Horse Welfare Since 1950 14CHAPTER Katherine A

Horse Welfare Since 1950 14CHAPTER Katherine A. Houpt and Natalie Waran

Introduction

here are approximately 6.9 down in lateral recumbency, but they days of Anna Sewell’s Black Beauty million horses in the United do not provide a natural social envi- (2001), published originally in 1877, TStates, more than in any other ronment that even tie stalls—where is that a horse seldom is kept by one country in the world (American horses are stabled closely one to owner for his or her entire adult life. Horse Council 2000) (Table 1). That another—provide. Typically a stalled Often a horse changes hands—and fact alone should inspire Americans horse seldom has access to a natural, careers—a number of times over his to improve equine welfare, although high roughage diet and is fed limited or her lifetime. After leaving the it must be said that the state of amounts of high-concentrate feed breeding farm, an animal may start domesticated horses is better now and/or hay that are quickly con- out as a race horse, then be sold and than it was fifty years ago. sumed. Such management leaves a retrained as a hunter, jumper, event The advances that have been made horse in a virtual wooden box with horse, or equitation horse when his or in veterinary medicine, including sur- long periods of physical inactivity. her racing career is over. He or she gical technique and, especially, anes- This unnatural state leads to the may then be sold several times when thesia, mean that diagnosis of an development of stall aggression, stall outgrown by one owner, found to be intestinal torsion or displacement is walking, weaving, wood chewing, or unsuitable for another’s level of expe- no longer an automatic death sen- cribbing, or to difficulty in handling. rience, or not competitive enough for tence. Improvements in surgery for Controlling these “vices” often is a third. In mid-life or later, he or she lameness and in anti-inflammatory done using inhumane methods. may then be used as a lesson, rental, drugs have eliminated such painful A situation unchanged since the or camp horse, and finally, when practices as blistering or pin-firing a lame horse’s lower limbs, ostensibly to expedite the healing process. Table 1 Improvements in nutrition and in Number of Horses and Participants control of infectious disease have by Industry, 1999 allowed many horses to live into their twenties, thirties, or beyond. Activity No. of Horses No. of Participants Horse husbandry has improved in one respect: unlike in days past, few Racing 725,000 941,400 horses are kept tied with halter and Showing 1,974,000 3,607,900 lead rope in narrow “tie” stalls in dark and dirty stables. But horse hus- Recreation 2,970,000 4,346,100 bandry has worsened in another: more horses live in box stalls or iso- Other* 1,262,000 1,607,900 lated in small, grassless corrals than Total 6,931,000 7,062,500** in natural herds on pasture now that fewer horse owners live in rural areas. *Includes farm and ranch work, police work, rodeo, and polo. **The sum of participants by activity does not equal the total number of participants Box stalls (typically 10–12 feet because individuals could be counted in more than one activity. square) allow the horse to turn Source: American Horse Council around, walk several paces, and lie

207 infirm, unrideable, or simply too old Cruelty can occur if the horse is to be useful, be sold at auction and injured in the handling process, badly Table 2 sent to slaughter. Relatively few hors- frightened, whipped to be persuaded Horses Slaughtered es die of old age, although some for- to move, or not properly stunned tunate retirees may be euthanized (Reece, Friend, and Stull 2000). The and Processed at due to age-related ailments. greater equine suffering occurs not at Packing Plants in At the turn of the millennium, the slaughter but during transport and in the United States most pressing welfare issues of the the pens used to confine the horses domestic horse surround conditions before and after transport. Many found in slaughter and transport to slaughter-bound horses begin their Year Number slaughter; pari-mutuel racing; the journey far from Texas and obviously 1990 345,900 pregnant mare urine (PMU) industry; must be transported long distances the competitive and show industry; as a result. Heat stress is an addition- 1991 276,700 and in the development of husbandry- al factor in the summer months. 1992 243,500 related stereotypes. (Urban carriage There have been several studies of horses are a highly visible problem in transport to slaughter under simulat- 1993 169,900 some localities, since they usually are ed or actual transport conditions. 1994 107,000 part of a local tourist industry, but Horses transported for twenty-eight they often generate concern out of hours in summer can lose 10 percent 1995 109,900 proportion to their relatively small of their body weight, which results in 1996 105,900 numbers.) considerable dehydration (Friend et al. 1998). After transportation for 1997 87,200 twenty-four hours, 15 percent of the 1998 72,100 Slaughter horses (three of twenty) in the Friend et al. study were judged unsuitable 1999 62,813 and Transport for further transport on the basis of 2000 47,134 weakness or high body temperature. to Slaughter The more crowded the horses, the 2001 56,332 Sound, well-behaved, well-trained more likely they are to fall and, once horses are relatively scarce and can down, to be trampled. In another The number has dropped substantially in the past ten years. be expensive as a result. There is, study horses transported in more however, an oversupply of horses who crowded (less than 1.3 square meters Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service are lame, suffer from chronic obstruc- per horse) conditions had fewer tive pulmonary disease or are other- injuries but were more dehydrated wise infirm, or are unmanageable, and had greater changes in white miliar horses, who normally establish unwanted, untrained, or past their blood cell counts (Stull 1999). Provi- dominance through physical intimi- useful life. sion of water in the trailers during dation in corrals prior to loading The fate of most of these “problem” rest stops would help the horses com- (Grandin, McGee, and Lanier 1999). horses is to be slaughtered. Most pensate for the water they are losing The Grandin, McGee and Lanier horses are sold for slaughter for as sweat, but not all horses in the study found that 8 percent of horses human consumption (primarily out- trailers would be willing to move to arriving at a slaughter plant exhibited side the United States) rather than water since that would involve enter- serious welfare problems. In addition for pet food, or are rendered, as they ing another horse’s personal space 30 percent had visible bite wounds. were fifty years ago. They are slaugh- (Gibbs and Friend 2000). Double- Examination of the carcasses revealed tered at one of two slaughter plants in decker (or possum belly) trucks cause bruises on 25 percent of all the the United States, both in Texas. The more injuries to horses in the upper slaughtered horses, more than 50 number of horses being slaughtered levels than do single-deck trucks percent of which were kick or bite is decreasing, as fear of zoonotic dis- because the entrances are narrow wounds. Other problems included eases and competition from other (Stull and Rodick 2000). The per- foot and limb injuries such as frac- countries increase (Table 2). centage of injured horses was 29 per- tures, wounds (including infected Horses at slaughter are stunned cent for double-decker trailers and 8 wounds), and thinness to the point of with a captive bolt pistol, then exsan- percent for single deck trailers. Corti- emaciation. Owner neglect must have guinated, which should result in a sol, body temperature, and white been the major cause of the poor painless death. As with all slaughter blood cells were found to be affected body condition of the latter horses. procedures, however, much depends by transport. The greatest cause of The federal Commercial Transport upon the competence of the person- injury to transported horses, however, of Equines for Slaughter Act, passed nel using the equipment provided. was fighting, caused by mixing unfa- in 1996, stipulates that double-deck-

208 The State of the Animals II: 2003 er trailers can no longer be used to Horses may race only seven to tion) three-day event, for example, transport equines, the ceilings of twelve times a year but may typically forty-four were identified as Thor- equine transport trailers must be six stay in training almost year-round. oughbreds, including five of the even- feet (three meters) high, and horses One way to reduce the number of tual top ten finishers, although not all must be rested and watered every musculoskeletal injuries in racehors- necessarily ever had raced (Sorge twenty-eight hours. In 2002 Repre- es is to determine the factors associ- 2002). Nevertheless many Thorough- sentative Connie Morella of Maryland ated with injuries. Length of pre-race breds do eventually end up at slaugh- introduced H.R. 3781 in Congress; conditioning is an example. A humer- ter. McGee, Lanier, and Grandin the bill would ban slaughtering of al fracture was found to be most like- observed 1,473 horses at auction and horses for meat. Such a ban could ly to occur when the horse returns to 1,348 horses at slaughter plants actually increase equine suffering if training after a two-month period out (2001). They found that Thorough- horses were transported for slaughter of training. Apparently lack of high- bred or Thoroughbred type horses to Mexico, where there are fewer ani- speed workouts can lead to disuse constituted about 7 percent of all mal care laws, or if horses were osteoporosis (Carrier et al. 1998). auction horses and 16 percent of all allowed to starve to death because Musculoskeletal injuries of all types slaughter horses. they could no longer bring a few hun- were found to be more likely to occur Another problem in racing is age- dred dollars from slaughter buyers at when horses are exercized less related. Centuries ago the Jockey auction. (Cohen et al. 2000). Nonfatal injuries Club in Britain declared that all Thor- Local health codes and lack of land were most likely to be sesamoid, oughbred horses would be given a leave those owners who euthanize old metacarpal, or carpal fractures (Est- birth date of January 1 to avoid hav- or ill horses at home (probably the berg et al. 1998). Track design is ing to print updated programs during most humane ending for a horse) few another important potential cause of the racing season reflecting the options for body disposal other than injury during racing. Increasing the changing ages of horses born through commercial renderers. More retire- radius of corners, the degree of bank- the late spring and summer. This tra- ment homes for elderly horses are ing, and the placement of inclines on dition is also followed in the United needed. Care must be taken that straight sections will reduce strain on States. Because horses typically begin horses at these facilities live in com- the outside leg and consequently race training and competition as two patible groups and have adequate reduce low-grade injuries. and three year olds—far before they feed available. All too often good Training methods that reduce the mature physically—this tradition has intentions may lead to welfare prob- load the horse carries may also led to breeding mares to give birth lems when inadequate funds are avail- reduce injury. Using a treadmill or a earlier and earlier in the calendar able and/or the managers of retire- swimming pool allows the horse to year so that the foal will be as old as ment homes are not experienced in exercise without carrying a rider, possible when he or she races. The equine management. whose weight increases the load on motivation in turn has led to great the horse’s bones (Evans 2002). advances in the study of equine repro- There are no statistics concerning duction, aimed at bringing mares Racing injuries during training, but because into breeding condition months Although Standardbreds, Arabians, it is estimated that only 50 percent of before the natural spring season. Quarter horses, and other breeds are Thoroughbred foals actually race, the Mares can be “tricked” into spring- raced in the United States, Thorough- injury rate must be high. The cata- like seasonal readiness by the use of bred racing is the best known. More strophic injuries, particularly those in artificial light in their barns, but such than 54,000 Thoroughbred races televised races, are most likely to be interference with the natural cycle were held in 38 states in 2002 (Jock- highly publicized. For example Land- can cause problems. Some mares are ey Club 2003). Racing raises several seer, a Thoroughbred, sustained a very dangerous during the transition important welfare issues, including fracture during a Breeders Cup race from the non-breeding to the breed- the rate of injury among horses rac- in October 2002 and was euthanized ing season, when they come into heat ing or in training; the use of medica- immediately. but do not ovulate and, hence, are tion (both legal and illegal); the rac- Thoroughbreds “off the track,” who exposed to high levels of estrogen for ing of two-year-old horses; insurance are no longer usable or profitable for long periods. Stallions, although less claims on ill or suffering horses; and racing, can usually be sold for riding, seasonal than mares, can have prob- the fate of the overwhelming majority either as hunters, three-day eventing lems: they are more apt to exhibit of racehorses who have no monetary prospects, or trail/companion horses. poor libido or to “savage” (aggres- value to the breeding industry. The Such animals may excel at the very sively attack) mares bred in the win- rate of injury during an actual race is top of competition. Of the seventy ter than those bred in the spring. relatively low (3.3 per thousand race horses identified as starters in the The horses that suffer the most starts). The rate of fatal injury is 1.4 2002 Rolex Kentucky CCI**** (the from this unnatural breeding season, per thousand starts (Mundy 2000). highest level of internation competi- however, are the foals. Foals born in

Horse Welfare Since 1950 209 January or February in the northern motivation for water, but it is not life half of the United States are subject- The Pregnant threatening (Houpt et al. 2001). In ed to cold barn temperatures, which response to the negative publicity in may slow the development of stand- Mare Urine the media, however, and criticism by ing and teat seeking. Horses born in Industry an expert committee invited to tour New York are more likely than those the farms, the limit on volume of The use of horses for production of in Florida to acquire insufficient urine collected per farm was eased in estrogen came to the attention of the maternal antibodies (Leblanc et al. 1999. Automatic waterers still are public approximately ten years ago. 1992). The primary cause of this fail- used and controlled, ostensibly to The resulting criticism of the PMU ure of passive immunity is probably keep the stalls drier and to prevent industry and the industry’s response climatic; the foal is slower to move in the mares from dunking their hay are a good example of humane prob- the cold. Failure of passive immunity into the water. (Hay dunking and lem solving. allows the foal to fall victim to infec- playing with an automatic waterer so Equine estrogens were, until tions of the umbilical cord, respirato- that the water spills on the floor are recently, almost the only substances ry tract, etc., because he or she has annoying behaviors that are tolerated available for treatment of the symp- not yet acquired immunological pro- by non-PMU horse owners, but the toms of menopause and the preven- tection. Inclement weather may keep problem is exacerbated in PMU hors- tion of osteoporosis in women. Other the mare and foal indoors so that the es by the close proximity of the hay benefits of this so-called hormone young horse does not learn to recog- and water sources.) replacement therapy were a reduc- nize his or her mother in a group and In the PMU industry, mares remain tion in the risks of heart disease and does not get the exercise needed for in their stalls for days to months at a age-related cognitive decline. Preg- optimum muscle development. A time because of the inclement weath- nant mares produce the most estro- change in the Thoroughbred industry er in north central America during gens and produce the most between to “true” birthdays would wreak the winter and because of the labor the third and ninth months of their havoc for a year or two but would be and dangers to the horses involved in pregnancies. They are, therefore, the in the best interests of the horse. removing the harnesses and releasing mares used in the PMU industry. They Standardbred horses, who raced in the horses outside. The issue of lack foal and are rebred on pasture during harness pulling a lightweight two- of exercise has been addressed exper- the spring and summer. During the wheeled cart called a sulky, are not so imentally by two groups. When fall and winter, the mares are housed easy as Thoroughbreds to retrain for released after confinement for two in barns in tie stalls while straddling other uses because they trot or pace weeks, the industry median time rubber harnesses suspended from the rather than canter, and their gaits are between opportunities for the horse ceiling that are used to collect urine. not comfortable for a rider (although to exercise, mares showed compen- Public criticism of the PMU indus- some are bought by those who eschew satory increases in locomotion in try focused on the mares’ restricted modern technology, such as the comparison to mares exercised daily. access to water, their lack of exercise Amish and Mennonites, as driving ani- The behaviors in the stalls of exer- during the long months of housing, mals). McGee, Lanier, and Grandin cised and confined mares were simi- and the fate of the foals born but not (200l) found that 4 percent of the lar (Houpt et al. 2001). Physiological- utilized by the PMU industry. horses at both auctions and slaughter ly the confined mares were not Producers limited the mares’ plants were Standardbreds. stressed (Freeman et al. 1999), but in access to water for economic reasons. An unpublicized welfare issue late pregnancy they tended to be Because the volume of urine collect- involves those horses who are suc- more edematous in the legs and ed from each farm was limited and cessful at racing and/or breeding and abdomen (Houpt et al. 2001). Stereo- producers were paid on the basis of therefore are insured for a large typic behaviors did not develop in the grams of estrogen produced, it was in amount of money. Insurance compa- mares chronically confined in tie their best economic interest to con- nies may insist that an insured horse stalls, probably because in both stud- centrate the urine. They did so by pro- who suffers from a permanently ies the horses were provided with free viding small amounts of water period- painful condition be kept alive to choice hay, which will most closely ically from automatic waterers. Water avoid paying the horse’s value. Con- simulate the natural grazing pattern. intake was reduced gradually in the versely an unsuccessful horse may be Flanngian and Stookey (2002) fall, to 3–4 1/100 kg body weight, as worth more dead than alive: a 1994 observed 110 horses on ten PMU compared to 5–6 l/100kg of intake federal investigation of a scheme to farms and found a prevalence of when water is freely available. This kill horses for insurance money stereotypic behavior of 5 percent, less degree of water restriction increases resulted in 23 indictments of riders, than that observed by McGreevey et osmotic pressure of the plasma and trainers, and owners (Englade 1996; al. (1995a) in box-stalled Thorough- produces clinical signs of dehydration Chronicle of the Horse 1998). breds. Although the mares could not and behavioral signs of increased lie in lateral recumbency, they could

210 The State of the Animals II: 2003 lie in sternal recumbency (McDonnell zontal edges of feed and water buck- et al. 1999). Horses unaccustomed to Managing the ets and wood surfaces such as stall tie stalls may be reluctant to lie down, boards and fences (e.g., Winskill et al. but this reluctance is unrelated to the Performance 1996). Wind-sucking involves the size of the horse: draft horses laid Horse same contraction of neck muscles down, but some Thoroughbreds did and apparent engulfing of air, but Horses kept for performance or com- not (Houpt et al. 2001). Recent stud- without grasping, and often is accom- petition, as well as many companion ies have shown that horses will work panied by an audible “grunt” (Karlan- horses, generally spend a great deal of harder for a grain reward than for der, Mansson, and Tufvesson 1965; time intensively housed and man- release from a tie stall and will work Baker and Kear-Colwel1 1974; aged. The stabled/stalled horse expe- as hard for access to another horse as Kusaari 1983). Traditionally horse riences different pressures from those for release from confinement. When owners have believed the horses who kept less intensively. Although food, tested repeatedly at fifteen-minute crib do so because they are bored water, veterinary care, grooming, and intervals after release, horses chose and/or hungry. The traditional view is shelter are provided, such conditions to spend thirty minutes in a paddock that the horse who is hungry will swal- deviate considerably from the behav- with other horses but elected to low air while cribbing that will fill his ioral patterns of the wild or free-rang- spend more time if they were con- or her stomach. However recent work ing horse. Stereotypic patterns of fined for more than twenty-four hours has demonstrated that horses do not behavior, such as weaving; cribbing (Lee 2000). gulp in and swallow air while per- and its associated behavior, wind- The issue that has not been studied forming this behavior, as previously sucking; wood-chewing; head-nod- is the fate of PMU foals. Originally believed. When the air movements in ding; and stall-walking, are particu- most of the foals were of draft-breed the respiratory tracts of wind sucking larly associated with stabling. These type, for which there was less of a mar- horses were traced, it became appar- sorts of behaviors have been estimat- ket, rather than of lighter-build, riding ent that little or no air is swallowed ed to affect 10 to 40 percent of sta- type; they were sold as weanlings and (McGreevy et al. 1995b). bled horses in the United Kingdom eventually slaughtered for meat after Recent survey studies have investi- (Nicol 1999) and, in general, more of a period in a feedlot. The welfare prob- gated the causes and effects of some these behaviors are seen in racing lems of transport to and handling at commonly observed equine stereo- Thoroughbreds. Stereotypic behav- slaughterhouses in general have been types (e.g., McGreevy, French, and iors such as these are considered to dealt with, above, but conditions in Nicol 1995; McGreevy et al. 1995a; be abnormal since they represent the feed lots have not been studied. Luescher et al. 1998; and Redbo et al. qualitative and quantitative differ- The young horses are not stalled and 1998). These consistently relate the ences in behavior when compared presumably have plenty of food, but incidence of stereotypes to a number with the behavior seen among free-liv- issues of their environment (mud, of management factors, including ing horses. Stereotypes are rarely manure, disease, aggression among social isolation and the feeding of observed in free-ranging horses, diffi- the horses, crowding, etc.) have not concentrates with little access to cult to explain in functional terms, been addressed. In response to criti- fiber. Despite the problems inherent undesirable to horse owners, and con- cism of the PMU industry for produc- in conducting longitudinal studies of sidered to be indicative of welfare ing horses virtually for the meat mar- the development of stereotypic behav- problems the horse has had or is cur- ket, more “light” (as opposed to ior, the results of work on weaning rently experiencing (Cooper and draft-type) horses now are used for and on feeding practices following Mason 1998). The behaviors general- breeding, and some of the resulting weaning (Nicol 1999) show the ly are considered to be “stable vices,” foals are being sold as sport or plea- importance of feeding fiber and of and are viewed as unsoundness, lead- sure horses (Freeman 2000). The avoiding high grain diets during early ing to a reduction in a horse’s desir- main problem in selling them is one of development. Horses have evolved to ability and value (Houpt 1982; timing and location—a large number digest a high fiber diet and to spend Luescher, McKeown, and Dean 1998). of foals are available all at one time, up to sixteen hours foraging each day. As more research into the causes of which makes them difficult for the Intensively managed horses are ex- these behaviors is completed, it is existing market to absorb, and they pected to perform energy-consuming becoming clear that the traditional are in in North Dakota, Alberta, or tasks, and they require a controlled views held about these behaviors are Saskatchewan, far from the populous diet rich in the nutrients that enable incorrect. When viewed by the layper- U.S. east and west coasts, where them to do so. Being stabled (stalled) son, cribbing apparently involves the demand would be greater. also presents problems in that horses grasping of a surface (usually hori- have no control over the timing of zontal) in the teeth (McGreevy and their feeding, the type of food, the Nicol 1998a) and the swallowing of amount of contact they have with air. Cribbing surfaces include hori- conspecifics or even the amount of

Horse Welfare Since 1950 211 exercise they have. All of these factors 1998; Nicol et al. 2001); increased win in competitions. The competition lead to problems. The stabled social contact (Cooper, McDonald, may be conformation, high jumping, (stalled) horse may be highly motivat- and Mills 2000); and even mirrors in barrel racing, or dressage, but in all ed to seek social contact or to have the stable (Mills and Davenport in cases if the horse does not win, an access to food, and this can lead to press; McAfee, Mills, and Cooper effort will be made to improve perfor- behavioral frustration. Undesirable 2002). Initial results from such stud- mance. Sometimes these efforts in- behavior such as stall-walking and ies are encouraging, and further work volve more training, but at other weaving may be the result of the ani- is required in this area. times the welfare of the horse can be mal attempting to deal with his or her Restriction of normal social behav- compromised. This is probably more frustration. Providing horses with a ior and the feeding of a low fiber, high likely to happen when the person who high grain diet may ensure that they grain diet are the two main factors owns the horse and who expects the have enough energy for performance, consistently related to the perfor- horse to win is not the same as the but a high grain diet has been shown mance of stereotypic behavior in trainer or manager whose livelihood to cause changes in the digestive sys- horses. Horses used for performance depends on satisfying the goals of the tem (etc.), leading to cribbing (Nicol purposes should be prevented from owner. et al. 2001). developing such undesirable behav- Various studies have been carried iors by ensuring that management Hoof and Pastern out to determine the effectiveness of and housing are considered from the the current and new methods for deal- horse’s perspective. Horses are social Manipulation ing with stereotypic behavior. Many grazing animals. They have physical Allowing the horse’s hooves to grow stables used for housing racehorses and behavioral needs (see Cooper and to a length incompatible with normal are fitted with weaving bars, or grills, McGreevy 2002) that can be met un- gait in order to obtain an exaggerated that are supposed to stop (or block) a der conditions of domestication gait in the show ring, myectomy (cut- horse from being able to perform the through such measures as feeding ting the muscles of the tail), and tail behavior. Weaving grills (McBride and high fiber diets, allowing social con- setting harnesses on “gaited” horses Cuddeford 2001), anti-cribbing de- tact, changing early weaning and such as American Saddlebreds are vices (such as collars) (McGreevy and feeding practices, giving the animals examples of the at least mildly un- Nicol 1998a), and pharmacological greater control of their environment, comfortable methods used to im- intervention (Dodman et al. 1987) all removing restrictions on highly moti- prove a horse’s performance. If de- have been shown to be of little value in vated behavior, and understanding spite these interventions the horse’s permanently stopping the behaviors. the degree to which the horses have performance does not improve, he or Recent studies also have measured had to adapt in order to serve human she is sold as the first step in the the horses’ physiological distress needs. descent to auction and perhaps the responses, such as heart rate and slaughterhouse. adreno-cortical activity (Broom and More invasive are such practices as Johnson 1983), to test if there are any Performance- “soring,” in which a caustic com- underlying effects on horse welfare of pound is applied to the pasterns treatment for stereotypic behavior enhancing and (above the hooves) of Tennessee Walk- (Lebelt, Zanella, and Unshelm 1998; ing horses, then chains linked around McGreevy and Nicol 1998b; McBride Conformation- the pasterns so that resulting wounds and Cuddeford 2001). Generally these will be abraded as the animal moves. studies have found that preventative enhancing The pain encourages the animals to measures alone cause more problems Techniques lift their forelegs high and carry their for the horses, probably because they weight back on their hind quarters in There are three types of horses: those treat the symptoms rather than the an exaggerated gait, or “lick,” an who labor symbiotically with farmers underlying cause of the behavior. The action admired by judges. The Horse or ranchers to plow, to handle live- horses appear to be more stressed Protection Act passed in 1970 pro- stock, or to pull loads; those who live when prevented from performing the hibits soring, but there is insufficient as companion animals and who may or behavior, indicating a compromise of funding to allow veterinary inspectors may not have to carry a rider for a few horse welfare. A number of alterna- to ensure compliance. Lay inspectors hours a week; and performance hors- tive, less invasive approaches have are used, but they usually are affiliat- es. Performance horses have a very dif- been studied. These include foraging ed with the industry in some way ferent relationship with their owners devices designed to allow the horse to (DeHaven 2000). One suggestion to from that of pleasure or companion “trickle-feed” and “work” for food improve compliance has been to hire horses. Although the owner of a per- (e.g., Winskill et al. 1996; Henderson veterinarians who are not equine formance horse may like or even love and Waran 2001); feed additives such practitioners but who could, after a the horse, his or her main goal is to as fiber and anti-acids (Johnson et al. training course, examine horses at

212 The State of the Animals II: 2003 shows in their immediate area. This process is not only uncomfortable for tion, American Animal Hospital Asso- would eliminate the need for—and the horse but also unethical from a ciation, and Association of American possible conflict of interest by—lay competitive standpoint. Although evi- Veterinary Medical Colleges [Brown examiners. dence of gingering can be detected by and Silverman 1999] found that Other issues of horse welfare seem thermograph, the testing technique horse owners reported they would pay to be purely cosmetic but are rooted is too sensitive to use in the field an average of $1,827 for a 75 percent in competitive advantage. These are (Turner and Scoggins 1985). chance of curing their horse of an ail- exemplified by the treatment of the The optimal tail carriage for West- ment and $828 for a 10 percent tails of show horses. ern pleasure horses is just the oppo- chance. They further reported that site of that of Arabians. The ideal they would pay an average of $165 per Tail Docking Western pleasure horse is relaxed and month to keep their horse healthy.) The original purpose of tail dock- submissive to the rider’s riding aids Other horse owners may experience ing, or amputation, may have been to (legs, seat, hands, and voice), a state a reversal of fortune or circumstance prevent tangling of the tail of a dri- expressed through a flaccid tail. Such yet be reluctant to part with a horse ving horse with the reins, especially if a look has been so well rewarded by due to personal attachment or unwill- the driver was standing on the ground judges of Western pleasure classes ingness to sell at a loss. The horse’s rather than high above the wagon or that to achieve it, if not the reality of care may suffer as a result. carriage. Long tails would interfere voluntary submission, unethical ex- with the driver’s ability to control the hibitors have enervated the tail by horse while plowing. Another reason cutting the nerves or have used local Carriage Horses for tail docking is convenience of har- anesthesia to temporarily prevent tail Approximately one thousand to two nessing, since a docked tail does not lashing. (The latter is often a sign of thousand horses are used to pull car- have to be threaded through the crup- resistance to the rider’s aids and thus riages in various North American per or breeching. Because very few a disobedience to be penalized.) Evi- cities (Merriam 2000). The most horses are used for plowing in the dence of these practices can be de- urgent problem for these horses is United States, the only reason for tected electromyographically (Coul- heat stress: carriage rides typically docking today is cosmetic. It is prac- ter and Luttgen 1994). Other are purchased by tourists, and ticed with Hackneys and draft horses. practices to induce calmness are tourists travel during the summer In addition to the immediate pain of working the horse to near-exhaustion months when temperatures are high. docking, horses with shortened tails before an event or administering a In southern regions, hours of opera- suffer because they cannot defend small dose of a tranquilizer such as tion should be limited to cooler times themselves from flies. Docked horses acepromazine to chemically calm the of the day and evening. Horses should also cannot effectively signal aggres- animal. have access to water every two hours. siveness by lashing their tails from Walking or, worse yet, trotting on a side to side, or signal exuberance by paved surface, possibly up and down raising the tail. Pleasure Horses hills, increases the chance of horses Pleasure horse owners have the clos- developing lameness. Carriage drivers Other Tail est bonds with their horses. They are may be ignorant of basic horse health most likely to affect their horses’ wel- and therefore may not notice lame- Manipulations fare negatively through ignorance of ness, dehydration, signs of colic, or The tail also is important in showing basic horsemanship or an inability to other health or welfare issues. Car- two different types of performance support the horses financially. riage horses should be examined horses—Arabians and Western plea- An ignorant owner may overfeed a every few weeks by a veterinarian. sure horses (the latter of whom typi- horse, let a horse eat poisonous lawn Some horses may suffer from long- cally are Quarter horses or color- clippings, or overwork a horse who is term exposure to air pollution, par- breed horses). out of condition—just a few of the ticularly if they are driven in high traf- Arabians are judged for their alert- myriad mistakes that can have disas- fic areas. Use in high traffic areas also ness and spirit. An aroused horse, terous consequences to a horse’s well- can increase the number of horse- especially a playful one, will carry his being. automobile collisions. Carriage hors- or her tail high. Exhibitors may try to Many young horse owners can bare- es should have their work hours regu- mimic that natural high tail carriage ly afford to feed a horse, so that any lated and their living quarters kept by gingering their horses. Gingering veterinary care, even preventative, is clean, well bedded, and ventilated. involves placing ointment with a high out of the question. (They may be concentration of ginger into the unaware of the true cost of horse horse’s rectum and anus. The horse ownership over and above that of the raises his or her tail in response to animal’s feed. A joint survey by the the irritation of the chemical. The American Veterinary Medical Associa-

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