Terrestrial Fauna Baseline Report –December 2014 4. RESULT OF THE VERTEBRATE FAUNAL SURVEYS

4.1 Introduction

Mozambique has a large diversity of herpetofauna due to the variety of different habitat types available and the large size (area) of the country. While there are no formal publications that explicitly deal with this topic, reputable internet sources indicate that 215 reptile (The Reptile Database 2013) and 69 amphibian species (Amphibiaweb 2013) are expected to occur in the whole of Mozambique. This is no doubt an underestimation of the actual diversity due to under- sampling in many of the remote areas of Mozambique, especially the northern parts of that country (Nampula, Niassa and Cabo Degabo provinces). Recently Broadley and Farooq (2013) reported the first record of Usambara Vine Snake (Thelotornis usambaricus) for Mozambique, Verburgt and Broadley (In press) described a new species of Limbless Skink (Scolecoseps sp. nov) from northern Mozambique, Portik et al. (2013) described a new species of Dwarf Gecko (Lygodactulys regulus) from Mt Namuli, and Tolley et al. (2013 In Prep) described many new species of Stumptail Chameleons (Rhampholeon sp. nov) from northern Mozambique.

A diverse avifauna occurs in Mozambique; there are more than 680 bird species. Although a few birds are commensal, rapidly and successfully adapting to modified environments, the majority of birds are sensitive to disturbance and either migrate away from, or suffer greater mortality within, degraded habitats. However, because of their high mobility, birds are capable of rapidly recolonizing rehabilitated habitats (CES 2000). No recent review of Mozambique birds exists, but IUCN (2012) and Birdlife International (2008) cover Mozambique in their data. According to Birdlife International (2008), the project area is not situated in an Important Bird Area (IBA).

Approximately 238 mammal species occur in Mozambique (IUCN 2012). The mammal fauna of Mozambique was last reviewed by Smithers and Tello (1976). Although mammal endemicity in southern Africa is high (42%), this is not the situation in Mozambique where endemicity is very low and the fauna are mainly transitional between that of the East African coastal belt and the Cape temperate region.

It is evident from the overview, that the study area has experienced limited human influence, especially within the vicinity of the prospecting area. Therefore the study area is still intact with a high level of connectivity with regards to fauna. However, during the site visit completed in March 2013 hardly any large vertebrate activity was observed, but during the September 2013 survey there were large mammal sightings. Seven Impala (Aepyceros melampus) and two separate Sharp’s grysbok (Raphicerus sharpie) were seen in the Mopane, but the game was very flighty and only seen at a distance. Several piles of fresh elephant droppings were also observed on a side road off Haul Road 2. It is reported that there are conflicts between elephants and people living in the area, with elephant invading villages and mashambas. The flighty and nervous temprement of the game animals is attributed to the influence of the civil war experienced in Mozambique where game was hunted for food rations (Hatton et al. 2001). There is no formal conservation area in Tete province (refer to Figure 3.5) and therefore there is potential to establish wildlife sanctuaries and to re-introduce species.

4.2 Amphibians

4.2.1 Regional overview of Amphibians Amphibians are important in wetland systems, particularly where fish are excluded or are of minor importance. In these habitats, frogs are dominant predators of invertebrates, many of which are disease vectors for malaria and bilharzia. Reports of declining amphibian populations continue to increase globally, even in pristine protected parks. These declines are not simple cyclic events; frogs, for example, are considered bio-indicator species that reflect the wellbeing of aquatic ecosystems (Poynton and Broadley 1991). Recent reviews (Poynton and Broadley 1985-1991) recognise 53 frog species in Mozambique, 30 of which are recorded from the lower Zambezi Region, whilst another eight species may also occur (Appendix 1). Despite this relatively high

Coastal & Environmental Services (Pty) Ltd 18 Baobab Resources (Pty) Ltd Terrestrial Fauna Baseline Report –December 2014 diversity, there are no endemic amphibians currently recorded from Mozambique, although more detailed faunal surveys in the relatively little known regions of the country, particularly montane isolates, are likely to reveal overlooked, unique species. Several species with restricted ranges do occur in Mozambique, but all extend into adjacent regions.

4.2.2 Recorded Amphibians species from the project area

During the wet and dry season survey a total of 15 species (13 wet season and 11 dry season and one during the assessment of haul road 6) out of a potential 41 species were recorded for the project site, including most of the characteristic species of wetlands in the lower Zambezi region (Appendix 1) (see Plate 4.1 & 4.2).

A. Snoring Leaf-folding Frog (Hyperolius B. Painted Reed Frog (Hyperolius m. crotalus) taeniatus)

C. Mozambique Ridged Frog (Ptychadena D. Common River Frog (Amietia quecketti) mossambica)

E. Guttural Toad (Amietophrynus gutturalis) F. Dwarf Bullfrog (Pyxicephalus edulis) Plate 4.1: An array of amphibians which were recorded during the wet season site visit (Photos: W.R. Branch)

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A. Snoring Leaf-folding Frog (Hyperolius crotalus) B. Painted Reed Frog (Hyperolius m. taeniatus)

C. Sharp-nose Ridged Frog (Ptychadena oxyrhynchus) D.Eastern Puddle Frog (Phrynobatrachus acridoides)

E.Common Squeaker (Arthroleptis stenodactylus) F.Flat-backed Toad (Amietophrynus maculatus) Plate 4.2: An array of amphibians which were recorded during the dry season site visit (Photos: W. Conradie)

4.2.3 Amphibian SCC

No amphibians in the Tete region are endemic or of conservation concern, although the Tete area is a type locality for many species including the Dwarf Bullfrog (Pyxicephalus edulis, see Plate 4.1- F). The species is at the forefront off taxonomical debate in the scientific community (Scott et al. 2012) and the sample obtained during the study will help in resolving this debate. Other species collected during the study (Afrixalus spp., Hyperolius spp., Ptychadena spp. and Phrynobatrachus spp.) will help resolving the species complexes on a genetic level and reveal cryptic taxa.

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4.2.4 Threats to Amphibians

There is no evidence of significant direct utilization of amphibians in the region, either for international trade or for food consumption. Amphibian threats are thus indirect, of which the most significant is habitat loss due to existing agricultural practises, or to future industrial developments in the region, of which the mine forms part. Increasing habitat fragmentation from land clearance or degradation resulting from agriculture or industry, can lead to secondary impacts, including road mortalities and exposure to predators as amphibians move to and from wetland breeding sites. Globally amphibians are threatened by habitat destruction, the use of herbicides and pesticides, and the runoff of fertilizer. Furthermore amphibians are declining due to the amphibian chytrid fungus (Berger et al. 1998), which feeds on animals in a weakened state of health or under pressure from biotic or abiotic factors.

4.3 Reptiles

4.3.1 Regional overview of Reptiles

With the exception of land tortoises all terrestrial reptiles are carnivorous, although some larger lizards do supplement their diet with vegetable matter in certain seasons. Reptiles therefore play an important role in nutrient cycling within ecosystems and in the population control of their prey which often include common pest species.

The Mozambique reptile fauna was last reviewed in 1982, and remains poorly known. Approximately 160-180 reptile species occur in Mozambique; endemicity is low (11-12 species) and mostly associated with offshore islands. According to Broadley and Howell (2000), the coastal forests of northern Mozambique between the Rovuma and Zambezi Rivers remain largely unexplored and urgently need investigation as there may be further species remaining to be discovered. MICOA (1998) provides a reptile list of possible species which may occur in Mozambique which are listed in the South African Red Data Book, but this list is dated, and many of the species are mentioned to occur in Southern Mozambique. Compilation of published literature indicates that at least 82 species occur in the Tete region, with a further eight species possibly present (Appendix 2).

4.3.2 Recorded Reptile species from the project area

A total of 29 (21 dry and 21 wet season) out of a potential 82 reptile species that occur in the Lower Zambezi region have been recorded for the whole of the project area (see Appendix 2). A further four large and conspicuous species (Southern Rock Python, Python natalensis; Spotted bush snake, Philothamnus semivariegatus; Mozambique spitting cobra, Naja mossambica; and Puff adder, Bitis arietans) and a Spotted Bark Snake (Hemirhagerrhis nototaenia) were reported by local residents to be present on the mine site. This brings the total confirmed species at the study site up to 34 species. Most reptiles documented on site were conspicuous diurnal lizards, with relatively few snakes observed or captured. Although snakes form the dominant component of reptile diversity in the region, they are mainly small, cryptic and nocturnal and therefore easily overlooked. Numerous additional snakes (15+) are likely to be present in the region and on site.

One snake of scientific interest was collected during the wet season survey; the Lined Shovel- snout (Prosymna lineata) is known from Zimbabwe, extending into adjacent Botswana and South Africa, and with a single record from central Mozambique (Broadley 1980). The range of P. lineata is more or less restricted to Acacia savannah. The Tete specimen has an unusual colour pattern for the species and occurs in a different habitat from putative conspecifics. It may thus represent a taxonomic novelty that needs further study. The tropical girdled lizard (Cordylus tropidosternum) is at the southern edge of it range. Many samples collected during the survey will help resolving species complex and reveal cryptic taxa (eg. Panaspis spp. and Agama spp.)

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A. Variable Skink (Trachylepis varia) B. Wahlberg’s Snake-eyed Skink (Panaspis wahlbergi)

C. Tropical Girdled Lizard (Cordylus D. Speckled-lipped Gecko (Pachydactylus punctatus) tropidosternum)

E. Lined Shovel-snout Snake (Prosymna cf. F. White-lipped Snake (Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia) lineata)

Plate 4.3: An array of reptiles which were recorded during the wet season site visit (Photos: W.R. Branch)

4.3.3 Reptile SCC

Five reptile species of special concern (Tropical Girdled Lizard (Cordylus tropidosternum see Plate 4.3-C), Rock Monitor Lizard (Varanus albigularis see Plate 4.5 below), Water Monitor (Varanus niloticus), Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) and Flap-necked Chameleon (Chamaeleo dilepis)) were recorded during the survey (see Table 4.1 and Appendix 2), all are listed by CITES Appendix II.

Only one Mozambique reptile (the Zambezi soft-shelled terrapin, Cycloderma frenatum) is listed as `Near Threatened' by the IUCN (2012) and is also on the Mozambique list of protected species (DNFFB, 2002), but no suitable habitat for the species occurs in region. Furthermore the Southern African Python (Python natalensis) which is also a protected species in Mozambique (DNFFB, 2002) and is listed on CITES Appendix II, occurs in the region. Three tortoises species (Kinixys zombensis, K. spekii and Stigmochelys pardalis) which will also occur in the region, are involved in

Coastal & Environmental Services (Pty) Ltd 22 Baobab Resources (Pty) Ltd Terrestrial Fauna Baseline Report –December 2014 international trade and are listed on CITES Appendix II, that controls and documents their numbers in international commerce. It is highly likely most of these species will occur in the area, but are usually consumed as food.

A. Beaked Snake (Rhamphiophis rostratus) B. Turner’s Thick-toed Gecko (Chondrodactylus turneri)

C. Zambezi Thick-toed Gecko (Elasmodactylus D. Tropical House Gecko (Hemidactylus mabouia) tetensis)

E. Mozambique Agama (Agama mossambica) F. Ground Agama (Agama armata) Plate 4.4: An array of reptiles which were recorded during the dry season site visit (Photos: W. Conradie)

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Plate 4.5: Rock Monitor (V. albigularis) unearthed at Tenge Hill during construction. Listed by Cites Appendix II.

Endemicity in Mozambique reptiles is surprisingly low, with only approximately 14 taxa endemic to the country, most being associated with isolated populations on the various offshore islands of the Bazaruto Archipelago. Three new endemic species have recently been described from isolated montane habitats in northern Mozambique (Branch & Bayliss 2009, Branch & Tolley 2010, Portik et al. 2013), indicating that additional taxonomic novelties may await description on other components of the Great Inselberg Archipelago.

Table 4.1: Reptile species of SCC likely to be encountered in the project area and surrounds. Full Name Scientific Name IUCN DNFFB CITES Recorded Zambezi Soft-shelled Terrapin Cycloderma frenatum NT Y Southern African Python Python natalensis Y 2 R Flap-necked Chameleon Chamaeleo dilepis 2 Y Tropical Girdled Lizard Cordylus tropidosternum 2 Y Nile Crocodile Crocodylus niloticus 2 Y Spek’s Hingeback Tortoise Kinixys spekii 2 Southern Hingeback Tortoise Kinixys zombensis 2 Leopard Tortoise Stigmochelys pardalis 2 Rock Monitor Varanus albigularis 2 Y Water Monitor Varanus niloticus 2 Y Totals 10 1 2 9 5

4.3.4 Threats to Reptiles

As with amphibians, there is no evidence of significant direct utilization of reptiles in the region, for international trade. However, all snakes are treated as dangerous and are usually killed on discovery by local inhabitants; this is despite the majority of snakes in the region being non- venomous and thus harmless. Interviews with local people and mine personnel confirmed that snakebite in the region was rare, and usually non-fatal (albeit with pain and occasional morbidity). Photographs received by mine personnel at Tenge camp showed a Southern Rock Python (Python natalensis) and Rock Monitor (Varanus albigularis) that have been killed in the project site (Plate 4.5 & 4.6). Both species are listed as CITES Appendix II and the former is also officially protected

Coastal & Environmental Services (Pty) Ltd 24 Baobab Resources (Pty) Ltd Terrestrial Fauna Baseline Report –December 2014 in Mozambique (DNFFB, 2002). No tortoises were observed in the wild during the survey, although an adult leopard tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis) was offered for sale by local villagers. It was refused, but was not released as it was retained by its captors for eating. Tortoises are known to be readily collected for food by local communities (Lindsey & Bento 2012), and their numbers may be very low or even extirpated due to local consumption.

The most significant threats to reptiles are indirect, and result mainly from habitat loss due to existing agricultural practises. Proposed industrial developments in the region will compound this threat, especially from the resulting habitat fragmentation that leads to elevated mortality from road traffic and exposure to predators as reptiles (particularly snakes and monitors) move over the landscape across more exposed areas.

Plate 4.6: Rock Monitor (V. albigularis) and Southern Rock Python (P. natalensis) killed at Tenge camp. Both species list as CITES Appendix II and the former is also officially protected by Mozambique law (DNFFB, 2002).

4.4 Birds

4.4.1 Regional overview

Mozambique is largely unexplored in terms of its avifaunal diversity although it is well received internationally as a fascinating and very rewarding “birding” destination (Cohen et al., 2006). The country holds more than 680 bird species of which 530 species breed in Mozambique. This estimate is probably outdated and a gross underestimation since Lepage (2013) makes mention of an astonishing 737 species (including vagrants and "accidentals"). Despite the contradictory richness values, Mozambique is a country that stimulates vast scientific interest for its high bird diversity (Parker, 2001; MICOA, 2009). However, being a sizeable country, it is surprising that Mozambique only has one “true” endemic bird species, namely the Namuli Apalis (Apalis lynesi), which occurs in northern Mozambique on Mounts Namuli and Mabu (Parker, 2001; Sinclair & Ryan, 2010).

Parker (2005) surveyed central Mozambique from 1999-2003, paying special attention to ornithologically poorly-known regions. He recorded 583 species in the region, including 47 species previously unrecorded, and 19 species new to Mozambique. This included at least 40 birds associated with either coastal habitats or large water bodies, that are absent from the project area.

From a conservation perspective, Mozambique sustains a remarkable number of range-restricted species, in particular forest birds. Many of these species are near-endemic to the country and confined to three Endemic Bird Areas (EBA), which are shared with Zimbabwe, Malawi and South Africa.

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These EBAs are located on the: (1) South-east African coast with species such as Rudd’s Apalis, Neergaard’s Sunbird, Pink-throated Twinspot and Lemon-breasted Canary; (2) the Eastern Zimbabwean highlands which holds Swynnerton’s Robin; and (3) the Tanzanian-Malawi mountains where one can find Thyolo Alethe, Dappled Mountain Robin and Long-billed Forest Warbler. Furthermore, the country has 30 species with Afro-temperate (highland) affinities and 25 species are found only along the East African coastal littoral. Another 26 species are restricted to the, the tall Mopane and Brachystegia woodlands (Parker, 2001).

The Zambezi River is a prominent and characteristic landmark in the Tete Province, and is bordered by Zambezian and Mopane woodlands (the latter often forming mono-specific stands of Colophospermum mopane). On the higher-lying areas in the north of the province, these woodland types give way to tall Brachystegia woodland or Miombo. The presence of Miombo is accountable for many biome-restricted species that are confined to the Zambezian Centre of Endemism as defined by White (1983).

Typical species confined to the riparian woodlands and dense alluvial vegetation along the Zambezi River are the Dickinson’s Kestrel, Lilian’s Lovebird and Meve’s Starling, while the Mopane woodlands are home numerous species including white-browed sparrow weaver, Cape turtle dove, white-crested helmetshrike, emerald-spotted wood dove, red-billed hornbill Racket-tailed Roller, Arnott’s Chat and fork-tailed drongo. In mixed broadleaf woodland the common birds include: Cape turtle dove, dark-capped bulbul, tawny-flanked prinia, and blue waxbill (Parker 2005). It is also worth mentioning that the Miombo (Brachystegia) woodlands at Furancungo (located north of the study area) are one of a few localities in Africa that provide habitat for the globally near- threatened Stierling’s Woodpecker (Dendropicos stierlingi).

The Tete province includes two Important Bird Areas (IBA), namely: (1) the headwaters of the Cahora Bassa Dam (MZ013) and (2) the Furancungo woodlands (MZ012) – both support a high richness of species with Zambezian affinities (Parker, 2001). The former IBA is approximately 360 km west from the proposed Tengi-Ruoni prospect area, while the latter is 90 km north.

4.4.2 Recorded Bird species from the project area

Of the possible 435 bird species which may occur in the study area, a total of 152 bird species were recorded during the two surveys of which 123 were observed during the wet season survey (March) and 103 observed during the dry season (September). There were 74 bird species which were recorded during both the wet and dry season surveys (see Appendix 3).

The difference in the species of birds observed during the two seasons is explained by many of the species being either palaearctic or intra-africa migrants. For example, all of the cuckoo species observed during the wet season would have flown north by September and they were not expected to be seen during the dry season survey. Other species such as the Carmine Bee-Eaters only come to the Zambezi Valley and associated areas to breed during September to November and would not be seen during the wet season.

The total number of birds recorded was somewhat low for this region, however, it is likely that this is again a reflection of the seasonal movements and most migrant birds had already migrated northwards during the time of the wet season survey. September is expected to show a lower diversity of bird species compared to the wet season and hence the lower number of bird species recorded at that time. Most of the birds which were recorded represented typical resident woodland Zambezian and mopane woodland species; and of the 74 birds recorded during both seasons most were representatives of this habitat type. Typical species included: African grey hornbill, grey go- away-bird, red-faced mousebird, African golden oriole, black-backed puffback, black-crowned tchagra, spotted flycatcher, neddicky, tawny-flanked prinia, flappet lark, orange-winged pytilia, eastern and broad-tailed paradise-whydah, and golden-breasted bunting. The Euplectes species were also well represented in this habitat as well as the grassy areas near rivers, these included: black-winged bishop, yellow bishop, white-winged widowbird and red-collared widowbird. However

Coastal & Environmental Services (Pty) Ltd 26 Baobab Resources (Pty) Ltd Terrestrial Fauna Baseline Report –December 2014 during the dry season many of these birds lose their breeding plumage which makes them more difficult to identify at that time of year.

Certain species preferred the closed Zambezian undifferentiated woodland habitats, these included: crowned hornbill, trumpeter hornbill, green woodhoopoe, black cuckoo, purple-crested turaco, African paradise-flycatcher, white helmet-shrike, Retz's helmet-shrike, white-browed scrub- robin, terrestrial brownbul, eastern nicator and grey-backed camaroptera. Lesser seedcracker (Pyrenestes minor) was also observed, which is a range extension for the area, having previously only been recorded in central Mozambique south of the Zambezi River on the coastal plain (Parker 2005).

Typical bird species found within the Riparian corridors (riparian forest) included: black-collared barbet, pied kingfisher, little bee-eater, Klaas's cuckoo, Senegal coucal, Meyer's parrot, African green-pigeon, Livingstone's flycatcher, tropical boubou, orange-breasted bush-shrike and the ever present dark-capped bulbul.

Apart from the riparian forests, the hydrophilic grasslands and reed beds along the rivers inhabited among others: hamerkop, red-faced cisticola, copper sunbird, African pied wagtail, southern brown-throated weaver, village weaver, red-billed firefinch, blue waxbill, bronze mannikin as well as yellow-fronted canary.

Certain guilds of birds, common in uninhabited regions, were absent or very rare in the study area. These included: ducks, geese and teals; bustards and cranes; plovers and lapwings; vultures; cormorants and egrets; ibis’, and thrushes. Their absence is best explained by a long history of subsistence hunting targeting larger birds for food. In addition, increased fire regimes in floodplain habitats when hunting cane rats or preparing grazing for cattle can also lead to local extinctions of ground-roosting birds and their breeding sites. Many secretive birds of dense wetland vegetation, e.g. crakes, rails and fluff tails, were probably overlooked.

It must also be noted that domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) occur in the villages of the region.

4.4.3 Birds SCC

There was only one bird species which is considered threatened by the IUCN recorded on site; a Martial Eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus) was recorded during the dry season survey in September 2013. In addition, another 14 CITES listed species were recorded, while a further 61 bird SCC may occur on site. The recorded SCC include mainly the Falconiformes species (e.g. eagles, buzzards, goshawks, sparrowhawks etc), and Strigiformes species (owls). The Tauraco species also fall under CITES; the purple-crested turaco was observed on site.

Table 4.1 lists all possible and recorded bird SCC for the project area.

Table 4.1 All possible and recorded bird SCC for the project area. Species Common Name Category CITES Possible Recorded Balearica regulorum Grey Crowned-crane EN ii 1

Necrosyrtes monachus Hooded Vulture EN ii 1

Gyps africanus White-backed Vulture EN ii 1

Bugeranus carunculatus Wattled Crane VU ii 1

Torgos tracheliotos Lappet-faced Vulture VU ii 1

Trigonoceps occipitalis White-headed Vulture VU ii 1

Sagittarius serpentarius Secretarybird VU ii 1

Southern Ground- Bucorvus leadbeateri VU 1 hornbill

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Species Common Name Category CITES Possible Recorded Terathopius ecaudatus Bateleur NT ii 1

Circus macrourus Pallid Harrier NT ii 1

Polemaetus bellicosus Martial Eagle NT ii 1 1 Stephanoaetus African Crowned Eagle NT ii 1 coronatus Falco vespertinus Red-footed Falcon NT ii 1

Falco concolor Sooty Falcon NT ii 1

Coracias garrulus European Roller NT 1

Gallinago media Great Snipe NT 1

Rynchops flavirostris African Skimmer NT 1

Falco peregrinus Peregrine Falcon LC i 1

Tauraco Purple-crested Turaco LC ii 1 porphyreolophus Tyto alba Barn Owl LC ii 1

Tyto capensis African Grass-owl LC ii 1

Otus leucotis White-faced Scops-owl LC ii 1

Bubo africanus Spotted Eagle-owl LC ii 1

Otus senegalensis African Scops-owl LC ii 1

Bubo lacteus Giant Eagle-owl LC ii 1

Scotopelia peli Pel's Fishing-owl LC ii 1

Strix woodfordii African Wood-owl LC ii 1

Glaucidium perlatum Pearl-spotted Owlet LC ii 1

Glaucidium capense African Barred Owlet LC ii 1

Asio capensis Marsh Owl LC ii 1

Eupodotis melanogaster Black-bellied Bustard LC ii 1

Pandion haliaetus Osprey LC ii 1

Aviceda cuculoides African Cuckoo-hawk LC ii 1

European Honey- Pernis apivorus LC ii 1 buzzard Macheiramphus alcinus Bat Hawk LC ii 1

Buteo augur Augur Buzzard LC ii 1

Elanus caeruleus Black-shouldered Kite LC ii 1 1 Buteo buteo Common Buzzard LC ii 1

Haliaeetus vocifer African Fish-eagle LC ii 1

Milvus migrans Black Kite LC ii 1

Milvus aegyptus Yellow-billed Kite LC ii 1

Circaetus cinereus Brown Snake-eagle LC ii 1

Circus aeruginosus Western Marsh-harrier LC ii 1

Black-chested Snake- Circaetus pectoralis LC ii 1 eagle Circus ranivorus African Marsh-harrier LC ii 1

Circaetus cinerascens Banded Snake-eagle LC ii 1

Polyboroides typus African Harrier-hawk LC ii 1 1 Kaupifalco Lizard Buzzard LC ii 1 monogrammicus Dark Chanting- Melierax metabates LC ii 1 goshawk

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Species Common Name Category CITES Possible Recorded Melierax gabar Gabar Goshawk LC ii 1

Accipiter tachiro African Goshawk LC ii 1

Accipiter badius Shikra LC ii 1

Accipiter minullus Little Sparrowhawk LC ii 1

Accipiter ovampensis Ovambo Sparrowhawk LC ii 1

Accipiter melanoleucus Black Sparrowhawk LC ii 1

Aquila pomarina Lesser Spotted Eagle LC ii 1

Aquila rapax Tawny Eagle LC ii 1

Aquila wahlbergi Wahlberg's Eagle LC ii 1

Aquila nipalensis Steppe Eagle LC ii 1

Hieraaetus spilogaster African Hawk-eagle LC ii 1 1 Hieraaetus pennatus Booted Eagle LC ii 1

Hieraaetus ayresii Ayres's Hawk-eagle LC ii 1

Lophaetus occipitalis Long-crested Eagle LC ii 1

Falco naumanni Lesser Kestrel LC ii 1

Falco rupicolus Rock Kestrel LC ii 1

Falco dickinsoni Dickinson's Kestrel LC ii 1

Falco amurensis Amur Falcon LC ii 1

Falco subbuteo Eurasian Hobby LC ii 1

Falco cuvierii African Hobby LC ii 1

Falco biarmicus Lanner Falcon LC ii 1

Falco eleonorae Eleonora's Falcon LC ii 1

Ciconia nigra Black Stork LC ii 1

TOTALS 61 15

4.4.4 Threats to Birds

The woodlands in the project area are under anthropogenic pressures from population expansion, subsistence farming, logging, charcoal industries and coal mining operations in the region. The proposed mining operation will contribute to local deforestation by loggers and charcoaling groups by providing access through the construction of road networks. Therefore, it is important that the mining operation take the necessary management steps to help reduce the loss of (1) large tracts of intact woodland, (2) loss of sensitive habitats such as riparian areas, (3) the destruction of natural migration corridors and consequent (4) habitat fragmentation, and (5) unsustainable utilization for food of avian resources due to increased access and human activity in the region.

4.5 Mammals

4.5.1 Regional overview of Mammals

Mozambique has 238 recorded species of mammal (MICOA 2009). However, many factors contribute to the difficulty in accurately predicting local assemblages of mammal species. Mozambique is a large country with highly variable population densities and localised environmental pressures. Therefore, the habitat integrity of a given area and subsequent mammalian diversity needs to be assessed on a site-specific basis. Human impact, due to habitat loss and over-hunting, is high. Nine of 21 species of antelope occurring in the country are considered threatened, and one has become nationally extinct. Other large herbivores, such as elephant, rhino and hippopotamus, have been removed from many areas. Local subsistence hunting and habitat destruction over a long period of time has caused a loss of mammalian

Coastal & Environmental Services (Pty) Ltd 29 Baobab Resources (Pty) Ltd Terrestrial Fauna Baseline Report –December 2014 diversity and population density in many areas of Mozambique. The loss of woodland and thicket habitat, in particular, has meant that there are no refugia for game and other mammals to retreat to from hunting pressures.

Although Mozambique has a relatively rich diversity of mammalian fauna, many of the intact populations are mostly limited to conservation areas (MICOA 2009). However, the wilderness areas in the eastern and northern Tete Province are known to support viable mammalian populations, notably larger mammals such as lions and elephants (see Fusari et al. 2010; Ntumi et al. 2009). Major threats to mammal biodiversity in the region is subsistence hunting and habitat destruction as well as the impacts of uncontrolled burning, slash and burn agriculture, livestock overgrazing and uncontrolled settlements. With regards to larger mammals, many of the threatened species in Mozambique are either hunted for subsistence, are susceptible to habitat loss or are key factors in human/wildlife conflict. Subsistence use and habitat degradation are also key factors affecting the population dynamics of Red-Data small mammals in the region.

4.5.2 Recorded Mammal species from the project area

Of the possible 136 mammal species which may occur in the study area (including historical accounts but excluding domestic mammals), a total of only 13 were observed during the two surveys of which 10 mammals were observed during the wet season survey (March) and 8 observed during the dry season survey (September). There were 5 mammal species which were observed during both the wet and dry season surveys (see Appendix 4). Twenty two mammal species are reported to occur in the area, while a further 96 could possibly occur in the area. Eighteen species which occurred in the area historically may not inhabit the area anymore.

African elephant footprints and fresh (over night) droppings were observed, and locals reported that they do still occur in the area. The only other large mammals which were recorded in the study area included impala (Aepyceros melampus), Sharpe’s grysbok (Raphicerus sharpie), Suni (Neotragus moschatus) and bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) (all observed) as well as bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus) (footprints), aardvark (Orycteropus afer) (footprints), and vervet monkey (Cercopithecus a. pygerythrus) (observed). Smaller mammals which were observed include: scrub hare (Lepus saxatilis), Smith's bush squirrel (Paraxerus cepapi), slender mongoose (Herpestes sanguinea) and banded mongoose (Mungus mungo) and four-toed elephant-shrew (Petrodromus tetradactylus). Aside from wild mammals, the domestic mammals which were observed on site include: cats (Felis catus), dogs (Canis africanis), zebu cattle (Bos sp.), pigs (Sus scrofa), and goats (Capra aegagrus).

A number of mammals not recorded during the survey are known by local people to still be present. Locals were interviewed in focus groups; regarding mammals which still occurred in the area (refer to Appendix 4). Large ungulates such as greater kudu and grey duiker were both reported to still occur in the area. Hippo, were reported to occur in the Revuboe River, and spotted hyaena were also reported to still occur in the region to the north of the study area. Yellow baboon, ground pangolin, civet, cane rats and porcupine were also all reported to still occur in the region. While many of these species are sparesly populated, locals admitted that they actively burn the base of the hills in order to capture and eat cane rats.

Of the 96 species which could possibly occur in the study area, the majority are either rodents (Rodentia), bats (Chiroptera), or shrews (Eulipotyphla). These are all small mammals which can prove to be difficult to capture and identify: bat surveys require long-term trapping, using diverse arrays and in diverse habitats to achieve meaningful coverage of the species likely to be present. These difficulties are increased by seasonal movements, usually associated with food availability. Many of the bat species which occur in the project area are wide-spread species of savannah and woodland habitats. Others are associated with rivers and other water resources, and require either caves or buildings, or in some cases riparian forest, where they can roost during the day. While no caves were observed to occur in the study area, tall trees for fruit-eating bats do occur along the rivers systems in the region.

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Although many large mammals once occurred in the region, most have been extirpated from accessible regions. Many of the species which occurred in the area historically are either even- toed ungulates (Cetartiodactyla) such as buffalo, eland, sable and roan; or carnivores (Carnivora) such as lion, cheetah, and wild dog. In most cases, these have been removed by hunters for food or to make way for cattle, or have simply moved away from the area due to disturbance or food shortages (i.e. carnivores).

4.5.3 Mammal SCC

Eight mammal SCC were identified for the study area: three of these occurred in the area during historical times but are highly unlikely to still occur; two mammal SCC could still possibly occur in the area; two were reported by locals to still occur in the area, and evidence of one was recorded, namely the African elephant (VU) (see Table 4.2).

Table 4.2: Mammals SCC which are likely to occur or have occurred within the project area. Red Scientific Name English Name List Historical Possible Reported Recorded status African Wild Lycaon pictus EN 1 Dog Acinonyx jubatus Cheetah VU 1

Panthera leo African Lion VU 1

Loxodonta africana African Elephant VU 1

Hippopotamus Common VU 1 amphibius Hippopotamus Hipposideros Striped Leaf- NT 1 vittatus nosed bat Straw-coloured Eidolon helvum NT 1 Fruit Bat Panthera pardus Leopard NT 1

Totals 3 2 2 1

The SCC are summarised below, the information was largely taken from IUCN (2012):

The African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) has disappeared from much of its former range. Population size is continuing to decline as a result of on-going habitat fragmentation, conflict with human activities, and infectious disease. Given uncertainty surrounding population estimates, and the species’ tendency to population fluctuations, the largest subpopulations might well number <250 mature individuals, thereby warranting listing as Endangered.

Historical data indicate that African wild dogs were formerly distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, from desert to mountain summits, and probably were absent only from lowland rainforest and the driest desert. They have disappeared from much of their former range. The species is virtually eradicated from North and West Africa, and greatly reduced in Central Africa and North- east Africa. The largest populations remain in southern Africa and the southern part of East Africa (especially Tanzania and northern Mozambique). Wild dogs would have occurred within the study region within historical times, but they are highly unlikely to occur in present times.

The known cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) population is approximately 7,500 adult animals. Cheetahs have disappeared from huge areas of their historic range. They still occur widely, but sparsely, in Africa; cheetahs have disappeared from 76% of their historic range on the continent. Southern and Eastern Africa are the species strongholds, although there has been significant range loss in parts of these regions. Current distribution in several countries remains largely unknown (Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea, Angola, Mozambique and Zambia). Although cheetah may have occurred in the

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The African lion (Panthera leo) population has been reduced by approximately 30% over the past two decades. The causes of this reduction are primarily indiscriminate killing in defense of life and livestock, coupled with prey base depletion; these causes are unlikely to have ceased. Lions are found in most countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Most lion range is in eastern and southern Africa (77%). Current Lion status is still unknown over large parts of Africa, 7.6 million km². However, lions still occur in Tete province (Fusari et al. 2010), but it is unlikely that they will still traverse the study area.

The African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) is the largest terrestrial animal and has been the subject of considerable research, but continent-wide distribution and density estimates are difficult to obtain for any one time period. To a large extent this is due to the enormous range covered by the species as well as to the wide variety of habitats it occupies. Although large tracts of continuous elephant range remain in parts of Central, Eastern and Southern Africa, elephant distribution is becoming increasingly fragmented across the continent.

The elephant population of Mozambique has declined rapidly over the last four decades. This decline is primarily due to the impact of direct (ivory trade and tsetse control programmes) and indirect human activity (habitat fragmentation and associated factors) (Ntumi et al. 2009). Elephant spoor was recorded in the study area, and they are reported to frequent the area, especially during the dry season when they most likely use the Revuboe River as a water source.

The most recent common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) population estimates suggest that over the past 10 years there has been a 7–20% decline in populations. Although the causes of the population decline are known (exploitation and habitat loss), the threats have not ceased, nor is there evidence the threats will be removed in the near future; therefore, the species is listed as Vulnerable.

Common Hippos are found in many countries throughout sub-Saharan Africa, and were previously found in virtually all suitable habitats. They occur in rivers throughout the savanna zone of Africa, and main rivers of forest zone in Central Africa. Despite the civil strife in the 1980s and 1990s, a surprising number of hippopotamus appear to have survived in Mozambique. The species is still widely distributed and present on most river systems. Several State protected areas contain hippopotamus although only Gorongosa, with about 2,000, has a sizeable population. It is reported that hippos occur in the Revuboe River system downstream from Tenge Hill, and that they appear periodically on site.

The Striped Leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros vittatus) is listed as Near Threatened because, although the species is still widely distributed, presumably a large proportion of the global population of this species is found as a few very large cave roosting colonies that are threatened by disturbance, habitat loss and over hunting. It is likely that the species is undergoing significant declines at these sites. This species has mainly been recorded from East Africa and southern Africa with some scattered records from West Africa and Central Africa. In East Africa the species ranges from Ethiopia and Somalia in the north, through Kenya and Tanzania to Malawi, Zambia and Mozambique. This species may occur in the project region.

The Straw-coloured Fruit Bat (Eidolon helvum) is listed as Near Threatened because this species is in significant decline because it is being seriously over-harvested for food and medicine, making the species close to qualifying for Vulnerable. This bat is broadly distributed across the lowland rainforest and savanna zones of Africa from Senegal in the west, through to South Africa in the south and Ethiopia in the east. This bat is a migratory species in parts of its range. It is reported to occur in the area.

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Leopards (Panthera pardus) have a wide range and are locally common in some parts of Africa and tropical Asia. However, they are declining in large parts of their range due to habitat loss and fragmentation, and hunting for trade and pest control. These threats may be significant enough that the species could soon qualify for Vulnerable. In sub-Saharan Africa, leopards remain widely, albeit now patchily, distributed within historical limits. Leopards still occur in the Tete Province, and it is probable that they traverse the project area, albeit as vagrants.

4.5.4 Threats to Mammals

It is directly evident that the study site has a mammal diversity and density. Although some representative habitats with structural complexity may exhibit sound small mammal assemblages, there is an obvious lack of meso and larger sized mammals, both carnivorous and herbivorous.

African feral dogs (Canis africanus) have a profound influence on larger mammals in the study area. Dogs in the area form temporary packs in order to supplement their diets. Dog packs are also used for catching game by local hunters. With increased access to the region and rising affluence of the local population, the trade in local game (bushmeat) can be expected to rise due to cultural preferences for certain meats, and to the economic value placed on livestock (Lindsey & Bento 2010). There was direct evidence of local hunting for example, a recently caught Sharpe’s grysbok (caught using a gin trap) was brought into camp and sold as supplementary meat (Plate 4.7).

Plate 4.7: Sharpe’s grysbok caught by local hunters and bought by camp staff

Goats, pigs and cattle have a clear influence on the ecosystem and various habitats on the study site. Goats and cattle have profound overgrazing and trampling effects on the vegetation and soils while pigs strongly affect wetlands (wallowing) as well as foraging effects.

The general effects of local communities have a high impact on the ecology of the study area. Subsistence hunting, habitat removal, bush-clearing and livestock all severely affect mammal assemblages throughout the region.

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The study site consists of various vegetation types and habitats. The dominant vegetation type consists of Zambezian Undifferentiated Woodland (Open and Closed), while Mopane woodland is also present. Azonal vegetation in the form of riparian areas and dambos (i.e. hydrophilic grasslands) occur near rivers and drainage lines. Figure 5.1 provides a habitat map of the study region.

5.1 Vegetation Habitats

Open Zambezian Undifferentiated Woodland occurs in the northern half of the project area and along sections of both haul road options. It is characterised by an open canopy with a distinct grass layer. Species composition is similar to the Closed Zambezian Undifferentiated Woodland described above except that the two dominant species are Diplorhynchus condylocarpon, a fire resistant shrub that can withstand repeated burning (Coates-Palgrave, 2002), and Combretum adenogonium. Other dominant species include Commpihora mossambicensis, Pterocarpus brenannii as well as other Combretum species. It is likely that this is a secondary vegetation type and that this area was once covered by the Closed Zambezian Undifferentiated Woodland. Anthropogenic pressures have resulted in the harvesting and clearing of trees in the flat, low lying areas opening up the canopy and explaining the shift from closed to open woodland.

Plate 5.1: Open Zambezian Undifferentiated Woodland

Closed Zambezian Undifferentiated Woodland is defined by the absence of miombo and mopane dominant species. It is also characterised by a higher species diversity than either Miombo or Mopane Woodland (Coates-Palgrave et. al. 2007). This vegetation type is confined to the rocky slopes of Tenge mountain, Ruoni North and Ruoni South (Figure 5.1 and Plates 5.2 & 5.3). It is characterised by a high species diversity and closed canopy compared to the Open Zambezian Undifferentiated Woodland. Dominant species include Combretum species, Commiphora mossambicensis and Pterocarpus brenannii. Diplorhyncus condylocarpon is present in disturbed areas. Colophospermum mopane seedlings (less than 1 m in height) were evident on the lower slopes of Ruoni North and Ruoni South but no fully grown trees were noted.

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Figure 5-1: Vegetation (habitat) of the Project Area

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Figure 5-2: Vegetation (habitat) of the northern sections of Haul Roads 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

Figure 5-3: Vegetation (habitat) of the southern sections of Haul Roads 1, 2, 4 and 5.

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Figure 5-4: Vegetation (habitat) of the northern section of Haul Road 3

Figure 5-5: Vegetation (habitat) of the southern section of Haul Road 3.

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Plate 5.2: Ruoni north with Closed Zambezian Undifferentiated Woodland on its summit

Plate 5.3: Closed Zambezian Undifferentiated Woodland

The Mopane Woodlands occur along the southern section of the project site and along sections of both haul road options and are associated with underlying sandstone of the karoo formation. The canopy of this vegetation type is dominated by Colophospermum mopane species with individuals in excess of 10 m in height (Plate 5.4). Numerous saplings and seedlings belonging to this species were noted in the understory. Other dominant species included Euclea divinorum, Grewia micrantha and Dalbergia melanoxylon.

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Plate 5.4: Mopane woodland

The Riparian Zone is entirely restricted to several metres, adjacent to rivers and streams, throughout the Baobab project area (Plate 5.5). In most cases, riparian woodland is absent or highly degraded. Where it does occur it forms dense, closed-canopy woodland which is generally restricted to the alluvial soils of the Revuboe River and its seasonal tributaries. The canopy is tall and consists of prominent emergents such as Tamarindus indica, Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius, Sterculia appendiculata and Diospyros mespiliformis. Other species which occur include Acacia nilotica, Acacia sp., Dalbergia melanoxylon, Ficus sycamoras and Faurea saligna.

Plate 5.5: Revuboe River and riparian zone

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Reedbeds (Phragmites mauritianus) occur in dense stands along some sections of the Revuboe River (Plates 5.5 & 5.6). It is the preferred habitat for a number of specialised species such as the Lesser Swamp Warbler (Acrocephalus gracilirostris), while also providing important roosting habitat for certain dryland species (e.g. weavers, bishops, swallows).

Plate 5.6 Typical reed beds found on site

Granite outcrops generally occur on the hills in the region and are characterised by large boulders and a dense woody cover (refer to Plates 5.2 & 5.7). It provides important habitat for rupiculous (rock loving) species such as certain birds and reptile species.

Plate 5.7: Rocky outcrops typically occur on ridges amongst Closed Zambezian Undifferentiated Woodland

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Dambos occur as linear open areas of hydrophilic grasslands with rushes and sedges, which contrast with surrounding woodland, in this case the mopane woodlands (Figure 5.1 and Plate 5.8). A Dambo is essentially is a plateau wetland, which is “a seasonally waterlogged, predominantly grass-covered, depression (i.e. vlei)”. They may be substantially dry at the end of the dry season, revealing grey soils or black clays, but unlike a flooded grassland, they retain wet lines of drainage through the dry season. They are inundated (waterlogged) in the wet season but not generally above the height of the vegetation and any open water surface is usually confined to streams, rivers and small ponds or lagoons at the lowest point, generally near the centre.

Plate 5.8: A typical dambo which can be found on site.

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6. SENSITIVITY

This section defines and maps faunal habitats that are sensitive and may require conservation. Two features of conservation concern have been identified in the project area; these features are riparian zones and dambos, and steep slopes and rocky areas. Neither of these habitats is specific to the project area and both are well represented in the Tete Province.

The identification of these sensitive habitats for fauna, such as herpetofauna, and how to manage them, may help reduce the impact of the mining operations on faunal populations. The Revobue River and its associated drainage lines represent particularly sensitive habitats, especially from an amphibian and bird perspective. Similarly, the rocky ridges represent a sensitive habitat from a reptile and bird perspective.

6.2.1 Rivers and drainage lines

Riparian zones and dambos constitute features of conservation concern as they are process areas. They are essential for ecosystem functioning and process and provide niche habitats for a variety of plants and animals.

These areas are characterised by permanent, semi-permanent or seasonally inundated drainage lines and rivers, giving way to associated swampy wetlands (dambos) and riparian vegetation (forest/reeds). These wet areas show excellent grazing potential for small and larger hooved animals and may also provide excellent refugia and/or corridors for mammal species. Where the drainage lines lead into permanent rivers and associated closed forests, the overall mammal sensitivity of this habitat type is considered to be HIGH (Figure 5.7).

The vegetation of the riparian zones provide potential habitat for a unique bird composition not likely to be encountered on any of the other woodland types. Noteworthy species of the shoreline habitat include the Three-banded Plover (Charadrius tricollaris), Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucus), Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola), African Pied Wagtail (Motacilla aguimp) and Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis). This is also the only unit that provides ephemeral foraging habitat for piscivorous species such as the Reed Cormorant (Phalacrocorax africanus), Giant Kingfisher (Megaceryle maximus), Half-collared Kingfisher (Alcedo semitorquata), African Fish-eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer) and various members of the Ardeidae (herons & egrets). Reed beds are the preferred habitat for a number of specialised species such as the Lesser Swamp Warbler (Acrocephalus gracilirostris), while also providing important roosting habitat for certain dryland species (e.g. weavers, bishops, swallows).

Because the study area is situated within a relatively arid woodland environment, most amphibian species will be associated with either rivers, drainage lines or flooded pools adjacent to the river during summer for the purposes of breeding, as most amphibians require surface water for egg- laying and tadpole development. The presence of amphibians in the river/drainage lines will attract reptilian predators such as snakes, terrapins and monitor lizards who feed on this predictable and plentiful resource. Furthermore, the presence of moisture in the drainage lines leads to dense plant growth and the presence of large trees. This habitat is also ideal for lizards feeding on insects attracted to the rich plant material supply and will in turn attract snake predators. Finally, the vegetation types associated with the rivers/drainage lines (e.g. riverine forest and riverine vegetation) are in the minority and therefore represent a scarce habitat type that should, for this reason alone, be of moderate to high conservation concern. Species of conservation concern likely to occur in this habitat type are the Near-threatened Zambezi soft-shelled terrapin (Cycloderma frenatum) and the Southern rock python (Python natalensis).

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