is not better than

Figure 3: Stereo Lithography Apparatus

X-Y scanning mirror

Laser source Layered part

Laser beam

Elevator for Building platform vertical motion set to move in vertical direction Sweeper for leveling the current layer

Liquid polymer

Selective Laser Sintering process is repeated so that entire stack of 2- A freeform, additive manufacturing process D layers is created and bonding takes place that uses laser on power beds to create 3-D to form the original 3-D CAD solid model (E models. Its starting point is a 3-D CAD model O Olakanmi, 2013). of part geometry out of which 2-D stack of layers are derived which represent the part. Electron Beam Melting A laser spot is created by scanning over the It is an additive manufacturing process, which cross sectional area to create each layer, forms a 3D object based on a computer which results in sintering, melting and model by utilizing an electron beam to melt bonding particles in a lamina. The same alloyed metal powder layer by layer. This

749 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014 technique unlike conventional techniques, with various material, including Co-Cr-Mo anticipates microstructure and properties of Alloy (R S Kircher et al., 2009).The parts are EBM produced material. It is emerging as a build up in a vacuum chamber. Later the parts method for production of orthopedic devices are cleaned by conventional techniques

Figure 4: SLS Machine Setup

X-Y scanning mirror Laser

Laser beam Sintered part

Levelling roller

Powder bed

Powder feed supply

Platform and piston arrangement for vertical motion

Electron Beam Melting EBM produced material. It is emerging as a It is an additive manufacturing process, which method for production of orthopedic devices forms a 3D object based on a computer with various material, including Co-Cr-Mo model by utilizing an electron beam to melt Alloy [32].The parts are build up in a vacuum alloyed metal powder layer by layer. This chamber. Later the parts are cleaned by con- technique unlike conventional techniques, ventional techniques anticipates microstructure and properties of

Figure 5: Electron Beam Melting Setup

Hopper

Electron Material released from beam hopper

Support material

Work piece layer formation Piston arrangement for vertical motion

750 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

Solid Ground Curing application of the prototypes. However the It is a process is suitable for building parts in method offers very high fabrication rate with batch, with different dimensions and adequate accuracy, complexities lie high geometry. Although problems like quality, accusation rate and operating cost are the material properties and accuracy limit the biggest hurdles.

Figure 6: Solid Ground Curing Process

UV lamp with shutter

UV rays

Masked plate

Liquid Polymer

Wax

Base

Laser Stereo Lithography obtained from the CAD model but not in terms A wide variety of material can be processed of slices. It also has still not been commer- by high power laser. It uses ultraviolet laser cialized. as a source when applied to organic Laser Engineered Net Shaping compounds in a conventional process. In the It is a freeform fabrication process. It involves traditional approach the process of fabrication fully dense 3D shapes from laser processing and development of models allow curing of of ?ne powders, directly from a design model. part by exposing to UV light, leading to The LENS process makes near net shaped formation of 3D object. complex prototypes, leading to reduction in machining and time cost. The LENS process Holographic Interference can be used to deposit a variety of metals Solidification and alloys, such as 316 stainless steel, The entire surface is solidified by exposing titanium alloys and H13 steel nickel-base the resin to holographic image. The image is super alloys (J N DuPont, 2003).

751 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

Figure 7: Lens Setup

Laser beam

Focused lens Concentrated laser

Powder delivery nozzle

Work piece

Melt pool

Base

Figure 8: Shape Deposition Modelling

Shaping of the Support support deposition

Embedding another component

Part deposition Shaping the part

752 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

Shape Deposition Modelling Since the product is monolithic so no It creates metal parts with incremental boundary layers are there I end product, this deposition of metal and removal of material is in spite of the fact that the mold is built in as well. It adds the benefits of SFF and CNC. layers (A G Cooper et al., 1999). It produces parts with poor surface quality. The non-horizontal and vertical surfaces Three Dimensional Printing exhibit stair step effect. The mechanical It involves the creation of 3D object by properties are critical to layer boundaries depositing powder with the help of a liquid which are a potential source of defect. To binder. It is a very versatile process which solve these problems mold SDM was can make variety of complex models with developed which can build complex shaped different kinds of material. They have very parts. However, it uses CNC milling to shape low cost, high speed and wide application the surfaces effected by stair step effect.

Figure 9: 3D Printing

Machine control unit

Leveling roller Inkjet print heads

Support powder Part

Platform along with piston for vertical movement

Electro Setting Laser-Assisted Chemical Vapor Conductive Material like aluminum is used. Deposition After printing of all the layers, stacking is done Technique using gas phase conversion to and they are then immersed in electro setting solid structure with the help of pyro lytic fluid. The fluid in between the electrodes process. This technique uses a laser beam solidifies to form the part. Once completed focused perpendicular to the substrate in and drained, the unwanted material is order to make sure deposition take place in trimmed. The advantages of this technology the heated localized region. The laser power, is part density, hardness, compressibility and pressure have considerable influence on the other factors are controllable via appropriate growth rate, bulk properties of fibre and value of current and voltage. The raw material are silicon, rubber, epoxy or polyurethane. diameter as well.

753 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

Desktop Milling plastic is extruded layer by layer from a Instead of gradually building up of material, temperature controlled head. The first step the work piece is created like n traditional is creation of a 3D model with any available machining. Since there is no deformation due CAD package. The part is then converted to to shrinkage, hence higher dimensional STL format and then transferred to FDM accuracy can be achieved. Any CNC Quick slice software. The part is reduced to machine can be used to make products from a set of triangles by tessellation. The primary inexpensive material. advantage is that even the most basic component can be exported via any CAD Fused Deposition Modeling system. However the resolution of the part is It is a rapid prototyping technique of genera- lost due to triangles and not splines and arcs. ting 3D objects from CAD models. In this ABS

Figure 10: Fused Deposition Modelling Setup

Filament goes into the extruder Filament spool

Drive wheels

Liquefier along with a heater block to melt the filament

Nozzle tip set to move in the plane of work piece – layer formation

Platform and piston arrangement for vertical motion

Ballistic Particle Manufacture the application, can be either continuous or In this technique, molten material in form of drop-on-demand. The stream is excited by a piezoelectric transducer with a frequency of stream is ejected from a nozzle and later 60 Hz. Temperature, change carried by the separates into droplets and cold welding droplets and velocity of droplets characterize occurs to form the parts. The stresses can the part. The resolution of the droplets are be reduced within the part if the substrate is around 50-100 micrometer. It advantages are rough and thermal contact between them is cheap and eco-friendly, and produce fine increased. The choice of stream depends on grain structure.

754 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

Solid Foil Polymerization processing and investment casting show how The part is built up of semi-polymerized foils a reduction of cycle times and process steps and on UV light exposure, solidification takes can be achieved. The LOM equipment and place and bonding takes place to the previous process were designed to produce parts from layer. Upon illumination of the cross-slide, a paper. Using a modified LOM machine new foil can be applied. The unwanted ceramic parts may also be manufactured material acts as support and can be removed where a computer controlled laser is used to later. cut through the ceramic. The cutting profile is generated by the slicing of the solid model. Laminated Object Manufacturing The process is repeated layer by layer to It is a robust and cost effective rapid prototy- complete the solid object. Though this ping technology with a variety of application. process leaves a lot of scrap but building For examples in sand casting, ceramics speed is 5-10 times compared to other processes.

Figure 11: Laminated Object Manufacturing Process

Mirror

X-Y moving optical head Laser beam

Laser Previous layer

Current layer

Material supply Platform and piston arrangement for vertical motion

Beam Interference Solidification resin. This isn't a commercial process and The process employs two laser beams experiences many technical difficulties. operating with different frequencies and mounted such light emitted are at right Three Dimensional Welding angles, which then fall on resin kept in a It uses a robot with arc welding to on a simple transparent vat and polymerization takes shaped platform that may be converted into place, the liquid is exercised cited to complex structure. The products here are not metastable state and then the second built using sliced CAD model. A relatively high incident beam is polymerized to excite the resolution can be obtained. The critical thing

755 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014 here is, because of no feedback, prototype This process is used to produce parts with has a tendency to melt due to heat high precision ceramic pigmented organic generation. Hence thermopiles are used to 'ink' is used to cure the layer with UV light on set up a feedback control system and control a ceramic substrate. UV light is used to cure the temperature. the layer and the process is repeated, until entire part is finished. 20% shrinkage in size Gas Phase Deposition occur due to sintering process. In here, the reactive gas is either decomposed to heat or light. The decomposed solid Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing then forms the part by sticking to the It is a layered type freeform fabrication pro- substrate. No commercial models are cess. It uses of low amplitude mechanical available yet. It is of three different types: vibrations with high frequency, which induces i. Selective Area Layer Deposition-The static as well as oscillating shear forces which solid component is used to make the produces elastic-plastic deformation on work. part. The parts can be constructed can This permits atomic diffusion to occur and be from carbon, silicon, carbides and tends to break up and disperse aluminum silicon nitrides. oxide. It is a solid-state fabrication process that combines layered manufacturing techni- ii. Selective Area Laser Deposition Vapor ques and ultrasonic seam welding to form a Infiltration)-It spreads a covering of solid freeform object. It can fabricate laminate powder for each layer. metal parts by welding of layers to earlier iii. Selective Laser Reactive Sintering - A material, the profile of every layer is created solid part of silicon nitride or carbide is by contour milling. The process has great formed by reaction between the gas and potential for injection molding tooling fabri- the layer of powder.. cation with, multi-material structures, fiber- reinforced composites, smart structures, and Spatial Forming others (R J Friel and R A Harris, xxxx).

Figure 12: Ultrasonic Consolidation Method

Sonotrode Static force due to sonotrode

Work material

Ultrasonic Vibrations Anvil

Static force by anvil Weld zone

756 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

APPLICATIONS for testing. Even in automobiles the deck Rapid Prototyping has numerous applications parts are prepared from casting dies, these with large variety. We have tried to classify dies are made by LOM. them according to the techniques used as Solid Ground Curing follows: This can produce parts with more complex Stereolithography details than that produced by SLA. Form-fit Because of high surface finish and accuracy, assembly test, complicated patterns for this technique is used in making patterns for investment casting, medical application, soft investment casting, RTV moulding and tooling. urethane. IBM has produced operating Laser Engineered Net Shaping display units of ThinkPad tablet using Fabrication of aerospace equipments of stereolithography. It is also used in fabrication titanium and other metals, repair and making of small detailed parts and production of of injection molding tools. specialized manufacturing tools. Market prototypes especially used for presentation Electron Beam Melting in trade shows are made using this method. Since titanium is the most widely used material with this technology hence it makes Selective Layer Sintering this method available for various medical and This too can be used for producing pattern aerospace components(turbine blades and of investment casting. Also, durable parts, pump impellers).It is used to produce large parts like air ducts can be made. Since replacements for the hip joint and various the accuracy is slightly less, so less detailed other implants. It is also widely used to make parts for form and fit testing and parts with the turbo charger wheel for automobiles. living hinges are made using this technique. Shape Deposition Modelling 3D Printing It can be used to create simple assemblies Consumer goods, concept models, colour in a single operation. This can be used to models for engineering related application, create integrated assemblies where discrete Turbines parts, castings and landscape assembly is difficult. Functionally ready models can be prepared.. prototypes like the components of the Fused Deposition Modelling automobile, i.e. the engine components are This again produces specialized manufac- made from it. Also injection moulds are turing tools, plastics with high temperature prepared. resistance, patterns for investment castings, Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing parts for food-contacting application, small The complicated 3D components can be detailed parts. fabricated from metal foils. Here aluminium Laminated Object Manufacturing is the most widely used material hence this Used in making larger patterns for sand process finds wide application in aerospace casting, RTV modeling, parts with less details and tooling application. Also used for High

757 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

Temperature Superconductivity (HTS) appli- casting to prototypes , Industrial models, test cation, magnetically levitated trains, for models etc. filtering the phone call signals and routing Jetted Photopolymer or Photopolymer them, in embedded sensors and electronics. Phase Change Inkjet Selective Laser Melting Form fit testing, rapid tooling patterns, very Typical application include manufacturing of detailed parts like jewellery and fine items. specialized complex materials, testing of Desktop Milling quality prototypes and manufacturing of Functional prototypes, moulds and models, complex organic geometry. injection moulds and jigs. Inkjet Printing Ballistic Particle Manufacturing The application range from accurate patterns Mainly used for concept visualization. The for casting to art, jewellery and form-fit testing. parts produced cannot be used for functioning Paper Lamination Technology due to weak material, useful in design It has too many applications. From modeling, process. silicon mould application, sand and vacuum GENERAL APPLICATIONS

Figure 13: Percentage Use of Rapid Prototyping Worldwide as of Year 2000, Data Based on D.T. Pham, S.S. Dimov, Rapid Manufacturing Verlag 2001, ISBN1-85233-360-X, Page 6

758 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

Aerospace Industry RP PROCESSES UNDER DEVELOPMENT Various components of the satellite are made Liquid Thermal Polymerization by laser sintering, electron beam melting, In this process the resin is thermosetting and ultrasonic consolidation and Laser Enginee- it utilizes an infrared laser to create voxels. ring Net Shaping(LENS). British Airbus This is similar to Stereo lithography. Heat Engineers aimed to print out an entire aircraft dissipation causes shrinkage and unwanted wing (2011). distortion in the part; also it affects the size of the voxels. However, these are controllable Automotive Industry and far better than SL. This technique is still Shape Deposition Modelling for production a part of research and development. of engine components, URBEE is to be the world’s first 3D printed car. The deck parts of Liquid Metal Jet Printing automobile are produced by Laminated It is a freeform solid manufacturing process. Object Manufacturing. Electron Beam Melting Here the molten jet is printed by controlling it is used to prepare turbocharger wheel of to specific location. The process is similar to diesel engines. inkjet printing unlike spray forming. The Machinery Industry (Tooling) diameter of molten sphere ranges from 100 to 1000 microns, and can be changes by It has a major market in direct part manufac- changing the orifice size. turing. Currently methods like EBM, LENS, UC, SLS, SLM and DMLS are being used, Currently research on developing of an Stereolithography, Selective Layer Sintering, aluminium printing of mechanical parts in Fused Deposition Modelling and Solid being carried out.Earlier research work Ground Curing are used for producing includes jetting copper, metal ball generation patterns for investment castings. Paper and solder mask for circuits. Lamination Technology has vast application here as stated. LENS is used for making Robo Casting and WireFeed injection molding tools. A new variant of the existing technique i.e LENS using material in the form of wire Medical Industry known as Wire Feed process is being Implants, improve tissues with 3D printed developed, similar is another forming process vascular network made from sugar, even 3D using ceramic as raw material called Robo printed human jaws for implants. Casting by Sandia labs.

Manufacturing Industry Direct Photo Shaping Technology Sales and marketing of consumer based This institute is developing a process similar products like shoes, clothes, other footwear, to stereolithography which uses a DMD for titanium necklace and other jewellery is exposure. The technique is known as Direct prepared directly from direct laser sintering Photo Shaping Technology developed for and jetted photopolymer. metals and ceramics by SRI International.

759 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

US Army, Mobile Parts Hospital require advanced and newer approaches The U.S. Army is working on developing despite the current technological advance- medical units for soldiers in the battlefield. ments in the field of RP. It is also clear that According to the available report, this is a 20 are several research issues which need to foot portable container with facilities on spot be addressed in RP especially in layout to scan a broken bone and develop a new planning and part deposition planning. one using LENS, a Rapid Prototyping Despite this progress many challenges still Technology. lie ahead. First, efficient data flow and data handling of 3D objects need attention. Advanced Ceramics Research, Inc. Second, optimization accuracy by better Tucson, AZ technical solutions for calculating/avoiding It has developed a high pressure fused shrinkage, distortion curing, post curing and deposition system, which is can be used with post curing distortion, geometric slab numerous engineering polymers like distortion, creep, etc. Third, material behavior polycarbonate (Lexan ), polyaryletherketone improvement. Fourth , mastering new (PEEK), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), processes meeting specific manufacturing and thermoplastic polyurethane (Pellethane) industry demands.

Other Success Story However barring these developmental issues, the contribution of RP to the A Rapid Prototyping system which uses solid manufacturing sector has been tremendous. feedstock, extruding components using solid The applicability of these processes can be powders/fibres in the form of fillers to the further improved. This can possibly be done feedstock. This process is known as by: First, systematically evaluating the critical Extrusion Freeform Fabrication. influencing parameters. Second , by The U.S. Government is also funding the efficiently and effectively combining these development of functional polymer matrix technologies with conventional components. manufacturing methods. Third, extensive investigation of new and innovative domains. CONCLUDING REMARKS In addition, a probable solution to the First steps into the rapid prototyping aforementioned discussion would be to find technology initiated in 1988, based on first optimal strategies for obtaining good part SLA technique [28]. In leading countries deposition of the parts in the machine volume automotive and airplane industry different by improving part accuracy, improving applications were realized. A lot of specialized surface quality, reducing the build time, service offices are acting successfully. reducing amount of support structures and From the above literature review, it is clear cost subject to RP process constraints, , good that there are a numerous areas such as packing by minimizing build time and process selection, material selection, layout requirement of support structure volume, planning, volume modeling, simulation which maximize machine volume utilization and

760 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014 produce high quality plate subject to RP 5. Box G, Hunter W and Hunter J (1978), process constraints; formulating some basic “Statistics for Experimenters: An build rules to aid designers in order to improve Introduction to Design”, Data Analysis, the strength of the parts made on the RP and Model Building, John Wiley & Sons, machine by controlling parameters like: Bead Inc. width, Air gap, Model build temperature, Raster orientation, color, etc. subject to RP 6. Chua C K and Leong K F (2000), “Rapid process constraint; developing better Prototyping: Principles and Applications frameworks for designing and manufacturing in Manufacturing”, World Scientific. functionally gradient products; develop a framework to reduce anisotropy in the 7. D Kochan (1992), “Solid Freeform products manufactured by fused deposition Manufacturing Possibilities and modelling technique at the design stage itself Restrictions”, Computers in Industry, subject to RP process constraint. Elsevier, Vol. 20, pp. 133-140. Obtaining optimal strategies to the aforementioned areas would go a long way 8. Debasish Dutta, Fritz B Prinz, David in leaping forward to rapid manufacturing and Rosen and Lee Weiss (2001), “Layered bringing rapid prototyping and rapid Manufacturing: Current Status and Future manufacturing at par with the conventional Trends”. manufacturing process techniques. 9. E Merchant (1980), “Analysis of Existing REFERENCES Technological Forecasts Concerning the 1. A G Cooper, S Kang, J W Kietzman, F B CIAF”, CIRP Ann., Vol. 29, No. 2. Prinz, J L Lombardi and L E Weis (1999), “Materials and Design”, Vol. 20, No. 2/3, 10. E O Olakanmi (2013), Journal of pp. 85. Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 213, pp. 1388. 2. A S Gogate and S S Pandey (2008), “Intelligent Layout Plan for Rapid 11. Grimm T (2003), “Fused Deposition Prototyping”. Modelling: A Technology Evaluation”, 3. Bellini A and Guçeri S (2003), Time Compression Technologies, Vol. 2, “Mechanical Characterization of Parts No. 2, pp. 1-6. Fabricated Using Fused Deposition Modeling”, Rapid Prototyping Journal, 12. H S Cho, W S Park, B W Cho and M C Vol. 9, No. 4. Leu (2000), Journal of Manufacturing Systems. Vol. 19, No. I. 4. Bellini A, Shor L and Guçeri S (2005), “New Developments in Fused Deposition 13. Hanser Gebhardt A (2003), “Rapid Modeling of Ceramics”, Rapid Prototyping”, Gardner Publications, Prototyping Journal, Vol. 11, No. 4. Inc.,Cincinnati.

761 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 Manu Srivastava et al., 2014

14. Ho-Chan Kima (2005), “Seok-Hee Lee 22. R J Friel and R A Harris (2012), “The Computer-Aided Design”, Vol. 37, pp. Wolfson School of Mechanical and 711. Manufacturing Engineering”, Lough- borough University, Loughborough, 15. J P Kruth (1992), “Material Incress Leicestershire, UK, LE11 3TU. Manufacturing by Rapid Prototyping 23. R S Kircher, A M Christensen and K W Techniques”, CIRP Ann. Wurth (2009), “Electron Beam Melted (EBM) Co-Cr-Mo Alloy for Orthopedic 16. John Michael Brock, Michael Montero, Implant Applications Medical Modeling”, Dan Odell and Shad Roundy (2012), Inc., Golden, CO 80401, pp. 428-431. “Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM): Material Properties Characterization”. 24. Seth collins partain (2007), “Fused Deposition Modeling with Localized Pre- 17. Masood S H and Song WQ (2004), deposition Heating Using Forced Air”. “Development of New Metal/polymer Materials for Rapid Tooling Using Fused 25. T R Jackson, H Liu, N M Patrikalakis, E Deposition Modelling”, Materials and M Sachs and M J Cima (1999), “Modeling Design, No. 25. and Designing Functionally Graded Material Components for Fabri- cation 18. Mcmains S (2005), “Layered Manufac- with Local Composition Control”. turing Technologies”, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 48, No. 6. 26. Weiping Liu and J N DuPont (2003), “Scripta Materialia”, Vol. 48, pp. 1338. 19. Mcmains S (2005), “Layered Manufac- turing Technologies”, Communications of 27. Wohlers T T (2003), “Rapid Prototyping, the ACM, Vol. 48. Tooling & Manufacturing State of the Industry, Annual Worldwide Progress 20. Montero, M Odell, D Roundy, S Ahn S H Report, Wohler’s Report”, pp. 13. and Wright P K (2001), “Material Characterization of Fused Deposition 28. Wohlers T T (2003), “Rapid Prototyping, Modeling (FDM) Process”, Rapid Tooling & Manufacturing State of the Prototyping and Manufacturing Industry, Wohler’s Report 2003”, Annual Conference, Society of Manufacturing Worldwide Progress Report, Wohlers Engineers, Cincinnati. Associates, Inc., Fort Collins, CO.

21. Pandey P M, Reddy N V, Dhande S G 29. Yan Y and Rendong W (2003), (2003), “Slicing Procedures in Layered Biomaterial Forming Research Using RP Manufacturing: A Review”, Rapid Technology”, Rapid Prototyping Journal, Prototyping Journal. Vol. 9, No. 5. Vol. 9, No. 3.

762