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Morris, John. "Potential Allies of the Enemy: The Tiwi in World War Two." Journal of Northern Territory History 15 (2004): 77-90.

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PotentialAllies Of The Enemy: The Tiwi InWorld WarTwo

John Morris

The are located at the confluence of the TimorandArafura Seas. to the north-west of Darwin,the capitalcityof the NorthernTerritory. Whileit isphysically ofAboriginal stock,the native population oftheislandsislinguistically andculturally distinct fromotherIndigenous peoplesinAustra­ lia. Withthe invasion of countriesto the northandwest of theNorthernTerritorybyJapanese forces during World WarTwo,the loyaltyoftheTiwiIslanders cameunderquestion. Thispaper investigates the credibility ofthat suspicion and the actual role of the Tiwi Islanders in the Northern Australian theatre of war between 1942 and 1945.

On 19 , Darwin suffered the first of sixty-four raids by Japanese aircraft. ARoyal Commissionerwasappointedto investigate the circumstances of theinitialraidforwhichthe military forces had apparently been unprepared. The report of the Commission, Mr Justice Lowe, was not presented tothe Federal Parliament until5 October 1945.' The central pointof interestin this study is containedinthe FurtherandFinalReport, dated9April 1942. Ina sectionheaded'Natives ofMelville Island', JusticeLowestatedthat:

Evidence was given to me thatthe natives ofMelville Island were in all probability more favourablydisposedtowardstheJapanesethantowardsourselves. The maner was not fully investigated by me, and a contrary opinion was expressed by Brother McCarthy, ofthe CatholicMissiononBathurstIsland.

Idrawthe Government'sanentionto thoseopinionsinorderthatthemattermaybemore fully investigated if itisthoughtnecessary.'

The evidencegiven to the RoyalCommissionmust belookedat againstthe backgroundofthe wider situation. In atimeofwar alevel of hysteria and concern wasevident about thereaction of colonised peoplestothe advance ofJapaneseforcesthroughout south-eastAsiaandthe Pacific. Along much of the northern coastline ofAustralia, Europeancontact with theAborigines was of a relatively short duration. The anitude of many officials and settlerstowards the Indigenous population can best be describedinthe terms of the colonisers andthe colonised. This reflectedto a largedegree the views ofadministrators and senlers inAustralian-administeredPapua and . The official ap­ proach toAboriginal affairs in the Northern Territory can be seen in the Government policies and practices thataffectedIndigenouspeople, andinthePayne-Fletcherreport ontheTerritory;' Similarly, theprivate viewsofvariousEuropean- Australians are demonstrated inrelated correspondence inthe DarwinnewspaperNorthern Standardthroughout 1938.4 Whilethe regulationsplaced on Aborigi­ nes wereseento be in their best interest,itisclearthatsuchpracticesand policiesalsooperatedto the advantage ofpastoralistsand Europeantowndwellers.' Aboriginalpolicies inthe NorthernTerritory remainedinplaceduring World WarTwo,manyIndigenous peoplealsocomingundermilitaryregula­ tions forthedurationof the conflict. Bothsetsofcontrolsaffected TiwiIslandersand manymainland Aboriginesalike. In the far north, Indigenouspeople who continued to reside on theAboriginal re­ serves facingtheArafura and the TimorSeasdid notfeelthe weightof thesecontrolsso much.

77 John Morris

The policyof closing much ofthecoast forAboriginalreserveswas considereda mistakebya Mr C Johnston, who, in 1941,suggested toArthurFadden, theleaderoftheCountryParty, that thegovern­ ment 'give,selland lease'the Tiwi Islands to theUnited Statesfora militarybase." Japanese pearlers hadoperated inNorthemTerritory waters. especially around theTiwiIslands, sincethelatenineteenth century. Johnstonfelt,therefore, thattheislandswere'much betterknownto the Japanesethanto the Australians' .'

Overmanyyearsemploymenton Japanese-manned pearling luggers andaJapaneseinitiatedtradein Aboriginalwomenhad broughtcoastalandislandpeoplesintoclosecontactwiththe pearlers. Asa consequence, Bishop Francis Xavier Gsell commented. in 1942,that 'for more than 20 years the JapanesearoundDarwinhavebeentellingblackfellows theywillcomeandbetheirbossesoneday'.' World WarTwoclarified therelationship between theIndigenous peoples ofnorthemAustralia andthe neighbouring territories andtheJapanese military forces.

Withtheinvasion ofPapuaandNewGuinea, themajority ofIndigenes fully supported theefforts ofthe Allies. However, a smallnumbershowed allegiance totheJapanese.' The possibility ofAborigines on theNorthemTenitorycoastbecoming potential alliesoftheJapanese wasexpressed insouthemnews­ papers,addingto Governmentconcernaboutthe effectsof pre-warJapaneseactivitiesamongstAb­ origines innorthemQueensland." Confronted bythis fear, ProfessorAPElkin, Professorof Anthro­ pologyat the Universityof Sydney, wrotetothe PrimeMinister, pointingout that inthe previousten yearsorso thecoastalAborigines hadcometoknowtheJapaneseas 'a verykind folk'." Supporting anunnamed fieldresearcher, Elkin feltthatthedangerofaJapanese-Aboriginal liaison couldbeavoided and theAboriginesturned intoa sourceofhelp forAustraliaif this was done in thecorrect way. The military authorities, he claimed, were'not desirous of receiving thishelp'. According totherecommen­ dationsofElkin's researcher, if theJapaneselandedinthenorthorwest ofAustralia, 'they wouldbe helpedbyaborigines (sic)whoareasyetonlypartially incontactwithwhites- against whom.however, fora variety ofreasons, theyholdmanygrudges.' 12 Aneedexisted foranthropologists and otherswho werefamiliar withtheremote Aborigines togaintheirsympathy andsupport, including theformation of 'patrols underthe guidanceofawhiteman'."

EveniftheAborigines ofAustralia's northem coastline didnotactively supporttheJapanese, couldthey be relied uponto assisttheAlliedcauseasElkinproposed? Inexamining thecircumstances ofthefirst airraidon Darwin,joumalistDavidLesercommented that:

There is also the loyalry of theAboriginesto consider,particularly as it was presumed by somethat theywouldcutand runinthe eventof war."

The oppositeoccurred. UnliketheTorres StraitIslanders, remoteAborigines weredisqualified from recruitment into the regularforces. Nevertheless, somecoastalAborigines in theNorthernTerritory operatedas guerillaand surveillance unitsunderEuropeans, althoughtherehad beena proposalthat they be recruited as armed coast guards and scouts." Coastwatchers such as Jack Jensen in the Wessel Islands, adjacentto north-eastern AmhemLand, reliedupontheassistance oflocalAborigines, whilea numberofYolngu peopleinAmhem Landwereformed intoareconnaissance unit byDonald Thomson." AnotherAboriginal groupledby NativeAffairsofficerJack Murray, and knownas the Black Watch, patrolled the westernsideof Darwin Harbour. It was responsible for rescuingAlIied pilots shot down by the enemy in that area in 1942.17 The members of this group laterjoined the

78 r- Journal ofNorthern Territory History

Aboriginallabour force recruitedby theArmed Servicesinthe NorthernTerritory." This force had grownout of severalyearsof discussionbetweenthe Governmentandthemilitaryhierarchy.

Onthe eve of the warwiththe Japanese.the military hadsoughtto employAboriginal labour butthe Administrator oftheTerritory opposedtheproposal,arguingthattheTiwiIslandersandArnhem Land peopleshould remain on the mission stations rather than be broughtto Darwin for military employ­ ment." Once the NorthernTerritory came underattack.however, theArmyassumeda major respon­ sibilityforAboriginal welfare, leavingtheNativeAffairsBranchto undertake peripheralfunctions such aspatroldutiesandthemanagement ofseveralcompounds." An Indigenous labour unit was quickly organisedundermilitarycontrol. Locatedin camps adjacentto the StuartHighway.the work of this unit relieved regular servicemen forduties of amore militaristic nature. A few Tiwi, trapped onthe mainland afterthe initial airraids,joinedthisunit.

The allegianceof the manyTiwistill intheir islandswasquestioned becauseoftheir traffickingwith Japanese pearling crews. Since 191 I a mission station had operatedon Bathurst Island, one of the TiwiIslands. Therewere,however,nopermanentEuropean residents onneighbouring MelvilleIsland. In the I920sand I930sa tradehad operatedinareasawayfromthemission, in whichgirlsand women wereprostitutedby theirmale relativesto the crews of pearlingluggersinexchange for trade goods. The main offenders,in the eyes of the Government, were Japanesemembersofthe crews. Through mediareports,therelationshipbetweentheTiwi Islanders andtheJapanese had gainedprominencein Australia,GreatBritainandAmerica,and formedthe basisforthetestimony givento the RoyalCom­ missionin 1942.

It is notclearwhetherJusticeLoweheardof actioninvolvingtheTiwiinthe monthspriorto the Royal Commission." If this was given in evidenceit does not appearinthe report. What can be examined isthestrength ofthewar-time relationships betweentheTiwi andEuropeanAustralians onthe onehand andthe attitudeof the Tiwitowards the Japanese on the other.

TheTiwicommunityhad witnessed a permanent European presence intheirislandssincebuffaloshoot­ ersfromthemainland arrived therein 1905." In I911 the missionstationwasestablishedat 'Ngouyou' underFather(laterBishop) FrancisXavierGsell" . Many ofthe Tiwiwidenedtheir customarycosmos evenfurther notonlythroughan increasing numberof visitors totheirislands butalsothroughintermit­ tent contact with the crews ofluggers seeking pearls and pearlshellinlocalwaters. Some Tiwi men gainedemployment onpearling luggersandothercoastalvessels. Thisexperience was expandedinthe 19205and 1930swhen a small number ofTiwi were recruited by the Navy to work on the vessels HMAS Geranium and HMAS Moresby, surveying the coastlinesof Queensland and the Northern Territory." From the mid-1930s others were employed on the severalpatrol boats of the Northern Territory PatrolService,policingthepearlingfleetsaroundtheTiwiIslands andoffArnhem Land. Just as the men employed on the survey vessels were proud of their association with the Navy,so those servingonthe patrolboatsdid so loyally, activelytaking partinoperations againstthe pearling crews whowereillegally usingTiwiwomenorweretrespassing onAboriginal reserves. ForTiwiengaged on luggersinTerritory waters,contact withJapanesecrew memberswasoneof employmentonly. Inthe early I930s Tiwimen witnessedthe killingofJapanese sailorsbylocalAboriginesat Port Keatsand Caledon Bay."

NotallTiwi menbarteredtheirwomen to luggercrews. Whereitdid occur, it was forthe purposesof gainingdesiredgoodsonly, not out of anyacknowledgedaffiliation withtheJapaneseor otherAsians. 79 ,

John Morris

Infact,manyTiwihad becamemorefamiliar withEuropeans thantheyhadwiththeJapanese. This cameabout not onlythrough longresidence bysome on BathurstIslandMission(Nguiu), but also through yearsofregular employment onthemainland. Asforanythought ofaligning themselves with theJapanese military inwar-time, despite thelengthy presence ofEuropeans intheislands theTiwiheld toostrongly to thenotionofland ownership tosupport suchaninvading force landing ontheirshores."

Themilitary forces didnotseetheTiwiaspossible supporters ofanenemyforce. Onthe eveof World WarTwo,Tiwi men worked on the constructionof an airstripadjacent to the mission, built as an emergency Air Forcelanding ground." With thecompletion of thiswork in 1940.a smallAir Force guard waslocated attheairship. Later, Tiwi menwererecruited toassist inburying demolition charges alongthe strip in case enemyplanes attempteda landingon it." Later they had to repair damage causedby lightningstrikingthe explosives. Within a shorttime,thethreatofaJapaneseattackupon northern Australiabecamemoreapparent withthesinkingofanenemy submarine offBathurstIsland on 20 January 1942, and became even more real with the sighting of two Japanese aircraft over BathurstIslandon 18February."

ThestrengthoftheTiwiallegiance to theAustralian cause became clearfrom19February 1942. That moming,the missionsuperintendent, FatherJohnMcGrath, radioed a futile warning toDarwinthata Japanese aircraft anmada wasoverhead." Herepeated themessage untilhe andCorporalSH Moore wereforced tofleeasthemission stationcarne underattack bysixoftheplanes." As theyran to avoid machine gunbullets,theTiwimusthavebecome awareoftheJapanese attitudetowardsthem. Onthe edgeofthe airstrip, aprincipal target oftheJapanese, anAmerican Douglas C-S3, exploded. Acharge setoffto maketheairstrip inoperable wasonlypartlysuccessful. AftertheraidtheTiwiscattered away from themission, somemoving toMelville Island nextday."

ThepopulationofNguiu, however, wasmorefortunate thanthepeople ofKalumburuMissionin the Kimberleys of Western Australia. OnlyoneTiwi, Fernando Urungapotemeri, wasinjured byJapanese bullets, becoming the first casualty ofwar-tirne aggression inAustralia. In addition tothedestruction of theAmericanplane, the missionchurchsustained slightdamage. Incontrast,ina bombingraid on Kalumburu on 13September 1943, sixmissionaries andAborigines werekilled andmostofthebuild­ ingsweredestroyed." Nevertheless, from 19February, theTiwidemonstrated where theirallegiance lay. An overviewofTiwiwar-time activities isthebestwayto illustrate thatallegiance.

As the first bombs fell on Darwin,Aborigines, includingseveralTiwi,shelteredin trenches beside Europeanswithout anyadversecommentsbeingmadebythe non-Aborigines. Those first bombs falling onDarwinwerealsowitnessed bytheTiwicrewofthemission lugger SfFrancis. Theyrescued anAllied pilot who had bailed out into the sea." During the early months of 1942, too, Reuben Cooper'sluggercrew,whichincluded Tiwimen,rescued anAmerican pilotfromtheseaafterhe had beenshotdownoffGunn Point, onthemainland."

Onthewesternsideof Bathurst Island, the United StatessupplyvesselDOll Isidro wasset on fireby Japaneseplaneson 19February 1942,and wasbeachedoffMalgrewPoint. At the requestof Father McGrath, Louis Munkara, his young nephew, Benedict,and three other Tiwi men walked eighty kilometres to CapeFourcroy, thenswamacross thebayto thebumingship. Elevenseamenwho had diedon the beach wereburiedbytheTiwi. Whileseventy-three survivorsweretakento Darwinby HMAS Warrnambool, Louis' partyfollowedthe tracks of other seamenwhich led away from the

80 " Journal ofNorthern Territory Hisl01JI

beach, Accordingto Louis,they foundother crew members whohad appeared to have beenshot, for some unknownreason,bythe Captainwho had then apparentlykilledhimself. Continuingon, Louis found seven survivors who were taken intothe mission."

A second American merchant vessel, the Florence D, was also destroyed by Japanese planes off Bathurst Islandon 19February 1942, On board was the crew of anAmerican Catalinaaircraft shot down bytheJapaneseoffthe northern tipof BathurstIslandearlierinthemorning, LaterRenoKantilla foundthe footprints of survivors fromthevesselon Woolarma BeachatRockyPoint Intheeveninghe observedthesurvivorsbuthe did notapproachthem incasetheywereJapanese, Travelling toGarden Point Missionon MelvilleIsland,he reportedhisdiscoveryto missionsuperintendent FatherWilliam Connors nextmorning, OtherTiwi were sent out to ascertainthe nationalityof the survivors, TheSf Francisand the HMAS Warrnambool, the latter under attack bya Japaneseplane, rescued some of the injuredseamen, Anothergroupof survivorsreachedNguiu, J7 Both theFlorence D andthe Don Isidro carriedFilipinocrews,

The ftrstJapaneseto betakenprisonerof waronAustraliansoil.a Zeropilot,wascaptured byMarthias Ulunguraon20 February 1942," Minor inaccuraciesand some ethnocentrism have crept into some accounts of the capture, whichoccurredat Kru-ruon Melville lsl"';d,'" Matthias had set up a camp therewithasmallnurnberofotherTiwithatmorning, Whilethemenwereawayhunting, theJapanese airman, Sergeant HajimeToashirna, walkedintothe campand pickedupa baby, Clarence Puanrulura, frighteningthe womenand childrenthere, One ofthe women,AmpulumurntoMunkara,eventually took the child from him," Toashima then walked back into the bush, About 5 p.m. Matthias was sitting in the camp, facingeastwards, when he saw the airman walkingthroughthe bush, possibly attracted bythe smoke fromthe camp fire. Signallingto the otherpeople inthe camp to run into the bush, MatthiascircledaroundbehindToashima. Noticingthe cordattachedto theairman's revolver, he crept up behindthe airmanand seizedhis rightarm, Pulling therevolverfromToashima'spocket, Matthiassteppedback,saying, 'Stick 'em up, Twohands up'. TheotherTiwimen havingjoinedhim, they undressedand searchedthe airman at Matthias' instruction,ftndinga camera,a map and a blue cloth, Matthiaswashedthe airman's woundsand gave him bush foodsto eat

Thatnight,Marthias satupallnightto guardtheprisoner, withtheotherTiwisleeping ina circlearound them, Next morning, theyescorted the prisoner to Nguiu, At Paru,oppositethe mission,Toashima panicked when he saw the remains of the American aircraft on the edgeof the airstrip, It was now about2p.m, Aftersometime,Marthias succeededinsignallingtoa TiwimanatNguiutobringa canoe acrossApsley Straitto Paru. At theAir Forcecamp, the prisoner wasfedandquestioned, There was some confusionas toToashima's duties as an airman and how he hadcometo beon MelvilleIsland. Matthias observed the wearon the soles of the prisoner's flying bootscaused by operatinga plane's pedals, indicating that he was a pilot. Matthias and others set out to locatehis plane, a party led by Matthias'cousin,ClementKerinaiua, ftndinga crashedZeroat Tuyu, onMelvilleIsland,"

Several dayslater,Louisand MarianoMunkara and Mariano's son Benedict,werepaddlinga canoe alongApsleyStrait,inthevicinity ofTtkalarpi(CalicoCreek),onMelville Island, Hearing voices, they turned the canoe intothe creekand landed, Creepinginto the bush,thetwo menencountered a party offtve Japanese aitmen, who appeared to be unafraid ofthem. Marianoasked, ,You English? You American?' 'TheJapanesedid not understand the question, Usingsigns,Louisquestioned the menas . intina to the east to whether they had come by plane, Several ofthe Japanese shook theirheads, pomtmg 0 e '

81 John Morris

Leaving theothersto guardtheairmen,Louistravelledto NguiuwhereheaskedFatherMcGrathfora ,303rifleand bullets, Uponthe priest replyingthat he was shortof ammunition,Louis said that he would takejust one bullet and hewould stand the Japaneseina line, One .303bullet,he said, would gothroughthe fiveprisoners, This resultedin Louisearningthenick-name, 'Line-ern-upLouis'. He wasencouraged to bringtheairmeninalive,deliveringthemtoArmy Sergeant Leslie Powel at Nguiu. Priorto theirbeingflown to Darwin,the prisonerswereguardedby threeTiwimen,"

Inaninterview recorded in 1980,GordonBin,a former policeofficer. statedthatfourJapaneseairmen were captured on Melville Island." According to Bin, they claimed to be offa submarine, Two Aborigines, GreenantPaddyand Major,wereallegedlywith theJapanesewhenthey were captured, TheAborigines pointedoutthatthe footwearof theenemyservicemen appeared tocarry markscaused byoperatingthe pedalsofa plane, The militarybroughtthe twoAborigines to Darwinwith theJapa­ neseprisoners, Bin claimedthat Paddyand Majorwereaccusedof treasonbythe militaryguardand were handedover to him, Trumped-up charges were laid againsttheAboriginesby Native Affairs, continuedBin, butthe two escaped from custody and werenever recaptured," It is difficult to say whether thisreminiscence isaccurate or whetheritactually relates tothecapture ofthefiveJapaneseby LouisMunkara, Greenant Paddyand Major were not Tiwi namesbut the two mencould have been amonga numberof mainlandAborigineswho,becauseof theirperceived anti-social behaviour,were sentto theNativeAffairsControlBaseon MelvilleIslandin 1941"

Faced with the possibility ofa second air raid on the mission station or a Japanese landing on the islands,FatherMcGrathdecided to evacuateNguiu, On 21 February, accompanied bystaffmembers BrotherBedeCommerford and Peter de Hayr,Father McGrathand 300Tiwi travelled in a fleet of canoes twenty-sixkilometresupApsley Straitto Mindilu on MuntaluwuCreek where a camp was established. The missionoperatedfrom therebetween9 March1942and 10June 1942,when itwas deemed safeforNguiuto bere-occupied," Althoughdiscussions abouta suggested evacuationof the islandstookplaceinmid-1943, the missionremainedinplace,caringforthe Indigenous residentsand catering forvisiting Alliedservicemen andassistingthemilitary operations intheislands"

Across the islands and furtherafield the Tiwi, while not members of thearmed forces, assisted the Alliedwar effortindifferentways, In March 1942,at CorporalMoore'srequest, LouisMunkaraand anotheryoungTiwiwalkedto CapeFourcroyagain,to assistintheestablishment ofa coastwatching station at Weaparali,to be manned by RAAF personnel initially underActing Corporal AE (Bill) Woodnutt, Whena RAAFplanegot intodifficulties Louisswamtowhereseveral crew membershad landedinthesea, Despitesufferingphysically, he broughttheservicemen backto land," The use of CapeFourcroy asa navigation markby Japanesepilotsledto thesettingup ofa radarstationat Radar Hillaboutsixteenkilometressouth-east of Weaparali, Fromitsfirstdays,inAugust 1942,a groupof liwi worked aslabourers intheconstruction andoperation ofthefacility andasunofficial coastwatchers." On 29 December1942,twoTiwiwomen at the radar stationreponed thecrashofa Beaufighternear CapeHelvetius to the northofCape Fourcroy,leadingto the rescueofoneof thecrewfrom thesea by BillWoodnutt. InMayof thefollowing yeartheTiwireponeda Japanesesubmarine offWeaparali.t" Inaddition, seamineswerelocated onthecoastat MunkanubyLouisMunkara andAlben Kerinaiua."

Anotherradarstation was locatedto the north of Garden Pointon MelvilleIsland. Among the Tiwi who assisted the unit was Alan Pupajua, who, like Matthias Ulungura and others, was unpaid for performing hisdutieswhichincluded standingguard 'night timeanddaytime' andcarryingmessages betweenthat unit and the RAAFbase at Snake Bay,"

82 Jonrnal ofNorthem TerritoryHis/OIY

Apartfrom thecapture ofthefirstJapanese pilot.littlepublicityhas beengiven to theTiwi wareffort. Theexception istheSnake BayPatrol. thenamegivento asmall,unpaid force onMelville Island" In March1939theNative Affairs Branchhadestablished a base at Garden Point, on Melville Island, to control thetradeinwomen operating between theTiwiandindentured Japanese crewmen onAustra­ lian-owned pearlingluggers. Inlate 1940workcommencedonthe construction ofa mission station adjacentto the controlbase. Thestationwasto accommodatesome ofthechildrenofAboriginal­ European orAboriginal-Asiatic descent formerly caredforbytheNativeAffairs Branch." An indica­ tionoftheJapanese interest inAustralia'snorthcamein 1941,whenmission stafffrom Garden Point observeda Japanesepearlingfleettrespassing inAustralian waters. Aboard the mothershipwasa uniformed officer oftheJapanese navy.

With theappointment ofJWB (Jack)Gribble to GardenPointControlBase on I May1941, thebase alsobecame'a detention campforrefractory mainland natives'." These 'rncorrigibles' wereIndig­ enousmenandwomen whoweresenttoMelville Island dueto theiranti-social behaviour inDarwin" Thepossibility ofAsianlugger crewscalling intoSnakeBay, alsoon Melville Island, seeking women, hadbeendiscussed forseveral years. On I June 1941,Gribblesuggested aNativeAffairs settlement becreated there." Following somemonths of foot patrolling and roadmaking, Gribble setupa Native Affairs settlement atSnakeBayinFebruary 1942." He had with him the "incorrigibles', as wellas a numberoITiwi.

Inthemonths following theinitial airraidsonDarwin, Australia remained onalertastheislands ofthe Indonesian Archipelago fell to the enemyand fightingraged in PapuaandNewGuinea. Japanese planes hittargetsinthetopendoftheNorthern Territory. AgroupofAmerican soldiers escaped thefall ofthe ina Harbour ferry, eventuallyanchoringoffGarden Pointwhere theywere mistaken foraJapanese landing force." With thethreatof a Japaneseinvasion, mostofthe Indigenous population abandoned SnakeBay, whiletheresidentsofNguiu haddispersed acrossthe islands as a safetymeasure.

Operating outof SnakeBayandsuffering personal privations,Gribbleconducted footandwaterpa­ trols withtheaidoffouror five Aborigines whohad remained withhim. ByMay1942, thissmallparty hadcovered almost twothousand kilometres, watching outforJapanese forces andrescuing thecrews ofcrashed Alliedaircraft"

Inthemeantime, a smallgroupof menofAboriginal-European descentfromGardenPoint,andra­ tionedbytheNavy, carried outguarddutyat SnakeBay. On II September1942,dueto hisknowl­ edgeofthe islandsandhis 'abilityto handle natives', Gribblewascommissioned intotheNavalRe­ serve with therankof'lieutenant." Within a fewmonths he formed an unofficial Naval patrol unitmade upof aboutthirty-six Tiwiandmainlanders, the latterbeingamongthose'refractory'peoplesentto Garden Pointin 194 I.

Although themembers ofthisunitwerenotenlisted into,andpaidby,theRoyal Australian Navy, they wererationed bythatservice. Writing to theNavalOfficer-in-Charge, Darwin, in 1961, the Director of Welfare, HCGiese,referred to the unitbeingin the 'same position'as PapuanandNewGuinean Indigenesin respect of war-timeservicesrenderedand the training and discipline undertaken." Emphasising thework oftheunitGiese commented that:

83 John Morris

Theissueofunifonns, theconferringof rank,theequippingwithAnns andmachine guns,the trainingin gunner)'and grenade attack, all add up to a seriousmission. HolderAdamsand PaddyOnemakeitclearthat the coastwatching and patrolling involvedactiveduty, andthat themembers of the unit wereexposedtoasgreat dangers asService personnel stationed in Darwin."

More importantly, the Director noted that 'It is also apparent that these aborigines were more than anxious toserve their country initstimeof need'. b4

By 7April 1945,in the courseof this service the 'Native Patrol' covered 1318kilometres on patrol withGribble, while'Native PatrolBoys' walkedanother 13,042kilometres bythemselvesin searches forcrashedairmen, Usingdugoutcanoes,a sixteen foot launch,and laterthearmedpatrolboatAmity. membersof the unit covered 19,599kilometres on sea patrols, locatingsea minesand searchingfor survivors from ship wrecks." In addition to Melville Island, part of the mainland coast was also patrolled. On 10January 1944,theAmil)' picked liptwoAmericanofficersandtwo Filipinosfroma canoe about 64 kilometres off Melville Island. The men had escaped fromthe Japanese-occupied Philippineson 24August 1943. On another occasion the patrol rescued sevenAmbonese soldiers froma dilapidated fishingjunkapproximately 65kilometresnorthofMelville Island. The soldiers had escapedfrom the JapaneseforcesonAmbon, a fortnightearlier." The duties of the Indigenous unit, however, extendedbeyondits patrol work.

Theestablishment ofseveral military facilities atandnearSnakeBay, including anammunition dump, an Air Force base, a Catalina base, and a training camp for Secret Intelligenceforces, introduced the Aborigines there toawiderrange ofservicemen ofseveralnationalities," It meant, too,that aircraft as wellasa variety ofmilitary vesselsweremovinginand outof SnakeBay. Atdifferent timesPaddyOne Morungatimini demonstrated hisknowledge oflocal waters as hepilotedNavalvesselsthroughdan­ gerousreefsoff'theTiwiIslands, while the patrol reportedthe discovery of aboutfifteenJapanesesea mines around the island. During the war, few people were aware that two Tiwi men, Charlie One Tipakalippaand StranglerPungautji McKenzie, were called upon on severaloccasions to travel by submarine to , wherepersonneland storeswere landedforAustralian commandoesfighting be­ hindthe Japanese lines. On one trip, after encountering two smallpartiesofJapanese who escaped fromthem,theAlliedparty, comprisingtheTiwi,severalMalaysanda European officer, werepursued bya Japanese launch. TheAllied rubber dinghy reached the submarine which came in close to the shoreandthe enemylaunchturnedaway. The secrecyof the exercisesisdemonstrated bythe factthat Charlieand Strangler were not allowed to reveal their voyages to Timor to anybody." As a senior Welfare Branchofficerwrote,'The nativeswere on activeduty inpotentially hostilewaters'."

ClementKerinaiuawasemployedon a Naval vessel when its crewrescuedthe pilot of anAustralian Spitfire shotdownat Pungatji (Pungautji)Creekon Melville Island." OtherAllied pilots were located andrescued bythe 'NativePatrol'andby otherTiwimen fromNguiuorlivingelsewhereintheislands. A Dutchairmanwitha brokenlegwascarriedfor fourkilometresthroughroughcountryandswamps. On 15June1942,anAmericanpilot,who crashednearCape GambieronsouthernMelville Islandwas rescued bythreeTiwimen,JohnnyTundingali,Jabbcru KerinaiuaandDiamond Kerinaiua, whotrans­ portedhimina canoetothemainland. The Islandersthen walked32kilometresto obtainhelp forthe pilot."

84 Journal ofNorthern Territory History

MatthiasUlungura andothermenfromNguiu conducted foot andseapatrols around theislands under the directionof Corporal SH Moore. Theylocatedcrashedaircraftand carriedout moremundane dutiessuchasrepairing theairstrip atNguiuafterthe Japaneseraidof 19February 1942. andwalking more thaneightykilometres to delivermailto theradarstationatCapeFourcroy," Whenthe ketch Kosan, carrying Australians and Dutchmen whohadescapedfromTanimbar Island, madelandfall at Garden Point,aTiwiyouth walkedthrough thenightforsevenhourstodeliveranurgentmessage to Nguiu to be radioedto Darwin. TheTiwiwerecalledupon,also,to assistinthe removal ofengines fromcrashed aircraft. Thecrewofa Douglas aircraftwhichcrashed ona saltpanatTongo, inthearea ofLethbridge and Brenton Bayson Melville Island, wererescuedbytheAirForce. Sevenmenfrom Nguiu, togetherwith members of theSnakeBaypatroland the crewofa Navalvessel,strippedthe Douglasof itsengines andpropellers whichwereshippedtoDarwin."

ByApril 1944,nearlytwohundred Tiwiwereemployed onthe mainland bytheArmy, Reporting on the Tiwiatthattime,Patrol OfficerWEHarney wrote,

Imyselfsawoverfifty menworking attwoplacesdoinguseful worksinreconstruction.

As coastwatchers andtrackers of/ost airmen theyhavegiven'invaluable service. Today (sic) overthirty-five people havebeenrescued bythesenatives notforgetting sixJapanese prison­ erstakeninthefirst fewmonthsofthewar."

On 5 December1944,a Mitchell bomber,damaged byenemyfireoverTimor, crash landed inman­ grovesnotfarfromNguiu. With eighty menemployed inthePortCraftCompany based inDarwin, and in otherformsofserviceaway fromNguiu,onehundred Tiwiwomen,assisted bythe fewremaining men,worked ontheremoval oftheplane'sengines whichtheythendragged onskidstothebeach tobe transportedto Darwin,"

Likeothersmallcraft inNorthern Territory waters, themission lugger SfFrancis wastakenoverbythe Navy duringthe war. Brother AndrewSmith,theskipperof the luggeranda veteranof World War One,wasconunissioned asa Naval lieutenant andremained incharge ofthevessel. With aTiwicrew, the SfFrancisfaced thedangerofattacksbyJapaneseplanesas it carried supplies tocoastal military posts.

The crewsofseveral Japanese planesshotdownoverthe islandsdidnotsurvivethecrashes. Observ­ ingoneZerospiralling downwards towards RedCliffs, onthesouthern sideofMelville Island, several Tiwi, includingLouisMunkara, anda RAAFcorporalhastenedto the scene. Theyburiedthe two Japanese airmen found there." Similarly, twoalienairmenfound deadjust to thenorthofNguiu were buriedbyGabriel Tungutalum andhisbrother,"

WhileAboriginal communities along thenorthern coastofAustralia felt theeffects oftheJapanese move intotheirregion, itwastheTiwi who,byreason oftheirlocality, experienced thegreatest impact ofthe war theyweredrawninto. Theirresponse clearly demonstrated thatthe evidence giventothe Royal Commissionregarding likely supportofa Japaneselandingin the islandswas,to the bestoftheevi­ dence available, incorrect. Tosomedegree, the actionsof theTiwiandof othercoastal groupsgives lie, also,to the post-warassertion that 'IftheJaps had landedandobtainedtheupperhand,the bush Aborigines would probably have goneovertothem'." At no timeduringinterviews, in the I960s,with

85 John Morris

Tiwi eldersandmainlandAborigineswho wereformerly considered to be 'anti-social'. was thereany hint ofa possible transferofioyalty to the enemy. In any case,the Tiwiandthe 'incorrigibles' ofthe Snake Bay Patrol could have simply declined to assist the Allied cause. The fact that they did not demonstratestheir loyalty totheAlliedcause.

The war introduceda newside of the wider Australiato the Tiwi,as itdid toAborigineson the main­ land. Inthemain.theservicemen fromthe southwhocameintocontactwithIndigenous peopledidnot display racist attitudes, ashad been experienced at the hands of various EuropeanTerritorians. Ab­ originesemployedbythemilitaryforces,however,remainedsubjectto Government controlledwage rates. Otherswhowere notofficiallyrecruitedbythe military. suchasthe membersof the Snake Bay Patrol, received only rations in return forthe duties performed. Eventually, in 1962the men in the Patrol were grantedtheirwagesat the rate paid toAboriginesinmilitaryemploymentduring the war, together withthe ex-service medalsto whichthey were entitled. Followingan appealon his behalf, Matthias Ulungura wasgranted 'a giftof65 pounds15shillings','for thehelp(he)gavetheAir Force'." The Directorof Welfare rightly pointedout that Manhias 'deservedthis laterecognitionof (his)assis­ tance'." Not until 1991 weremany, but not all,Aborigines andTorres StraitIslanders acrossnonhem Australiafullycompensated fortheirwar-timedutiesat the samelevel as non-Indigenous militaryper­ sonnel" Perhaps this can be considered as a belated recognition that the Tiwi and other northern Aborigineshaddemonstratedloyaltyand stoicismratherthen anybehavioursuggestingfavourto the enemy.

Notes , 1945, The Parliament ofthe Commonwealth ofAustralia. Commission ofInquiry Concern­ ing the Circumstances Connected with the Attack Made By Japanese Aircraft at Darwin on 19th February. 1942. Reports by Commissioner (MI: Justice Lowe). Together With Observa­ tions Thereon by the Departments ofthe Navy, Army. Air and Interior Presented by Com­ mand 5th October. 1945. In The Parliament ofthe Commonwealth ofAustralia. 1945-46. Vol. 4, Papers Presentedto Parliament, Canberra: Cornmonwealth GovernmentPrinter, 1946,pp. 1011-1053.(Hereafter,The LoweReport). , Ibid, p. 1034. 'Forexample, RegulationsUnderThe AboriginalOrdinance1918-1937, GovernmentNotice98/ 38, NorthernTerritoryGovernmentGazene insert in the Northern Standard. 25/3/1938. Payne, WLand Fletcher, JW, Report ofthe BoardofInquiry into the Landand Land Industries ofthe Northern Territory ofAustralia, Canberra: Government Printer, 1937,pp. 69-71. 'In the Northern Standard see, for instance, TheAbo's Future (18/3/1938), BelievesIn Lash For Blacks (22/4/1938), Flogging(1 0/6/1938),Aborigines • Federal Policy(21/6/1938 -16/8/1938). S Such regulationsrelatedto theemploymentofAboriginesoncattlestationsand intowns,and to the movement ofAborigines intown areas. 'NAA:A981, PAC41,'Pacific - Melville Island', Johnston to Fadden,21/2/1941. 7 Ibid. • Darwin Raid Tomorrow.Japanese Boast, The Age, 26/2/1942, p. 3. 9 Newton, Janice,Angels, Heroesand Traitors: Imagesof SomePapuans inthe Second World War, Research in Melanesia, Vol. 20, 1996, pp. 141-156. JO Attitude ofAborigines,Sydney Morning Herald, 11/3/1942:NationalArchivesofAustralia (Hereafter,NAA):A373,5903,"Japanese ActivitiesAmongstAborigines".

86 Journal a/Northern Territory HistOJY

"NAA: MP551, 42170/1 024, Box 17,"Co-operation BetweenAboriginesand Whitesto Combat PossibleLiaisonwithJapaneseLanded inRemotePaJ1S ofAustralia", Elkinto RightHon.John Curtin, 2/4/1942. "Ibid. " Ibid. " Leser, David, TheAussie Pearl Harbour, The Bulletin, 1812/1992, p. 41. "NAA: MP508/1/0, 82/7/12/1432, "Suggested OrganisationofGuerriia (sic)or ScoutingParties Aborigines". "Squadron Leader DonaldThomson,ananthropologist, had workedinArnhemLandbetween 1935 and 1937. 17NAA:NTAC1980/1 II, "Miscellaneousrecordsmaintainedby EJ Murray, Superintendent of Delissaville Settlement, SnakeBaySenlement (Melvilleisland)andNative Affairs Branch, Katherine", Delissaville StationRecord, 1942. 18 NAA: FIIO, 1942/406, "NativeAffairsBranchStaff and PolicyManers",Employment ofAb­ original Labor (sic),January, 1943. I'NAA: MPI 049/5, 1855/21256, "Aboriginal Labour for DefencePurposesat Darwin". 20 NAA:A431/1, 194619 I 5,"EmploymentofAboriginesinArrny (World War 2)",Administratorof the NorthernTerritory(hereafter.Administrator) to Secretary, Department oftheInterior(hereafter, 001),25/10/1943: Theresponsibilities oftheArrny and NativeAffairsinrespect ofAborigineswere the topic ofsome debate. 21 Mission BoyTakesFirstJap Prisoner, inan unidentifiednewspapercutting,possiblyMay, 1942, appearsto be the firstpublicreportingofthecaptureof the JapaneseairmanbyMatthiasUlungura on 20/2/1942. II EORobinson, lesseeof MelvilleIsland, hada partyof buffaloshootersoperating on theisland between 1895and 1896,whenhe decidedto allow the herdsto recoverfromthe depletionof their numbers. Robert Joel Cooperresumed shootingforRobinson in 1905,finally departing in 1916.. "Gsell, FX, The Bishop with 150 Wives. Sydney:Angus and Robertson, 1956,p. 45. The station was usuallyreferredto as BathurstIslandMission,althoughit wassometimescalledWiuor Weo. Bythe 1960s, the nameNguiuwasslowlybecomingintomorecommonuse. "NAA: MPI 049/5,1993/2/17, "HMASGeranium". InterviewswithMickeyGeranium Warlapiinni, Nguiu, 13/8/1963, and KartuKerinaiua,Paru, 1965. "NAA:A1/15, 193312852, "HomeAffairsDepartment, Lugger 'Ouida, Wreck of', andA1/15, 1936/111,"Apprehensionand trialofCaiedon BayNatives chargedwithmurderofJapanese". Interviews with ColleyMunkanome andGeorge Kerinaiua,Nguiu, 1961,andBobJimalandumi, Paru,3015/1964. "Hart, CWM and Pilling,AR, The Tiwi a/North Australia, New York: Holt,Rinehart and Win­ ston, 1960,p. 10:The wordTiwi means"the chosen people who liveon andown the islands". Despitethe presenceof the missionaries andothernon-Tiwioverthe years,theTiwialwayssaw the islandsas their own land. Forexample,in 1935 a prominentTiwielderdemanded compensation for an airstrip being built inthe"country"ofhisband- see NAA:AI/15, 1936/2800,Adrninistratorto Secretary,Dol, 29/4/1935. 21NAA: FI, 19401246, "OfficialCorrespondence Bathurst IslandMission". za Interviewwith SimonMunkara,Imelda Fernando, MildredOrstoand Valentine Puautjimi, Nguiu, 19/2/1964. "Interview with Geoff Spence,ex-RAN,Darwin,4 November 1964;McCarthy, Mike, The Flamingo Bay Voyage, Departmentof Maritime Archaeology, Western Australian Maritime Mu-

87 John Murris

seum, Report No.4!. January, 1991.p. 18;the Lowe Report, up. cit.. p. 1024.

)0 Pye,John, The 77l1'i Islands, Darwin:CatholicMissions, 1977.p.46. Northern Territory Ar­ chivesService(hereafter, NTAS): NTRS226, Box 2, ItemTS761,BrotherEdward Bennett interviewed 23/4/1993. transcript, p. 5: asimilarradiowarningwasnotsentfromtheGarden Point Control Base. ""Evidence in Support of Matthias'ClaimforRemuneration forService in 1942, supplied bySH Moore, FlyingOfficer, No.35707, RAAF, formerly", enclosuretoletter, Administratorto Secretary, Department of'Territories, February, 1964. Copy ofletter to Nguiudated 15/12/1964. "Interviews, at Nguiu, withMatthias Ulungura, 11/5/1963, Isadore Fernando, 7/3/1964, and DominicandGraceTimaepatua, Nguiu,7/7/1964;Moore,op. cit, Amap of"World WarII JapaneseAttacks andReconnaissance Flights OverAustralia"intheKatherine Museum, N.T., erroneously liststheairraidonBathurstIsland as occurringon 18/611942. 3J Horton,David (gen.ed.), The Encyclopaedia ofAboriginalAustralia, Canberra: Aboriginal StudiesPress,1994,Vol. 1,p. 530;Griffiths, Owen, Darwin Drama. Sydney: Bloxhamand Chambers, 1946,p. 101. "Interview withBricklayer Tipuarnanttunirri, Nguiu,8April1964. "Interview withAlbertKulappaku Croker, Paru,MelvilleIsland, 20/5/1963. " Interview withLouis Munkara, Nguiu,19/5/1963;Munkara,Harry, LouisMunkara'sStory, roneoed,Nguiu, 1973,pp. 1-2;NAA: MPI049/5,2026/8/712, "Don Isidro- Salvage". Pye,op. cit., p. 52:AccordingtoBenedict Munkara, the Tiwisalvagedandconsumedfood, tobaccoand beerfromthe wreck, "Interviews, at Nguiu, withBrother Francis Quinn,21July 1963,GemmaTipuarnantumirri, I February 1964,Bricklayer Tipuarnantumirri, 8/4/ 1964,and withJohnLiddy, Garden Point. 13/6/ 1964. "Interviews withMatthias Ulungura, Paru,MelvilleIsland, 1963. 39 See,for instance,MissionBoyTakesFirstJap Prisoner, op. cit.;TONMilling, TheySangof the Spitfire,South WeSI Pacific, dateunknown,pp. 54-56, 64; Griffiths,op. cit., pp.89-90. Acaption in the EastPointMilitary Museum, Darwin, sightedon 8/12/200I, incorrectly states thatthecapture occurred on Bathurst Island. 40 Interviews, at Nguiu, withMenaPuantulura, 1963-1964,and RegTipiloura, 22/2/1964. 41 Interview with Matthias Ulungura, Paru, 1962;The Storyof the Capture of theFirstJapanese Prisoner of WaronAustralian Soilby Matthias, BathurstIslander, astoldbyhimselfto Rev. Bro.RJ Pye. Capturedin February, 1942,(Transcript undated); Moore,up. cit: Flynn,Rev. Frank,Dis­ tant Horizons, Kensington (N.S.W.): TheAnnals of Our Ladyof the SacredHeart,1947,pp.81­ 82. ., Interviews, at Nguiu, with Isadore Fernando, 7/3/1960,BenedictMunkara, 18/5/1963, and Louis Munkara, 19/5/1963; O'Connor,James,"PiraptameliFlightSergeant", TheSun, Melbourne, 28/ 10/1944,p. 14. 4J NTAS: NTRS226,Box2, ItemTS 13,Gordon Robert Birtinterviewed byHildaTuxworth, 18/ 4/1980,transcript. 44 Ibid Todateconfirmation ofBirt's storyhas not been located. 4S Seepage7 ofthisarticleregarding thetransporting of'incorrigibles' toGarden PointControl Base in 1941. 40 NguiuMissionArchives: McGrath toDirectorof SocialServices, 1/1 0/1943; Kelantumama, Elizabeth, WarTimeStory, Nginingawula Pikaringini Ngini Ngawa Ngapangiraga, August 1992,p. 16. The nunsin the islandsandthe girls residentat GardenPointhadbeenevacuated to themainland shortly before 191211942.

88 Journal ofNorthern Territory His/DIY

"NAA: FI/O. 19441275:'PatrolOfficerWE HarneyPatrols and Reports" (a) Harney,Patrol Officer WE, ReportofActivities fromMay,1942,to May,1943,undated;(b) Deputy Director of NativeAffairsto PatrolOfficer Harney, 22/6/1943. 48 Munkara, Harry,op. cit., pp. 2-3;Alford, Bob, Darwin sAir War, 19-12-19-15. An Illustrated History, Darwin:TheAviation Historical Societyof theNorthernTerritory, 1991,p. 23; Porter,FH, Adventures in Radar, Mona Vale: Radar Publications, 1998,p. 98; NAA: MPI 049/5,20261111 127,"Northern Patrol VesselsKuru and Larrakia", Naval Officer In ChargeNorthern Territoryto Secretary,Naval Board,23/9/1939;a militaryobservationpost was proposed for Cape Fourcroy in 1939. 49 Porter, op. cit., pp. 78, 81-82, 88-89. 100. Interviewwith Brother Frank Quinn, Nguiu, 5/5/ 1964. so Memo, Peterand Sheila Forrest,Darwinhistorians. to John Hicks,Secretary, Tiwi Land Council, 2000. " InterviewwithLouis Munkara,Nguiu,19/5/1963. 52NAA: MP742/1, 164/1/209,"AustralianAbo(sic)- Participationin WarEffort";Interviews at Nguiu with Brother FrankQuinn,5/5/1964andAlanPupajua,7/11/1964. SJ This unit has also been referred to as the"BlackWatch", the same name used for Jack Murray's patroloperatingoutof Delissaville. Gribbleusedtheterm"Native Patrol" forthe SnakeBay unit. ,.. NAA: A431/50, 51/1399, "Garden Point(Melville Island). Reviews,reports,etc."; Missions To TakeHalf-Castes, Northern Standard, 10/12/1940. "National Libraryof Australia (hereafterNLA):ChinneryPapers,MS766, Item 8/12, Box 18, Annual Report ofthe Director of NativeAffairs,1940-41,pp. 11·12. "Harney, WE, Life amongtheAborigines, London: Robert Hale, 1957,pp. 70-75. 17NLA: Chinnery Papers MS766, (a) Item8/24,Box 19,Gribble to Secretary, Department of Native Affairs (sic), 1/6/1941, (b) Item8123, Box 19,John B Gribble,"PROPOSALS (sic) for GovernmentSenlementonMelvilleIsland", undated. sa Personalcommunicationfrom BrotherEdwardBennen,14/6/1965. Bennen.who wasstationed at Garden PointMission at that time, kepta diaryofevents. InterviewwithCharlie One Tipakalippa,Garden Point, 20/4/1965. CharliewaswithGribblewhenSnakeBaywas settled "when the Japanesewarstarted, level". "Interview with John Liddy, GardenPoint, 13/6/1964. The ferry, Quail, was later given to the GardenPointMission,givingthatinstitution overtwenty yearsservice. 6ONLA: Chinnery Papers, MS766 Item8/27, Box20,Gribble to DirectorofN ativeAffairs, 15/5/ 1942. 61 NAA:A518, M8521714 Part I, "NorthernTerritory -AdministrationBranch- Organization", Secretary, Department ofthe Navy,to Secretary,Dol, 41711942, and Secretary, Dol, toAdministrator, 22/8/ 1942. 62 NAA:A452/54, J966/6512 "Aborigines Employed by the RAN. during 1939/45 War", HC Giese to CaptainAH Cooper, Naval O-I-C,HMASMelville, Darwin,4/9/1961. "Ibid. HolderAdams was more correctlyWaIter PunguatjiAdams, while PaddyOne was Paddy Morungatimini. "Holder" wastheolderTiwipeople'spronunciation of"Walter". 64 Ibid. "NLA: Chinnery Papers, MS766, item8/68, Box 25,Gribble, John B,"Deeds Done ByThe NativePatrol On Melville Island", undated; NAA:MPI51/1, 412/201177, Naval Officer In Charge, Darwin to Secretary, Naval Board, 1/2/1944, "LaunchAmity- SupplyofArrnament Stores";

89 MP151/1, 5331201/368, "Japanese MinesWashedAshore on Melville Island". TheAmirywas apparentlytransferred to Gribble's commandearlyin 1944. 66 Chinnery Papers. op. cit.; Griffiths, op. cit.. p. 209. NAA: A452/54, 1966/6512, op. cit., evidenceby Holder(Waiter)Punguatji Adams. "Powell,Alan, TheAllied IntelligenceBureauinthe Northern Territory, 1942-1945,Jollrnal of Northern Territory History, no. 8, 1997,pp. 58-59; Interviews with Brother Frank Quinn, Nguiu, 5/5/1964, and John Liddy,GardenPoint, 13/6/1964 "NAA:A452/54, 1966/6512,op cit., evidence by Holder (Waiter) PunguatjiAdams. Interviews at Garden Point with FatherJohn Leary, 11/6/1964, and James Puruntatameri and EmeryApautimi, 13/6/1 964, and at Nguiu withCyprianUlungura, 17/6/1964, and Charlie OneTipakalippa.2014/ 1965. "NAA:A452/54, 1966/6512,opcit., comments byT.C. Lovegrove. 70 InterviewwithManhias Ulungura. Nguiu,18/611964. 11 Interviewsat Nguiu with JerryKerinaiua, 1961,and Bismark Kerinaiua,19/6/1963;Griffiths, op. cit.. p. 207. "Interviews with Manhias Ulungura, Nguiu, 11/5/1963 and 15/5/1963. "Interviews with Bismark Kerinaiua, Nguiu,19/6/1963 and 18/6/1964,andDan WundjinaDaniels, Milikapiti (Snake Bay),27/1211963. "NAA: FI/O, 1944/275, Harneyto Directorof NativeAffairs, 6/4/1944. 'Today' apparently should be 'to date'. "Interviews with Nora Palipuaminni,Nguiu,May,1963,andAlexanderKantilla,Nguiu,June, 1963. Pye (1977), op. cit., p. 51, The Tiwi were recruited into the Port Craft Company in March 1944. "Interview with Nora PalipuaminniandLouisMunkara,Nguiu, May,1963. 71 DiscussionswithJohn Hicks,Darwin,3/1212001, and HyacinthTungutalum, Nguiu,5/1212001. "Griffiths, op. cit., p. 39. 79 NAA: FI, 1963/1227,"Matthias UlunguraCase Papers", Directorof Welfareto Matthias Ulungura, 31/8/1964. 80 Ibid. 81 "Black Diggers finally paid", The Courier, Ballarat,2614/1991, p. 4.

90